,*APT] #d 

#aicaic 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,DESCRIPTION 3 ,! FL[]+ ( ! ,EXACT ,SCI5CES 9 #a#h#e#f-#f#b4--,! ,DEVELOPM5T ( ! ,ME*ANICAL ,WORLD-,CONCEPTION1 EMBRAC+ ! ,DEVELOPM5T ( ,HUMAN ,IDEAS & ,9/ITUTIONS4--,A ,!ORY ( ,EVOLUTION4 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,JULIE,FAI?1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,BUT IT MU/ NOT BE =GOTT5 ?AT ,COMTE WROTE HIS ,POSITIVI/ ,PHILOSOPHY LONG 
BE=E ! YE>S #a#h#e#f-#a#h#f#b1 :I*1 AS /AT$ ABOVE1 SUDD5LY WID5$ ! HORIZON 
( SCI5CE & ! WORLD-CONCEPT ( EV]Y $UCAT$ MAN4 

,! WORKS :I* APPE>$ 9 !SE FIVE OR SIX YE>S HAVE WR\<T SO COMPLETE A 
*ANGE 9 ! VIEWS ON NATURE1 ON LIFE 9 G5]AL1 & ON ! LIFE ( HUMAN 
SOCIETIES1 ?AT IT HAS NO P>ALLEL 9 ! :OLE HI/ORY ( SCI5CE = ! PA/ 
TWO ?\S& YE>S4 ,?AT :I* HAD BE5 BUT VAGUELY UND]/OOD--SOMETIMES ONLY 
GUESS$ AT BY ! 5CYCLOPA$I/S1 & ?AT :I* ! BE/ M9DS 9 ! FIR/ 
HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY HAD SO MU* DIFFICULTY 9 EXPLA9+1 APPE>$ N[ 
9 ! FULL >MOR ( SCI5CE2 & IT PRES5T$ ITSELF SO ?OR\<LY 
9VE/IGAT$ ?R\< ! 9DUCTIVE-D$UCTIVE ME?OD ?AT EV]Y O!R ME?OD WAS 
AT ONCE ADJUDG$ IMP]FECT1 FALSE &--UNNECESS>Y4 

,LET US1 !N1 DWELL A LITTLE LONG] UPON ! RESULTS OBTA9$ 9 !SE YE>S1 
?AT WE MAY BETT] APPRECIATE ! NEXT ATTEMPT AT A SYN!TIC PHILOSOPHY1 :I* 
WAS MADE BY ,H]B]T ,SP5C]4 

,GROVE1 ,CLAUSIUS1 ,HELMHOLTZ1 ,J\LE1 & A :OLE GR\P ( PHYSICI/S & 
A/RONOM]S1 AS ALSO ,KIR*H(F1 :O DISCOV]$ ! SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS & 
GAVE US ! MEANS ( DET]M9+ ! COMPOSITION ( ! MO/ DI/ANT 
/>S1--!SE1 9 RAPID SUCCESSION AT ! 5D ( ! FIFTIES1 PROV$ ! UNITY ( 
NATURE ?R\<\T ! 9ORGANIC WORLD4 ,TO TALK ( C]TA9 MY/]I\S1 
IMPOND]ABLE FLUIDS--CALORIFIC1 MAGNETIC1 ELECTRICAL--AT ONCE BECAME IMPOSSIBLE4  
,IT WAS %[N ?AT ! ME*ANICAL MOTION ( MOLECULES :I* TAKES PLACE 9 ! 
WAVES ( ! SEA OR 9 ! VIBRATIONS ( A BELL OR A TUN+ =K1 WAS ADEQUATE TO 
! EXPLANATION ( ALL ! PH5OM5A ( HEAT1 LI<T1 ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM2 
?AT WE CAN MEASURE !M & WEI< !IR 5]GY4 ,MORE ?AN ?IS3 ?AT 9 ! 
HEAV5LY BODIES MO/ REMOTE FROM US ! SAME VIBRATION ( MOLECULES TAKES PLACE1 
) ! SAME EFFECTS4 ,NAY1 ! MASS MOVEM5TS ( ! HEAV5LY BODIES 
!MSELVES1 :I* RUN ?R\< SPACE ACCORD+ TO ! LAWS ( UNIV]SAL 
GRAVITATION1 REPRES5T1 9 ALL LIKELIHOOD1 NO?+ ELSE ?AN ! RESULTANTS ( 
!SE VIBRATIONS ( LI<T & ELECTRICITY1 TRANSMITT$ = BILLIONS & TRILLIONS 
( MILES ?R\< 9T]/ELL> SPACE4 

,! SAME CALORIFIC & ELECTRICAL VIBRATIONS ( MOLECULES ( MATT] PROV$ 
ALSO ADEQUATE TO EXPLA9 ALL *EMICAL PH5OM5A4 ,& !N1 ! V]Y LIFE ( 
PLANTS & ANIMALS1 9 ITS 9F9ITELY V>I$ MANIFE/ATIONS1 HAS BE5 F\ND TO BE 
NO?+ ELSE ?AN A CONT9UALLY GO+ ON EX*ANGE ( MOLECULES 9 ?AT WIDE RANGE 
( V]Y COMPLEX1 & H5CE UN/ABLE & EASILY DECOMPOS$1 *EMICAL COMP\NDS 
FROM :I* >E BUILT ! TISSUES ( EV]Y LIV+ BE+4 

,!N1 ALREADY DUR+ ?OSE YE>S IT WAS UND]/OOD--& = ! PA/ T5 YE>S 
IT HAS BE5 /ILL MORE FIRMLY E/ABLI%$--?AT ! LIFE ( ! CELLS ( ! 
N]V\S SY/EM & !IR PROP]TY ( TRANSMITT+ VIBRATIONS FROM ONE TO ! 
O!R1 AF=D$ A ME*ANICAL EXPLANATION ( ! N]V\S LIFE ( ANIMALS4 ,[+ 
TO !SE 9VE/IGATIONS1 WE CAN N[ UND]/&1 )\T LEAV+ ! DOMA9 ( 
PURELY PHYSIOLOGICAL OBS]VATIONS1 H[ IMPRESSIONS & IMAGES >E PRODUC$ & 
RETA9$ 9 ! BRA91 H[ !IR MUTUAL EFFECTS RESULT 9 ! ASSOCIATION ( 
IDEAS 7EV]Y NEW IMPRESSION AWAK5+ IMPRESSIONS PREVI\SLY /OR$ UP71 & 
H5CE ALSO--9 ?\<T4 

,( C\RSE1 V]Y MU* /ILL REMA9S TO BE DONE & TO BE DISCOV]$ 9 ?IS 
VA/ DOMA92 SCI5CE1 SC>CELY FRE$ YET FROM ! METAPHYSICS :I* SO LONG 
HAMP]$ IT1 IS ONLY N[ BEG9N+ TO EXPLORE ! WIDE FIELD ( PHYSICAL 
PSY*OLOGY4 ,BUT ! />T HAS ALREADY BE5 MADE1 & A SOLID F\NDATION IS LAID 
= FUR!R LABORS4 ,! OLD-FA%ION$ CLASSIFICATION ( PH5OM5A 9TO TWO 
SETS1 :I* ! ,G]MAN PHILOSOPH] ,KANT 5DEAVOR$ TO E/ABLI%1--ONE CONC]N$ 
) 9VE/IGATIONS 09 TIME & SPACE0 7! WORLD ( PHYSICAL ,PH5OM5A7 & ! 
O!R 09 TIME ONLY0 7! WORLD ( SPIRITUAL PH5OM5A71--N[ FALLS ( ITSELF4  
,& TO ! QUE/ION ONCE ASK$ BY ! ,RUSSIAN PHYSIOLOGI/1 ,SET*5OV3 0,BY :OM 
& H[ %\LD PSY*OLOGY BE /UDI$80 SCI5CE HAS ALREADY GIV5 ! ANSW]3 0,BY 
PHYSIOLOGI/S1 & BY ! PHYSIOLOGICAL ME?OD40 ,&1 9DE$1 ! REC5T LABORS 
( ! PHYSIOLOGI/S HAVE ALREADY SUCCE$$ 9 %$D+ 9COMP>ABLY MORE LI<T 
?AN ALL ! 9TRICATE DISCUSSIONS ( ! METAPHYSICI/S1 UPON ! ME*ANISM 
( ?\<T2 ! AWAK5+ ( IMPRESSIONS1 !IR RET5TION & TRANSMISSION4 

,9 ?IS1 ITS *IEF /RON<OLD1 METAPHYSICS WAS ?US WOR/$4 ,! FIELD 9 
:I* IT CONSID]$ ITSELF 9V9CIBLE HAS N[ BE5 TAK5 POSSESSION ( BY NATURAL 
SCI5CE & MAT]IALI/ PHILOSOPHY1 & !SE TWO >E PROMOT+ ! GR[? ( 
KN[L$GE 9 ?IS DIRECTION FA/] ?AN C5TURIES ( METAPHYSICAL SPECULATION 
HAVE DONE4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,9 !SE SAME YE>S ANO!R IMPORTANT /EP WAS MADE4 ,D>W9'S BOOK ON 0,! 
,ORIG9 ( ,SPECIES0 APPE>$ & ECLIPS$ ALL ! RE/4 

,ALREADY 9 ! LA/ C5TURY ,BUFFON 7APP>5TLY EV5 ,L9NAEUS71 & ON ! 
?RE%OLD ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY ,LAM>CK1 HAD V5TUR$ TO MA9TA9 ?AT ! 
EXI/+ SPECIES ( PLANTS & ANIMALS >E NOT FIX$ =MS2 ?AT !Y >E 
V>IABLE & V>Y CONT9UALLY EV5 N[4 ,! V]Y FACT ( FAMILY LIK5ESS :I* 
EXI/S BETWE5 GR\PS ( =MS--,LAM>CK PO9T$ \T--IS A PRO( ( !IR COMMON 
DESC5T FROM A COMMON ANCE/RY4 ,?US1 = EXAMPLE1 ! V>I\S =MS ( MEAD[ 
BUTT]CUPS1 WAT] BUTT]CUPS1 & ALL O!R BUTT]CUPS :I* WE SEE ON \R 
MEAD[S & SWAMPS1 MU/ HAVE BE5 PRODUC$ BY ! ACTION ( 5VIRONM5T UPON 
DESC5DANTS FROM ONE COMMON TYPE ( ANCE/ORS4 ,LIKEWISE1 ! PRES5T SPECIES ( 
WOLVES1 DOGS1 JACKALS & FOXES DID NOT EXI/ 9 A REMOTE PA/1 BUT !RE WAS 9 
!IR /EAD ONE K9D ( ANIMALS \T ( :I*1 UND] V>I\S CONDITIONS1 ! 
WOLVES1 ! DOGS1 ! JACKALS & ! FOXES HAVE GRADUALLY EVOLV$4 

,BUT 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY SU* H]ESIES AS !SE HAD TO BE UTT]$ ) 
GREAT CIRCUMSPECTION4 ,! ,*UR* WAS /ILL V]Y P[]FUL !N1 & = SU* 
H]ETICAL VIEWS ! NATURALI/ HAD TO RECKON ) PRISON1 TORTURE1 OR ! 
LUNATIC'S ASYLUM4 ,! 0H]ETICS0 CONSEQU5TLY W]E CAUTI\S 9 !IR 
EXPRESSIONS4 ,N[1 H[EV]1 ,D>W9 & ,A4 ,R4 ,WALLACE C\LD BOLDLY MA9TA9 SO 
GREAT A H]ESY4 ,D>W9 EV5 V5TUR$ TO DECL>E ?AT MAN1 TOO1 HAD ORIG9AT$1 
9 ! SAME WAY ( SL[ PHYSIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION1 FROM SOME L[] =MS ( 
APE-LIKE ANIMALS2 ?AT HIS 0IMMORTAL SPIRIT0 & HIS 0MORAL S\L0 >E AS MU* A 
PRODUCT ( EVOLUTION AS ! M9D & ! MORAL HABITS ( ! ANT OR ( ! 
*IMPANZEE4 

,WE KN[ :AT /ORMS !N BROKE \T UPON ,D>W9 &1 ESPECIALLY1 UPON HIS BOLD 
& GIFT$ DISCIPLE1 ,HUXLEY1 :O %>PLY EMPHASIZ$ JU/ ?OSE CONCLUSIONS FROM 
,D>W9'S WORK :I* W]E MO/ DREAD$ BY ! CL]GY4 ,IT WAS A FI]CE BATTLE1 
BUT1 [+ TO ! SUPPORT ( ! MASSES ( ! PUBLIC1 ! VICTORY WAS WON1 
NEV]!LESS1 BY ! ,D>W9IANS2 & ! RESULT WAS ?AT AN 5TIRELY NEW & 
EXTREMELY IMPORTANT SCI5CE--,BIOLOGY1 ! SCI5CE ( LIFE 9 ALL ITS 
MANIFE/ATIONS--HAS GR[N UP UND] \R V]Y EYES DUR+ ! LA/ =TY YE>S4 

,AT ! SAME TIME ,D>W9'S WORK FURNI%$ A NEW KEY TO ! UND]/&+ ( ALL 
SORTS ( PH5OM5A--PHYSICAL1 VITALS & SOCIAL4 ,IT OP5$ UP A NEW ROAD = 
!IR 9VE/IGATION4 ,! IDEA ( A CONT9U\S DEVELOPM5T 7EVOLUTION7 & ( A 
CONT9UAL ADAPTATION TO *ANG+ 5VIRONM5T1 F\ND A MU* WID] APPLICATION ?AN 
! ORIG9 ( SPECIES4 ,IT WAS APPLI$ TO ! /UDY ( ALL NATURE1 AS WELL AS TO 
M5 & !IR SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1 & IT DISCLOS$ 9 !SE BRAN*ES 5TIRELY 
UNKN[N HORIZONS1 GIV+ EXPLANATIONS ( FACTS :I* HI!RTO HAD SEEM$ QUITE 
9EXPLICABLE4 

,[+ TO ! IMPULSE GIV5 BY ,D>W9'S WORK TO ALL NATURAL SCI5CES1 ,BIOLOGY 
WAS CREAT$1 :I*1 9 ,H]B]T ,SP5C]'S H&S1 SOON EXPLA9$ TO US H[ ! 
C\NTLESS =MS ( LIV+ BE+S 9HABIT+ ! E>? MAY HAVE DEVELOP$1 & 
5ABL$ ,HAECKEL TO MAKE ! FIR/ ATTEMPT AT =MULAT+ A G5EALOGY ( ALL 
ANIMALS1 MAN 9CLUD$4 ,9 ! SAME WAY A SOLID F\NDATION = ! HI/ORY ( ! 
DEVELOPM5T ( MAN'S CU/OMS1 MANN]S1 BELIEFS & 9/ITUTIONS WAS LAID D[N--A 
HI/ORY ! WANT ( :I* WAS /RONGLY FELT BY ! EI<TE5? C5TURY 
PHILOSOPH]S & BY ,AUGU/E ,COMTE4 ,AT ! PRES5T TIME ?IS HI/ORY CAN BE 
WRITT5 )\T RESORT+ TO EI!R ! =MULAE ( ,HEGELEAN METAPYSICS OR TO 
09NATE IDEAS0 & 09SPIRATION FROM )\T0--)\T ANY ( ?OSE DEAD 
=MULAE BEH9D :I*1 CONCEAL$ BYWORDS AS BY CL\DS1 WAS ALWAYS HIDD5 ! 
SAME ANCI5T IGNORANCE & ! SAME SUP]/ITION4 ,[+1 ON ! ONE H&1 TO ! 
LABORS ( ! NATURALI/S1 &1 ON ! O!R1 TO ?OSE ( ,H5RY ,MA9E & HIS 
FOLL[]S1 :O APPLI$ ! SAME 9DUCTIVE ME?OD TO ! /UDY ( PRIMITIVE 
CU/OMS & LAWS ?AT HAVE GR[N \T ( !M1 IT BECAME POSSIBLE 9 REC5T YE>S 
TO PLACE ! HI/ORY ( ! ORIG9 & DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN 9/ITUTIONS UPON AS 
FIRM A BASIS AS ?AT ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( ANY =M ( PLANTS OR ANIMALS4 

,IT W\LD1 ( C\RSE1 BE EXTREMELY UNFAIR TO =GET ! 5ORM\S WORK ?AT WAS 
DONE E>LI]--ALREADY 9 ! ?IRTIES--T[>DS ! WORK+ \T ( ! HI/ORY ( 
9/ITUTIONS BY ! S*OOL ( ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RY 9 ,FRANCE1 BY ?AT ( ,MAUR] & 
! 0,G]MANI/S0 9 ,G]MANY1 & 9 ,RUSSIA1 SOME:AT LAT]1 BY ,KO/OM>OV1 
,BELYAEV & O!RS4 ,9 FACT1 ! PR9CIPLE ( EVOLUTION HAD BE5 APPLI$ TO ! 
/UDY ( MANN]S & 9/ITUTIONS1 & ALSO TO LANGUAGES1 FROM ! TIME ( ! 
5CYCLOPA$I/S4 ,BUT TO OBTA9 CORRECT1 SCI5TIFIC D$UCTIONS FROM 
ALL ?IS MASS ( WORK BECAME POSSIBLE ONLY :5 ! SCI5TI/S C\LD LOOK UPON 
! E/ABLI%$ FACTS 9 ! SAME WAY AS ! NATURALI/ REG>DS ! CONT9U\S 
DEVELOPM5T ( ! ORGANS ( A PLANT OR ( A NEW SPECIES4 

,! METAPHYSICAL =MULAE HAVE HELP$1 9 !IR TIME1 TO MAKE C]TA9 
APPROXIMATE G5]ALIZATIONS4 ,ESPECIALLY DID !Y /IMULATE ! SLUMB]+ 
?\<T1 DI/URB+ IT BY !IR VAGUE H9TS AS TO ! UNITY ( LIFE 9 NATURE4  
,AT A TIME :5 ! 9DUCTIVE G5]ALIZATIONS ( ! 5CYCLOPA$I/S & !IR 
,5GLI% PR$ECESSORS W]E ALMO/ =GOTT5 79 ! FIR/ HALF ( ! N9ETE5? 
C5TURY71 & :5 IT REQUIR$ SOME CIVIC C\RAGE TO SPEAK ( ! UNITY ( 
PHYSICAL & SPIRITUAL NATURE--! OBSCURE METAPHYSICS /ILL UPHELD ! T5D5CY 
T[>D G5]ALIZATION4 ,BUT ?OSE G5]ALIZATIONS W]E E/ABLI%$ EI!R BY 
MEANS ( ! DIALECTIC ME?OD OR BY MEANS ( A SEMI-CONSCI\S 9DUCTION1 &1 
!RE=E1 W]E ALWAYS *>ACT]IZ$ BY A HOPELESS 9DEF9IT5ESS4 ,! =M] 
K9D ( G5]ALIZATIONS WAS D$UC$ BY MEANS ( REALLY FALLACI\S 
SYLLOGISMS--SIMIL> TO ?OSE BY :I* 9 ANCI5T TIMES C]TA9 ,GREEKS US$ TO 
PROVE ?AT ! PLANETS MU/ MOVE 9 CIRCLES 0BECAUSE ! CIRCLE IS ! 
MO/ P]FECT CURVE20 & ! MEAG]NESS ( ! PREMISES W\LD !N BE CONCEAL$ 
BY MI/Y WORDS1 &1 WORSE /ILL1 BY AN OBSCURE & CLUMSY EXPOSITION4 ,AS TO ! 
SEMI-CONSCI\S 9DUCTIONS :I* W]E MADE H]E & !RE1 !Y W]E BAS$ UPON A 
V]Y LIMIT$ CIRCLE ( OBS]VATIONS--SIMIL> TO ! BROAD BUT UNW>RANT$ 
G5]ALIZATION ( ,WEISSMANN1 :I* HAVE REC5TLY CREAT$ SOME S5SATION4 ,!N1 
AS ! 9DUCTION WAS UNCONSCI\S ! G5]ALIZATIONS W]E PUT =? 9 ! %APE 
( H>D & FA/ LAWS1 :ILE 9 REALITY !Y W]E BUT SIMPLE 
SUPPOSITIONS--HYPO!SES1 OR BEG9N+S ONLY ( G5]ALIZATIONS1 :I*1 F> FROM 
BE+ 0LAWS10 REQUIR$ YET ! V]Y FIR/ V]IFICATION BY OBS]VATION4 ,F9ALLY1 
ALL !SE BROAD D$UCTIONS1 EXPRESS$ AS !Y W]E 9 MO/ AB/RACT =MS--AS1 = 
9/ANCE1 ! ,HEGELEAN 0!SIS1 ANTI!SIS1 & SYN!SIS10--LEFT FULL PLAY = 
! 9DIVIDUAL TO COME TO ! MO/ V>I$ & (T5 OPPOSITE PRACTICAL 
CONCLUSIONS2 SO ?AT !Y C\LD GIVE BIR?1 = 9/ANCE1 TO ,BAKUN9'S 
REVOLUTION>Y 5?USIASM & TO ! ,DRESD5 ,REVOLUTION1 TO ! REVOLUTION>Y 
,JACOB9ISM ( ,M>X & TO ! RECOGNITION ( ! 0REASONABL5ESS ( :AT 
EXI/S10 :I* RECONCIL$ SO MANY ,G]MANS TO ! REACTION !N EXI/+--TO SAY 
NO?+ ( ! REC5T VAG>IES ( ! SO-CALL$ ,RUSSIAN ,M>XI/S4 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aib 3 ,*APT] #d -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #b#a1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #d -- ,ADD$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
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