,*APT] #f 

#aicaic 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,DESCRIPTION 3 ,! ,CAUSES ( ?IS ,MI/AKE4--,! ,TEA*+ ( ! ,*UR*3 0! ,WORLD IS /EEP$ 9 ,S940--,! ,GOV]NM5T'S ,9CULCATION ( ! SAME VIEW ( 0,MAN'S ,RADICAL ,P]V]SITY40--,! ,VIEWS ( ,MOD]N ,AN?ROPOLOGY UPON ?IS SUBJECT4--,! ,DEVELOPM5T ( =MS ( LIFE BY ! 0,MASSES10 & ! ,L,AW4--,ITS ,TWO-FOLD ,*>ACT]4 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY DUNCAN C1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C ,LIC5SE ,9 !SE ]RONE\S VIEWS1 H[EV]1 ,SP5C] DOES NOT /& ALONE4 ,FOLL[+ 
,HOBBES1 ALL ! PHILOSOPHY ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY CONT9UES TO LOOK UPON ! 
SAVAGES AS UPON B&S ( WILD BEA/S :I* LIV$ AN ISOLAT$ LIFE & F\<T 
AMONG !MSELVES OV] FOOD & WIVES1 UNTIL SOME B5EVOL5T AU?ORITY APPE>$ 
AMONG !M & =C$ !M TO KEEP ! PEACE4 ,EV5 SU* A NATURALI/ AS ,HUXLEY 
ADVOCAT$ ! SAME VIEWS AS ,HOBBES1 :O MA9TA9$ ?AT 9 ! BEG9N+ PEOPLE 
LIV$ 9 A /ATE ( W>1 FI<T+ 0EA* AGA9/ ALL10#a TILL1 AT LA/1 [+ TO A 
FEW ADVANC$ P]SONS ( ! TIME1 ! 0FIR/ SOCIETY0 WAS CREAT$ 7SEE HIS 
>TICLE 0,! ,/RUGGLE = ,EXI/5CE--A ,LAW ( ,NATURE407 ,EV5 ,HUXLEY1 !RE=E1 
FAIL$ TO REALIZE ?AT IT WAS NOT ,MAN :O CREAT$ SOCIETY1 BUT ?AT SOCIAL LIFE 
EXI/$ AMONG ANIMALS MU* E>LI] ?AN ! ADV5T ( MAN4 ,SU* IS ! P[] ( 
DEEP-ROOT$ PREJUDICE4 

,W]E WE1 H[EV]1 TO TRACE ! HI/ORY ( ?IS PREJUDICE1 IT W\LD NOT BE 
DIFFICULT TO CONV9CE \RSELVES ?AT IT ORIG9AT$ *IEFLY 9 RELIGIONS & AMONG 
!IR REPRES5TATIVES4 ,! SECRET LEAGUES ( SORC]]S1 RA9-MAK]S1 & SO ON1 
AMONG PRIMITIVE CLANS1 & LAT] ON1 ! ,BABYLONIAN1 ,ASSYRIAN1 ,EGYPTIAN1 ,9DIAN1 
,HEBREW & O!R PRIE/HOODS1 & LAT] /ILL ! ,*RI/IAN PRIE/S1 HAVE ALWAYS 
BE5 5DEAVOR+ TO P]SUADE M5 ?AT !Y LAY DEEP 9 S91 & ?AT ONLY ! 
9T]CESSION ( ! %AMAN1 ! MAGICIAN1 & ! PRIE/ CAN KEEP ! EVIL SPIRIT 
FROM ASSUM+ CONTROL OV] MAN1 OR CAN PREVAIL ) A REV5GEFUL ,GOD NOT TO VISIT 
UPON MAN HIS RETRIBUTION = S94 ,PRIMITIVE ,*RI/IANITY1 IT IS TRUE1 FA9TLY 
ATTEMPT$ TO BREAK UP ?IS PREJUDICE2 BUT ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*1 ADH]+ TO ! 
V]Y LANGUAGE ( ! GOSPELS CONC]N+ 0ET]NAL FIRE0 & 0! WRA? ( ,GOD10 
9T5SIFI$ IT /ILL MORE4 ,! V]Y CONCEPTION ( A SON ( ,GOD :O HAD COME TO 
DIE = 0! R$EMPTION ( S910 S]V$ AS A BASIS = ?IS VIEW4 ,NO WOND] ?AT 
LAT] ON 0! ,HOLY ,9QUISITION0 SUBJECT$ PEOPLE TO ! MO/ CRUEL TORTURES & 
BURN$ !M SL[LY AT ! /AKE 9 ORD] TO AF=D !M AN OPPORTUNITY ( 
REP5T+ & ( SAV+ !MSELVES !REBY FROM ET]NAL TORM5T4 ,& NOT ! 
,CA?OLIC ,*UR* ALONE1 BUT ALL O!R ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*ES VI$ ) ONE ANO!R 9 
9VE/+ ALL K9DS ( TORTURES 9 ORD] TO BETT] PEOPLE 0/EEP$ 9 S940 ,UP 
TO ! PRES5T TIME1 N9E HUNDR$ & N9ETY-N9E P]SONS 9 A ?\S& /ILL 
BELIEVE ?AT NATURAL CALAMITIES--DR\<TS1 FLOODS1 E>?QUAKES1 & EPIDEMIC 
DISEASES-->E S5T BY A ,DIV9E ,BE+ = ! PURPOSE ( RECALL+ S9FUL MANK9D 
TO ! RI<T PA?4 ,9 ?IS BELIEF AN 5ORM\S MAJORITY ( \R *ILDR5 >E BE+ 
BR\<T UP TO ?IS V]Y DAY4 

,AT ! SAME TIME ! ,/ATE1 9 ITS S*OOLS & UNIV]SITIES1 C\NT5ANCES ! 
SAME BELIEF 9 ! 9NATE P]V]SITY ( MAN4 ,TO PROVE ! NECESSITY ( SOME 
P[] ?AT /&S ABOVE SOCIETY & 9CULCATES 9 IT ! MORAL PR9CIPLES 7) 
! AID ( PUNI%M5TS 9FLICT$ = VIOLATIONS ( 0MORAL LAW10 = :I*1 BY 
MEANS ( A CLEV] TRICK1 ! WRITT5 LAW IS EASILY SUB/ITUT$71--TO KEEP PEOPLE 
9 ?IS BELIEF IS A MATT] ( LIFE OR DEA? TO ! ,/ATE4 ,BECAUSE1 ! MOM5T 
PEOPLE COME TO D\BT ! NECESSITY & POSSIBILITY ( SU* AN 9OCULATION ( 
MORALITY1 !Y WILL BEG9 TO D\BT ! HI<] MISSION ( !IR RUL]S AS WELL4 

,9 ?IS WAY EV]Y?+--\R RELIGI\S1 \R HI/ORICAL1 \R LEGAL1 & \R 
SOCIAL $UCATION--IS IMBU$ ) ! IDEA ?AT MAN1 LEFT TO HIMSELF1 W\LD SOON 
TURN 9TO A BEA/4 ,IF IT W]E NOT = ! AU?ORITY EX]CIS$ OV] !M1 PEOPLE 
W\LD DEV\R ONE ANO!R2 NO?+ BUT BRUTALITY & W> ( EA* AGA9/ ALL CAN 
BE EXPECT$ FROM 0! MOB40 ,IT W\LD P]I%1 IF ! POLICEMAN1 ! %]IFF & 
! HANGMAN--! *OS5 FEW1 ! SALT ( ! E>?--DID NOT T[] ABOVE IT & 
9T]POSE TO PREV5T ! UNIV]SAL FREE-FI<T1 TO $UCATE ! PEOPLE TO RESPECT 
! SANCTITY ( LAW & DISCIPL9E1 & ) A WISE H& LEAD !M ONW>D TO 
?OSE TIMES :5 BETT] IDEAS %ALL F9D A NE/+ PLACE 9 ! 0UNC\? HE>TS 
( M50 & R5D] ! ROD1 ! PRISON1 & ! GALL[S LESS NECESS>Y ?AN !Y 
>E AT PRES5T4 

,WE LAU< AT A C]TA9 K+ :O1 ON GO+ 9TO EXILE 9 #a#h#d#h1 SAID3 0,MY POOR 
SUBJECTS2 N[ !Y WILL P]I% )\T ME60 ,WE SMILE AT ! ,5GLI% CL]K :O 
BELIEVES ?AT ! ,5GLI% >E ! LO/ TRIBE ( ,ISRAEL1 APPO9T$ BY ,GOD HIMSELF 
TO ADM9I/] GOOD GOV]NM5T TO 0ALL O!R1 L[] RACES40 ,BUT DOES NOT ! 
GREAT MAJORITY ( FAIRLY $UCAT$ PEOPLE AMONG ALL ! NATIONS 5T]TA9 ! SAME 
EXALT$ OP9ION ) REG>D TO ITSELF8.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,& YET1 A SCI5TIFIC /UDY ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN SOCIETY & 
9/ITUTIONS LEADS TO AN 5TIRELY DIFF]5T CONCLUSION4 ,IT %[S ?AT ! HABITS 
& CU/OMS = MUTUAL AID1 COMMON DEF5SE1 & ! PRES]VATION ( PEACE1 :I* 
W]E E/ABLI%$ S9CE ! V]Y FIR/ /AGES ( HUMAN PREHI/ORIC TIMES--& 
:I* ALONE MADE IT POSSIBLE = MAN1 UND] V]Y TRY+ NATURAL CONDITIONS1 TO 
SURVIVE 9 ! /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1--?AT !SE SOCIAL CONV5TIONS HAVE BE5 
WORK$ \T PRECISELY BY ?IS ANONYM\S 0MOB40 ,AS TO ! SO-CALL$ 0LEAD]S0 ( 
HUMANITY1 !Y HAVE NOT CONTRIBUT$ ANY?+ USEFUL ?AT WAS NOT DEVELOP$ 
PREVI\SLY 9 CU/OM>Y LAW2 !Y MAY HAVE EMPHASIZ$ 7!Y NE>LY ALWAYS 
VITIAT$7 SOME USEFUL EXI/+ CU/OMS1 BUT !Y HAVE NOT 9V5T$ !M2 :ILE 
!Y ALWAYS /ROVE1 ON !IR SIDE1 TO TURN TO !IR [N ADVANTAGE ! COMMON-LAW 
9/ITUTIONS ?AT HAD BE5 WORK$ \T BY ! MASSES = !IR MUTUAL PROTECTION1 
OR1 FAIL+ 9 ?IS1 5DEAVOR$ TO DE/ROY !M4 

,EV5 9 ! REMOTE/ ANTIQUITY1 :I* IS LO/ 9 ! D>KNESS ( ! /ONE 
AGE1 M5 ALREADY LIV$ 9 SOCIETIES4 ,9 !SE SOCIETIES WAS ALREADY DEVELOP$ A 
:OLE NETWORK ( CU/OMS & SACR$1 RELIGI\SLY-RESPECT$ 9/ITUTIONS ( ! 
COMMUNAL REGIME OR ( ! CLAN :I* R5D]$ SOCIAL LIFE POSSIBLE4 ,& ?R\< 
ALL ! SUBSEQU5T /AGES ( DEVELOPM5T WE F9D IT WAS EXACTLY ?IS CON/RUCTIVE 
=CE ( ! 0UN9=M$ MOB0 ?AT WORK$ \T NEW MODES ( LIFE & NEW MEANS = 
MUTUAL SUPPORT & ! MA9T5ANCE ( PEACE1 AS NEW CONDITIONS >OSE4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 MOD]N SCI5CE HAS PROV$ CONCLUSIVELY ?AT ,LAW--:E!R 
PROCLAIM$ AS ! VOICE ( A DIV9E BE+ OR PROCE$+ FROM ! WISDOM ( A 
LAWGIV]--NEV] DID ANY?+ ELSE ?AN PRESCRIBE ALREADY EXI/+1 USEFUL HABITS 
& CU/OMS1 & !REBY H>D5$ !M 9TO UN*ANGEABLE1 CRY/ALLIZ$ =MS4  
,& 9 DO+ ?IS IT ALWAYS ADD$ TO ! 0USEFUL CU/OMS10 G5]ALLY RECOGNIZ$ 
AS SU*1 A FEW NEW RULES--9 ! 9T]E/ ( ! RI*1 W>LIKE & >M$ 
M9ORITY4 0,?\ %ALT NOT KILL10 SAID ! ,MOSAIC LAW1 0,?\ %ALT NOT /EAL10 
0,?\ %ALT NOT BE> FALSE WITNESS10 & !N IT ADD$ TO !SE EXCELL5T 
9JUNCTIONS3 0,?\ %ALT NOT COVET ?Y NEI<BOR'S WIFE1 HIS SLAVE1 NOR HIS ASS10 
:I* 9JUNCTION LEGALIZ$ SLAV]Y = ALL TIME & PUT WOMAN ON ! SAME LEVEL 
AS A SLAVE & A BEA/ ( BURD54 

0,LOVE Y\R NEI<BOR10 SAID ,*RI/IANITY LAT] ON1 BUT /RAI<TWAY ADD$1 9 
! WORDS ( ,PAUL ! ,APO/LE3 0,SLAVES1 BE SUBJECT TO Y\R MA/]S10 & 0,!RE 
IS NO AU?ORITY BUT FROM ,GOD10--!REBY EMPHASIZ+ ! DIVISION ( SOCIETY 9TO 
SLAVES & MA/]S & SANCTIFY+ ! AU?ORITY ( ! SC\NDRELS :O REIGN$ AT 
,ROME4 ,! ,GOSPELS1 ?\< TEA*+ ! SUBLIME IDEA ( 0NO PUNI%M5T = 
(F5SES10 :I* IS1 ( C\RSE1 ! ESS5CE ( ,*RI/IANITY--! TOK5 :I* 
DIFF]5TIATES IT & ,BUDDHISM FROM ALL O!R POSITIVE RELIGIONS--SPEAK AT ! 
SAME TIME ALL ! :ILE AB\T AN AV5G+ ,GOD :O TAKES HIS REV5GE EV5 UPON 
*ILDR51 ?US NECESS>ILY IMPRESS+ UPON MANK9D ! OPPOSITE IDEA ( 
V5GEANCE4 

,WE SEE ! SAME ?+S 9 ! LAWS ( ! SO-CALL$ 0,B>B>IANS10 ?AT IS1 ( 
! ,GAULS1 ! ,LOMB>DS1 ! ,ALLEMA9S1 & ! ,SAXONS1 :5 !SE PEOPLE LIV$ 
9 !IR COMMUNITIES1 FREE FROM ! ,ROMAN YOKE4 ,! ,B>B>IAN CODES CONV]T$ 
9TO LAW AN UND\BT$LY EXCELL5T CU/OM :I* WAS !N 9 ! PROCESS ( 
=MATION3 ! CU/OM ( PAY+ A P5ALTY = W\NDS & KILL+1 9/EAD ( 
PRACTIC+ ! LAW ( RETALIATION 7AN EYE = AN EYE1 A TOO? = A TOO?1 W\ND 
= W\ND1 & DEA? = DEA?74 ,BUT AT ! SAME TIME !Y ALSO LEGALIZ$ & 
P]PETUAT$ ! DIVISION ( FREEM5 9TO CLASSES--A DIVISION :I* ONLY !N 
BEGAN TO APPE>4 ,!Y EXACT$ FROM ! (F5D] V>Y+ COMP5SATIONS1 ACCORD+ 
AS ! P]SON KILL$ OR W\ND$ WAS A FREEMAN1 A MILIT>Y MAN1 OR A K+ 7! 
P5ALTY 9 ! LA/ CASE BE+ EQUIVAL5T TO LIFELONG S]VITUDE74 ,! ORIG9AL 
IDEA ( ?IS SCALE ( COMP5SATIONS TO BE PAID TO ! WRONG$ FAMILY ACCORD+ TO 
ITS SOCIAL POSITION1 WAS EVID5TLY ?AT A K+'S FAMILY ( AN ORD9>Y FREEMAN BY 
BE+ DEPRIV$ ( ITS HEAD1 WAS 5TITL$ TO RECEIVE A GREAT] COMP5SATION4 ,BUT 
! LAW1 BY RE/AT+ ! CU/OM1 LEGALIZ$ = ALL TIME ! DIVISION ( PEOPLE 
9TO CLASSES--& SO LEGALIZ$ IT ?AT UP TO ! PRES5T1 A ?\S& YE>S S9CE1 
WE HAVE NOT GOT RID ( IT4 

,& ?IS HAPP5$ ) ! LEGISLATION ( EV]Y AGE1 D[N TO \R [N TIME4  
,! OPPRESSION ( ! PREC$+ EPO* WAS ?US TRANSMITT$ BY LAW FROM ! OLD 
SOCIETY TO ! NEW1 :I* GREW UPON ! RU9S ( ! OLD4 ,! OPPRESSION ( ! 
,P]SIAN EMPIRE PASS$ ON TO ,GREECE2 ! OPPRESSION ( ! ,MAC$ONIAN EMPIRE1 TO 
,ROME2 ! OPPRESSION & CRUELTY ( ! ,ROMAN EMPIRE1 TO ! M$IAEVAL 
,EUROPEAN ,/ATES !N JU/ >IS+4 

,EV]Y SOCIAL SAFEGU>D1 ALL =MS ( SOCIAL LIFE 9 ! TRIBE1 ! COMMUNE1 
& ! E>LY M$AEVAL T[N-REPUBLICS2 ALL =MS ( 9T]-TRIBAL1 & LAT] 
ON 9T]-PROV9CIAL1 RELATIONS1 \T ( :I* 9T]NATIONAL LAW WAS SUBSEQU5TLY 
EVOLV$2 ALL =MS ( MUTUAL SUPPORT & ALL 9/ITUTIONS = ! PRES]VATION ( 
PEACE--9CLUD+ ! JURY1--W]E DEVELOP$ BY ! CREATIVE G5IUS ( ! 
ANONYM\S MASSES4 ,:ILE ALL ! LAWS ( EV]Y AGE1 D[N TO \R [N1 ALWAYS 
CONSI/$ ( ! SAME TWO ELEM5TS3 ONE :I* FIX$ & CRY/ALLIZ$ C]TA9 
=MS ( LIFE ?AT W]E UNIV]SALLY RECOGNIZ$ AS USEFUL2 ! O!R :I* WAS A 
SUP]/RUCTURE--SOMETIMES EV5 NO?+ BUT A CUNN+ CLAUSE ADROITLY SMUGGL$ 9 
9 ORD] TO E/ABLI% & /R5G!N ! GR[+ P[] ( ! NOBLES1 ! K+1 
& ! PRIE/--TO GIVE IT SANCTION4 

,SO1 AT ANY RATE1 WE >E L$ TO CONCLUDE BY ! SCI5TIFIC /UDY ( ! 
DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN SOCIETY1 UPON :I* = ! LA/ ?IRTY YE>S NOT A FEW 
CONSCI5TI\S M5 ( SCI5CE HAVE LABOR$4 ,!Y !MSELVES1 IT IS TRUE1 SELDOM 
V5TURE TO EXPRESS SU* H]ETICAL CONCLUSIONS AS ?OSE /AT$ ABOVE4 ,BUT ! 
?\<TFUL READ] 9EVITABLY COMES TO !M ON READ+ !IR WORKS4 

,FOOTNOTES 

  
#a 
,HOBBES' EXACT WORDS >E3 0,BELLUM OMNIUM CONTRA OMNES40 7,! W> ( EV]YONE 
AGA9/ EV]YBODY74 --,TRANSLATOR 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aib 3 ,*APT] #f -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #b#a1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #f -- ,ADD$4 

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