,*APT] #b 

#aicaic 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,DESCRIPTION 3 ,! ,9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T ( ! ,X,V,I,I,I C5TURY3 ITS FUNDAM5TAL TRAITS3 ! 9VE/IGATION ( ALL PH5OM5A BY ! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD4--,! ,/AGNATION ( ,?\<T AT ! ,BEG9N+ ( ! ,X,I,X C5TURY4--,! ,AWAK5+ ( ,SOCIALISM3 ITS 9FLU5CE UPON ! DEVELOPM5T ( SCI5CE4--,! ,FIFTIES4 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY C>NAG5YC1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C ,LIC5SE ,BUT1 ?\< ,AN>*ISM1 LIKE ALL O!R REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS1 WAS BORN AMONG 
! PEOPLE--9 ! /RUGGLES ( REAL LIFE1 & NOT 9 ! PHILOSOPH]'S 
/UDIO1--IT IS NONE ! LESS IMPORTANT TO KN[ :AT PLACE IT OCCUPIES AMONG ! 
V>I\S SCI5TIFIC & PHILOSOPHIC /REAMS ( ?\<T N[ PREVAL5T3 :AT IS ITS 
RELATION TO !M2 UPON :I* ( !M PR9CIPALLY DOES IT RE/2 :AT ME?OD IT 
EMPLOYS 9 ITS RESE>*ES---9 O!R WORDS1 TO :I* S*OOL ( PHILOSOPHY ( LAW 
IT BELONGS1 & TO :I* ( ! N[ EXI/+ T5D5CIES 9 SCI5CE IT HAS ! 
GREATE/ AFF9ITY4 

,WE HAVE HE>D ( LATE SO MU* AB\T ECONOMIC METAPHYSICS ?AT ?IS QUE/ION 
NATURALLY PRES5TS A C]TA9 9T]E/2 & ,I %ALL 5DEAVOR TO ANSW] IT AS 
PLA9LY AS POSSIBLE1 AVOID+ DIFFICULT PHRASEOLOGY :]EV] IT CAN BE AVOID$4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,! 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T ( \R [N TIMES ORIG9AT$ 9 ! WRIT+S ( ! 
,SCOT* & ! ,FR5* PHILOSOPH]S ( ! MIDDLE & 5D ( ! EI<TE5? 
C5TURY4 ,! UNIV]SAL AWAK5+ ( ?\<T :I* BEGAN AT ?AT TIME /IMULAT$ 
!SE ?9K]S TO DESIRE TO EMBODY ALL HUMAN KN[L$GE 9 ONE G5]AL SY/EM4 ,CA/+ ASIDE M$IAEVAL S*OLA/ICISM & METAPHYSICS1 TILL 
!N SUPREME1 !Y DECID$ TO LOOK UPON ! :OLE ( ,NATURE--! WORLD ( 
! />S1 ! LIFE ( ! SOL> SY/EM & ( \R PLANET1 ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! 
ANIMAL WORLD & ( HUMAN SOCIETIES--AS UPON PH5OM5A OP5 TO SCI5TIFIC 
9VE/IGATION & CON/ITUT+ SO MANY BRAN*ES ( NATURAL SCI5CE4 

,FREELY AVAIL+ !MSELVES ( ! TRULY SCI5TFIC1 9DUCTIVE-D$UCTIVE 
ME?OD !Y APPROA*$ ! /UDY ( EV]Y GR\P ( PH5OM5A--:E!R ( ! 
/>RY REALM1 ( ! ANIMAL WORLD1 OR ( ! WORLD ( HUMAN BELIEFS & 
9/ITUTIONS--JU/ AS ! NATURALI/ APPROA*ES ! /UDY ( ANY PHYSICAL 
PROBLEM4 ,!Y C>EFULLY 9VE/IGAT$ ! PH5OM5A1 & ATTA9$ !IR 
G5]ALIZATIONS BY MEANS ( 9DUCTION4 ,D$UCTION HELP$ !M 9 FRAM+ C]TA9 
HYPO!SES2 BUT !SE !Y CONSID]$ AS NO MORE F9AL ?AN1 = 9/ANCE ,D>W9 
REG>D$ HIS HYPO!SIS CONC]N+ ! ORIG9 ( NEW SPECIES BY MEANS ( ! 
/RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1 OR ,M5DELEEFF HIS 0P]IODIC LAW40 ,!Y SAW 
9 !SE 
HYPO!SES SUPPOSITIONS ?AT W]E V]Y CONV5I5T = ! CLASSIFICATION ( FACTS 
& !IR FUR!R /UDY1 BUT :I* W]E SUBJECT TO V]IFICATION BY 9DUCTIVE 
MEANS1 & :I* W\LD BECOME LAWS--?AT IS1 V]IFI$ G5]ALIZATIONS--ONLY AFT] 
!Y HAVE /OOD ?IS TE/1 & AFT] AN EXPLANATION ( CAUSE & EFFECT HAD BE5 
GIV54.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,:5 ! C5T] ( ! PHILOSOPHIC MOVEM5T HAD %IFT$ FROM ,SCOTL& & 
,5GL& TO ,FRANCE1 ! ,FR5* PHILOSOPH]S1 ) !IR NATURAL S5SE ( H>MONY1 
BETOOK !MSELVES TO A SY/EMATIC REBUILD+ ( ALL ! HUMAN SCI5CES--! 
NATURAL & ! HUMANIT>IAN SCI5CES--ON ! SAME PR9CIPLES4 ,FROM ?IS 
RESULT$ !IR ATTEMPT TO CON/RUCT A G5]ALIZATION ( ALL KN[L$GE1 ?AT IS1 A 
PHILOSOPHY ( ! :OLE WORLD & ALL ITS LIFE4 ,TO ?IS !Y 5DEAVOR$ TO GIVE 
A H>MONI\S1 SCI5TIFIC =M4 DISC>D+ ALL METAPHYSICAL CON/RUCTIONS & 
EXPLA9+ ALL PH5OM5A BY ! ACTION ( ! SAME ME*ANICAL =CES :I* HAD 
PROV$ ADEQUATE TO ! EXPLANATION ( ! ORIG9 & ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! 
E>?4 

,IT IS SAID ?AT1 9 ANSW] TO ,NAPOLEON'S REM>K TO ,LAPLACE ?AT 9 HIS 0,SY/EM 
( ! ,WORLD0 ,GOD WAS NO:]E M5TION$1 ,LAPLACE REPLI$1 0,I HAD NO NE$ ( ?IS 
HYPO!SIS40 ,BUT ,LAPLACE NOT ONLY SUCCE$$ 9 WRIT+ HIS WORK )\T ?IS 
SUPPOSITION3 HE NO:]E 9 ?IS WORK RESORT$ TO METAPHYSICAL 5TITIES2 TO WORDS 
:I* CONCEAL A V]Y VAGUE UND]/&+ ( PH5OM5A & ! 9ABILITY TO 
REPRES5T !M 9 CONCRETE MAT]IAL =MS--9 T]MS ( MEASURABLE QUANTITIES4 ,HE 
CON/RUCT$ ?IS SY/EM )\T METAPHYSICS4 ,& AL?\< 9 HIS 0,SY/EM ( ! 
,WORLD0 !RE >E NO MA!MATICAL CALCULATIONS1 & IT IS WRITT5 9 SO SIMPLE A 
/YLE AS TO BE ACCESSIBLE TO EV]Y 9TELLIG5T READ]1 YET ! MA!MATICIANS 
W]E ABLE SUBSEQU5TLY TO EXPRESS EV]Y SEP>ATE ?\<T ( ?IS BOOK 9 ! =M 
( AN EXACT MA!MATICAL EQUATION---9 T]MS1 ?AT IS1 ( MEASURABLE QUANTITIES4 
,SO RIGOR\SLY DID ,LAPLACE REASON & SO LUCIDLY DID HE EXPRESS HIMSELF4 

,! ,FR5* EI<TE5?-C5TURY PHILOSOPH]S DID EXACTLY ! SAME ) REG>D TO 
! PH5OM5A ( ! SPIRITUAL WORLD4 ,9 !IR WRIT+S ONE NEV] MEETS ) 
SU* METAPHYSICAL /ATEM5TS AS >E F\ND1 SAY1 9 ,KANT4 ,KANT1 AS IS WELL KN[N1 
EXPLA9$ ! MORAL S5SE ( MAN BY A 0CATEGORICAL IMP]ATIVE0 :I* MI<T AT ! 
SAME TIME BE CONSID]$ DESIRABLE AS A UNIV]SAL LAW4 #a ,BUT 9 ?IS DICTUM EV]Y 
WORD 70IMP]ATIVE10 0CATEGORICAL10 0LAW10 0UNIV]SAL07 IS A VAGUE V]BAL 
SUB/ITUTE = ! MAT]IAL FACT :I* IS TO BE EXPLA9$4 ,! ,FR5* 
5CYCLOPA$I/S1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 5DEAVOR$ TO EXPLA91 JU/ AS !IR 
,5GLI% PR$ECESSORS HAD DONE1 :5CE CAME ! IDEAS ( GOOD & EVIL TO MAN1 
)\T SUB/ITUT+ 0A WORD = ! MISS+ CONCEPTION10 AS ,GOE! PUT IT4 ,!Y 
TOOK ! LIV+ MAN AS HE IS4 ,!Y /UDI$ HIM & F\ND1 AS DID ,HUT*ESON 79 
#a#g#b#e7 &1 AFT] HIM1 ,ADAM ,SMI? 9 HIS BE/ WORK1 0,! ,!ORY ( ,MORAL 
,S5TIM5TS10--?AT ! MORAL S5TIM5TS HAVE DEVELOP$ 9 MAN FROM ! FEEL+ ( 
PITY 7SYMPA?Y71 ?R\< HIS ABILITY TO PUT HIMSELF 9 ANO!R'S PLACE2 FROM ! 
FACT ?AT WE ALMO/ FEEL PA9 & GR[ 9DIGNANT :5 A *ILD IS BEAT5 9 \R 
PRES5CE4 ,FROM SIMPLE OBS]VATIONS ( COMMON FACTS LIKE !SE1 !Y GRADUALLY 
ATTA9$ TO ! BROADE/ G5]ALIZATIONS4 ,9 ?IS MANN] !Y ACTUALLY DID 
EXPLA9 ! COMPLEX MORAL S5SE BY FACTS MORE SIMPLE1 & DID NOT SUB/ITUTE = 
MORAL FACTS WELL KN[N TO & UND]/OOD BY US1 OBSCURE T]MS LIKE 0! 
CATEGORICAL IMP]ATIVE10 OR 0UNIV]SAL LAW10 :I* DO NOT EXPLA9 ANY?+4 ,! 
M]IT ( SU* A TREATM5T IS SELF-EVID5T4 ,9/EAD ( ! 09SPIRATION FROM 
ABOVE 0 & A SUP]HUMAN1 MIRACUL\S ORIG9 ( ! MORAL S5SE1 !Y DEALT ) 
! FEEL+ ( PITY1 ( SYMPA?Y--D]IV$ BY MAN ?R\< EXP]I5CE & 
9H]ITANCE1 & SUBSEQU5TLY P]FECT$ BY FUR!R OBS]VATION ( SOCIAL LIFE4 

,:5 ! ?9K]S ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY TURN$ FROM ! REALM ( />S & 
PHYSICAL PH5OM5A TO ! WORLD ( *EMICAL *ANGES1 OR FROM PHYSICS & 
*EMI/RY TO ! /UDY ( PLANTS & ANIMALS1 OR FROM BOTANY & ZOOLOGY TO ! 
DEVELOPM5T ( ECONOMICAL & POLITICAL =MS ( SOCIAL LIFE & TO RELIGIONS 
AMONG M51---!Y NEV] ?\<T ( *ANG+ !IR ME?OD ( 9VE/IGATION4 ,TO 
ALL BRAN*ES ( KN[L$GE !Y APPLI$ ?AT SAME 9DUCTIVE ME?OD4 ,& NO:]E1 
NOT EV5 9 ! DOMA9 ( MORAL CONCEPTS1 DID !Y COME UPON ANY PO9T :]E ?IS 
ME?OD PROV$ 9ADEQUATE4 ,EV5 9 ! SPH]E ( MORAL CONCEPTS !Y FELT NO NE$ 
( RESORT+ AGA9 EI!R TO METAPHYSICAL SUPPOSITIONS 70,GOD10 0IMMORTAL S\L10 
0VITAL =CE10 0A CATEGORICAL IMP]ATIVE0 DECRE$ FROM ABOVE1 & ! LIKE71 OR 
( EX*ANG+ ! 9DUCTIVE ME?OD = SOME O!R1 S*OLA/IC ME?OD4 ,!Y ?US 
5DEAVOR$ TO EXPLA9 ! :OLE WORLD --ALL ITS PH5OM5A --9 ! 
SAME NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC WAY4 ,! 5CYCLOPA$I/S COMPIL$ !IR MONUM5TAL 
5CYCLOPA$IA1 ,LAPLACE WROTE HIS 0,SY/EM ( ! ,WORLD10 & ,HOLBA* 0,! 
,SY/EM ( ,NATURE20 ,LAVOISI] BR\<T =W>D ! !ORY ( ! 9DE/RUCTIBILITY 
( MATT]1 & !RE=E ALSO ( 5]GY OR MOTION 7,LOMONOS(F WAS AT ! 
SAME TIME \TL9+ ! ME*ANICAL !ORY ( HEAT#b 72 ,LAM>CK UND]TOOK TO EXPLA9 ! =MATION ( NEW 
SPECIES ?R\< ! ACCUMULATION ( V>IATIONS DUE TO 5VIRONM5T2 ,DID]OT WAS 
FURNI%+ AN EXPLANATION ( MORALITY1 CU/OMS1 & RELIGIONS REQUIR+ NO 
9SPIRATION FROM )\T2 ,R\SSEAU WAS ATTEMPT+ TO EXPLA9 ! ORIG9 ( 
POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS BY MEANS ( A SOCIAL CONTRACT--?AT IS1 AN ACT ( MAN'S 
FREE WILL4444 ,9 %ORT1 !RE WAS NO BRAN* ( SCI5CE :I* ! ?9K]S ( ! 
EI<TE5? C5TURY HAD NOT BEGUN TO TREAT ON ! BASIS ( MAT]IAL PH5OM5A--& 
ALL BY ?AT SAME 9DUCTIVE ME?OD4 

,( C\RSE1 SOME PALPABLE BLUND]S W]E MADE 9 ?IS D>+ ATTEMPT4 ,:]E 
KN[L$GE WAS LACK+1 HYPO!SES--(T5 V]Y BOLD1 BUT SOMETIMES 5TIRELY 
]RONE\S--W]E PUT =?4 ,BUT A NEW ME?OD WAS BE+ APPLI$ TO ! DEVELOPM5T 
( ALL BRAN*ES ( SCI5CE1 &1 ?ANKS TO IT1 !SE V]Y MI/AKES W]E 
SUBSEQU5TLY READILY DETECT$ & PO9T$ \T4 ,& AT ! SAME TIME A MEANS ( 
9VE/IGATION WAS H&$ D[N TO \R N9ETE5? C5TURY :I* HAS 5ABL$ US TO 
BUILD UP \R 5TIRE CONCEPTION ( ! WORLD UPON SCI5TIFIC BASES1 HAV+ FRE$ 
IT ALIKE FROM ! SUP]/ITIONS BEQUEA!D TO US & FROM ! HABIT ( DISPOS+ 
( SCI5TIFIC QUE/IONS BY RESORT+ TO M]E V]BIAGE4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,H[EV]1 AFT] ! DEFEAT ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 A G5]AL REACTION SET 
9--9 POLITICS1 9 SCI5CE & 9 PHILOSOPHY4 ,( C\RSE ! FUNDAM5TAL 
PR9CIPLES ( ! GREAT ,REVOLUTION DID NOT DIE \T4 ,! EMANCIPATION ( ! 
PEASANTS & T[NSPEOPLE1 FROM FEUDAL S]VITUDE1 EQUALITY BE=E ! LAW1 & 
REPRES5TATIVE 7CON/ITUTIONAL7 GOV]NM5T1 PROCLAIM$ BY ! ,REVOLUTION1 SL[LY 
GA9$ GR\ND 9 & \T ( ,FRANCE4 ,AFT] ! ,REVOLUTION1 :I* HAD 
PROCLAIM$ ! GREAT PR9CIPLES ( LIB]TY1 EQUALITY1 & FRAT]NITY1 A SL[ 
EVOLUTION BEGAN--?AT IS1 A GRADUAL REORGANIZATION :I* 9TRODUC$ 9TO 
LIFE & LAW ! PR9CIPLES M>K$ \T1 BUT ONLY P>TLY REALIZ$1 BY ! 
,REVOLUTION4 7,SU* A REALIZATION ?R\< EVOLUTION ( PR9CIPLES PROCLAIM$ BY ! 
PREC$+ REVOLUTION1 MAY EV5 BE REG>D$ AS A G5]AL LAW ( SOCIAL 
DEVELOPM5T74 ,AL?\< ! ,*UR*1 ! ,/ATE1 & EV5 ,SCI5CE TRAMPL$ ON ! 
BANN] UPON :I* ! ,REVOLUTION HAD 9SCRIB$ ! WORDS 0,LIB]TY1 ,EQUALITY1 & 
,FRAT]NITY02 AL?\< TO BE RECONCIL$ TO ! EXI/+ /ATE ( ?+S BECAME = 
A TIME A UNIV]SAL WAT*-WORD2 /ILL ! PR9CIPLES ( FRE$OM W]E SL[LY 
5T]+-- 9TO ! AFFAIRS ( LIFE4 ,IT IS TRUE ?AT ! FEUDAL OBLIGATIONS 
ABOLI%$ BY ! REPUBLICAN >MIES ( ,ITALY & ,SPA9 W]E AGA9 RE/OR$ 9 
!SE C\NTRIES1 & ?AT EV5 ! 9QUISITION ITSELF WAS REVIV$4 ,BUT A MORTAL 
BL[ HAD ALREADY BE5 DEALT !M--& !IR DOOM WAS SEAL$4 ,! WAVE ( 
EMANCIPATION FROM ! FEUDAL YOKE REA*$1 FIR/1 ,WE/]N1 & !N ,EA/]N 
,G]MANY1 & SPREAD OV] ! P59SULAS4 ,SL[LY MOV+ EA/W>D1 IT REA*$ 
,PRUSSIA 9 #a#h#d#h1 ,RUSSIA 9 #a#h#f#a1 & ! ,BALKANS 9 #a#h#g#h4 ,SLAV]Y DISAPPE>$ 9 
,AM]ICA 9 #a#h#f#c4 ,AT ! SAME TIME ! IDEAS ( ! EQUALITY ( ALL CITIZ5S 
BE=E ! LAW1 & ( REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T W]E ALSO SPREAD+ FROM WE/ TO 
EA/1 & BY ! 5D ( ! C5TURY ,RUSSIA ALONE REMA9$ UND] ! YOKE ( 
AUTOCRACY1 ALREADY MU* IMPAIR$4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,ON ! O!R H&1 ON ! ?RE%OLD ( ! 
N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ! IDEAS ( ECONOMIC EMANCIPATION HAD ALREADY BE5 
PROCLAIM$4 ,9 ,5GL&1 ,GODW9 PUBLI%$ 9 #agic HIS REM>KABLE WORK1 0,AN 
,9QUIRY 9TO ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE10 9 :I* HE WAS ! FIR/ TO E/ABLI% ! 
!ORY ( NON-GOV]NM5TAL SOCIALISM1 ?AT IS1 ,AN>*ISM2 & ,BABEUF--ESPECIALLY 
9FLU5C$1 AS IT SEEMS1 BY ,BUON>OTTI--CAME =W>D 9 #agif AS ! FIR/ 
!ORI/ ( C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE-SOCIALISM4 

,!N1 DEVELOP+ ! PR9CIPLES ALREADY LAID D[N 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 
,F\RI]1 ,SA9T-,SIMON1 & ,ROB]T ,[5 CAME =W>D AS ! ?REE F\ND]S ( 
MOD]N SOCIALISM 9 ITS ?REE *IEF S*OOLS2 & 9 ! =TIES ,PR\DHON1 
UNACQUA9T$ ) ! WORK ( ,GODW91 LAID D[N ANEW ! BASES ( ,AN>*ISM4 

,! SCI5TIFIC F\NDATIONS ( BO? GOV]NM5TAL & NON-GOV]NM5TAL SOCIALISM 
W]E ?US LAID D[N AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY ) A 
?OR\<NESS :OLLY UNAPPRECIAT$ BY \R CONTEMPOR>IES4 ,ONLY 9 TWO RESPECTS1 
D\BTLESS V]Y IMPORTANT ONES1 HAS MOD]N SOCIALISM MAT]IALLY ADVANC$4 ,IT HAS 
BECOME REVOLUTION>Y1 & HAS SEV]$ ALL CONNECTION ) ! ,*RI/IAN RELIGION4 
 ,IT REALIZ$ ?AT = ! ATTA9M5T ( ITS IDEALS A ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION IS 
NECESS>Y--NOT 9 ! S5SE 9 :I* PEOPLE SOMETIMES SPEAK ( AN 09DU/RIAL 
REVOLUTION0 OR ( 0A REVOLUTION 9 SCI5CE10 BUT 9 ! REAL1 MAT]IAL 
S5SE ( ! WORD 0,REVOLUTION0 -- 9 ! S5SE ( RAPIDLY *ANG+ ! FUNDAM5TAL 
PR9CIPLES ( PRES5T SOCIETY BY MEANS :I*1 9 ! USUAL RUN ( EV5TS1 >E 
CONSID]$ ILLEGAL4 ,& IT CEAS$ TO CONFUSE ITS VIEWS ) ! OPTIMI/ 
RE=M+ T5D5CIES ( ! ,*RI/IAN RELIGION4 ,BUT ?IS LATT] /EP HAD ALREADY 
BE5 TAK5 BY ,GODW9 & ,R4 ,[54 ,AS REG>DS ! ADMIRATION ( C5TRALIZ$ 
AU?ORITY & ! PREA*+ ( DISCIPL9E1 = :I* MAN IS HI/ORICALLY 
9DEBT$ *IEFLY TO ! M$IAEVAL *UR* & TO *UR* RULE G5]ALLY -- !SE 
SURVIVALS HAVE BE5 RETA9$ AMONG ! MASS ( ! ,/ATE SOCIALI/S1 :O HAVE 
?US FAIL$ TO RISE TO ! LEVEL ( !IR TWO ,5GLI% =]UNN]S4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,( ! 9FLU5CE :I* ! REACTION ?AT SET 
9 AFT] ! ,GREAT ,REVOLUTION HAS HAD UPON ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! SCI5CES1 IT 
W\LD BE DIFFICULT TO SPEAK 9 ?IS ESSAY4#c ,SUFFICE IT TO SAY1 ?AT BY F> ! GREAT] P>T ( :AT 
MOD]N SCI5CE PRIDES ITSELF ON WAS ALREADY M>K$ \T1 & MORE ?AN M>K$ 
\T--SOMETIMES EV5 EXPRESS$ 9 A DEF9ITE SCI5TIFIC =M--AT ! 5D ( ! 
EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,! ME*ANICAL !ORY ( HEAT & ! 9DE/RUCTIBILITY ( 
MOTION 7! CONS]VATION ( 5]GY72 ! MODIFICATION ( SPECIES BY ! ACTION ( 
5VIRONM5T2 PHYSIOLOGICAL PSY*OLOGY2 ! AN?ROPOLOGICAL VIEW ( HI/ORY1 
RELIGION1 & LEGISLATION2 ! LAWS ( DEVELOPM5T ( ?\<T--9 %ORT1 ! 
:OLE ME*ANICAL CONCEPTION ( ! WORLD & ALL ! ELEM5TS ( A SYN!TIC 
PHILOSOPHY 7A PHILOSOPHY :I* EMBRACES ALL PHYSICAL1 *EMICAL LIV+ & SOCIAL 
PH5OM5A71--W]E ALREADY \TL9$ & P>TLY =MULAT$ 9 ! PREC$+ 
C5TURY4 

,BUT1 [N+ TO ! REACTION :I* SET 91 !SE DISCOV]IES W]E KEPT 9 ! 
BACKGR\ND DUR+ A FULL HALF-C5TURY4 ,M5 ( SCI5CE SUPPRESS$ !M OR ELSE 
DECL>$ !M 0UNSCI5TIFIC40  ,UND] ! PRETEXT ( 0/UDY+ FACTS0 & 
0GA!R+ SCI5TIFIC MAT]IAL10 EV5 SU* EXACT MEASUREM5TS AS ! 
DET]M9ATION ( ! ME*ANICAL P[] NECESS>Y = OBTA9+ A GIV5 AM\NT ( 
HEAT 7! DET]M9ATION BY ,SEGU9 & ,J\LE ( ! ME*ANICAL EQUIVAL5T ( 
HEAT7 W]E SET ASIDE BY ! SCI5TI/S4 ,! ,5GLI% ,ROYAL ,SOCIETY EV5 DECL9$ 
TO PUBLI% ! RESULTS ( ,J\LE'S 9VE/IGATIONS 9TO ?IS SUBJECT ON ! GR\ND 
?AT !Y W]E 0UNSCI5TIFIC40 ,& ! EXCELL5T WORK ( ,GROVE UPON ! UNITY ( 
PHYSICAL =CES1 WRITT5 9 #a#h#d#c1 REMA9$ UP TO #ahef 9 COMPLETE OBSCURITY4 ,ONLY 
ON CONSULT+ ! HI/ORY ( ! EXACT SCI5CES CAN ONE FULLY UND]/& ! 
=CES ( REACTION :I* !N SWEPT OV] ,EUROPE4 

,! CURTA9 WAS SUDD5LY R5T AT ! 5D ( ! FIFTIES1 :5 ?AT LIB]AL1 
9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T BEGAN 9 ,WE/]N ,EUROPE :I* L$ 9 ,RUSSIA TO ! 
ABOLITION ( S]FDOM1 & DEPOS$ ,S*ELL+ & ,HEGEL 9 PHILOSOPHY1 :ILE 9 
LIFE IT CALL$ =? ! BOLD NEGATION ( 9TELLECTUAL SLAV]Y & SUBMISSION TO 
HABIT & AU?ORITY1 :I* IS KN[N UND] ! NAME ( ,NIHILISM4 

,IT IS 9T]E/+ TO NOTE 9 ?IS CONNECTION ! EXT5T TO :I* ! SOCIALI/ 
TEA*+S ( ! ?IRTIES & =TIES1 & ALSO ! REVOLUTION ( #a#h#d#h1 HAVE 
HELP$ SCI5CE TO ?R[ (F ! FETT]S PLAC$ UPON IT BY ! PO/-REVOLUTION>Y 
REACTION4 ,)\T 5T]+ H]E 9TO DETAIL1 IT IS SUFFICI5T TO SAY ?AT ! 
ABOVE-M5TION$ ,SEGU9 & ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RY 7! HI/ORIAN :O LAID ! 
F\NDATIONS = ! /UDY ( ! FOLKMOTE REGIME & ( F$]ALISM7 W]E 
,SA9T-,SIMONI/S1 ?AT ,D>W9'S FELL[-WORK]1 ,A4 ,R4 ,WALLACE1 WAS 9 HIS Y\NG] 
DAYS AN 5?USIA/IC FOLL[] ( ,ROB]T ,[52 ?AT ,AUGU/E ,COMTE WAS A 
,SA9T-,SIMONI/1 & ,RIC>DO & ,B5?AM W]E ,[5I/S2 & ?AT ! MAT]IALI/S 
,*>LES ,VOGT & ,GEORGE ,LEWIS1 AS WELL AS ,GROVE1 ,MILL1 ,SP5C]1 & MANY O!RS1 
HAD LIV$ UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! RADICAL SOCIALI/IC MOVEM5T ( ! ?IRTIES 
& =TIES4 ,IT WAS TO ?IS V]Y 9FLU5CE ?AT !Y [$ !IR SCI5TIFIC 
BOLDNESS4 

,! SIMULTANE\S APPE>ANCE ( ! WORKS ( ,GROVE1 ,J\LE1 ,B]?OLLET & 
,HELMHOLTZ2 ( ,D>W91 ,CLAUDE ,B]N>D1 ,MOLES*OTT & ,VOGT2 ( ,LYELL1 ,BA91 ,MILL 
& ,BURN\F --ALL 9 ! BRIEF SPACE ( FIVE OR SIX YE>S 7#a#h#e#f-#a#h#f#b71--RADICALLY 
*ANG$ ! MO/ FUNDAM5TAL VIEWS ( SCI5CE4 ,SCI5CE SUDD5LY />T$ UPON A 
NEW PA?4 ,5TIRELY NEW FIELDS ( 9VE/IGATION W]E OP5$ ) AMAZ+ 
RAPIDITY4 ,! SCI5CE ( LIFE 7,BIOLOGY71 ( HUMAN 9/ITUTIONS 7,AN?ROPOLOGY71 
( REASON1 WILL & EMOTIONS 7,PSY*OLOGY71 ( ! HI/ORY ( RI<TS & 
RELIGIONS1 & SO ON--GREW UP UND] \R V]Y EYES1 /AGG]+ ! M9D ) ! 
BOLDNESS ( !IR G5]ALIZATIONS & ! AUDACITY ( !IR D$UCTIONS4 ,:AT 9 
! PREC$+ C5TURY WAS ONLY AN +5I\S GUESS1 N[ CAME =? PROV$ BY ! 
SCALES & ! MICROSCOPE1 V]IFI$ BY ?\S&S ( APPLICATIONS4 ,! V]Y 
MANN] ( WRIT+ *ANG$1 & SCI5CE RETURN$ TO ! CLE>NESS1 ! PRECISION1 
& ! BEAUTY ( EXPOSITION :I* >E PECULI> TO ! 9DUCTIVE ME?OD & :I* 
*>ACT]IZ$ ?OSE ( ! ?9K]S ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY :O HAD BROK5 AWAY 
FROM METAPHYSICS4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,TO PR$ICT :AT DIRECTION SCI5CE WILL TAKE 9 ITS FUR!R DEVELOPM5T IS1 
EVID5TLY1 IMPOSSIBLE4 ,AS LONG AS M5 ( SCI5CE DEP5D UPON ! RI* & ! 
GOV]NM5TS1 SO LONG WILL !Y ( NECESSITY REMA9 SUBJECT TO 9FLU5CE FROM ?IS 
QU>T]2 & ?IS1 ( C\RSE1 CAN AGA9 >RE/ = A TIME ! DEVELOPM5T ( 
SCI5CE4 ,BUT ONE ?+ IS C]TA93 9 ! =M ?AT SCI5CE IS N[ ASSUM+ 
!RE IS NO LONG] ANY NE$ ( ! HYPO!SIS :I* ,LAPLACE CONSID]$ USELESS1 
OR ( ! METAPHYSICAL 0WORDS0 :I* ,GOE! RIDICUL$4 ,! BOOK ( NATURE1 ! 
BOOK ( ORGANIC LIFE1 & ?AT ( HUMAN DEVELOPM5T1 CAN ALREADY BE READ )\T 
RESORT+ TO ! P[] ( A CREATOR1 A MY/ICAL 0VITAL =CE10 AN IMMORTAL S\L1 
,HEGEL'S TRILOGY1 OR ! 5D[M5T ( AB/RACT SYMBOLS ) REAL LIFE4 ,ME*ANICAL 
PH5OM5A1 9 !IR EV]-9CREAS+ COMPLEXITY1 SUFFICE = ! EXPLANATION ( 
NATURE & ! :OLE ( ORGANIC & SOCIAL LIFE4 

,!RE IS MU*1 V]Y MU*1 9 ! WORLD ?AT IS /ILL UNKN[N TO US--MU* ?AT 
IS D>K & 9COMPREH5SIBLE2 & ( SU* UNEXPLA9$ GAPS NEW ONES WILL ALWAYS 
BE DISCLOS$ AS SOON AS ! OLD ONES HAVE BE5 FILL$ UP4 ,BUT WE DO NOT KN[ (1 
& DO NOT SEE ! POSSIBILITY ( DISCOV]+1 ANY DOMA9 9 :I* ! PH5OM5A 
OBS]V$ 9 ! FALL ( A /ONE1 OR 9 ! IMPACT ( TWO BILLI>D BALLS1 OR 9 A 
*EMICAL REACTION--?AT IS1 ME*ANICAL PH5OM5A--%\LD PROVE 9ADEQUATE TO ! 
NECESS>Y EXPLANATIONS4 

,FOOTNOTES 

 #a 

,KANT'S V]SION ( ! E?ICAL MAXIM1 0,DO TO O!RS AS Y\ 
W\LD HAVE !M DO TO Y\10 READS3 0,ACT ONLY ON ?AT MAXIM :]EBY ?\ CAN/ AT 
! SAME TIME WILL ?AT IT %\LD BECOME A UNIV]SAL LAW40--,TRANSLATOR4 

#b,READ]S ( ,RUSSIAN LIT]ATURE TO :OM 
,LOMONOS(F IS KN[N ONLY BY HIS LIT]>Y WORK1 MAY BE SURPRIS$ AS MU* AS 
,I WAS TO F9D HIS NAME M5TION$ 9 CONNECTION ) ! !ORY ( HEAT4 ,ON 
SEE+ ! NAME 9 ! ORIG9AL1 ,I PROMPTLY CONSULT$ ! LIBR>Y--SO SURE WAS ,I 
?AT ,I WAS CONFRONT$ ) A TYPOGRAPHICAL ]ROR4 ,!RE WAS NO MI/AKE1 H[EV]4 
 ,=1 ,MIKHAIL ,VASSILIEVI* ,LOMONOS(F 7#a#g#a#b-#a#g#f#e71 BY F> ! MO/ BROADLY 
SIFT$ ,RUSSIAN ( HIS TIME1 WAS--,I HAVE ?US BE5 L$ TO DISCOV]--EV5 MORE 
>D5TLY DEVOT$ TO SCI5CE ?AN TO ! MUSES4 ,HIS ACCOMPLI%M5TS 9 ! 
PHYSICAL SCI5CES ALONE1 9 :I* HE EXP]IM5T$ & UPON :I* HE WROTE & 
LECTUR$ EXT5SIVELY1 W\LD HAVE WON = HIM LA/+ FAME 9 ! HI/ORY ( 
,RUSSIAN CULTURE & FIR/ M5TION AMONG ITS DEVOTEES4-- ,TRANSLATOR4 

#b,SOME?+ 9 ?IS L9E IS SET =? 9 MY LECTURE 
0,ON ! ,SCI5TIFIC ,DEVELOPM5T 9 ! ,X,I,X ,C5TURY40 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aib 3 ,*APT] #b -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #b#a1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #b -- ,ADD$4 

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