,MOD]N ,SCI5CE & ,AN>*ISM 

#aic 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TAGS 3 SOCIAL LIFE1 MOD]N SCI5CE1 N9ETE5? C5TURY1 EI<TE5? C5TURY1 SOCIAL SCI5CE1 POLITICAL ECONOMY1 SYN!TIC PHILOSOPHY1 NATURAL SCI5CES1 9DUCTIVE ME?OD1 SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 

,SECTIONS 7,T,O,C7 3 
     

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,SECTIONS 7,CONT5T7 3 

O ,*APT] #a 

,PHOTO BY ,M>TA ,NIMEVA ,NIMEVI5E1,C,C ,B,Y ,LIC5SE ,AN>*ISM1 LIKE ,SOCIALISM 9 G5]AL1 & LIKE EV]Y O!R SOCIAL MOVEM5T1 
HAS NOT1 ( C\RSE1 DEVELOP$ \T ( SCI5CE OR \T ( SOME PHILOSOPHICAL S*OOL4 
 ,! SOCIAL SCI5CES >E /ILL V]Y F> REMOV$ FROM ! TIME :5 !Y %ALL BE 
AS EXACT AS >E PHYSICS & *EMI/RY4 ,EV5 9 METEOROLOGY WE CANNOT YET PR$ICT 
! WEA!R A MON?1 OR EV5 ONE WEEK1 9 ADVANCE4 ,IT W\LD BE UNREASONABLE1 
!RE=E1 TO EXPECT ( ! Y\NG SOCIAL SCI5CES1 :I* >E CONC]N$ ) 
PH5OM5A MU* MORE COMPLEX ?AN W9DS & RA91 ?AT !Y %\LD =ETELL SOCIAL 
EV5TS ) ANY APPROA* TO C]TA9TY4 ,BESIDES1 IT MU/ NOT BE =GOTT5 ?AT 
M5 ( SCI5CE1 TOO1 >E BUT HUMAN1 & ?AT MO/ ( !M EI!R BELONG BY 
DESC5T TO ! POSSESS+ CLASSES1 & >E /EEP$ 9 ! PREJUDICES ( !IR 
CLASS1 OR ELSE >E 9 ! ACTUAL S]VICE ( ! GOV]NM5T4 ,NOT \T ( ! 
UNIV]SITIES1 !RE=E1 DOES ,AN>*ISM COME4 

,AS ,SOCIALISM 9 G5]AL1 ,AN>*ISM WAS BORN AMONG ! PEOPLE2 & IT 
WILL CONT9UE TO BE FULL ( LIFE & CREATIVE P[] ONLY AS LONG AS IT REMA9S A 
?+ ( ! PEOPLE4 

,AT ALL TIMES TWO T5D5CIES W]E CONT9UALLY AT W> 9 HUMAN SOCIETY4 ,ON ! 
ONE H&1 ! MASSES W]E DEVELOP+1 9 ! =M ( CU/OMS1 A NUMB] ( 
9/ITUTIONS :I* W]E NECESS>Y TO MAKE SOCIAL LIFE AT ALL POSSIBLE--TO 9SURE 
PEACE AMONG M51 TO SETTLE ANY DISPUTES ?AT MI<T >ISE1 & TO HELP ONE 
ANO!R 9 EV]Y?+ REQUIR+ COOP]ATIVE EF=T4 ,! SAVAGE CLAN AT ITS 
E>LIE/ /AGE1 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 ! HUNT]S'1 &1 LAT] ON1 ! 
9DU/RIAL GUILDS1 ! FREE T[N-REPUBLICS ( ! MIDDLE AGES1 ! BEG9N+S ( 
9T]NATIONAL LAW :I* W]E WORK$ \T 9 ?OSE E>LY P]IODS1 & MANY O!R 
9/ITUTIONS1--W]E ELABORAT$1 NOT BY LEGISLATORS1 BUT BY ! CREATIVE P[] ( 
! PEOPLE4 

,& AT ALL TIMES1 TOO1 !RE APPE>$ SORC]]S1 PROPHETS1 PRIE/S1 & HEADS 
( MILIT>Y ORGANIZATIONS1 :O 5DEAVOR$ TO E/ABLI% & TO /R5G!N !IR 
AU?ORITY OV] ! PEOPLE4 ,!Y SUPPORT$ ONE ANO!R1 CONCLUD$ ALLIANCES1 9 
ORD] ?AT !Y MI<T REIGN OV] ! PEOPLE1 HOLD !M 9 SUBJECTION1 & COMPEL 
!M TO WORK = ! MA/]S4 

,AN>*ISM IS OBVI\SLY ! REPRES5TATIVE ( ! FIR/ T5D5CY--?AT IS1 ( 
! CREATIVE1 CON/RUCTIVE P[] ( ! PEOPLE !MSELVES1 :I* AIM$ AT 
DEVELOP+ 9/ITUTIONS ( COMMON LAW 9 ORD] TO PROTECT !M FROM ! 
P[]-SEEK+ M9ORITY4 ,BY MEANS ( ! SAME POPUL> CREATIVE P[] & 
CON/RUCTIVE ACTIVITY1 BAS$ UPON MOD]N SCI5CE & TE*NICS1 ,AN>*ISM TRIES 
N[ AS WELL TO DEVELOP 9/ITUTIONS :I* W\LD 9SURE A FREE EVOLUTION ( 
SOCIETY4 ,9 ?IS S5SE1 !RE=E1 ,AN>*I/S & ,GOV]NM5TALI/S HAVE EXI/$ 
?R\< ALL HI/ORIC TIMES4 

,!N1 AGA91 IT ALWAYS HAPP5$ ALSO ?AT 9/ITUTIONS--EV5 ! MO/ 
EXCELL5T SO F> AS !IR ORIG9AL PURPOSE WAS CONC]N$1 & E/ABLI%$ 
ORIG9ALLY ) ! OBJECT ( SECUR+ EQUALITY1 PEACE & MUTUAL AID--9 ! 
C\RSE ( TIME BECAME PETRIFI$1 LO/ !IR ORIG9AL MEAN+1 CAME UND] ! 
CONTROL ( ! RUL+ M9ORITY1 & BECAME 9 ! 5D A CON/RA9T UPON ! 
9DIVIDUAL 9 HIS 5DEAVORS = FUR!R DEVELOPM5T4 ,!N M5 W\LD RISE AGA9/ 
!SE 9/ITUTIONS4 ,BUT1 :ILE SOME ( !SE DISCONT5T$ 5DEAVOR$ TO ?R[ 
(F ! YOKE ( ! OLD 9/ITUTIONS--( CA/E1 COMMUNE OR GUILD--ONLY 9 ORD] 
?AT !Y !MSELVES MI<T RISE OV] ! RE/ & 5RI* !MSELVES AT !IR 
EXP5SE2 O!RS AIM$ AT A MODIFICATION ( ! 9/ITUTIONS 9 ! 9T]E/ ( 
ALL1 & ESPECIALLY 9 ORD] TO %AKE (F ! AU?ORITY :I* HAD FIX$ ITS HOLD 
UPON SOCIETY4 ,ALL RE=M]S--POLITICAL1 RELIGI\S1 & ECONOMIC--HAVE BELONG$ 
TO ?IS CLASS4 ,& AMONG !M !RE ALWAYS APPE>$ P]SONS :O1 )\T ABID+ 
! TIME :5 ALL !IR FELL[-C\NTRYM51 OR EV5 A MAJORITY ( !M1 %ALL HAVE 
BECOME IMBU$ ) ! SAME VIEWS1 MOV$ ONW>D 9 ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ 
OPPRESSION1 9 MASS :]E IT WAS POSSIBLE1 & S+LE-H&$ :]E IT C\LD NOT 
BE DONE O!RWISE4 ,!SE W]E ! REVOLUTIONI/S1 & !M1 TOO1 WE MEET AT ALL 
TIMES4 

,BUT ! REVOLUTIONI/S !MSELVES G5]ALLY APPE>$ UND] TWO DIFF]5T 
ASPECTS4 ,SOME ( !M1 9 RIS+ AGA9/ ! E/ABLI%$ AU?ORITY1 5DEAVOR$1 
NOT TO ABOLI% IT1 BUT TO TAKE IT 9 !IR [N H&S4 ,9 PLACE ( ! AU?ORITY 
:I* HAD BECOME OPPRESSIVE1 !SE RE=M]S S\<T TO CREATE A NEW ONE1 
PROMIS+ ?AT IF !Y EX]CIS$ IT !Y W\LD HAVE ! 9T]E/S ( ! PEOPLE 
DE>LY AT HE>T1 & W\LD EV] REPRES5T ! PEOPLE !MSELVES4 ,9 ?IS WAY1 
H[EV]1 ! AU?ORITY ( ! ,CAES>S WAS E/ABLI%$ 9 ,IMP]IAL ,ROME1 ! 
P[] ( ! ,*UR* ROSE 9 ! FIR/ C5TURIES AFT] ! FALL ( ! ,ROMAN 
,EMPIRE1 & ! TYRANNY ( DICTATORS GREW UP 9 ! M$IEVAL COMMUNES AT ! 
TIME ( !IR DECAY4 ,( ! SAME T5D5CY1 TOO1 ! K+S & ! CZ>S AVAIL$ 
!MSELVES TO CON/ITUTE !IR P[] AT ! 5D ( ! FEUDAL P]IOD4 ,! BELIEF 
9 A POPUL> EMP]OR1 ?AT IS1 ,CAES>ISM1 HAS NOT DI$ \T EV5 YET4 

,BUT ALL ! :ILE ANO!R T5D5CY WAS EV] MANIFE/4 ,AT ALL TIMES BEG9N+ 
) ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 !RE W]E P]SONS & POPUL> MOVEM5TS ?AT AIM$1 NOT AT 
! SUB/ITUTION ( ONE GOV]NM5T = ANO!R1 BUT AT ! ABOLITION ( AU?ORITY 
ALTOGE!R4 ,!Y PROCLAIM$ ! SUPREME RI<TS ( ! 9DIVIDUAL & ! PEOPLE1 
& 5DEAVOR$ TO FREE POPUL> 9/ITUTIONS FROM =CES :I* W]E =EIGN & 
H>MFUL TO !M1 9 ORD] ?AT ! UNHAMP]$ CREATIVE G5IUS ( ! PEOPLE MI<T 
REMOLD !SE 9/ITUTIONS 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! NEW REQUIREM5TS4 ,9 ! 
HI/ORY ( ! ANCI5T ,GREEK REPUBLICS1 & ESPECIALLY 9 ?AT ( ! 
M$IAEVAL COMMONWEAL?S1 WE F9D NUM]\S EXAMPLES ( ?IS /RUGGLE 7,FLOR5CE 
& ,PSKOV >E ESPECIALLY 9T]E/+ 9 ?IS CONNECTION74 ,9 ?IS S5SE1 
!RE=E1 ,JACOB9I/S & ,AN>*I/S HAVE EXI/$ AT ALL TIMES AMONG RE=M]S 
& REVOLUTIONI/S4 

,9 PA/ AGES !RE W]E EV5 GREAT POPUL> MOVEM5TS ( ?IS LATT] 
7,AN>*I/7 *>ACT]4 ,MANY ?\S&S ( PEOPLE !N ROSE AGA9/ AU?ORITY--ITS 
TOOLS1 ITS C\RTS & ITS LAWS--& PROCLAIM$ ! SUPREME RI<TS ( MAN4 
,DISC>D+ ALL WRITT5 LAWS1 ! PROMOT]S ( !SE MOVEM5TS 5DEAVOR$ TO 
E/ABLI% A NEW SOCIETY BAS$ ON EQUALITY & LABOR & ON ! GOV]NM5T ( EA* 
BY HIS [N CONSCI5CE4 ,9 ! ,*RI/IAN MOVEM5T AGA9/ ,ROMAN LAW1 ,ROMAN 
GOV]NM5T1 & ,ROMAN MORALITY 7OR1 RA!R1 ,ROMAN IMMORALITY71 :I* BEGAN 9 
,JUDEA 9 ! REIGN ( ,AUGU/US1 !RE UND\BT$LY EXI/$ MU* ?AT WAS 
ESS5TIALLY ,AN>*I/IC4 ,ONLY BY DEGREES IT DEG5]AT$ 9TO AN ECCLESIA/ICAL 
MOVEM5T1 MODEL$ UPON ! ANCI5T ,HEBREW *UR* & UPON ,IMP]IAL ,ROME ITSELF1 
:I* KILL$ ! ,AN>*I/IC G]M1 ASSUM$ ,ROMAN GOV]NM5TAL =MS1 & BECAME 
9 TIME ! *IEF BULW>K ( GOV]NM5T AU?ORITY1 SLAV]Y1 & OPPRESSION4 

,LIKEWISE1 9 ! ,ANABAPTI/ MOVEM5T 7:I* REALLY LAID ! F\NDATION = ! 
,RE=MATION7 !RE WAS A CONSID]ABLE ELEM5T ( ,AN>*ISM4 ,BUT1 /IFL$ AS IT 
WAS BY ?OSE ( ! RE=M]S :O1 UND] ,LU!R'S LEAD]%IP1 JO9$ ! PR9CES 
AGA9/ ! REVOLT+ PEASANTS1 IT DI$ \T AFT] :OLESALE MASSACRES ( ! 
PEASANTS HAD BE5 C>RI$ \T 9 ,HOLL& & ,G]MANY4 ,!REUPON ! MOD]ATE 
RE=M]S DEG5]AT$ BY DEGREES 9TO ?OSE COMPROMIS]S BETWE5 CONSCI5CE & 
GOV]NM5T :O EXI/ TO-DAY UND] ! NAME ( ,PROTE/ANTS4 

,AN>*ISM1 CONSEQU5TLY1 [ES ITS ORIG9 TO ! CON/RUCTIVE1 CREATIVE 
ACTIVITY ( ! PEOPLE1 BY :I* ALL 9/ITUTIONS ( COMMUNAL LIFE W]E DEVELOP$ 
9 ! PA/1 & TO A PROTE/--A REVOLT AGA9/ ! EXT]NAL =CE :I* HAD 
?RU/ ITSELF UPON !SE 9/ITUTIONS2 ! AIM ( ?IS PROTE/ BE+ TO GIVE NEW 
SCOPE TO ! CREATIVE ACTIVITY ( ! PEOPLE1 9 ORD] ?AT IT MI<T WORK \T ! 
NECESS>Y 9/ITUTIONS ) FRE% VIGOR4 

,9 \R [N TIME ,AN>*ISM >OSE FROM ! SAME CRITICAL & REVOLUTION>Y 
PROTE/ ?AT CALL$ =? ,SOCIALISM 9 G5]AL4 ,ONLY ?AT SOME ( ! 
SOCIALI/S1 HAV+ REA*$ ! NEGATION ( ,CAPITAL & ( \R SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 
BAS$ UPON ! EXPLOITATION ( LABOR1 W5T NO FUR!R4 ,!Y DID NOT D5\NCE 
:AT1 9 \R OP9ION1 CON/ITUTES ! *IEF BULW>K ( ,CAPITAL2 NAMELY1 
,GOV]NM5T & ITS *IEF SUPPORTS3 C5TRALIZATION1 LAW 7ALWAYS WRITT5 BY A 
M9ORITY 9 ! 9T]E/ ( ?AT M9ORITY71 & ,C\RTS ( JU/ICE 7E/ABLI%$ 
MA9LY = ! DEF5SE ( ,AU?ORITY & ,CAPITAL74 

,AN>*ISM DOES NOT EXCLUDE !SE 9/ITUTIONS FROM ITS CRITICISM4 ,IT ATTACKS 
NOT ONLY ,CAPITAL1 BUT ALSO ! MA9 S\RCES ( ! P[] ( ,CAPITALISM4 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

O ,*APT] #b 

,PHOTO BY C>NAG5YC1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C ,LIC5SE ,BUT1 ?\< ,AN>*ISM1 LIKE ALL O!R REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS1 WAS BORN AMONG 
! PEOPLE--9 ! /RUGGLES ( REAL LIFE1 & NOT 9 ! PHILOSOPH]'S 
/UDIO1--IT IS NONE ! LESS IMPORTANT TO KN[ :AT PLACE IT OCCUPIES AMONG ! 
V>I\S SCI5TIFIC & PHILOSOPHIC /REAMS ( ?\<T N[ PREVAL5T3 :AT IS ITS 
RELATION TO !M2 UPON :I* ( !M PR9CIPALLY DOES IT RE/2 :AT ME?OD IT 
EMPLOYS 9 ITS RESE>*ES---9 O!R WORDS1 TO :I* S*OOL ( PHILOSOPHY ( LAW 
IT BELONGS1 & TO :I* ( ! N[ EXI/+ T5D5CIES 9 SCI5CE IT HAS ! 
GREATE/ AFF9ITY4 

,WE HAVE HE>D ( LATE SO MU* AB\T ECONOMIC METAPHYSICS ?AT ?IS QUE/ION 
NATURALLY PRES5TS A C]TA9 9T]E/2 & ,I %ALL 5DEAVOR TO ANSW] IT AS 
PLA9LY AS POSSIBLE1 AVOID+ DIFFICULT PHRASEOLOGY :]EV] IT CAN BE AVOID$4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,! 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T ( \R [N TIMES ORIG9AT$ 9 ! WRIT+S ( ! 
,SCOT* & ! ,FR5* PHILOSOPH]S ( ! MIDDLE & 5D ( ! EI<TE5? 
C5TURY4 ,! UNIV]SAL AWAK5+ ( ?\<T :I* BEGAN AT ?AT TIME /IMULAT$ 
!SE ?9K]S TO DESIRE TO EMBODY ALL HUMAN KN[L$GE 9 ONE G5]AL SY/EM4 ,CA/+ ASIDE M$IAEVAL S*OLA/ICISM & METAPHYSICS1 TILL 
!N SUPREME1 !Y DECID$ TO LOOK UPON ! :OLE ( ,NATURE--! WORLD ( 
! />S1 ! LIFE ( ! SOL> SY/EM & ( \R PLANET1 ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! 
ANIMAL WORLD & ( HUMAN SOCIETIES--AS UPON PH5OM5A OP5 TO SCI5TIFIC 
9VE/IGATION & CON/ITUT+ SO MANY BRAN*ES ( NATURAL SCI5CE4 

,FREELY AVAIL+ !MSELVES ( ! TRULY SCI5TFIC1 9DUCTIVE-D$UCTIVE 
ME?OD !Y APPROA*$ ! /UDY ( EV]Y GR\P ( PH5OM5A--:E!R ( ! 
/>RY REALM1 ( ! ANIMAL WORLD1 OR ( ! WORLD ( HUMAN BELIEFS & 
9/ITUTIONS--JU/ AS ! NATURALI/ APPROA*ES ! /UDY ( ANY PHYSICAL 
PROBLEM4 ,!Y C>EFULLY 9VE/IGAT$ ! PH5OM5A1 & ATTA9$ !IR 
G5]ALIZATIONS BY MEANS ( 9DUCTION4 ,D$UCTION HELP$ !M 9 FRAM+ C]TA9 
HYPO!SES2 BUT !SE !Y CONSID]$ AS NO MORE F9AL ?AN1 = 9/ANCE ,D>W9 
REG>D$ HIS HYPO!SIS CONC]N+ ! ORIG9 ( NEW SPECIES BY MEANS ( ! 
/RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1 OR ,M5DELEEFF HIS 0P]IODIC LAW40 ,!Y SAW 
9 !SE 
HYPO!SES SUPPOSITIONS ?AT W]E V]Y CONV5I5T = ! CLASSIFICATION ( FACTS 
& !IR FUR!R /UDY1 BUT :I* W]E SUBJECT TO V]IFICATION BY 9DUCTIVE 
MEANS1 & :I* W\LD BECOME LAWS--?AT IS1 V]IFI$ G5]ALIZATIONS--ONLY AFT] 
!Y HAVE /OOD ?IS TE/1 & AFT] AN EXPLANATION ( CAUSE & EFFECT HAD BE5 
GIV54.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,:5 ! C5T] ( ! PHILOSOPHIC MOVEM5T HAD %IFT$ FROM ,SCOTL& & 
,5GL& TO ,FRANCE1 ! ,FR5* PHILOSOPH]S1 ) !IR NATURAL S5SE ( H>MONY1 
BETOOK !MSELVES TO A SY/EMATIC REBUILD+ ( ALL ! HUMAN SCI5CES--! 
NATURAL & ! HUMANIT>IAN SCI5CES--ON ! SAME PR9CIPLES4 ,FROM ?IS 
RESULT$ !IR ATTEMPT TO CON/RUCT A G5]ALIZATION ( ALL KN[L$GE1 ?AT IS1 A 
PHILOSOPHY ( ! :OLE WORLD & ALL ITS LIFE4 ,TO ?IS !Y 5DEAVOR$ TO GIVE 
A H>MONI\S1 SCI5TIFIC =M4 DISC>D+ ALL METAPHYSICAL CON/RUCTIONS & 
EXPLA9+ ALL PH5OM5A BY ! ACTION ( ! SAME ME*ANICAL =CES :I* HAD 
PROV$ ADEQUATE TO ! EXPLANATION ( ! ORIG9 & ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! 
E>?4 

,IT IS SAID ?AT1 9 ANSW] TO ,NAPOLEON'S REM>K TO ,LAPLACE ?AT 9 HIS 0,SY/EM 
( ! ,WORLD0 ,GOD WAS NO:]E M5TION$1 ,LAPLACE REPLI$1 0,I HAD NO NE$ ( ?IS 
HYPO!SIS40 ,BUT ,LAPLACE NOT ONLY SUCCE$$ 9 WRIT+ HIS WORK )\T ?IS 
SUPPOSITION3 HE NO:]E 9 ?IS WORK RESORT$ TO METAPHYSICAL 5TITIES2 TO WORDS 
:I* CONCEAL A V]Y VAGUE UND]/&+ ( PH5OM5A & ! 9ABILITY TO 
REPRES5T !M 9 CONCRETE MAT]IAL =MS--9 T]MS ( MEASURABLE QUANTITIES4 ,HE 
CON/RUCT$ ?IS SY/EM )\T METAPHYSICS4 ,& AL?\< 9 HIS 0,SY/EM ( ! 
,WORLD0 !RE >E NO MA!MATICAL CALCULATIONS1 & IT IS WRITT5 9 SO SIMPLE A 
/YLE AS TO BE ACCESSIBLE TO EV]Y 9TELLIG5T READ]1 YET ! MA!MATICIANS 
W]E ABLE SUBSEQU5TLY TO EXPRESS EV]Y SEP>ATE ?\<T ( ?IS BOOK 9 ! =M 
( AN EXACT MA!MATICAL EQUATION---9 T]MS1 ?AT IS1 ( MEASURABLE QUANTITIES4 
,SO RIGOR\SLY DID ,LAPLACE REASON & SO LUCIDLY DID HE EXPRESS HIMSELF4 

,! ,FR5* EI<TE5?-C5TURY PHILOSOPH]S DID EXACTLY ! SAME ) REG>D TO 
! PH5OM5A ( ! SPIRITUAL WORLD4 ,9 !IR WRIT+S ONE NEV] MEETS ) 
SU* METAPHYSICAL /ATEM5TS AS >E F\ND1 SAY1 9 ,KANT4 ,KANT1 AS IS WELL KN[N1 
EXPLA9$ ! MORAL S5SE ( MAN BY A 0CATEGORICAL IMP]ATIVE0 :I* MI<T AT ! 
SAME TIME BE CONSID]$ DESIRABLE AS A UNIV]SAL LAW4 #a ,BUT 9 ?IS DICTUM EV]Y 
WORD 70IMP]ATIVE10 0CATEGORICAL10 0LAW10 0UNIV]SAL07 IS A VAGUE V]BAL 
SUB/ITUTE = ! MAT]IAL FACT :I* IS TO BE EXPLA9$4 ,! ,FR5* 
5CYCLOPA$I/S1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 5DEAVOR$ TO EXPLA91 JU/ AS !IR 
,5GLI% PR$ECESSORS HAD DONE1 :5CE CAME ! IDEAS ( GOOD & EVIL TO MAN1 
)\T SUB/ITUT+ 0A WORD = ! MISS+ CONCEPTION10 AS ,GOE! PUT IT4 ,!Y 
TOOK ! LIV+ MAN AS HE IS4 ,!Y /UDI$ HIM & F\ND1 AS DID ,HUT*ESON 79 
#a#g#b#e7 &1 AFT] HIM1 ,ADAM ,SMI? 9 HIS BE/ WORK1 0,! ,!ORY ( ,MORAL 
,S5TIM5TS10--?AT ! MORAL S5TIM5TS HAVE DEVELOP$ 9 MAN FROM ! FEEL+ ( 
PITY 7SYMPA?Y71 ?R\< HIS ABILITY TO PUT HIMSELF 9 ANO!R'S PLACE2 FROM ! 
FACT ?AT WE ALMO/ FEEL PA9 & GR[ 9DIGNANT :5 A *ILD IS BEAT5 9 \R 
PRES5CE4 ,FROM SIMPLE OBS]VATIONS ( COMMON FACTS LIKE !SE1 !Y GRADUALLY 
ATTA9$ TO ! BROADE/ G5]ALIZATIONS4 ,9 ?IS MANN] !Y ACTUALLY DID 
EXPLA9 ! COMPLEX MORAL S5SE BY FACTS MORE SIMPLE1 & DID NOT SUB/ITUTE = 
MORAL FACTS WELL KN[N TO & UND]/OOD BY US1 OBSCURE T]MS LIKE 0! 
CATEGORICAL IMP]ATIVE10 OR 0UNIV]SAL LAW10 :I* DO NOT EXPLA9 ANY?+4 ,! 
M]IT ( SU* A TREATM5T IS SELF-EVID5T4 ,9/EAD ( ! 09SPIRATION FROM 
ABOVE 0 & A SUP]HUMAN1 MIRACUL\S ORIG9 ( ! MORAL S5SE1 !Y DEALT ) 
! FEEL+ ( PITY1 ( SYMPA?Y--D]IV$ BY MAN ?R\< EXP]I5CE & 
9H]ITANCE1 & SUBSEQU5TLY P]FECT$ BY FUR!R OBS]VATION ( SOCIAL LIFE4 

,:5 ! ?9K]S ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY TURN$ FROM ! REALM ( />S & 
PHYSICAL PH5OM5A TO ! WORLD ( *EMICAL *ANGES1 OR FROM PHYSICS & 
*EMI/RY TO ! /UDY ( PLANTS & ANIMALS1 OR FROM BOTANY & ZOOLOGY TO ! 
DEVELOPM5T ( ECONOMICAL & POLITICAL =MS ( SOCIAL LIFE & TO RELIGIONS 
AMONG M51---!Y NEV] ?\<T ( *ANG+ !IR ME?OD ( 9VE/IGATION4 ,TO 
ALL BRAN*ES ( KN[L$GE !Y APPLI$ ?AT SAME 9DUCTIVE ME?OD4 ,& NO:]E1 
NOT EV5 9 ! DOMA9 ( MORAL CONCEPTS1 DID !Y COME UPON ANY PO9T :]E ?IS 
ME?OD PROV$ 9ADEQUATE4 ,EV5 9 ! SPH]E ( MORAL CONCEPTS !Y FELT NO NE$ 
( RESORT+ AGA9 EI!R TO METAPHYSICAL SUPPOSITIONS 70,GOD10 0IMMORTAL S\L10 
0VITAL =CE10 0A CATEGORICAL IMP]ATIVE0 DECRE$ FROM ABOVE1 & ! LIKE71 OR 
( EX*ANG+ ! 9DUCTIVE ME?OD = SOME O!R1 S*OLA/IC ME?OD4 ,!Y ?US 
5DEAVOR$ TO EXPLA9 ! :OLE WORLD --ALL ITS PH5OM5A --9 ! 
SAME NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC WAY4 ,! 5CYCLOPA$I/S COMPIL$ !IR MONUM5TAL 
5CYCLOPA$IA1 ,LAPLACE WROTE HIS 0,SY/EM ( ! ,WORLD10 & ,HOLBA* 0,! 
,SY/EM ( ,NATURE20 ,LAVOISI] BR\<T =W>D ! !ORY ( ! 9DE/RUCTIBILITY 
( MATT]1 & !RE=E ALSO ( 5]GY OR MOTION 7,LOMONOS(F WAS AT ! 
SAME TIME \TL9+ ! ME*ANICAL !ORY ( HEAT#b 72 ,LAM>CK UND]TOOK TO EXPLA9 ! =MATION ( NEW 
SPECIES ?R\< ! ACCUMULATION ( V>IATIONS DUE TO 5VIRONM5T2 ,DID]OT WAS 
FURNI%+ AN EXPLANATION ( MORALITY1 CU/OMS1 & RELIGIONS REQUIR+ NO 
9SPIRATION FROM )\T2 ,R\SSEAU WAS ATTEMPT+ TO EXPLA9 ! ORIG9 ( 
POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS BY MEANS ( A SOCIAL CONTRACT--?AT IS1 AN ACT ( MAN'S 
FREE WILL4444 ,9 %ORT1 !RE WAS NO BRAN* ( SCI5CE :I* ! ?9K]S ( ! 
EI<TE5? C5TURY HAD NOT BEGUN TO TREAT ON ! BASIS ( MAT]IAL PH5OM5A--& 
ALL BY ?AT SAME 9DUCTIVE ME?OD4 

,( C\RSE1 SOME PALPABLE BLUND]S W]E MADE 9 ?IS D>+ ATTEMPT4 ,:]E 
KN[L$GE WAS LACK+1 HYPO!SES--(T5 V]Y BOLD1 BUT SOMETIMES 5TIRELY 
]RONE\S--W]E PUT =?4 ,BUT A NEW ME?OD WAS BE+ APPLI$ TO ! DEVELOPM5T 
( ALL BRAN*ES ( SCI5CE1 &1 ?ANKS TO IT1 !SE V]Y MI/AKES W]E 
SUBSEQU5TLY READILY DETECT$ & PO9T$ \T4 ,& AT ! SAME TIME A MEANS ( 
9VE/IGATION WAS H&$ D[N TO \R N9ETE5? C5TURY :I* HAS 5ABL$ US TO 
BUILD UP \R 5TIRE CONCEPTION ( ! WORLD UPON SCI5TIFIC BASES1 HAV+ FRE$ 
IT ALIKE FROM ! SUP]/ITIONS BEQUEA!D TO US & FROM ! HABIT ( DISPOS+ 
( SCI5TIFIC QUE/IONS BY RESORT+ TO M]E V]BIAGE4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,H[EV]1 AFT] ! DEFEAT ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 A G5]AL REACTION SET 
9--9 POLITICS1 9 SCI5CE & 9 PHILOSOPHY4 ,( C\RSE ! FUNDAM5TAL 
PR9CIPLES ( ! GREAT ,REVOLUTION DID NOT DIE \T4 ,! EMANCIPATION ( ! 
PEASANTS & T[NSPEOPLE1 FROM FEUDAL S]VITUDE1 EQUALITY BE=E ! LAW1 & 
REPRES5TATIVE 7CON/ITUTIONAL7 GOV]NM5T1 PROCLAIM$ BY ! ,REVOLUTION1 SL[LY 
GA9$ GR\ND 9 & \T ( ,FRANCE4 ,AFT] ! ,REVOLUTION1 :I* HAD 
PROCLAIM$ ! GREAT PR9CIPLES ( LIB]TY1 EQUALITY1 & FRAT]NITY1 A SL[ 
EVOLUTION BEGAN--?AT IS1 A GRADUAL REORGANIZATION :I* 9TRODUC$ 9TO 
LIFE & LAW ! PR9CIPLES M>K$ \T1 BUT ONLY P>TLY REALIZ$1 BY ! 
,REVOLUTION4 7,SU* A REALIZATION ?R\< EVOLUTION ( PR9CIPLES PROCLAIM$ BY ! 
PREC$+ REVOLUTION1 MAY EV5 BE REG>D$ AS A G5]AL LAW ( SOCIAL 
DEVELOPM5T74 ,AL?\< ! ,*UR*1 ! ,/ATE1 & EV5 ,SCI5CE TRAMPL$ ON ! 
BANN] UPON :I* ! ,REVOLUTION HAD 9SCRIB$ ! WORDS 0,LIB]TY1 ,EQUALITY1 & 
,FRAT]NITY02 AL?\< TO BE RECONCIL$ TO ! EXI/+ /ATE ( ?+S BECAME = 
A TIME A UNIV]SAL WAT*-WORD2 /ILL ! PR9CIPLES ( FRE$OM W]E SL[LY 
5T]+-- 9TO ! AFFAIRS ( LIFE4 ,IT IS TRUE ?AT ! FEUDAL OBLIGATIONS 
ABOLI%$ BY ! REPUBLICAN >MIES ( ,ITALY & ,SPA9 W]E AGA9 RE/OR$ 9 
!SE C\NTRIES1 & ?AT EV5 ! 9QUISITION ITSELF WAS REVIV$4 ,BUT A MORTAL 
BL[ HAD ALREADY BE5 DEALT !M--& !IR DOOM WAS SEAL$4 ,! WAVE ( 
EMANCIPATION FROM ! FEUDAL YOKE REA*$1 FIR/1 ,WE/]N1 & !N ,EA/]N 
,G]MANY1 & SPREAD OV] ! P59SULAS4 ,SL[LY MOV+ EA/W>D1 IT REA*$ 
,PRUSSIA 9 #a#h#d#h1 ,RUSSIA 9 #a#h#f#a1 & ! ,BALKANS 9 #a#h#g#h4 ,SLAV]Y DISAPPE>$ 9 
,AM]ICA 9 #a#h#f#c4 ,AT ! SAME TIME ! IDEAS ( ! EQUALITY ( ALL CITIZ5S 
BE=E ! LAW1 & ( REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T W]E ALSO SPREAD+ FROM WE/ TO 
EA/1 & BY ! 5D ( ! C5TURY ,RUSSIA ALONE REMA9$ UND] ! YOKE ( 
AUTOCRACY1 ALREADY MU* IMPAIR$4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,ON ! O!R H&1 ON ! ?RE%OLD ( ! 
N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ! IDEAS ( ECONOMIC EMANCIPATION HAD ALREADY BE5 
PROCLAIM$4 ,9 ,5GL&1 ,GODW9 PUBLI%$ 9 #agic HIS REM>KABLE WORK1 0,AN 
,9QUIRY 9TO ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE10 9 :I* HE WAS ! FIR/ TO E/ABLI% ! 
!ORY ( NON-GOV]NM5TAL SOCIALISM1 ?AT IS1 ,AN>*ISM2 & ,BABEUF--ESPECIALLY 
9FLU5C$1 AS IT SEEMS1 BY ,BUON>OTTI--CAME =W>D 9 #agif AS ! FIR/ 
!ORI/ ( C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE-SOCIALISM4 

,!N1 DEVELOP+ ! PR9CIPLES ALREADY LAID D[N 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 
,F\RI]1 ,SA9T-,SIMON1 & ,ROB]T ,[5 CAME =W>D AS ! ?REE F\ND]S ( 
MOD]N SOCIALISM 9 ITS ?REE *IEF S*OOLS2 & 9 ! =TIES ,PR\DHON1 
UNACQUA9T$ ) ! WORK ( ,GODW91 LAID D[N ANEW ! BASES ( ,AN>*ISM4 

,! SCI5TIFIC F\NDATIONS ( BO? GOV]NM5TAL & NON-GOV]NM5TAL SOCIALISM 
W]E ?US LAID D[N AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY ) A 
?OR\<NESS :OLLY UNAPPRECIAT$ BY \R CONTEMPOR>IES4 ,ONLY 9 TWO RESPECTS1 
D\BTLESS V]Y IMPORTANT ONES1 HAS MOD]N SOCIALISM MAT]IALLY ADVANC$4 ,IT HAS 
BECOME REVOLUTION>Y1 & HAS SEV]$ ALL CONNECTION ) ! ,*RI/IAN RELIGION4 
 ,IT REALIZ$ ?AT = ! ATTA9M5T ( ITS IDEALS A ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION IS 
NECESS>Y--NOT 9 ! S5SE 9 :I* PEOPLE SOMETIMES SPEAK ( AN 09DU/RIAL 
REVOLUTION0 OR ( 0A REVOLUTION 9 SCI5CE10 BUT 9 ! REAL1 MAT]IAL 
S5SE ( ! WORD 0,REVOLUTION0 -- 9 ! S5SE ( RAPIDLY *ANG+ ! FUNDAM5TAL 
PR9CIPLES ( PRES5T SOCIETY BY MEANS :I*1 9 ! USUAL RUN ( EV5TS1 >E 
CONSID]$ ILLEGAL4 ,& IT CEAS$ TO CONFUSE ITS VIEWS ) ! OPTIMI/ 
RE=M+ T5D5CIES ( ! ,*RI/IAN RELIGION4 ,BUT ?IS LATT] /EP HAD ALREADY 
BE5 TAK5 BY ,GODW9 & ,R4 ,[54 ,AS REG>DS ! ADMIRATION ( C5TRALIZ$ 
AU?ORITY & ! PREA*+ ( DISCIPL9E1 = :I* MAN IS HI/ORICALLY 
9DEBT$ *IEFLY TO ! M$IAEVAL *UR* & TO *UR* RULE G5]ALLY -- !SE 
SURVIVALS HAVE BE5 RETA9$ AMONG ! MASS ( ! ,/ATE SOCIALI/S1 :O HAVE 
?US FAIL$ TO RISE TO ! LEVEL ( !IR TWO ,5GLI% =]UNN]S4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,( ! 9FLU5CE :I* ! REACTION ?AT SET 
9 AFT] ! ,GREAT ,REVOLUTION HAS HAD UPON ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! SCI5CES1 IT 
W\LD BE DIFFICULT TO SPEAK 9 ?IS ESSAY4#c ,SUFFICE IT TO SAY1 ?AT BY F> ! GREAT] P>T ( :AT 
MOD]N SCI5CE PRIDES ITSELF ON WAS ALREADY M>K$ \T1 & MORE ?AN M>K$ 
\T--SOMETIMES EV5 EXPRESS$ 9 A DEF9ITE SCI5TIFIC =M--AT ! 5D ( ! 
EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,! ME*ANICAL !ORY ( HEAT & ! 9DE/RUCTIBILITY ( 
MOTION 7! CONS]VATION ( 5]GY72 ! MODIFICATION ( SPECIES BY ! ACTION ( 
5VIRONM5T2 PHYSIOLOGICAL PSY*OLOGY2 ! AN?ROPOLOGICAL VIEW ( HI/ORY1 
RELIGION1 & LEGISLATION2 ! LAWS ( DEVELOPM5T ( ?\<T--9 %ORT1 ! 
:OLE ME*ANICAL CONCEPTION ( ! WORLD & ALL ! ELEM5TS ( A SYN!TIC 
PHILOSOPHY 7A PHILOSOPHY :I* EMBRACES ALL PHYSICAL1 *EMICAL LIV+ & SOCIAL 
PH5OM5A71--W]E ALREADY \TL9$ & P>TLY =MULAT$ 9 ! PREC$+ 
C5TURY4 

,BUT1 [N+ TO ! REACTION :I* SET 91 !SE DISCOV]IES W]E KEPT 9 ! 
BACKGR\ND DUR+ A FULL HALF-C5TURY4 ,M5 ( SCI5CE SUPPRESS$ !M OR ELSE 
DECL>$ !M 0UNSCI5TIFIC40  ,UND] ! PRETEXT ( 0/UDY+ FACTS0 & 
0GA!R+ SCI5TIFIC MAT]IAL10 EV5 SU* EXACT MEASUREM5TS AS ! 
DET]M9ATION ( ! ME*ANICAL P[] NECESS>Y = OBTA9+ A GIV5 AM\NT ( 
HEAT 7! DET]M9ATION BY ,SEGU9 & ,J\LE ( ! ME*ANICAL EQUIVAL5T ( 
HEAT7 W]E SET ASIDE BY ! SCI5TI/S4 ,! ,5GLI% ,ROYAL ,SOCIETY EV5 DECL9$ 
TO PUBLI% ! RESULTS ( ,J\LE'S 9VE/IGATIONS 9TO ?IS SUBJECT ON ! GR\ND 
?AT !Y W]E 0UNSCI5TIFIC40 ,& ! EXCELL5T WORK ( ,GROVE UPON ! UNITY ( 
PHYSICAL =CES1 WRITT5 9 #a#h#d#c1 REMA9$ UP TO #ahef 9 COMPLETE OBSCURITY4 ,ONLY 
ON CONSULT+ ! HI/ORY ( ! EXACT SCI5CES CAN ONE FULLY UND]/& ! 
=CES ( REACTION :I* !N SWEPT OV] ,EUROPE4 

,! CURTA9 WAS SUDD5LY R5T AT ! 5D ( ! FIFTIES1 :5 ?AT LIB]AL1 
9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T BEGAN 9 ,WE/]N ,EUROPE :I* L$ 9 ,RUSSIA TO ! 
ABOLITION ( S]FDOM1 & DEPOS$ ,S*ELL+ & ,HEGEL 9 PHILOSOPHY1 :ILE 9 
LIFE IT CALL$ =? ! BOLD NEGATION ( 9TELLECTUAL SLAV]Y & SUBMISSION TO 
HABIT & AU?ORITY1 :I* IS KN[N UND] ! NAME ( ,NIHILISM4 

,IT IS 9T]E/+ TO NOTE 9 ?IS CONNECTION ! EXT5T TO :I* ! SOCIALI/ 
TEA*+S ( ! ?IRTIES & =TIES1 & ALSO ! REVOLUTION ( #a#h#d#h1 HAVE 
HELP$ SCI5CE TO ?R[ (F ! FETT]S PLAC$ UPON IT BY ! PO/-REVOLUTION>Y 
REACTION4 ,)\T 5T]+ H]E 9TO DETAIL1 IT IS SUFFICI5T TO SAY ?AT ! 
ABOVE-M5TION$ ,SEGU9 & ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RY 7! HI/ORIAN :O LAID ! 
F\NDATIONS = ! /UDY ( ! FOLKMOTE REGIME & ( F$]ALISM7 W]E 
,SA9T-,SIMONI/S1 ?AT ,D>W9'S FELL[-WORK]1 ,A4 ,R4 ,WALLACE1 WAS 9 HIS Y\NG] 
DAYS AN 5?USIA/IC FOLL[] ( ,ROB]T ,[52 ?AT ,AUGU/E ,COMTE WAS A 
,SA9T-,SIMONI/1 & ,RIC>DO & ,B5?AM W]E ,[5I/S2 & ?AT ! MAT]IALI/S 
,*>LES ,VOGT & ,GEORGE ,LEWIS1 AS WELL AS ,GROVE1 ,MILL1 ,SP5C]1 & MANY O!RS1 
HAD LIV$ UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! RADICAL SOCIALI/IC MOVEM5T ( ! ?IRTIES 
& =TIES4 ,IT WAS TO ?IS V]Y 9FLU5CE ?AT !Y [$ !IR SCI5TIFIC 
BOLDNESS4 

,! SIMULTANE\S APPE>ANCE ( ! WORKS ( ,GROVE1 ,J\LE1 ,B]?OLLET & 
,HELMHOLTZ2 ( ,D>W91 ,CLAUDE ,B]N>D1 ,MOLES*OTT & ,VOGT2 ( ,LYELL1 ,BA91 ,MILL 
& ,BURN\F --ALL 9 ! BRIEF SPACE ( FIVE OR SIX YE>S 7#a#h#e#f-#a#h#f#b71--RADICALLY 
*ANG$ ! MO/ FUNDAM5TAL VIEWS ( SCI5CE4 ,SCI5CE SUDD5LY />T$ UPON A 
NEW PA?4 ,5TIRELY NEW FIELDS ( 9VE/IGATION W]E OP5$ ) AMAZ+ 
RAPIDITY4 ,! SCI5CE ( LIFE 7,BIOLOGY71 ( HUMAN 9/ITUTIONS 7,AN?ROPOLOGY71 
( REASON1 WILL & EMOTIONS 7,PSY*OLOGY71 ( ! HI/ORY ( RI<TS & 
RELIGIONS1 & SO ON--GREW UP UND] \R V]Y EYES1 /AGG]+ ! M9D ) ! 
BOLDNESS ( !IR G5]ALIZATIONS & ! AUDACITY ( !IR D$UCTIONS4 ,:AT 9 
! PREC$+ C5TURY WAS ONLY AN +5I\S GUESS1 N[ CAME =? PROV$ BY ! 
SCALES & ! MICROSCOPE1 V]IFI$ BY ?\S&S ( APPLICATIONS4 ,! V]Y 
MANN] ( WRIT+ *ANG$1 & SCI5CE RETURN$ TO ! CLE>NESS1 ! PRECISION1 
& ! BEAUTY ( EXPOSITION :I* >E PECULI> TO ! 9DUCTIVE ME?OD & :I* 
*>ACT]IZ$ ?OSE ( ! ?9K]S ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY :O HAD BROK5 AWAY 
FROM METAPHYSICS4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,TO PR$ICT :AT DIRECTION SCI5CE WILL TAKE 9 ITS FUR!R DEVELOPM5T IS1 
EVID5TLY1 IMPOSSIBLE4 ,AS LONG AS M5 ( SCI5CE DEP5D UPON ! RI* & ! 
GOV]NM5TS1 SO LONG WILL !Y ( NECESSITY REMA9 SUBJECT TO 9FLU5CE FROM ?IS 
QU>T]2 & ?IS1 ( C\RSE1 CAN AGA9 >RE/ = A TIME ! DEVELOPM5T ( 
SCI5CE4 ,BUT ONE ?+ IS C]TA93 9 ! =M ?AT SCI5CE IS N[ ASSUM+ 
!RE IS NO LONG] ANY NE$ ( ! HYPO!SIS :I* ,LAPLACE CONSID]$ USELESS1 
OR ( ! METAPHYSICAL 0WORDS0 :I* ,GOE! RIDICUL$4 ,! BOOK ( NATURE1 ! 
BOOK ( ORGANIC LIFE1 & ?AT ( HUMAN DEVELOPM5T1 CAN ALREADY BE READ )\T 
RESORT+ TO ! P[] ( A CREATOR1 A MY/ICAL 0VITAL =CE10 AN IMMORTAL S\L1 
,HEGEL'S TRILOGY1 OR ! 5D[M5T ( AB/RACT SYMBOLS ) REAL LIFE4 ,ME*ANICAL 
PH5OM5A1 9 !IR EV]-9CREAS+ COMPLEXITY1 SUFFICE = ! EXPLANATION ( 
NATURE & ! :OLE ( ORGANIC & SOCIAL LIFE4 

,!RE IS MU*1 V]Y MU*1 9 ! WORLD ?AT IS /ILL UNKN[N TO US--MU* ?AT 
IS D>K & 9COMPREH5SIBLE2 & ( SU* UNEXPLA9$ GAPS NEW ONES WILL ALWAYS 
BE DISCLOS$ AS SOON AS ! OLD ONES HAVE BE5 FILL$ UP4 ,BUT WE DO NOT KN[ (1 
& DO NOT SEE ! POSSIBILITY ( DISCOV]+1 ANY DOMA9 9 :I* ! PH5OM5A 
OBS]V$ 9 ! FALL ( A /ONE1 OR 9 ! IMPACT ( TWO BILLI>D BALLS1 OR 9 A 
*EMICAL REACTION--?AT IS1 ME*ANICAL PH5OM5A--%\LD PROVE 9ADEQUATE TO ! 
NECESS>Y EXPLANATIONS4 

,FOOTNOTES 

 #a 

,KANT'S V]SION ( ! E?ICAL MAXIM1 0,DO TO O!RS AS Y\ 
W\LD HAVE !M DO TO Y\10 READS3 0,ACT ONLY ON ?AT MAXIM :]EBY ?\ CAN/ AT 
! SAME TIME WILL ?AT IT %\LD BECOME A UNIV]SAL LAW40--,TRANSLATOR4 

#b,READ]S ( ,RUSSIAN LIT]ATURE TO :OM 
,LOMONOS(F IS KN[N ONLY BY HIS LIT]>Y WORK1 MAY BE SURPRIS$ AS MU* AS 
,I WAS TO F9D HIS NAME M5TION$ 9 CONNECTION ) ! !ORY ( HEAT4 ,ON 
SEE+ ! NAME 9 ! ORIG9AL1 ,I PROMPTLY CONSULT$ ! LIBR>Y--SO SURE WAS ,I 
?AT ,I WAS CONFRONT$ ) A TYPOGRAPHICAL ]ROR4 ,!RE WAS NO MI/AKE1 H[EV]4 
 ,=1 ,MIKHAIL ,VASSILIEVI* ,LOMONOS(F 7#a#g#a#b-#a#g#f#e71 BY F> ! MO/ BROADLY 
SIFT$ ,RUSSIAN ( HIS TIME1 WAS--,I HAVE ?US BE5 L$ TO DISCOV]--EV5 MORE 
>D5TLY DEVOT$ TO SCI5CE ?AN TO ! MUSES4 ,HIS ACCOMPLI%M5TS 9 ! 
PHYSICAL SCI5CES ALONE1 9 :I* HE EXP]IM5T$ & UPON :I* HE WROTE & 
LECTUR$ EXT5SIVELY1 W\LD HAVE WON = HIM LA/+ FAME 9 ! HI/ORY ( 
,RUSSIAN CULTURE & FIR/ M5TION AMONG ITS DEVOTEES4-- ,TRANSLATOR4 

#b,SOME?+ 9 ?IS L9E IS SET =? 9 MY LECTURE 
0,ON ! ,SCI5TIFIC ,DEVELOPM5T 9 ! ,X,I,X ,C5TURY40 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

O ,*APT] #c 

,PHOTO BY ,$51 ,JAN9E & ,JIM1,C,C ,B,Y ,LIC5SE ,IT WAS NATURAL ?AT1 AS SOON AS SCI5CE HAD ATTA9$ SU* G5]ALIZATIONS1 ! 
NE$ ( A SYN!TIC PHILOSOPHY %\LD BE FELT2 A PHILOSOPHY :I*1 NO 
LONG] DISCUSS+ 0! ESS5CE ( ?+S10 FIR/ CAUSES10 ! 0 AIM ( LIFE10 & 
SIMIL> SYMBOLIC EXPRESSIONS1 & REPUDIAT+ ALL SORTS ( AN?ROPOMORPHISM 7! 
5D[M5T ( NATURAL PH5OM5A ) HUMAN *>ACT]I/ICS71 %\LD BE A DIGE/ 
& UNIFICATION ( ALL \R KN[L$GE2 A PHILOSOPHY :I*1 PROCE$+ FROM ! 
SIMPLE TO ! COMPLEX1 W\LD FURNI% A KEY TO ! UND]/&+ ( ALL NATURE1 9 
ITS 5TIRETY1 &1 ?R\< ?AT1 9DICATE TO US ! L9ES ( FUR!R RESE>* & 
! MEANS ( DISCOV]+ NEW1 YET UNKN[N1 CORRELATIONS 7SO-CALL$ LAWS71 :ILE 
AT ! SAME TIME IT W\LD 9SPIRE US ) CONFID5CE 9 ! CORRECTNESS ( \R 
CONCLUSIONS1 H[EV] MU* !Y MAY DIFF] FROM CURR5T SUP]/ITIONS4 

,SU* ATTEMPTS AT A CON/RUCTIVE SYN!TIC PHILOSOPHY W]E MADE SEV]AL TIMES 
DUR+ ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ! *IEF ( !M BE+ ?OSE ( ,AUGU/E ,COMTE & 
( ,H]B]T ,SP5C]4 ,ON !SE TWO WE %ALL HAVE TO DWELL4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,! NE$ ( SU* A PHILOSOPHY AS ?IS WAS ADMITT$ ALREADY 9 ! EI<TE5? 
C5TURY-BY ! PHILOSOPH] & ECONOMI/ ,TURGOT &1 SUBSEQU5TLY1 EV5 MORE 
CLE>LY BY ,SA9T-,SIMON4 ,AS HAS BE5 /AT$ ABOVE1 ! 5CYCLOPA$I/S1 & 
LIKEWISE ,VOLTAIRE 9 HIS 0,PHILOSOPHICAL ,DICTION>Y10 HAD ALREADY BEGUN TO 
CON/RUCT IT4 ,9 A MORE RIGOR\S1 SCI5TIFIC =M :I* W\LD SATISFY ! 
REQUIREM5TS ( ! EXACT SCI5CES1 IT WAS N[ UND]TAK5 BY ,AUGU/E ,COMTE4 

,IT IS WELL KN[N ?AT ,COMTE ACQUITT$ HIMSELF V]Y ABLY ( HIS TASK SO F> AS 
! EXACT SCI5CES W]E CONC]N$4 ,HE WAS QUITE RI<T 9 9CLUD+ ! SCI5CE 
( LIFE 7,BIOLOGY7 & ?AT ( HUMAN SOCIETIES 7,SOCIOLOGY7 9 ! CIRCLE ( 
SCI5CES COMPASS$ BY HIS POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY2 & HIS PHILOSOPHY HAS HAD A 
GREAT 9FLU5CE UPON ALL SCI5TI/S & PHILOSOPH]S ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 

,BUT :Y WAS IT ?AT ?IS GREAT PHILOSOPH] PROV$ SO WEAK ! MOM5T HE TOOK 
UP1 9 HIS 0,POSITIVE ,POLITICS10 ! /UDY ( SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1 ESPECIALLY 
?OSE ( MOD]N TIMES8 ,?IS IS ! QUE/ION :I* MO/ ADMIR]S ( ,COMTE HAVE 
ASK$ !MSELVES4 ,H[ C\LD SU* A BROAD & /RONG M9D COME TO ! RELIGION 
:I* ,COMTE PREA*$ 9 ! CLOS+ YE>S ( HIS LIFE8 ,LITTRE & ,MILL1 IT 
IS WELL KN[N1 REFUS$ EV5 TO RECOGNIZE ,COMTE'S 0,POLITICS0 AS P>T ( HIS 
PHILOSOPHY2 !Y CONSID]$ IT ! PRODUCT ( A WEAK5$ M9D2 :ILE O!RS 
UTT]LY FAIL$ 9 !IR 5DEAVORS TO DISCOV] A UNITY ( ME?OD 9 ! TWO 
WORKS4#a 

,& YET ! CONTRADICTION BETWE5 ! TWO P>TS ( ,COMTE'S PHILOSOPHY IS 9 
! HI<E/ DEGREE *>ACT]I/IC & ?R[S A BRI<T LI<T UPON ! PROBLEMS ( 
\R [N TIME4 

,:5 ,COMTE HAD F9I%$ HIS 0,C\RSE ( ,POSITIVE ,PHILOSOPHY10 HE UND\BT$LY 
MU/ HAVE P]CEIV$ ?AT HE HAD NOT YET T\*$ UPON ! MO/ IMPORTANT 
PO9T--NAMELY1 ! ORIG9 9 MAN ( ! MORAL PR9CIPLE & ! 9FLU5CE 
( ?IS PR9CIPLE UPON HUMAN LIFE4 ,HE WAS B\ND TO ACC\NT = ! ORIG9 ( 
?IS PR9CIPLE1 TO EXPLA9 IT BY ! SAME PH5OM5A BY :I* HE HAD EXPLA9$ 
LIFE 9 G5]AL1 & TO %[ :Y MAN FEELS ! NECESSITY ( OBEY+ HIS MORAL 
S5SE1 OR1 AT LEA/1 ( RECKON+ ) IT4 ,BUT = ?IS HE WAS LACK+ 9 
KN[L$GE 7AT ! TIME HE WROTE ?IS WAS QUITE NATURAL7 AS WELL AS 9 BOLDNESS4 
,SO1 9 LIEU ( ! ,GOD ( ALL RELIGIONS1 :OM MAN MU/ WOR%IP & TO :OM HE 
MU/ APPEAL 9 ORD] TO BE VIRTU\S1 HE PLAC$ ,HUMANITY1 WRIT L>GE4 ,TO 
?IS NEW IDOL HE ORD]$ US TO PRAY ?AT WE MI<T DEVELOP 9 \RSELVES ! MORAL 
CONCEPT4 ,BUT ONCE ?IS /EP HAD BE5 TAK5--ONCE IT WAS F\ND NECESS>Y TO PAY 
HOMAGE TO SOME?+ /&+ \TSIDE ( & HI<] ?AN ! 9DIVIDUAL 9 ORD] 
TO RETA9 MAN ON ! MORAL PA?--ALL ! RE/ FOLL[$ NATURALLY4 ,EV5 ! 
RITUALISM ( ,COMTE'S RELIGION MOLD$ ITSELF V]Y NATURALLY UPON ! MODEL ( 
ALL ! PREC$+ POSITIVE RELIGIONS4 

,ONCE ,COMTE W\LD NOT ADMIT ?AT EV]Y?+ ?AT IS MORAL 9 MAN GREW \T ( 
OBS]VATION ( NATURE & FROM ! V]Y CONDITIONS ( M5 LIV+ 9 
SOCIETIES1--?IS /EP WAS NECESS>Y4 ,HE DID NOT SEE ?AT ! MORAL S5TIM5T 9 
MAN IS AS DEEPLY ROOT$ AS ALL ! RE/ ( HIS PHYSICAL CON/ITUTION 9H]IT$ BY 
HIM FROM HIS SL[ EVOLUTION2 ?AT ! MORAL CONCEPT 9 MAN HAD MADE ITS FIR/ 
APPE>ANCE 9 ! ANIMAL SOCIETIES :I* EXI/$ LONG BE=E MAN HAD APPE>$ 
UPON E>?2 & ?AT1 CONSEQU5TLY1 :ATEV] MAY BE ! 9CL9ATIONS ( SEP>ATE 
9DIVIDUALS1 ?IS CONCEPT MU/ P]SI/ 9 MANK9D AS LONG AS ! HUMAN SPECIES 
DOES NOT BEG9 TO DET]IORATE1---! ANTI-MORAL ACTIVITY ( SEP>ATE M5 
9EVITABLY CALL+ =? A C\NT]-ACTIVITY ON ! P>T ( ?OSE :O 
SURR\ND !M1 JU/ AS ACTION CAUSES REACTION 9 ! PHYSICAL WORLD4 ,COMTE DID 
NOT UND]/& ?IS1 & !RE=E HE WAS COMPELL$ TO 9V5T A NEW 
IDOL--,HUMANITY--9 ORD] ?AT IT %\LD CON/ANTLY RECALL MAN TO ! MORAL PA?4 

,LIKE ,SA9T-,SIMON1 ,F\RI]1 & ALMO/ ALL HIS O!R CONTEMPOR>IES1 ,COMTE ?US 
PAID HIS TRIBUTE TO ! ,*RI/IAN $UCATION HE HAD RECEIV$4 ,)\T A /RUGGLE 
( ! EVIL PR9CIPLES ) ! GOOD--9 :I* ! TWO %\LD BE EQUALLY 
MAT*$--& )\T MAN'S APPLICATION 9 PRAY] TO ! GOOD PR9CIPLE & ITS 
APO/LES ON E>? = MA9TA9+ HIM 9 ! VIRTU\S PA?1 ,*RI/IANTY CANNOT BE 
CONCEIV$4 ,& ,COMTE1 DOM9AT$ FROM *ILDHOOD BY ?IS ,*RI/IAN IDEA1 REV]T$ 
TO IT AS SOON AS HE F\ND HIMSELF FACE TO FACE ) ! QUE/ION ( MORALITY & 
! MEANS ( =TIFY+ IT 9 ! HE>T ( MAN4 

 ,FOOTNOTES 

 #a 
,NONE ?AT KN[ ! AU?OR'S FAIRNESS ( M9D WILL BE LIKELY TO ACCUSE HIM ( 
P>TIALITY 9 ! SCA?+ CRITICISM HE H]E MAKES ( ! ,APO/LE ( ,POSITIVISM4  
,LE/ ANY READ] BE 9CL9$ TO DO SO1 H[EV]1 IT MAY NOT BE AMISS TO CITE ON 
?IS PO9T ! OP9ION ( A CRITIC UNQUE/IONABLY CONS]VATIVE &1 PRESUMABLY1 
IMP>TIAL--AN OP9ION ,I CAME UPON BY M]E *ANCE :ILE 5GAG$ ON ?IS 
TRANSLATION4 ,SCATT]$ ?R\< PAGES #ef TO #efc ( ,FALCK5B]G'S 0,HI/ORY ( 
,MOD]N ,PHILOSOPHY0 7,H5RY ,HOLT @& ,CO41 ,NEW ,YORK1 #a#h#i#c71 ,I F9D ! FOLL[+ 
E/IMATE ( ,COMTE & HIS UNEV5 WORK3 0,! EXTRAORD9>Y *>ACT] ( :I* 
.<,COMTE'S PHILOSOPHY.> HAS GIV5 OCCASION TO HIS CRITICS TO MAKE A COMPLETE 
DI-VISION BETWE5 ! SECOND1 'SUBJECTIVE OR S5TIM5TAL1' P]IOD ( HIS 
?9K+1 9 :I* ! PHILOSOPH] IS SAID TO BE TRANS=M$ 9TO ! HI< PRIE/ 
( A NEW RELIGION1 & ! FIR/1 ! POSITIVI/IC P]IOD4444,B5EA? ! SURFACE 
( ! MO/ SOB] 9QUIRY MY/ICAL & DICTATORIAL T5D5CIES PULSATE 9 ,COMTE 
FROM ! BEG9N+4444,! HI/ORICAL 9FLU5CE EX]CIS$ BY ,COMTE ?R\< HIS 
LAT] WRIT+S IS EXTREMELY SMALL 9 COMP>ISON ) ?AT ( HIS *IEF 
WORK4444,COMTE'S S*OOL DIVID$ 9TO TWO GR\PS--! APO/ATES1 :O REJECT ! 
SUBJECTIVE PHASE & HOLD FA/ TO ! E>LI] DOCTR9E1 & ! 
FAI?FUL40--,TRANSLATOR4 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

O ,*APT] #d 

,PHOTO BY ,JULIE,FAI?1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,BUT IT MU/ NOT BE =GOTT5 ?AT ,COMTE WROTE HIS ,POSITIVI/ ,PHILOSOPHY LONG 
BE=E ! YE>S #a#h#e#f-#a#h#f#b1 :I*1 AS /AT$ ABOVE1 SUDD5LY WID5$ ! HORIZON 
( SCI5CE & ! WORLD-CONCEPT ( EV]Y $UCAT$ MAN4 

,! WORKS :I* APPE>$ 9 !SE FIVE OR SIX YE>S HAVE WR\<T SO COMPLETE A 
*ANGE 9 ! VIEWS ON NATURE1 ON LIFE 9 G5]AL1 & ON ! LIFE ( HUMAN 
SOCIETIES1 ?AT IT HAS NO P>ALLEL 9 ! :OLE HI/ORY ( SCI5CE = ! PA/ 
TWO ?\S& YE>S4 ,?AT :I* HAD BE5 BUT VAGUELY UND]/OOD--SOMETIMES ONLY 
GUESS$ AT BY ! 5CYCLOPA$I/S1 & ?AT :I* ! BE/ M9DS 9 ! FIR/ 
HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY HAD SO MU* DIFFICULTY 9 EXPLA9+1 APPE>$ N[ 
9 ! FULL >MOR ( SCI5CE2 & IT PRES5T$ ITSELF SO ?OR\<LY 
9VE/IGAT$ ?R\< ! 9DUCTIVE-D$UCTIVE ME?OD ?AT EV]Y O!R ME?OD WAS 
AT ONCE ADJUDG$ IMP]FECT1 FALSE &--UNNECESS>Y4 

,LET US1 !N1 DWELL A LITTLE LONG] UPON ! RESULTS OBTA9$ 9 !SE YE>S1 
?AT WE MAY BETT] APPRECIATE ! NEXT ATTEMPT AT A SYN!TIC PHILOSOPHY1 :I* 
WAS MADE BY ,H]B]T ,SP5C]4 

,GROVE1 ,CLAUSIUS1 ,HELMHOLTZ1 ,J\LE1 & A :OLE GR\P ( PHYSICI/S & 
A/RONOM]S1 AS ALSO ,KIR*H(F1 :O DISCOV]$ ! SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS & 
GAVE US ! MEANS ( DET]M9+ ! COMPOSITION ( ! MO/ DI/ANT 
/>S1--!SE1 9 RAPID SUCCESSION AT ! 5D ( ! FIFTIES1 PROV$ ! UNITY ( 
NATURE ?R\<\T ! 9ORGANIC WORLD4 ,TO TALK ( C]TA9 MY/]I\S1 
IMPOND]ABLE FLUIDS--CALORIFIC1 MAGNETIC1 ELECTRICAL--AT ONCE BECAME IMPOSSIBLE4  
,IT WAS %[N ?AT ! ME*ANICAL MOTION ( MOLECULES :I* TAKES PLACE 9 ! 
WAVES ( ! SEA OR 9 ! VIBRATIONS ( A BELL OR A TUN+ =K1 WAS ADEQUATE TO 
! EXPLANATION ( ALL ! PH5OM5A ( HEAT1 LI<T1 ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM2 
?AT WE CAN MEASURE !M & WEI< !IR 5]GY4 ,MORE ?AN ?IS3 ?AT 9 ! 
HEAV5LY BODIES MO/ REMOTE FROM US ! SAME VIBRATION ( MOLECULES TAKES PLACE1 
) ! SAME EFFECTS4 ,NAY1 ! MASS MOVEM5TS ( ! HEAV5LY BODIES 
!MSELVES1 :I* RUN ?R\< SPACE ACCORD+ TO ! LAWS ( UNIV]SAL 
GRAVITATION1 REPRES5T1 9 ALL LIKELIHOOD1 NO?+ ELSE ?AN ! RESULTANTS ( 
!SE VIBRATIONS ( LI<T & ELECTRICITY1 TRANSMITT$ = BILLIONS & TRILLIONS 
( MILES ?R\< 9T]/ELL> SPACE4 

,! SAME CALORIFIC & ELECTRICAL VIBRATIONS ( MOLECULES ( MATT] PROV$ 
ALSO ADEQUATE TO EXPLA9 ALL *EMICAL PH5OM5A4 ,& !N1 ! V]Y LIFE ( 
PLANTS & ANIMALS1 9 ITS 9F9ITELY V>I$ MANIFE/ATIONS1 HAS BE5 F\ND TO BE 
NO?+ ELSE ?AN A CONT9UALLY GO+ ON EX*ANGE ( MOLECULES 9 ?AT WIDE RANGE 
( V]Y COMPLEX1 & H5CE UN/ABLE & EASILY DECOMPOS$1 *EMICAL COMP\NDS 
FROM :I* >E BUILT ! TISSUES ( EV]Y LIV+ BE+4 

,!N1 ALREADY DUR+ ?OSE YE>S IT WAS UND]/OOD--& = ! PA/ T5 YE>S 
IT HAS BE5 /ILL MORE FIRMLY E/ABLI%$--?AT ! LIFE ( ! CELLS ( ! 
N]V\S SY/EM & !IR PROP]TY ( TRANSMITT+ VIBRATIONS FROM ONE TO ! 
O!R1 AF=D$ A ME*ANICAL EXPLANATION ( ! N]V\S LIFE ( ANIMALS4 ,[+ 
TO !SE 9VE/IGATIONS1 WE CAN N[ UND]/&1 )\T LEAV+ ! DOMA9 ( 
PURELY PHYSIOLOGICAL OBS]VATIONS1 H[ IMPRESSIONS & IMAGES >E PRODUC$ & 
RETA9$ 9 ! BRA91 H[ !IR MUTUAL EFFECTS RESULT 9 ! ASSOCIATION ( 
IDEAS 7EV]Y NEW IMPRESSION AWAK5+ IMPRESSIONS PREVI\SLY /OR$ UP71 & 
H5CE ALSO--9 ?\<T4 

,( C\RSE1 V]Y MU* /ILL REMA9S TO BE DONE & TO BE DISCOV]$ 9 ?IS 
VA/ DOMA92 SCI5CE1 SC>CELY FRE$ YET FROM ! METAPHYSICS :I* SO LONG 
HAMP]$ IT1 IS ONLY N[ BEG9N+ TO EXPLORE ! WIDE FIELD ( PHYSICAL 
PSY*OLOGY4 ,BUT ! />T HAS ALREADY BE5 MADE1 & A SOLID F\NDATION IS LAID 
= FUR!R LABORS4 ,! OLD-FA%ION$ CLASSIFICATION ( PH5OM5A 9TO TWO 
SETS1 :I* ! ,G]MAN PHILOSOPH] ,KANT 5DEAVOR$ TO E/ABLI%1--ONE CONC]N$ 
) 9VE/IGATIONS 09 TIME & SPACE0 7! WORLD ( PHYSICAL ,PH5OM5A7 & ! 
O!R 09 TIME ONLY0 7! WORLD ( SPIRITUAL PH5OM5A71--N[ FALLS ( ITSELF4  
,& TO ! QUE/ION ONCE ASK$ BY ! ,RUSSIAN PHYSIOLOGI/1 ,SET*5OV3 0,BY :OM 
& H[ %\LD PSY*OLOGY BE /UDI$80 SCI5CE HAS ALREADY GIV5 ! ANSW]3 0,BY 
PHYSIOLOGI/S1 & BY ! PHYSIOLOGICAL ME?OD40 ,&1 9DE$1 ! REC5T LABORS 
( ! PHYSIOLOGI/S HAVE ALREADY SUCCE$$ 9 %$D+ 9COMP>ABLY MORE LI<T 
?AN ALL ! 9TRICATE DISCUSSIONS ( ! METAPHYSICI/S1 UPON ! ME*ANISM 
( ?\<T2 ! AWAK5+ ( IMPRESSIONS1 !IR RET5TION & TRANSMISSION4 

,9 ?IS1 ITS *IEF /RON<OLD1 METAPHYSICS WAS ?US WOR/$4 ,! FIELD 9 
:I* IT CONSID]$ ITSELF 9V9CIBLE HAS N[ BE5 TAK5 POSSESSION ( BY NATURAL 
SCI5CE & MAT]IALI/ PHILOSOPHY1 & !SE TWO >E PROMOT+ ! GR[? ( 
KN[L$GE 9 ?IS DIRECTION FA/] ?AN C5TURIES ( METAPHYSICAL SPECULATION 
HAVE DONE4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,9 !SE SAME YE>S ANO!R IMPORTANT /EP WAS MADE4 ,D>W9'S BOOK ON 0,! 
,ORIG9 ( ,SPECIES0 APPE>$ & ECLIPS$ ALL ! RE/4 

,ALREADY 9 ! LA/ C5TURY ,BUFFON 7APP>5TLY EV5 ,L9NAEUS71 & ON ! 
?RE%OLD ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY ,LAM>CK1 HAD V5TUR$ TO MA9TA9 ?AT ! 
EXI/+ SPECIES ( PLANTS & ANIMALS >E NOT FIX$ =MS2 ?AT !Y >E 
V>IABLE & V>Y CONT9UALLY EV5 N[4 ,! V]Y FACT ( FAMILY LIK5ESS :I* 
EXI/S BETWE5 GR\PS ( =MS--,LAM>CK PO9T$ \T--IS A PRO( ( !IR COMMON 
DESC5T FROM A COMMON ANCE/RY4 ,?US1 = EXAMPLE1 ! V>I\S =MS ( MEAD[ 
BUTT]CUPS1 WAT] BUTT]CUPS1 & ALL O!R BUTT]CUPS :I* WE SEE ON \R 
MEAD[S & SWAMPS1 MU/ HAVE BE5 PRODUC$ BY ! ACTION ( 5VIRONM5T UPON 
DESC5DANTS FROM ONE COMMON TYPE ( ANCE/ORS4 ,LIKEWISE1 ! PRES5T SPECIES ( 
WOLVES1 DOGS1 JACKALS & FOXES DID NOT EXI/ 9 A REMOTE PA/1 BUT !RE WAS 9 
!IR /EAD ONE K9D ( ANIMALS \T ( :I*1 UND] V>I\S CONDITIONS1 ! 
WOLVES1 ! DOGS1 ! JACKALS & ! FOXES HAVE GRADUALLY EVOLV$4 

,BUT 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY SU* H]ESIES AS !SE HAD TO BE UTT]$ ) 
GREAT CIRCUMSPECTION4 ,! ,*UR* WAS /ILL V]Y P[]FUL !N1 & = SU* 
H]ETICAL VIEWS ! NATURALI/ HAD TO RECKON ) PRISON1 TORTURE1 OR ! 
LUNATIC'S ASYLUM4 ,! 0H]ETICS0 CONSEQU5TLY W]E CAUTI\S 9 !IR 
EXPRESSIONS4 ,N[1 H[EV]1 ,D>W9 & ,A4 ,R4 ,WALLACE C\LD BOLDLY MA9TA9 SO 
GREAT A H]ESY4 ,D>W9 EV5 V5TUR$ TO DECL>E ?AT MAN1 TOO1 HAD ORIG9AT$1 
9 ! SAME WAY ( SL[ PHYSIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION1 FROM SOME L[] =MS ( 
APE-LIKE ANIMALS2 ?AT HIS 0IMMORTAL SPIRIT0 & HIS 0MORAL S\L0 >E AS MU* A 
PRODUCT ( EVOLUTION AS ! M9D & ! MORAL HABITS ( ! ANT OR ( ! 
*IMPANZEE4 

,WE KN[ :AT /ORMS !N BROKE \T UPON ,D>W9 &1 ESPECIALLY1 UPON HIS BOLD 
& GIFT$ DISCIPLE1 ,HUXLEY1 :O %>PLY EMPHASIZ$ JU/ ?OSE CONCLUSIONS FROM 
,D>W9'S WORK :I* W]E MO/ DREAD$ BY ! CL]GY4 ,IT WAS A FI]CE BATTLE1 
BUT1 [+ TO ! SUPPORT ( ! MASSES ( ! PUBLIC1 ! VICTORY WAS WON1 
NEV]!LESS1 BY ! ,D>W9IANS2 & ! RESULT WAS ?AT AN 5TIRELY NEW & 
EXTREMELY IMPORTANT SCI5CE--,BIOLOGY1 ! SCI5CE ( LIFE 9 ALL ITS 
MANIFE/ATIONS--HAS GR[N UP UND] \R V]Y EYES DUR+ ! LA/ =TY YE>S4 

,AT ! SAME TIME ,D>W9'S WORK FURNI%$ A NEW KEY TO ! UND]/&+ ( ALL 
SORTS ( PH5OM5A--PHYSICAL1 VITALS & SOCIAL4 ,IT OP5$ UP A NEW ROAD = 
!IR 9VE/IGATION4 ,! IDEA ( A CONT9U\S DEVELOPM5T 7EVOLUTION7 & ( A 
CONT9UAL ADAPTATION TO *ANG+ 5VIRONM5T1 F\ND A MU* WID] APPLICATION ?AN 
! ORIG9 ( SPECIES4 ,IT WAS APPLI$ TO ! /UDY ( ALL NATURE1 AS WELL AS TO 
M5 & !IR SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1 & IT DISCLOS$ 9 !SE BRAN*ES 5TIRELY 
UNKN[N HORIZONS1 GIV+ EXPLANATIONS ( FACTS :I* HI!RTO HAD SEEM$ QUITE 
9EXPLICABLE4 

,[+ TO ! IMPULSE GIV5 BY ,D>W9'S WORK TO ALL NATURAL SCI5CES1 ,BIOLOGY 
WAS CREAT$1 :I*1 9 ,H]B]T ,SP5C]'S H&S1 SOON EXPLA9$ TO US H[ ! 
C\NTLESS =MS ( LIV+ BE+S 9HABIT+ ! E>? MAY HAVE DEVELOP$1 & 
5ABL$ ,HAECKEL TO MAKE ! FIR/ ATTEMPT AT =MULAT+ A G5EALOGY ( ALL 
ANIMALS1 MAN 9CLUD$4 ,9 ! SAME WAY A SOLID F\NDATION = ! HI/ORY ( ! 
DEVELOPM5T ( MAN'S CU/OMS1 MANN]S1 BELIEFS & 9/ITUTIONS WAS LAID D[N--A 
HI/ORY ! WANT ( :I* WAS /RONGLY FELT BY ! EI<TE5? C5TURY 
PHILOSOPH]S & BY ,AUGU/E ,COMTE4 ,AT ! PRES5T TIME ?IS HI/ORY CAN BE 
WRITT5 )\T RESORT+ TO EI!R ! =MULAE ( ,HEGELEAN METAPYSICS OR TO 
09NATE IDEAS0 & 09SPIRATION FROM )\T0--)\T ANY ( ?OSE DEAD 
=MULAE BEH9D :I*1 CONCEAL$ BYWORDS AS BY CL\DS1 WAS ALWAYS HIDD5 ! 
SAME ANCI5T IGNORANCE & ! SAME SUP]/ITION4 ,[+1 ON ! ONE H&1 TO ! 
LABORS ( ! NATURALI/S1 &1 ON ! O!R1 TO ?OSE ( ,H5RY ,MA9E & HIS 
FOLL[]S1 :O APPLI$ ! SAME 9DUCTIVE ME?OD TO ! /UDY ( PRIMITIVE 
CU/OMS & LAWS ?AT HAVE GR[N \T ( !M1 IT BECAME POSSIBLE 9 REC5T YE>S 
TO PLACE ! HI/ORY ( ! ORIG9 & DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN 9/ITUTIONS UPON AS 
FIRM A BASIS AS ?AT ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( ANY =M ( PLANTS OR ANIMALS4 

,IT W\LD1 ( C\RSE1 BE EXTREMELY UNFAIR TO =GET ! 5ORM\S WORK ?AT WAS 
DONE E>LI]--ALREADY 9 ! ?IRTIES--T[>DS ! WORK+ \T ( ! HI/ORY ( 
9/ITUTIONS BY ! S*OOL ( ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RY 9 ,FRANCE1 BY ?AT ( ,MAUR] & 
! 0,G]MANI/S0 9 ,G]MANY1 & 9 ,RUSSIA1 SOME:AT LAT]1 BY ,KO/OM>OV1 
,BELYAEV & O!RS4 ,9 FACT1 ! PR9CIPLE ( EVOLUTION HAD BE5 APPLI$ TO ! 
/UDY ( MANN]S & 9/ITUTIONS1 & ALSO TO LANGUAGES1 FROM ! TIME ( ! 
5CYCLOPA$I/S4 ,BUT TO OBTA9 CORRECT1 SCI5TIFIC D$UCTIONS FROM 
ALL ?IS MASS ( WORK BECAME POSSIBLE ONLY :5 ! SCI5TI/S C\LD LOOK UPON 
! E/ABLI%$ FACTS 9 ! SAME WAY AS ! NATURALI/ REG>DS ! CONT9U\S 
DEVELOPM5T ( ! ORGANS ( A PLANT OR ( A NEW SPECIES4 

,! METAPHYSICAL =MULAE HAVE HELP$1 9 !IR TIME1 TO MAKE C]TA9 
APPROXIMATE G5]ALIZATIONS4 ,ESPECIALLY DID !Y /IMULATE ! SLUMB]+ 
?\<T1 DI/URB+ IT BY !IR VAGUE H9TS AS TO ! UNITY ( LIFE 9 NATURE4  
,AT A TIME :5 ! 9DUCTIVE G5]ALIZATIONS ( ! 5CYCLOPA$I/S & !IR 
,5GLI% PR$ECESSORS W]E ALMO/ =GOTT5 79 ! FIR/ HALF ( ! N9ETE5? 
C5TURY71 & :5 IT REQUIR$ SOME CIVIC C\RAGE TO SPEAK ( ! UNITY ( 
PHYSICAL & SPIRITUAL NATURE--! OBSCURE METAPHYSICS /ILL UPHELD ! T5D5CY 
T[>D G5]ALIZATION4 ,BUT ?OSE G5]ALIZATIONS W]E E/ABLI%$ EI!R BY 
MEANS ( ! DIALECTIC ME?OD OR BY MEANS ( A SEMI-CONSCI\S 9DUCTION1 &1 
!RE=E1 W]E ALWAYS *>ACT]IZ$ BY A HOPELESS 9DEF9IT5ESS4 ,! =M] 
K9D ( G5]ALIZATIONS WAS D$UC$ BY MEANS ( REALLY FALLACI\S 
SYLLOGISMS--SIMIL> TO ?OSE BY :I* 9 ANCI5T TIMES C]TA9 ,GREEKS US$ TO 
PROVE ?AT ! PLANETS MU/ MOVE 9 CIRCLES 0BECAUSE ! CIRCLE IS ! 
MO/ P]FECT CURVE20 & ! MEAG]NESS ( ! PREMISES W\LD !N BE CONCEAL$ 
BY MI/Y WORDS1 &1 WORSE /ILL1 BY AN OBSCURE & CLUMSY EXPOSITION4 ,AS TO ! 
SEMI-CONSCI\S 9DUCTIONS :I* W]E MADE H]E & !RE1 !Y W]E BAS$ UPON A 
V]Y LIMIT$ CIRCLE ( OBS]VATIONS--SIMIL> TO ! BROAD BUT UNW>RANT$ 
G5]ALIZATION ( ,WEISSMANN1 :I* HAVE REC5TLY CREAT$ SOME S5SATION4 ,!N1 
AS ! 9DUCTION WAS UNCONSCI\S ! G5]ALIZATIONS W]E PUT =? 9 ! %APE 
( H>D & FA/ LAWS1 :ILE 9 REALITY !Y W]E BUT SIMPLE 
SUPPOSITIONS--HYPO!SES1 OR BEG9N+S ONLY ( G5]ALIZATIONS1 :I*1 F> FROM 
BE+ 0LAWS10 REQUIR$ YET ! V]Y FIR/ V]IFICATION BY OBS]VATION4 ,F9ALLY1 
ALL !SE BROAD D$UCTIONS1 EXPRESS$ AS !Y W]E 9 MO/ AB/RACT =MS--AS1 = 
9/ANCE1 ! ,HEGELEAN 0!SIS1 ANTI!SIS1 & SYN!SIS10--LEFT FULL PLAY = 
! 9DIVIDUAL TO COME TO ! MO/ V>I$ & (T5 OPPOSITE PRACTICAL 
CONCLUSIONS2 SO ?AT !Y C\LD GIVE BIR?1 = 9/ANCE1 TO ,BAKUN9'S 
REVOLUTION>Y 5?USIASM & TO ! ,DRESD5 ,REVOLUTION1 TO ! REVOLUTION>Y 
,JACOB9ISM ( ,M>X & TO ! RECOGNITION ( ! 0REASONABL5ESS ( :AT 
EXI/S10 :I* RECONCIL$ SO MANY ,G]MANS TO ! REACTION !N EXI/+--TO SAY 
NO?+ ( ! REC5T VAG>IES ( ! SO-CALL$ ,RUSSIAN ,M>XI/S4 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

O ,*APT] #e 

,PHOTO BY ,MI*ELLE ,BRUTON1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,S9CE ,AN?ROPOLOGY--! HI/ORY ( MAN'S PHYSIOLOGICAL DEVELOPM5T 
& ( HIS RELIGI\S1 POLITICAL IDEALS1 & ECONOMIC 9/ITUTIONS--CAME 
TO BE /UDI$ EXACTLY AS ALL O!R NATURAL SCI5CES >E /UDI$1 
IT WAS F\ND POSSIBLE1 NOT ONLY TO %$ A NEW LI<T UPON ?IS HI/ORY1 
BUT TO DIVE/ IT = EV] ( ! METAPHYSICS :I* HAD H9D]$ ?IS 
/UDY 9 EXACTLY ! SAME WAY AS ! ,BIBLICAL TEA*+S HAD H9D]$ ! 
/UDY ( ,GEOLOGY4 

,IT W\LD SEEM1 !RE=E1 ?AT :5 ! CON/RUCTION ( A SYN!TIC PHILOSOPHY 
WAS UND]TAK5 BY ,H]B]T ,SP5C]1 HE %\LD HAVE BE5 ABLE1 >M$ AS HE WAS ) 
ALL ! LATE/ CONQUE/S ( SCI5CE1 TO BUILD IT )\T FALL+ 9TO ! ]RORS 
MADE BY ,COMTE 9 HIS 0,POSITIVE ,POLITICS40 ,& YET ,SP5C]'S SYN!TIC 
PHILOSOPHY1 ?\< IT UND\BT$LY REPRES5TS AN 5ORM\S /EP 9 ADVANCE 
7COMPLETE AS IT IS )\T RELIGION & RELIGI\S RITES71 /ILL CONTA9S 9 ITS 
SOCIOLOGICAL P>T MI/AKES AS GROSS AS >E F\ND 9 ! =M] WORK4 

,! FACT IS ?AT1 HAV+ REA*$ 9 HIS ANALYSIS ! PSY*OLOGY ( SOCIETIES1 
,SP5C] DID NOT REMA9 TRUE TO HIS RIGOR\SLY SCI5TIFIC ME?OD1 & FAIL$ TO 
ACCEPT ALL ! CONCLUSIONS TO :I* IT HAD L$ HIM4 ,?US1 = EXAMPLE1 ,SP5C] 
ADMITS ?AT ! L& \<T NOT TO BECOME ! PROP]TY ( 9DIVIDUALS1 :O1 9 
CONSEQU5CE ( !IR RI<T TO RAISE R5TS1 W\LD H9D] O!RS FROM EXTRACT+ 
FROM ! SOIL ALL ?AT C\LD BE EXTRACT$ FROM IT UND] IMPROV$ ME?ODS ( 
CULTIVATION2 OR W\LD EV5 SIMPLY KEEP IT \T ( USE 9 ! EXPECTATION ?AT ITS 
M>KET PRICE WILL BE RAIS$ BY ! LABOR ( O!RS4 ,AN >RANGEM5T SU* AS ?IS 
HE CONSID]S 9EXP$I5T & FULL ( DANG]S = SOCIETY4 ,BUT1 :ILE ADMITT+ 
?IS 9 ! CASE ( L&1 HE DID NOT V5TURE TO EXT5D ?IS CONCLUSION TO ALL 
O!R =MS ( ACCUMULAT$ WEAL?--= EXAMPLE1 TO M9ES1 H>BORS1 & FACTORIES4 

,OR1 AGA91 :ILE PROTE/+ AGA9/ ! 9T]F]5CE ( GOV]NM5T 9 ! LIFE 
( SOCIETY1 & GIV+ TO ONE ( HIS BOOKS A TITLE :I* IS EQUIVAL5T TO A 
REVOLUTION>Y PROGRAM1 0,! ,9DIVIDUAL VS4 ,! ,/ATE10 HE1 LITTLE BY LITTLE1 
UND] ! PRETEXT ( ! DEF5SIVE ACTIVITY ( ! ,/ATE 9 ITS 
5TIRETY1--SU* AS IT IS TO-DAY1 ONLY SLI<TLY LIMIT+ ITS ATTRIBUTES4 

,!SE & O!R 9CONSI/5CIES >E PROBABLY ACC\NT$ = BY ! FACT ?AT 
! SOCIOLOGICAL P>T ( ,SP5C]'S PHILOSOPHY WAS =MULAT$ 9 HIS M9D 7UND] 
! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,5GLI% RADICAL MOVEM5T7 MU* E>LI] ?AN ITS 
NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC P>T--NAMELY1 BE=E #a#h#e#a1 :5 ! AN?ROPOLOGICAL 
9VE/IGATION ( HUMAN 9/ITUTIONS WAS /ILL 9 ITS RUDIM5T>Y /AGE4 ,9 
CONSEQU5CE ( ?IS1 ,SP5C]1 LIKE ,COMTE1 DID NOT TAKE UP ! 9VE/IGATION ( 
!SE 9/ITUTIONS BY !MSELVES1 )\T PRECONCEIV$ CONCLUSIONS4  
,MOREOV]1 AS SOON AS HE CAME 9 HIS WORK TO SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY--TO ,SOCIOLOGY--HE 
BEGAN TO MAKE USE ( A NEW ME?OD1 A MO/ UNRELIABLE ONE--! ME?OD ( 
ANALOGIES--:I* HE1 ( C\RSE1 NEV] RESORT$ TO 9 ! /UDY ( PHYSICAL 
PH5OM5A4 ,?IS NEW ME?OD P]MITT$ HIM TO JU/IFY A :OLE S]IES ( 
PRECONCEIV$ !ORIES4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 WE DO NOT POSSESS AS YET A PHILOSOPHY 
CON/RUCT$ 9 BO? ITS P>TS--NATURAL SCI5CES & SOCIOLOGY--) ! AID ( 
! SAME SCI5TIFIC ME?OD4 

,!N1 ,SP5C]1 IT MU/ ALSO BE ADD$1 IS ! MAN LEA/ SUIT$ = ! /UDY ( 
PRIMITIVE 9/ITUTIONS4 ,9 ?IS RESPECT HE IS DI/+UI%$ EV5 AMONG ! 
,5GLI%1 :O G5]ALLY DO NOT 5T] READILY 9TO =EIGN MODES ( LIFE & 
?\<T4 0,WE >E A PEOPLE ( ,ROMAN LAW1 & ! ,IRI% >E COMMON-LAW PEOPLE3 
!RE=E WE DO NOT UND]/& EA* O!R10 A V]Y 9TELLIG5T ,5GLI%MAN ONCE 
REM>K$ TO ME4 ,! HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI%M5'S RELATIONS ) ! 0L[] RACES0 
IS FULL ( LIKE MISUND]/&+S4 ,& WE SEE !M 9 ,SP5C]'S WRIT+S AT 
EV]Y /EP4 ,HE IS QUITE 9CAPABLE ( UND]/&+ ! CU/OMS & WAYS ( 
?9K+ ( ! SAVAGE1 ! 0BLOODY REV5GE0 ( ! ,ICEL&IC SAGA1 OR ! /ORMY 
LIFE1 FILL$ ) /RUGGLES1 ( ! M$IAEVAL CITIES4 ,! MORAL IDEAS ( 
!SE /AGES ( CIVILIZATION >E ABSOLUTELY /RANGE TO HIM2 & HE SEES 9 !M 
ONLY 0SAVAG]Y10 0DESPOTISM10 & 0CRUELTY40 

,F9ALLY--:AT IS /ILL MORE IMPORTANT--,SP5C]1 LIKE ,HUXLEY & MANY O!RS1 
UTT]LY MISUND]/OOD ! MEAN+ ( 0! /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE40 ,HE SAW 9 IT1 
NOT ONLY A /RUGGLE BETWE5 DIFF]5T SPECIES ( ANIMALS 7WOLVES DEV\R+ 
RABBITS1 BIRDS FE$+ ON 9SECTS1 ETC471 BUT ALSO A DESP]ATE /RUGGLE = FOOD1 
= LIV+-ROOM1 AMONG ! DIFF]5T MEMB]S )9 EV]Y SPECIES--A 
/RUGGLE :I*1 9 REALITY1 DOES NOT ASSUME ANY?+ LIKE ! PROPORTIONS HE 
IMAG9$4 

,H[ F> ,D>W9 HIMSELF WAS TO BLAME = ?IS MISUND]/&+ ( ! REAL 
MEAN+ ( ! /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1 WE CANNOT DISCUSS H]E4 ,BUT C]TA9 IT IS 
?AT :51 TWELVE YE>S AFT] 0,! ,ORIG9 ( ,SPECIES10 ,D>W9 PUBLI%$ HIS 
0,DESC5T ( ,MAN0 HE ALREADY UND]/OOD /RUGGLE = LIFE 9 A DIFF]5T S5SE4  
0,?OSE COMMUNITIES10 HE WROTE 9 ! LATT] WORK1 0:I* 9CLUD$ ! GREATE/ 
NUMB] ( ! MO/ SYMPA!TIC MEMB]S W\LD FL\RI% BE/ & RE> ! GREATE/ 
NUMB] ( (FSPR+40 ,! *APT] DEVOT$ BY ,D>W9 TO ?IS SUBJECT C\LD HAVE 
=M$ ! BASIS ( AN 5TIRELY DIFF]5T & MO/ :OLESOME VIEW ( NATURE & 
( ! DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN SOCIETIES 7! SIGNIFICANCE ( :I* ,GOE! HAD 
ALREADY =ESE574 ,BUT IT PASS$ UNNOTIC$4 ,ONLY 9 #ahgi DO WE F9D1 9 A 
LECTURE BY ! ,RUSSIAN ZOOLOGI/ ,KESSL]1 A CLE> UND]/&+ ( MUTUAL AID & 
! /RUGGLE = LIFE4 0,= ! PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPM5T ( A SPECIES10 
,KESSL] PO9T$ \T1 CIT+ SEV]AL EXAMPLES1 0! LAW ( MUTUAL AID IS ( 
F> GREAT] IMPORTANCE ?AN ! LAW ( MUTUAL /RUGGLE40 ,SOON AFT] ?IS ,L\IS 
,BU*N] PUBLI%$ HIS BOOK 0,LOVE10 9 :I* HE %[$ ! IMPORTANCE ( 
SYMPA?Y AMONG ANIMALS = ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORAL CONCEPTS2 BUT 9 
9TRODUC+ ! IDEA ( LOVE & SYMPA?Y 9/EAD ( SIMPLE SOCIABILITY1 HE 
NE$LESSLY LIMIT$ ! SPH]E ( HIS 9VE/IGATIONS4 

,TO PROVE & FUR!R TO DEVELOP ,KESSL]'S EXCELL5T IDEA1 EXT5D+ IT TO MAN1 
WAS AN EASY /EP4 ,IF WE TURN \R M9DS TO A CLOSE OBS]VATION ( NATURE & TO 
AN UNPREJUDIC$ HI/ORY ( HUMAN 9/ITUTIONS1 WE SOON DISCOV] ?AT ,MUTUAL ,AID 
REALLY APPE>S1 NOT ONLY AS ! MO/ P[]FUL WEAPON 9 ! /RUGGLE = 
EXI/5CE AGA9/ ! HO/ILE =CES ( NATURE & ALL O!R 5EMIES1 BUT ALSO AS 
! *IEF FACTOR ( PROGRESSIVE EVOLUTION4 ,TO ! WEAKE/ ANIMALS IT 
ASSURES LONGEVITY 7& H5CE AN ACCUMULATION ( M5TAL EXP]I5CE71 ! 
POSSIBILITY ( RE>+ ITS PROG5Y1 & 9TELLECTUAL PROGRESS4 ,& ?OSE ANIMAL 
SPECIES AMONG :I* ,MUTUAL ,AID IS PRACTIC$ MO/1 NOT ONLY SUCCE$ BE/ 9 
GETT+ !IR LIVELIHOOD1 BUT ALSO /& AT ! HEAD ( !IR RESPECTIVE CLASS 
7( 9SECTS1 BIRDS1 MAMMALS7 AS REG>DS ! SUP]IORITY ( !IR PHYSICAL & 
M5TAL DEVELOPM5T4 

,?IS FUNDAM5TAL FACT ( NATURE ,SP5C] DID NOT P]CEIVE4 ,! /RUGGLE = 
EXI/5CE )9 EV]Y SPECIES1 ! 0FREE FI<T0 = EV]Y MORSEL ( FOOD1 
,T5NYSON'S 0,NATURE1 R$ 9 TOO? & CLAW ) RAV9E0--HE ACCEPT$ AS A FACT 
REQUIR+ NO PRO(1 AS AN AXIOM4 ,ONLY 9 REC5T YE>S DID HE BEG9 9 SOME 
DEGREE TO UND]/& ! MEAN+ ( MUTUAL AID 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD1 & TO 
COLLECT NOTES & MAKE EXP]IM5TS 9 ?IS DIRECTION4 ,BUT EV5 !N HE /ILL 
?\<T ( PRIMITIVE MAN AS ( A BEA/ :O LIV$ ONLY BY SNAT*+1 ) TOO? 
& CLAW1 ! LA/ MORSEL ( FOOD FROM ! M\? ( HIS FELL[M54 

,( C\RSE1 HAV+ BAS$ ! SOCIOLOGICAL P>T ( HIS PHILOSOPHY ON SO FALSE A 
PREMISE1 ,SP5C] WAS NO LONG] ABLE TO BUILD UP ! SOCIOLOGICAL P>T ( HIS 
SYN!TIC PHILOSOPHY )\T FALL+ 9TO A S]IES ( ]RORS4 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

O ,*APT] #f 

,PHOTO BY DUNCAN C1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C ,LIC5SE ,9 !SE ]RONE\S VIEWS1 H[EV]1 ,SP5C] DOES NOT /& ALONE4 ,FOLL[+ 
,HOBBES1 ALL ! PHILOSOPHY ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY CONT9UES TO LOOK UPON ! 
SAVAGES AS UPON B&S ( WILD BEA/S :I* LIV$ AN ISOLAT$ LIFE & F\<T 
AMONG !MSELVES OV] FOOD & WIVES1 UNTIL SOME B5EVOL5T AU?ORITY APPE>$ 
AMONG !M & =C$ !M TO KEEP ! PEACE4 ,EV5 SU* A NATURALI/ AS ,HUXLEY 
ADVOCAT$ ! SAME VIEWS AS ,HOBBES1 :O MA9TA9$ ?AT 9 ! BEG9N+ PEOPLE 
LIV$ 9 A /ATE ( W>1 FI<T+ 0EA* AGA9/ ALL10#a TILL1 AT LA/1 [+ TO A 
FEW ADVANC$ P]SONS ( ! TIME1 ! 0FIR/ SOCIETY0 WAS CREAT$ 7SEE HIS 
>TICLE 0,! ,/RUGGLE = ,EXI/5CE--A ,LAW ( ,NATURE407 ,EV5 ,HUXLEY1 !RE=E1 
FAIL$ TO REALIZE ?AT IT WAS NOT ,MAN :O CREAT$ SOCIETY1 BUT ?AT SOCIAL LIFE 
EXI/$ AMONG ANIMALS MU* E>LI] ?AN ! ADV5T ( MAN4 ,SU* IS ! P[] ( 
DEEP-ROOT$ PREJUDICE4 

,W]E WE1 H[EV]1 TO TRACE ! HI/ORY ( ?IS PREJUDICE1 IT W\LD NOT BE 
DIFFICULT TO CONV9CE \RSELVES ?AT IT ORIG9AT$ *IEFLY 9 RELIGIONS & AMONG 
!IR REPRES5TATIVES4 ,! SECRET LEAGUES ( SORC]]S1 RA9-MAK]S1 & SO ON1 
AMONG PRIMITIVE CLANS1 & LAT] ON1 ! ,BABYLONIAN1 ,ASSYRIAN1 ,EGYPTIAN1 ,9DIAN1 
,HEBREW & O!R PRIE/HOODS1 & LAT] /ILL ! ,*RI/IAN PRIE/S1 HAVE ALWAYS 
BE5 5DEAVOR+ TO P]SUADE M5 ?AT !Y LAY DEEP 9 S91 & ?AT ONLY ! 
9T]CESSION ( ! %AMAN1 ! MAGICIAN1 & ! PRIE/ CAN KEEP ! EVIL SPIRIT 
FROM ASSUM+ CONTROL OV] MAN1 OR CAN PREVAIL ) A REV5GEFUL ,GOD NOT TO VISIT 
UPON MAN HIS RETRIBUTION = S94 ,PRIMITIVE ,*RI/IANITY1 IT IS TRUE1 FA9TLY 
ATTEMPT$ TO BREAK UP ?IS PREJUDICE2 BUT ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*1 ADH]+ TO ! 
V]Y LANGUAGE ( ! GOSPELS CONC]N+ 0ET]NAL FIRE0 & 0! WRA? ( ,GOD10 
9T5SIFI$ IT /ILL MORE4 ,! V]Y CONCEPTION ( A SON ( ,GOD :O HAD COME TO 
DIE = 0! R$EMPTION ( S910 S]V$ AS A BASIS = ?IS VIEW4 ,NO WOND] ?AT 
LAT] ON 0! ,HOLY ,9QUISITION0 SUBJECT$ PEOPLE TO ! MO/ CRUEL TORTURES & 
BURN$ !M SL[LY AT ! /AKE 9 ORD] TO AF=D !M AN OPPORTUNITY ( 
REP5T+ & ( SAV+ !MSELVES !REBY FROM ET]NAL TORM5T4 ,& NOT ! 
,CA?OLIC ,*UR* ALONE1 BUT ALL O!R ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*ES VI$ ) ONE ANO!R 9 
9VE/+ ALL K9DS ( TORTURES 9 ORD] TO BETT] PEOPLE 0/EEP$ 9 S940 ,UP 
TO ! PRES5T TIME1 N9E HUNDR$ & N9ETY-N9E P]SONS 9 A ?\S& /ILL 
BELIEVE ?AT NATURAL CALAMITIES--DR\<TS1 FLOODS1 E>?QUAKES1 & EPIDEMIC 
DISEASES-->E S5T BY A ,DIV9E ,BE+ = ! PURPOSE ( RECALL+ S9FUL MANK9D 
TO ! RI<T PA?4 ,9 ?IS BELIEF AN 5ORM\S MAJORITY ( \R *ILDR5 >E BE+ 
BR\<T UP TO ?IS V]Y DAY4 

,AT ! SAME TIME ! ,/ATE1 9 ITS S*OOLS & UNIV]SITIES1 C\NT5ANCES ! 
SAME BELIEF 9 ! 9NATE P]V]SITY ( MAN4 ,TO PROVE ! NECESSITY ( SOME 
P[] ?AT /&S ABOVE SOCIETY & 9CULCATES 9 IT ! MORAL PR9CIPLES 7) 
! AID ( PUNI%M5TS 9FLICT$ = VIOLATIONS ( 0MORAL LAW10 = :I*1 BY 
MEANS ( A CLEV] TRICK1 ! WRITT5 LAW IS EASILY SUB/ITUT$71--TO KEEP PEOPLE 
9 ?IS BELIEF IS A MATT] ( LIFE OR DEA? TO ! ,/ATE4 ,BECAUSE1 ! MOM5T 
PEOPLE COME TO D\BT ! NECESSITY & POSSIBILITY ( SU* AN 9OCULATION ( 
MORALITY1 !Y WILL BEG9 TO D\BT ! HI<] MISSION ( !IR RUL]S AS WELL4 

,9 ?IS WAY EV]Y?+--\R RELIGI\S1 \R HI/ORICAL1 \R LEGAL1 & \R 
SOCIAL $UCATION--IS IMBU$ ) ! IDEA ?AT MAN1 LEFT TO HIMSELF1 W\LD SOON 
TURN 9TO A BEA/4 ,IF IT W]E NOT = ! AU?ORITY EX]CIS$ OV] !M1 PEOPLE 
W\LD DEV\R ONE ANO!R2 NO?+ BUT BRUTALITY & W> ( EA* AGA9/ ALL CAN 
BE EXPECT$ FROM 0! MOB40 ,IT W\LD P]I%1 IF ! POLICEMAN1 ! %]IFF & 
! HANGMAN--! *OS5 FEW1 ! SALT ( ! E>?--DID NOT T[] ABOVE IT & 
9T]POSE TO PREV5T ! UNIV]SAL FREE-FI<T1 TO $UCATE ! PEOPLE TO RESPECT 
! SANCTITY ( LAW & DISCIPL9E1 & ) A WISE H& LEAD !M ONW>D TO 
?OSE TIMES :5 BETT] IDEAS %ALL F9D A NE/+ PLACE 9 ! 0UNC\? HE>TS 
( M50 & R5D] ! ROD1 ! PRISON1 & ! GALL[S LESS NECESS>Y ?AN !Y 
>E AT PRES5T4 

,WE LAU< AT A C]TA9 K+ :O1 ON GO+ 9TO EXILE 9 #a#h#d#h1 SAID3 0,MY POOR 
SUBJECTS2 N[ !Y WILL P]I% )\T ME60 ,WE SMILE AT ! ,5GLI% CL]K :O 
BELIEVES ?AT ! ,5GLI% >E ! LO/ TRIBE ( ,ISRAEL1 APPO9T$ BY ,GOD HIMSELF 
TO ADM9I/] GOOD GOV]NM5T TO 0ALL O!R1 L[] RACES40 ,BUT DOES NOT ! 
GREAT MAJORITY ( FAIRLY $UCAT$ PEOPLE AMONG ALL ! NATIONS 5T]TA9 ! SAME 
EXALT$ OP9ION ) REG>D TO ITSELF8.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,& YET1 A SCI5TIFIC /UDY ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN SOCIETY & 
9/ITUTIONS LEADS TO AN 5TIRELY DIFF]5T CONCLUSION4 ,IT %[S ?AT ! HABITS 
& CU/OMS = MUTUAL AID1 COMMON DEF5SE1 & ! PRES]VATION ( PEACE1 :I* 
W]E E/ABLI%$ S9CE ! V]Y FIR/ /AGES ( HUMAN PREHI/ORIC TIMES--& 
:I* ALONE MADE IT POSSIBLE = MAN1 UND] V]Y TRY+ NATURAL CONDITIONS1 TO 
SURVIVE 9 ! /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1--?AT !SE SOCIAL CONV5TIONS HAVE BE5 
WORK$ \T PRECISELY BY ?IS ANONYM\S 0MOB40 ,AS TO ! SO-CALL$ 0LEAD]S0 ( 
HUMANITY1 !Y HAVE NOT CONTRIBUT$ ANY?+ USEFUL ?AT WAS NOT DEVELOP$ 
PREVI\SLY 9 CU/OM>Y LAW2 !Y MAY HAVE EMPHASIZ$ 7!Y NE>LY ALWAYS 
VITIAT$7 SOME USEFUL EXI/+ CU/OMS1 BUT !Y HAVE NOT 9V5T$ !M2 :ILE 
!Y ALWAYS /ROVE1 ON !IR SIDE1 TO TURN TO !IR [N ADVANTAGE ! COMMON-LAW 
9/ITUTIONS ?AT HAD BE5 WORK$ \T BY ! MASSES = !IR MUTUAL PROTECTION1 
OR1 FAIL+ 9 ?IS1 5DEAVOR$ TO DE/ROY !M4 

,EV5 9 ! REMOTE/ ANTIQUITY1 :I* IS LO/ 9 ! D>KNESS ( ! /ONE 
AGE1 M5 ALREADY LIV$ 9 SOCIETIES4 ,9 !SE SOCIETIES WAS ALREADY DEVELOP$ A 
:OLE NETWORK ( CU/OMS & SACR$1 RELIGI\SLY-RESPECT$ 9/ITUTIONS ( ! 
COMMUNAL REGIME OR ( ! CLAN :I* R5D]$ SOCIAL LIFE POSSIBLE4 ,& ?R\< 
ALL ! SUBSEQU5T /AGES ( DEVELOPM5T WE F9D IT WAS EXACTLY ?IS CON/RUCTIVE 
=CE ( ! 0UN9=M$ MOB0 ?AT WORK$ \T NEW MODES ( LIFE & NEW MEANS = 
MUTUAL SUPPORT & ! MA9T5ANCE ( PEACE1 AS NEW CONDITIONS >OSE4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 MOD]N SCI5CE HAS PROV$ CONCLUSIVELY ?AT ,LAW--:E!R 
PROCLAIM$ AS ! VOICE ( A DIV9E BE+ OR PROCE$+ FROM ! WISDOM ( A 
LAWGIV]--NEV] DID ANY?+ ELSE ?AN PRESCRIBE ALREADY EXI/+1 USEFUL HABITS 
& CU/OMS1 & !REBY H>D5$ !M 9TO UN*ANGEABLE1 CRY/ALLIZ$ =MS4  
,& 9 DO+ ?IS IT ALWAYS ADD$ TO ! 0USEFUL CU/OMS10 G5]ALLY RECOGNIZ$ 
AS SU*1 A FEW NEW RULES--9 ! 9T]E/ ( ! RI*1 W>LIKE & >M$ 
M9ORITY4 0,?\ %ALT NOT KILL10 SAID ! ,MOSAIC LAW1 0,?\ %ALT NOT /EAL10 
0,?\ %ALT NOT BE> FALSE WITNESS10 & !N IT ADD$ TO !SE EXCELL5T 
9JUNCTIONS3 0,?\ %ALT NOT COVET ?Y NEI<BOR'S WIFE1 HIS SLAVE1 NOR HIS ASS10 
:I* 9JUNCTION LEGALIZ$ SLAV]Y = ALL TIME & PUT WOMAN ON ! SAME LEVEL 
AS A SLAVE & A BEA/ ( BURD54 

0,LOVE Y\R NEI<BOR10 SAID ,*RI/IANITY LAT] ON1 BUT /RAI<TWAY ADD$1 9 
! WORDS ( ,PAUL ! ,APO/LE3 0,SLAVES1 BE SUBJECT TO Y\R MA/]S10 & 0,!RE 
IS NO AU?ORITY BUT FROM ,GOD10--!REBY EMPHASIZ+ ! DIVISION ( SOCIETY 9TO 
SLAVES & MA/]S & SANCTIFY+ ! AU?ORITY ( ! SC\NDRELS :O REIGN$ AT 
,ROME4 ,! ,GOSPELS1 ?\< TEA*+ ! SUBLIME IDEA ( 0NO PUNI%M5T = 
(F5SES10 :I* IS1 ( C\RSE1 ! ESS5CE ( ,*RI/IANITY--! TOK5 :I* 
DIFF]5TIATES IT & ,BUDDHISM FROM ALL O!R POSITIVE RELIGIONS--SPEAK AT ! 
SAME TIME ALL ! :ILE AB\T AN AV5G+ ,GOD :O TAKES HIS REV5GE EV5 UPON 
*ILDR51 ?US NECESS>ILY IMPRESS+ UPON MANK9D ! OPPOSITE IDEA ( 
V5GEANCE4 

,WE SEE ! SAME ?+S 9 ! LAWS ( ! SO-CALL$ 0,B>B>IANS10 ?AT IS1 ( 
! ,GAULS1 ! ,LOMB>DS1 ! ,ALLEMA9S1 & ! ,SAXONS1 :5 !SE PEOPLE LIV$ 
9 !IR COMMUNITIES1 FREE FROM ! ,ROMAN YOKE4 ,! ,B>B>IAN CODES CONV]T$ 
9TO LAW AN UND\BT$LY EXCELL5T CU/OM :I* WAS !N 9 ! PROCESS ( 
=MATION3 ! CU/OM ( PAY+ A P5ALTY = W\NDS & KILL+1 9/EAD ( 
PRACTIC+ ! LAW ( RETALIATION 7AN EYE = AN EYE1 A TOO? = A TOO?1 W\ND 
= W\ND1 & DEA? = DEA?74 ,BUT AT ! SAME TIME !Y ALSO LEGALIZ$ & 
P]PETUAT$ ! DIVISION ( FREEM5 9TO CLASSES--A DIVISION :I* ONLY !N 
BEGAN TO APPE>4 ,!Y EXACT$ FROM ! (F5D] V>Y+ COMP5SATIONS1 ACCORD+ 
AS ! P]SON KILL$ OR W\ND$ WAS A FREEMAN1 A MILIT>Y MAN1 OR A K+ 7! 
P5ALTY 9 ! LA/ CASE BE+ EQUIVAL5T TO LIFELONG S]VITUDE74 ,! ORIG9AL 
IDEA ( ?IS SCALE ( COMP5SATIONS TO BE PAID TO ! WRONG$ FAMILY ACCORD+ TO 
ITS SOCIAL POSITION1 WAS EVID5TLY ?AT A K+'S FAMILY ( AN ORD9>Y FREEMAN BY 
BE+ DEPRIV$ ( ITS HEAD1 WAS 5TITL$ TO RECEIVE A GREAT] COMP5SATION4 ,BUT 
! LAW1 BY RE/AT+ ! CU/OM1 LEGALIZ$ = ALL TIME ! DIVISION ( PEOPLE 
9TO CLASSES--& SO LEGALIZ$ IT ?AT UP TO ! PRES5T1 A ?\S& YE>S S9CE1 
WE HAVE NOT GOT RID ( IT4 

,& ?IS HAPP5$ ) ! LEGISLATION ( EV]Y AGE1 D[N TO \R [N TIME4  
,! OPPRESSION ( ! PREC$+ EPO* WAS ?US TRANSMITT$ BY LAW FROM ! OLD 
SOCIETY TO ! NEW1 :I* GREW UPON ! RU9S ( ! OLD4 ,! OPPRESSION ( ! 
,P]SIAN EMPIRE PASS$ ON TO ,GREECE2 ! OPPRESSION ( ! ,MAC$ONIAN EMPIRE1 TO 
,ROME2 ! OPPRESSION & CRUELTY ( ! ,ROMAN EMPIRE1 TO ! M$IAEVAL 
,EUROPEAN ,/ATES !N JU/ >IS+4 

,EV]Y SOCIAL SAFEGU>D1 ALL =MS ( SOCIAL LIFE 9 ! TRIBE1 ! COMMUNE1 
& ! E>LY M$AEVAL T[N-REPUBLICS2 ALL =MS ( 9T]-TRIBAL1 & LAT] 
ON 9T]-PROV9CIAL1 RELATIONS1 \T ( :I* 9T]NATIONAL LAW WAS SUBSEQU5TLY 
EVOLV$2 ALL =MS ( MUTUAL SUPPORT & ALL 9/ITUTIONS = ! PRES]VATION ( 
PEACE--9CLUD+ ! JURY1--W]E DEVELOP$ BY ! CREATIVE G5IUS ( ! 
ANONYM\S MASSES4 ,:ILE ALL ! LAWS ( EV]Y AGE1 D[N TO \R [N1 ALWAYS 
CONSI/$ ( ! SAME TWO ELEM5TS3 ONE :I* FIX$ & CRY/ALLIZ$ C]TA9 
=MS ( LIFE ?AT W]E UNIV]SALLY RECOGNIZ$ AS USEFUL2 ! O!R :I* WAS A 
SUP]/RUCTURE--SOMETIMES EV5 NO?+ BUT A CUNN+ CLAUSE ADROITLY SMUGGL$ 9 
9 ORD] TO E/ABLI% & /R5G!N ! GR[+ P[] ( ! NOBLES1 ! K+1 
& ! PRIE/--TO GIVE IT SANCTION4 

,SO1 AT ANY RATE1 WE >E L$ TO CONCLUDE BY ! SCI5TIFIC /UDY ( ! 
DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN SOCIETY1 UPON :I* = ! LA/ ?IRTY YE>S NOT A FEW 
CONSCI5TI\S M5 ( SCI5CE HAVE LABOR$4 ,!Y !MSELVES1 IT IS TRUE1 SELDOM 
V5TURE TO EXPRESS SU* H]ETICAL CONCLUSIONS AS ?OSE /AT$ ABOVE4 ,BUT ! 
?\<TFUL READ] 9EVITABLY COMES TO !M ON READ+ !IR WORKS4 

,FOOTNOTES 

  
#a 
,HOBBES' EXACT WORDS >E3 0,BELLUM OMNIUM CONTRA OMNES40 7,! W> ( EV]YONE 
AGA9/ EV]YBODY74 --,TRANSLATOR 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

O ,*APT] #g 

,PHOTO BY ,POL9A ,SIRO%1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,:AT POSITION1 !N1 DOES ,AN>*ISM OCCUPY 9 ! GREAT 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T 
( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY8 

,! ANSW] TO ?IS QUE/ION HAS ALREADY BE5 P>TLY =MULAT$ 9 ! 
PREC$+ PAGES4 ,AN>*ISM IS A WORLD-CONCEPT BAS$ UPON A ME*ANICAL 
EXPLANATION ( ALL PH5OM5A1#a 
 EMBRAC+ ! :OLE ( ,NATURE--?AT IS1 
9CLUD+ 9 IT ! LIFE ( HUMAN SOCIETIES & !IR ECONOMIC1 POLITICAL1 & 
MORAL PROBLEMS4 ,ITS ME?OD ( 9VE/IGATION IS ?AT ( ! EXACT NATURAL 
SCI5CES1 BY :I* EV]Y SCI5TIFIC CONCLUSION MU/ BE V]IFI$4 ,ITS AIM IS TO 
CON/RUCT A SYN!TIC PHILOSOPHY COMPREH5D+ 9 ONE G5]ALIZATION ALL ! 
PH5OM5A ( ,NATURE--& !RE=E ALSO ! LIFE ( SOCIETIES1--AVOID+1 
H[EV]1 ! ]RORS M5TION$ ABOVE 9TO :I*1 = ! REASONS !RE GIV51 
,COMTE & ,SP5C] HAD FALL54 

,IT IS !RE=E NATURAL ?AT TO MO/ ( ! QUE/IONS ( MOD]N LIFE ,AN>*ISM 
%\LD GIVE NEW ANSW]S1 & HOLD ) REG>D TO !M A POSITION DIFF]+ FROM 
?OSE ( ALL POLITICAL &1 TO A C]TA9 EXT5T1 ( ALL SOCIALI/IC P>TIES1 
:I* HAVE NOT YET FRE$ !MSELVES FROM ! METAPHYSICAL FICTIONS ( OLD4 

,( C\RSE1 ! ELABORATION ( A COMPLETE ME*ANICAL WORLD-CONCEPTION HAS 
H>DLY BE5 BEGUN 9 ITS SOCIOLOGICAL P>T--9 ?AT P>T1 ?AT IS1 :I* DEALS 
) ! LIFE & ! EVOLUTION ( SOCIETIES4 ,BUT ! LITTLE ?AT HAS BE5 DONE 
UND\BT$LY BE>S A M>K$--?\< (T5 NOT FULLY CONSCI\S--*>ACT]4 ,9 ! 
DOMA9 ( PHILOSOPHY ( LAW1 9 ! !ORY ( MORALITY1 9 POLITICAL ECONOMY1 9 
HI/ORY1 7BO? ( NATIONS & 9/ITUTIONS71 ,AN>*ISM HAS ALREADY %[N ?AT IT 
WILL NOT CONT5T ITSELF ) METAPHYSICAL CONCLUSIONS1 BUT WILL SEEK1 9 EV]Y 
CASE A NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC BASIS4 ,IT REJECTS ! METAPHYSICS ( ,HEGEL1 ( 
,S*ELL+1 & ( ,KANT2 IT DIS[NS ! COMM5TATORS ( ,ROMAN & ,CANON ,LAW1 
TOGE!R ) ! LE>N$ APOLOGI/S ( ! ,/ATE2 IT DOES NOT CONSID] 
METAPHYSICAL POLITICAL ECONOMY A SCI5CE2 & IT 5DEAVORS TO GA9 A CLE> 
COMPREH5SION ( EV]Y QUE/ION RAIS$ 9 !SE BRAN*ES ( KN[L$GE1 BAS+ ITS 
9VE/IGATIONS UPON ! NUM]\S RESE>*ES ?AT HAVE BE5 MADE DUR+ ! LA/ 
?IRTY OR =TY YE>S FROM A NATURALI/ PO9T ( VIEW4 

,9 ! SAME WAY AS ! METAPHYSICAL CONCEPTIONS ( A ,UNIV]SAL ,SPIRIT1 OR ( A 
,CREATIVE ,=CE 9 ,NATURE1 ! ,9C>NATION ( ! ,IDEA1 ,NATURE'S ,GOAL1 ! ,AIM ( 
,EXI/5CE1 ! ,UNKN[ABLE1 ,MANK9D 7CONCEIV$ AS HAV+ A SEP>ATE SPIRITUALIZ$ 
EXI/5CE71 & SO ON--9 ! SAME WAY AS ALL !SE HAVE BE5 BRU%$ ASIDE BY 
! MAT]IALI/ PHILOSOPHY ( TO-DAY1 :ILE ! EMBRYOS ( G5]ALIZATIONS 
CONCEAL$ B5EA? !SE MI/Y T]MS >E BE+ TRANSLAT$ 9TO ! CONCRETE 
LANGUAGE ( NATURAL SCI5CES1--SO WE PROCE$ 9 DEAL+ ) ! FACTS ( SOCIAL 
LIFE4 ,H]E ALSO WE TRY TO SWEEP AWAY ! METAPHYSICAL COBWEBS1 & TO SEE :AT 
EMBRYOS ( G5]ALIZATIONS--IF ANY--MAY HAVE BE5 CONCEAL$ B5EA? ALL SORTS ( 
MI/Y WORDS4.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,:5 ! METAPHYSICIANS TRY TO CONV9CE ! NATURALI/ ?AT ! M5TAL & 
MORAL LIFE ( MAN DEVELOPS 9 ACCORDANCE ) C]TA9 0,IMMAN5T 79-DWELL+7 
,LAWS ( ! ,SPIRIT10 ! LATT] %RUGS HIS %\LD]S & CONT9UES HIS 
PHYSIOLOGICAL /UDY ( ! M5TAL & MORAL PH5OM5A ( LIFE1 ) A VIEW TO 
%[+ ?AT !Y CAN ALL BE RESOLV$ 9TO *EMICAL & PHYSICAL PH5OM5A4 ,HE 
5DEAVORS TO DISCOV] ! NATURAL LAWS ON :I* !Y >E BAS$4 ,SIMIL>LY1 :5 
! ,AN>*I/S >E TOLD1 = 9/ANCE1 ?AT--AS ,HEGEL SAYS--EV]Y DEVELOPM5T 
CONSI/S ( A ,!SIS1 AN ,ANTI!SIS1 & A ,SYN!SIS2 OR ?AT 0! OBJECT ( ,LAW 
IS ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ,JU/ICE1 :I* REPRES5TS ! REALIZATION ( ! ,HI<E/ 
,IDEA20 OR1 AGA91 :5 !Y >E ASK$1--,:AT1 9 !IR OP9ION1 IS 0! ,OBJECT 
( ,LIFE80 !Y1 TOO1 SIMPLY %RUG !IR %\LD]S & WOND] H[1 AT ! PRES5T 
/ATE ( DEVELOPM5T ( NATURAL SCI5CE1 OLD FA%ION$ PEOPLE CAN /ILL BE F\ND 
:O BELIEVE 9 0WORDS0 LIKE !SE & /ILL EXPRESS !MSELVES 9 ! LANGUAGE 
( PRIMITIVE AN?ROMORPHISM 7! CONCEPTION ( NATURE AS ( A ?+ GOV]N$ BY A 
BE+ 5D[$ ) HUMAN ATTRIBUTES74 ,HI<-FL[N WORDS DO NOT SC>E ! 
,AN>*I/S1 BECAUSE !Y KN[ ?AT !SE WORDS SIMPLY CONCEAL IGNORANCE--?AT IS1 
UNCOMPLET$ 9VE/IGATION--OR1 :AT IS MU* WORSE1 M]E SUP]/ITION4 ,!Y 
!RE=E PASS ON & CONT9UE !IR /UDY ( PA/ & PRES5T SOCIAL IDEAS & 
9/ITUTIONS ACCORD+ TO ! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD ( 9DUCTION4 ,& 9 DO+ SO 
!Y F9D1 ( C\RSE1 ?AT ! DEVELOPM5T ( A SOCIAL LIFE IS 9COMP>ABLY MORE 
COMPLICAT$--& 9COMP>ABLY MORE 9T]E/+ = PRACTICAL PURPOSES--?AN IT 
W\LD APPE> FROM SU* =MULAE4 

,WE HAVE HE>D MU* ( LATE AB\T 0! DIALECTIC ME?OD10 :I* WAS 
RECOMM5D$ = =MULAT+ ! SOCIALI/ IDEAL4 ,SU* A ME?OD WE DO NOT 
RECOGNIZE1 NEI!R W\LD ! MOD]N NATURAL SCI5CES HAVE ANY?+ TO DO ) IT4 
0,! DIALECTIC ME?OD0 REM9DS ! MOD]N NATURALI/ ( SOME?+ LONG S9CE 
PASS$--( SOME?+ \TLIV$ & N[ HAPPILY =GOTT5 BY SCI5CE4 ,! 
DISCOV]IES ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY 9 ME*ANICS1 PHYSICS1 *EMI/RY1 BIOLOGY1 
PHYSICAL PSY*OLOGY1 AN?ROPOLOGY1 PSY*OLOGY ( NATIONS1 ETC41 W]E MADE--NOT 
BY ! DIALECTIC ME?OD1 BUT BY ! NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC ME?OD1 ! ME?OD ( 
9DUCTION & D$UCTION4 ,& S9CE MAN IS P>T ( NATURE1 & S9CE ! LIFE 
( HIS 0SPIRIT0--P]SONAL AS WELL AS SOCIAL--IS JU/ AS MU* A PH5OM5ON ( 
NATURE AS IS ! GR[? ( A FL[] OR ! EVOLUTION ( SOCIAL LIFE AMONG ! 
ANTS & ! BEES1--!RE IS NO CAUSE = SUDD5LY *ANG+ \R ME?OD ( 
9VE/IGATION :5 WE PASS FROM ! FL[] TO MAN1 OR FROM A SETTLEM5T ( 
BEAV]S TO A HUMAN T[N4 

,! 9DUCTIVE-D$UCTIVE ME?OD HAS PROV$ ITS M]ITS SO WELL1 9 ?AT ! 
N9ETE5? C5TURY1 :I* HAS APPLI$ IT1 HAS CAUS$ SCI5CE TO ADVANCE MORE 9 A 
HUNDR$ YE>S ?AN IT HAD ADVANC$ DUR+ ! TWO ?\S& YE>S ?AT W5T 
BE=E4 ,& :51 9 ! SECOND HALF ( ?IS C5TURY1 ?IS ME?OD BEGAN TO BE 
APPLI$ TO ! 9VE/IGATION ( HUMAN SOCIETY1 NO PO9T WAS EV] REA*$ :]E 
IT WAS F\ND NECESS>Y TO AB&ON IT & AGA9 ADOPT M$IAEVAL 
S*OLA/ICISM--AS REVIS$ BY ,HEGEL4 ,BESIDES1 :51 = EXAMPLE1 PHILI/9E 
NATURALI/S1 SEEM+LY BAS+ !IR >GUM5TS ON 0,D>W9ISM10 BEGAN TO TEA*1 
0,CRU% EV]YONE WEAK] ?AN Y\RSELF2 SU* IS ! LAW ( NATURE10 IT WAS EASY 
= US TO PROVE BY ! SAME SCI5TIFIC ME?OD ?AT NO SU* LAW EXI/S3 ?AT ! 
LIFE ( ANIMALS TEA*ES US SOME?+ 5TIRELY DIFF]5T1 & ?AT ! CONCLUSIONS 
( ! PHILI/9ES W]E ABSOLUTELY UNSCI5TIFIC4 ,!Y W]E JU/ AS UNSCI5TIFIC 
AS1 = 9/ANCE1 ! ASS]TION ?AT ! 9EQUALITY ( WEAL? IS A LAW ( NATURE1 
OR ?AT CAPITALISM IS ! MO/ CONV5I5T =M ( SOCIAL LIFE CALCULAT$ TO 
PROMOTE PROGRESS4 ,PRECISELY ?IS NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC ME?OD1 APPLI$ TO ECONOMIC 
FACTS1 5ABLES US TO PROVE ?AT ! SO-CALL$ 0LAWS0 ( MIDDLE-CLASS SOCIOLOGY1 
9CLUD+ ALSO !IR POLITICAL ECONOMY1 >E NOT LAWS AT ALL1 BUT SIMPLY GUESSES1 
OR M]E ASS]TIONS :I* HAVE NEV] BE5 V]IFI$ AT ALL4 ,MOREOV]1 EV]Y 
9VE/IGATION ONLY BE>S FRUIT :5 IT HAS A DEF9ITE AIM--:5 IT IS UND]TAK5 
= ! PURPOSE ( OBTA9+ AN ANSW] TO A DEF9ITE & CLE>LY WORD$ QUE/ION4 
 ,& IT IS ! MORE FRUITFUL ! MORE CLE>LY ! OBS]V] SEES ! CONNECT ?AT 
EXI/S BETWE5 HIS PROBLEM & HIS G5]AL CONCEPT ( ! UNIV]SE--! PLACE 
:I* ! =M] OCCUPIES 9 ! LATT]4 ,! BETT] HE UND]/&S ! 
IMPORTANCE ( ! PROBLEM 9 ! G5]AL CONCEPT1 ! EASI] WILL ! ANSW] BE4  
,! QUE/ION1 !N1 :I* ,AN>*ISM PUTS TO ITSELF MAY BE /AT$ ?US3 0,:AT 
=MS ( SOCIAL LIFE ASSURE TO A GIV5 SOCIETY1 & !N TO MANK9D G5]ALLY1 
! GREATE/ AM\NT ( HAPP9ESS1 & H5CE ALSO ( VITALITY80 0,:AT =MS ( 
SOCIAL LIFE ALL[ ?IS AM\NT ( HAPP9ESS TO GR[ & TO DEVELOP1 QUANTITATIVELY 
AS WELL AS QUALITATIVELY1--?AT IS1 TO BECOME MORE COMPLETE & MORE V>I$80  
7FROM :I*1 LET US NOTE 9 PASS+1 A DEF9ITION ( PROGRESS IS D]IV$74 
 ,! DESIRE TO PROMOTE EVOLUTION 9 ?IS DIRECTION DET]M9ES ! SCI5TIFIC AS 
WELL AS ! SOCIAL & >TI/IC ACTIVITY ( ! ,AN>*I/4 

,FOOTNOTES 

 #a 
,IT W]E MORE CORRECT TO SAY1 A K9ETIC EXPLANATION1 BUT ?IS WORD 
IS NOT SO COMMONLY KN[N4 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

O ,*APT] #h 

,PHOTO BY ,JUDAH ,MOR=D1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,AN>*ISM ORIG9AT$1 AS HAS ALREADY BE5 SAID1 FROM ! DEM&S ( PRACTICAL 
LIFE4 

,AT ! TIME ( ! GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION ( #a#g#h#i-#a#g#i#c1 ,GODW9 HAD ! 
OPPORTUNITY ( HIMSELF SEE+ H[ ! GOV]NM5TAL AU?ORITY CREAT$ DUR+ ! 
REVOLUTION ITSELF ACT$ AS A RET>D+ =CE UPON ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T4  
,& HE KNEW1 TOO1 :AT WAS !N TAK+ PLACE 9 ,5GL&1 UND] ! COV] ( 
,P>LIAM5T 7! CONFISCATION ( PUBLIC L&S1 ! KIDNAPP+ ( POOR WORKH\SE 
*ILDR5 BY FACTORY AG5TS & !IR DEPORTATION TO WEAV]S' MILLS1 :]E !Y 
P]I%$ :OLESALE1 & SO ON74 ,HE UND]/OOD ?AT ! GOV]NM5T ( ! 0,ONE 
& ,UNDIVID$0 ,JACOB9I/ ,REPUBLIC W\LD NOT BR+ AB\T ! NECESS>Y 
REVOLUTION2 ?AT ! REVOLUTION>Y GOV]NM5T ITSELF1 FROM ! V]Y FACT ( ITS 
BE+ A GU>DIAN ( ! ,/ATE1 WAS AN OB/ACLE TO EMANCIPATION2 ?AT TO 9SURE 
! SUCCESS ( ! REVOLUTION1 PEOPLE \<T TO P>T1 FIR/ ( ALL1 ) !IR 
BELIEF 9 ,LAW1 ,AU?ORITY1 ,UNI=MITY1 ,ORD]1 ,PROP]TY1 & O!R SUP]/ITIONS 
9H]IT$ BY US FROM \R S]VILE PA/4 ,& ) ?IS PURPOSE 9 VIEW HE WROTE  
0,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE40 

,! !ORI/ ( ,AN>*ISM :O FOLL[$ ,GODW91 ,PR\DHON1 
HAD HIMSELF LIV$ ?R\< ! ,REVOLUTION ( #ahdh & HAD SE5 ) HIS [N EYES 
! CRIME P]PETRAT$ BY ! REVOLUTION>Y REPUBLICAN GOV]NM5T1 & ! 
9APPLICABILITY ( ! /ATE SOCIALISM ( ,L\IS ,BLANC4 ,FRE% FROM ! 
IMPRESSIONS ( :AT HE HAD WITNESS$1 ,PR\DHON P5N$ HIS ADMIRABLE WORKS1 0,A 
,G5]AL ,IDEA ( ! ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION0 & 0,CONFESSIONS ( A ,REVOLUTIONI/10 9 
:I* HE BOLDLY ADVOCAT$ ! ABOLITION ( ! ,/ATE & PROCLAIM$ ,AN>*Y4 

,& F9ALLY1 ! IDEA ( ,AN>*ISM REAPPE>$ AGA9 9 ! ,9T]NATIONAL 
,WORK+ ,M5'S ,ASSOCIATION1 AFT] ! REVOLUTION ?AT WAS ATTEMPT$ 9 ! ,P>IS 
,COMMUNE ( #a#h#g#a4 ,! COMPLETE FAILURE ( ! ,C\NCIL ( ! ,COMMUNE & ITS 
CAPACITY TO ACT AS A REVOLUTION>Y BODY--AL?\< IT CONSI/$1 9 DUE 
PROPORTION1 ( REPRES5TATIVES ( EV]Y REVOLUTION>Y FACTION ( ! TIME 
7,JACOB9I/S1 ! FOLL[]S ( ,L\IS ,BLANC1 & MEMB]S ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL 
,WORK+ ,M5'S ,ASSOCIATION71 &1 ON ! O!R H&1 ! 9CAPACITY ( ! ,LONDON 
,G5]AL ,C\NCIL ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL & ITS LUDICR\S & EV5 H>MFUL 
PRET5SION TO DIRECT ! ,P>IS 9SURRECTION BY ORD]S S5T FROM ,5GL&1--OP5$ 
! EYES ( MANY4 ,!Y =C$ MANY MEMB]S ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL1 9CLUD+ 
,BAKUN91 TO REFLECT UPON ! H>MFULNESS ( ALL SORTS ( GOV]NM5T--EV5 SU* AS 
HAD BE5 FREELY ELECT$ 9 ! ,COMMUNE & 9 ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,WORK+ ,M5'S 
,ASSOCIATION4 ,A FEW MON?S LAT]1 ! RESOLUTION PASS$ BY ! SAME G5]AL 
,C\NCIL ( ! ,ASSOCIATION1 AT A SECRET CONF]5CE HELD 9 ,LONDON 9 #ahga 9/EAD 
( AN ANNUAL CONGRESS1 PROV$ /ILL MORE ! 9CONV5I5CE ( HAV+ A GOV]NM5T 
9 ! ,9T]NATIONAL4 ,BY ?IS DIRE RESOLUTION !Y DECID$ TO TURN ! 5TIRE 
LABOR MOVEM5T 9TO ANO!R *ANNEL & CONV]T IT FROM AN ECONOMIC REVOLUTION>Y 
MOVEM5T--9TO AN ELECTIVE P>LIAM5T>Y & POLITICAL MOVEM5T4 ,?IS DECISION 
L$ TO OP5 REVOLT ON ! P>T ( ! ,ITALIAN1 ,SPANI%1 ,SWISS1 & P>TLY ALSO ( 
! ,BELGIAN1 ,F$]ATIONS AGA9/ ! ,LONDON ,G5]AL ,C\NCIL1 \T ( :I* 
MOVEM5T MOD]N ,AN>*ISM SUBSEQU5TLY DEVELOP$4 

,EV]Y TIME1 !N1 ! 
AN>*I/ MOVEM5T SPRANG UP 9 RESPONSE TO ! LESSONS ( ACTUAL LIFE & 
ORIG9AT$ FROM ! PRACTICAL T5D5CIES ( EV5TS4 ,&1 UND] ! IMPULSE ?US 
GIV5 IT1 ,AN>*ISM SET TO WORK \T ITS !ORETIC1 SCI5TIFIC BASIS4 

,NO 
/RUGGLE CAN BE SUCCESSFUL IF IT IS AN UNCONSCI\S ONE1 & IF IT DOES NOT R5D] 
ITSELF A CLE> & CONCISE ACC\NT ( ITS AIM4 ,NO DE/RUCTION ( ! EXI/+ 
ORD] IS POSSIBLE1 IF AT ! TIME ( ! OV]?R[1 OR ( ! /RUGGLE LEAD+ TO 
! OV]?R[1 ! IDEA ( :AT IS TO TAKE PLACE ( :AT IS TO BE DE/ROY$ IS 
NOT ALWAYS PRES5T 9 ! M9D4 ,EV5 ! !ORETICAL CRITICISM ( ! EXI/+ 
CONDITIONS IS IMPOSSIBLE1 UNLESS ! CRITIC HAS 9 HIS M9D A MORE OR LESS 
DI/9CT PICTURE ( :AT HE W\LD HAVE 9 PLACE ( ! EXI/+ /ATE4  
,CONSCI\SLY OR UNCONSCI\SLY1 ! IDEAL ( SOME?+ BETT] IS =M+ 9 
! M9D ( EV]Y ONE :O CRITICIZES SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 

,?IS IS EV5 MORE 
! CASE ) A MAN ( ACTION4 ,TO TELL PEOPLE1 0,FIR/ LET US ABOLI% AUTOCRACY 
OR CAPITALISM1 & !N WE WILL DISCUSS :AT TO PUT 9 ITS PLACE10 MEANS SIMPLY 
TO DECEIVE ONESELF & O!RS4 ,& P[] IS NEV] CREAT$ BY DECEPTION4  
,! V]Y MAN :O SPEAKS ?US SURELY HAS SOME IDEA ( :AT WILL TAKE ! PLACE ( 
! 9/ITUTIONS DE/ROY$4 ,AMONG ?OSE :O WORK = ! ABOLITION--LET US SAY1 
( AUTOCRACY--SOME 9EVITABLY ?9K ( A CON/ITUTION LIKE ?AT ( ,5GL& OR 
,G]MANY1 :ILE O!RS ?9K ( A REPUBLIC1 EI!R PLAC$ UND] ! P[]FUL 
DICTATOR%IP ( !IR [N P>TY OR MODEL$ AFT] ! ,FR5* EMPIRE-REPUBLIC1 OR1 
AGA91 ( A F$]AL REPUBLIC LIKE ?AT ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES OR ,SWITZ]L&2 :ILE 
O!RS AGA9 /RIVE TO A*IEVE A /ILL GREAT] LIMITATION ( GOV]NM5T 
AU?ORITY2 A /ILL GREAT] 9DEP5D5CE ( ! T[NS1 ! COMMUNES1 ! WORK+ 
M5'S ASSOCIATIONS1 & ALL O!R GR\PS UNIT$ AMONG !MSELVES BY FREE 
AGREEM5TS4 

,EV]Y P>TY ?US HAS ITS IDEAL ( ! FUTURE1 :I* S]VES IT AS A 
CRIT]ION 9 ALL EV5TS ( POLITICAL & ECONOMIC LIFE1 AS WELL AS A BASIS = 
DET]M9+ ITS PROP] MODES ( ACTION4 ,AN>*ISM1 TOO1 HAS CONCEIV$ ITS [N 
IDEAL2 & ?IS V]Y IDEAL HAS L$ IT TO F9D ITS [N IMM$IATE AIMS & ITS [N 
ME?ODS ( ACTION DIFF]5T FROM ?OSE ( ! SOCIALI/ P>TIES1 :I* HAVE 
RETA9$ ! OLD ,ROMAN & ECCLESIA/IC IDEALS ( GOV]NM5TAL ORGANIZATION4 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

O ,*APT] #i 

,PHOTO BY ,PASSION ,LEICA1,C,C ,B,Y-,S,A ,LIC5SE ,?IS IS NOT ! PLACE TO 5T] 9TO AN EXPOSITION ( ,AN>*ISM4 ,! 
PRES5T SKET* HAS ITS [N DEF9ITE AIM--?AT ( 9DICAT+ ! RELATION 
( ,AN>*ISM TO MOD]N SCI5CE1--:ILE ! FUNDAM5TAL VIEWS ( 
,AN>*ISM MAY BE F\ND /AT$ 9 A NUMB] ( O!R WORKS4 ,BUT TWO OR 
?REE ILLU/RATIONS WILL HELP US TO DEF9E ! EXACT RELATION ( \R 
VIEWS TO MOD]N SCI5CE & ! MOD]N SOCIAL MOVEM5T4 

,:51 = 9/ANCE1 WE >E TOLD ?AT ,LAW 7WRITT5 L>GE7 0IS ! 
OBJECTIFICATION ( ,TRU?20 OR ?AT 0! PR9CIPLES UND]LY+ ! 
DEVELOPM5T ( ,LAW >E ! SAME AS ?OSE UND]LY+ ! DEVELOPM5T ( 
! HUMAN SPIRIT20 OR ?AT 0,LAW & ,MORALITY >E ID5TICAL & DIFF] 
ONLY =MALLY20 WE FEEL AS LITTLE RESPECT = !SE ASS]TIONS AS DOES 
,MEPHI/OPHELES 9 ,GOE!'S 0,FAU/40 ,WE >E AW>E ?AT ?OSE :O MAKE 
SU* SEEM+LY PR(\ND /ATEM5TS AS !SE HAVE EXP5D$ MU* ?\<T 
UPON !SE QUE/IONS4 ,BUT !Y HAVE TAK5 A WRONG PA?2 & H5CE WE 
SEE 9 !SE HI<-FL[N S5T5CES M]E ATTEMPTS AT UNCONSCI\S 
G5]ALIZATION1 BAS$ UPON 9ADEQUATE F\NDATIONS & CONFUS$1 
MOREOV]1 BY WORDS ( HYPNOTIC P[]4 ,9 OLD5 TIMES !Y TRI$ TO GIVE 
0,LAW0 A DIV9E ORIG92 LAT] !Y BEGAN TO SEEK A METAPHYSICAL BASIS = 
IT2 N[1 H[EV]1 WE >E ABLE TO /UDY ITS AN?ROPOLOGICAL ORIG94 ,&1 
AVAIL+ \RSELVES ( ! RESULTS OBTA9$ BY ! AN?ROPOLOGICAL 
S*OOL1 WE TAKE UP ! /UDY ( SOCIAL CU/OMS1 BEG9N+ ) ?OSE ( 
! PRIMITIVE SAVAGES1 & TRACE ! ORIG9 & ! DEVELOPM5T ( LAWS 
AT DIFF]5T EPO*S4 

,9 ?IS WAY WE COME TO ! CONCLUSION ALREADY EXPRESS$ ON A 
PREC$+ PAGE--NAMELY1 ?AT ALL LAWS HAVE A TWO-FOLD ORIG91 & 9 
?IS V]Y RESPECT DIFF] FROM ?OSE 9/ITUTIONS E/ABLI%$ BY CU/OM 
:I* >E G5]ALLY RECOGNIZ$ AS ! MORAL CODE ( A GIV5 SOCIETY4  
,LAW CONFIRMS & CRY/ALLIZES !SE CU/OMS1 BUT1 :ILE DO+ SO1 IT 
TAKES ADVANTAGE ( ?IS FACT TO E/ABLI% 7= ! MO/ P>T 9 A 
DISGUIS$ =M7 ! G]MS ( SLAV]Y & CLASS DI/9CTION1 ! 
AU?ORITY ( PRIE/ & W>RIOR1 S]FDOM & V>I\S O!R 9/ITUTIONS1 
9 ! 9T]E/ ( ! >M$ & W\LD BE RUL+ M9ORITY4 ,9 ?IS WAY 
A YOKE HAS IMP]CEPTIBLY BE5 PLAC$ UPON MAN1 ( :I* HE C\LD ONLY 
RID HIMSELF BY MEANS ( SUBSEQU5T BLOODY REVOLUTIONS4 ,& ?IS IS ! 
C\RSE ( EV5TS D[N TO ! PRES5T MOM5T--EV5 9 CONTEMPOR>Y 0LABOR 
LEGISLATION0 :I*1 ALONG ) 0PROTECTION ( LABOR10 COV]TLY 
9TRODUCES ! IDEA ( COMPULSORY ,/ATE >BITRATION 9 ! CASE 
( /RIKES1#a A 
COMPULSORY EI<T-H\R DAY = ! WORK+MAN 7NO LESS ?AN EI<T 
H\RS71 MILIT>Y EXPLOITATION ( ! RAILROADS DUR+ /RIKES1 LEGAL 
SANCTION = ! DISPOSSESSION ( PEASANTS 9 ,IREL&1 & SO ON4 ,& 
?IS WILL CONT9UE TO BE SO AS LONG AS ONE PORTION ( SOCIETY 
GOES ON FRAM+ LAWS = ALL SOCIETY1 & !REBY /R5G!NS ! 
P[] ( ! ,/ATE1 :I* =MS ! *IEF SUPPORT ( ,CAPITALISM4 

,IT IS PLA91 !RE=E1 :Y ,AN>*ISM--:I* ASPIRES TO 
,JU/ICE 7A T]M SYNONYM\S ) EQUALITY7 MORE ?AN ANY O!R 
LAWGIV] 9 ! WORLD--HAS FROM ! TIME ( ,GODW9 REJECT$ ALL WRITT5 
LAWS4 

,:51 H[EV]1 WE >E TOLD ?AT BY REJECT+ ,LAW WE REJECT ALL 
MORALITY--S9CE WE D5Y ! 0CATEGORIC IMP]ATIVE0 ( ,KANT1--WE ANSW] 
?AT ! V]Y WORD+ ( ?IS OBJECTION IS TO US /RANGE & 
9COMPREH5ESIBLE4#b ,IT IS AS /RANGE & 9COMPREH5SIBLE TO US 
AS IT W\LD BE TO EV]Y NATURALI/ 5GAG$ 9 ! /UDY ( ! PH5OM5A 
( MORALITY4 ,9 ANSW] TO ?IS >GUM5T1 WE ASK3 0,:AT DO Y\ REALLY 
MEAN8 ,CAN Y\ NOT TRANSLATE Y\R /ATEM5TS 9TO COMPREH5SIBLE 
LANGUAGE--= 9/ANCE1 AS ,LAPLACE TRANSLAT$ ! =MULAE ( HI<] 
MA!MATICS 9TO A LANGUAGE ACCESSIBLE TO ALL1 & AS ALL GREAT M5 ( 
SCI5CE DID & DO EXPRESS !MSELVES80 

,N[1 :AT DOES A MAN :O TAKES HIS /& ON 0UNIV]SAL LAW0 OR 0! 
CATEGORICAL IMP]ATIVE0 REALLY MEAN8 ,DOES HE MEAN ?AT !RE IS 
9 ALL M5 ! CONCEPTION ?AT ONE \<T NOT TO DO TO ANO!R :AT HE 
W\LD NOT HAVE DONE TO HIMSELF--?AT IT W\LD BE BETT] EV5 TO RETURN 
GOOD = EVIL8 ,IF SO1 WELL & GOOD4 ,LET US1 !N1 /UDY 7AS ,ADAM 
,SMI? & ,HUT*ESON HAVE ALREADY /UDI$7 ! ORIG9 ( !SE MORAL 
IDEAS 9 MAN1 & !IR C\RSE ( DEVELOPM5T4 ,LET US EXT5D \R 
/UDIES TO PRE-HUMAN TIMES 7A ?+ ,SMI? & ,HUT*ESON C\LD NOT DO74 
,!N1 WE MAY ANALYZE ! EXT5T TO :I* ! IDEA ( ,JU/ICE 
IMPLIES ?AT ( ,EQUAILTY4 ,! QUE/ION IS AN IMPORTANT ONE1 
BECAUSE ONLY ?OSE :O REG>D O!RS AS !IR EQUALS CAN ACCEPT 
! RULE1 0,DO NOT TO O!RS :AT Y\ W\LD NOT HAVE DONE TO Y\RSELF40 
,! L&LORD & ! SLAVE-[N]1 :O DID NOT LOOK UPON 0! S]F0 & 
! NEGRO AS !IR EQUALS1 DID NOT RECOGNIZE ! 0CATEGORICAL 
IMP]ATIVE0 & ! 0UNIV]SAL LAW0 AS APPLICABLE TO !SE UNHAPPY 
MEMB]S ( ! HUMAN FAMILY4 ,& !N1 IF ?IS OBS]VATION ( \RS BE 
CORRECT1 WE %ALL WEE :E!R IT IS AT ALL POSSIBLE TO 9CULCATE 
MORALITY :ILE TEA*+ ! DOCTR9E ( 9EQUALITY4 

,WE %ALL F9ALLY ANALYZE1 AS ,M>K ,GUYAU DID1 ! FACTS ( 
SELF-SACRIFICE4 ,& !N WE %ALL CONSID] :AT HAS PROMOT$ ! 
DEVELOPM5T 9 MAN ( MORAL FEEL+S--FIR/1 ( ?OSE :I* >E 
9TIMATELY CONNECT$ ) ! IDEA ( EQUALITY1 & !N ( ! O!RS2 
& AFT] ?IS CONSID]ATION WE %\LD BE ABLE TO D$UCE FROM \R /UDY 
EXACTLY :AT SOCIAL CONDITIONS & :AT 9/ITUTIONS PROMISE ! BE/ 
RESULTS = ! FUTURE4 ,IS ?IS DEVELOPM5T PROMOT$ BY RELIGION1 & 
TO :AT EXT5T8 ,IS IT PROMOT$ BY 9EQUALITY--ECONOMIC & 
POLITICAL--& BY A DIVISION 9TO CLASSES8 ,IS IT PROMOT$ BY LAW8 ,BY 
PUNI%M5T8 ,BY PRISONS8 ,BY ! JUDGE8 ,! JAIL]8 ,! HANGMAN8 

,LET US /UDY ALL ?IS 9 DETAIL1 & !N ONLY MAY WE SPEAK AGA9 ( 
,MORALITY & MORALIZATION BY MEANS ( LAWS1 LAW C\RTS1 JAIL]S1 SPIES1 & 
POLICE4 ,BUT WE HAD BETT] GIVE UP US+ ! SONOR\S WORDS :I* ONLY CONCEAL 
! SUP]FICIALITY ( \R SEMI-LE>N+4 ,9 !IR TIME ! USE ( !SE WORDS 
WAS1 P]HAPS1 UNAVOIDABLE--!IR APPLICATION C\LD NEV] HAVE BE5 USEFUL2 BUT 
N[ WE >E ABLE TO APPROA* ! /UDY ( BURN+ SOCIAL QUE/IONS 9 EXACTLY ! 
SAME MANN] AS ! G>D5] & ! PHYSIOLOGI/ TAKE UP ! /UDY ( ! 
CONDITIONS MO/ FAVORABLE = ! GR[? ( A PLANT--LET US DO SO6.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-  

,LIKEWISE1 :5 C]TA9 ECONOMI/S TELL US ?AT 09 A P]FECTLY FREE M>KET ! PRICE ( COMMODITIES IS MEASUR$ BY ! AM\NT ( LABOR SOCIALLY NECESS>Y = !IR PRODUCTION10 WE DO NOT TAKE ?IS ASS]TION ON FAI? BECAUSE IT IS MADE BY C]TA9 AU?ORITIES OR BECAUSE IT MAY SEEM TO US 0TREM5D\SLY SOCIALI/IC40 ,IT MAY BE SO1 WE SAY4 ,BUT DO Y\ NOT NOTICE ?AT BY ?IS V]Y /ATEM5T Y\ MA9TA9 ?AT VALUE & ! NECESS>Y LABOR >E PROPORTIONAL TO EA* O!R--JU/ AS ! SPE$ ( A FALL+ BODY IS PROPORTIONAL TO ! NUMB] ( SECONDS IT HAS BE5 FALL+8 ,?US Y\ MA9TA9 A QUANTITATIVE RELATION BETWE5 !SE TWO MAGNITUDES2 :]EAS A QUANTITATIVE RELATION CAN BE PROV$ ONLY BY QUANTITATIVE MEASUREM5TS4 ,TO CONF9E Y\RSELF TO ! REM>K ?AT ! EX*ANGE-VALUE ( COMMODITIES 0G5]ALLY0 9CREASES :5 A GREAT] EXP5DITURE ( LABOR IS REQUIR$1 & !N TO ASS]T ?AT !RE=E ! TWO QUANTITIES >E PROPORTIONAL TO EA* O!R1 IS TO MAKE AS GREAT A MI/AKE AS ! MAN :O W\LD ASS]T ?AT ! QUANTITY ( RA9FALL IS MEASUR$ BY ! FALL ( ! B>OMET] BEL[ ITS AV]AGE HEI<T4 ,HE :O FIR/ OBS]V$ ?AT1 G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 :5 ! B>OMET] IS FALL+ A GREAT] AM\NT ( RA9 FALLS ?AN :5 IT IS RIS+2 OR1 ?AT !RE IS A C]TA9 RELATION BETWE5 ! SPE$ ( A FALL+ /ONE & ! HEI<T FROM :I* IT FELL--?AT MAN SURELY MADE A SCI5TIFIC DISCOV]Y4 ,BUT ! P]SON :O W\LD COME AFT] HIM & ASS]T ?AT ! AM\NT ( RA9 FALL IS MEASUR$ BY ! FALL ( ! B>OMET] BEL[ ITS AV]AGE HEI<T1 OR ?AT ! SPACE ?R\< :I* A FALL+ BODY HAS PASS$ IS PROPORTIONAL TO ! TIME ( FALL & IS MEASUR$ BY IT1--?AT P]SON W\LD NOT ONLY TALK NONS5SE1 BUT W\LD PROVE BY HIS V]Y WORDS ?AT ! ME?OD ( SCI5TIFIC RESE>* IS ABSOLUTELY /RANGE TO HIM2 ?AT HIS WORK IS UNSCI5TIFIC1 FULL AS IT MAY BE ( SCI5TIFIC EXPRESSIONS4 ,! ABS5CE ( DATA IS1 CLE>LY1 NO EXCUSE4 ,HUNDR$S1 IF NOT ?\S&S1 ( SIMIL> RELATION%IPS >E KN[N TO SCI5CE 9 :I* WE SEE ! DEP5D5CE ( ONE MAGNITUDE UPON ANO!R--= EXAMPLE1 ! RECOIL ( A CANNON DEP5D+ UPON ! QUANTITY ( P[D] 9 ! *>GE1 OR ! GR[? ( A PLANT DEP5D+ UPON ! AM\NT ( HEAT OR LI<T RECEIV$ BY IT2 BUT NO SCI5TIFIC MAN WILL PRESUME TO AFFIRM ! PROPORTIONALITY ( !SE MAGNITUDES )\T HAV+ 9VE/IGAT$ !IR RELATIONS QUANTITATIVELY1 & /ILL LESS W\LD HE REPRES5T ?IS PROPORTIONALITY AS A SCI5TIFIC LAW4 ,9 MO/ 9/ANCES ! DEP5D5CE IS V]Y COMPLEX--AS IT IS1 9DE$1 9 ! !ORY ( VALUE4 ,! NECESS>Y AM\NT ( LABOR & VALUE >E BY NO MEANS PROPORTIONAL4 

,! SAME REM>K REF]S TO ALMO/ EV]Y ECONOMIC DOCTR9E ?AT IS CURR5T TO-DAY 9 C]TA9 CIRCLES & IS BE+ PRES5T$ ) WOND]FUL NAIVETY AS AN 9V>IABLE LAW4 ,WE NOT ONLY F9D MO/ ( !SE SO-CALL$ LAWS GROSSLY ]RONE\S1 BUT MA9TA9 ALSO ?AT ?OSE :O BELIEVE 9 !M WILL !MSELVES BECOME CONV9C$ ( !IR ]ROR AS SOON AS !Y COME TO SEE ! NECESSITY ( V]IFY+ !IR QUANTITATIVE D$UCTIONS BY QUANTITATIVE 9VE/IGATION4 

,MOREOV]1 ! :OLE ( POLITICAL ECONOMY APPE>S TO US 9 A DIFF]5T LI<T FROM ?AT 9 :I* IT IS SE5 BY MOD]N ECONOMI/S ( BO? ! MIDDLE-CLASS & ! SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC CAMPS4 ,! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD 7! ME?OD ( NATURAL SCI5TIFIC 9DUCTION7 BE+ UTT]LY UNKN[N TO !M1 !Y FAIL TO GIVE !MSELVES ANY DEF9ITE ACC\NT ( :AT CON/ITUTES 0A LAW ( NATURE10 AL?\< !Y DELI<T 9 US+ ! T]M4 ,!Y DO NOT KN[--OR IF !Y KN[ !Y CONT9UALLY =GET--?AT EV]Y LAW ( NATURE HAS A CONDITIONAL *>ACT]4 ,IT IS ALWAYS EXPRESS$ ?US3 0,IF C]TA9 CONDITIONS 9 NATURE MEET1 C]TA9 ?+S WILL HAPP540 0,IF ONE L9E 9T]SECTS ANO!R1 =M+ RI<T ANGLES ON BO? SIDES ( IT1 ! CONSEQU5CES WILL BE !SE OR ?OSE40 ,IF TWO BODIES >E ACT$ UPON BY SU* MOVEM5TS ONLY AS EXI/ 9 9T]/ELL> SPACE1 & !RE IS NO ?IRD BODY )9 MEASURABLE DI/ANCE ( !M1 !N !IR C5T]S ( GRAVITY WILL APPROA* EA* O!R AT A C]TA9 SPE$ 7! LAW ( GRAVITATION740 ,& SO ON4 ,9 EV]Y CASE !RE IS AN 0IF0--A CONDITION4 

,9 CONSEQU5CE ( ?IS1 ALL ! SO-CALL$ LAWS & !ORIES ( POLITICAL ECONOMY >E 9 REALITY NO MORE ?AN /ATEM5TS ( ! FOLL[+ NATURE3 0,GRANT+ ?AT !RE >E ALWAYS 9 A C\NTRY A CONSID]ABLE NUMB] ( PEOPLE :O CANNOT SUBSI/ A MON?1 OR EV5 A =TNI<T1 )\T ACCEPT+ ! CONDITIONS ( WORK IMPOS$ UPON !M BY ! ,/ATE1 OR (F]$ TO !M BY ?OSE :OM ! ,/ATE RECOGNIZES AS [N]S ( L&1 FACTORIES1 RAILWAYS1 ETC41 !N ! RESULTS WILL BE SO & SO40 

,SO F> MIDDLE-CLASS POLITICAL ECONOMY HAS BE5 ONLY AN 5UM]ATION ( :AT HAPP5S UND] ! JU/-M5TION$ CONDITIONS--)\T DI/9CTLY /AT+ ! CONDITIONS !MSELVES4 ,& !N1 HAV+ DESCRIB$ ! FACTS :I* >ISE 9 \R SOCIETY UND] !SE CONDITIONS1 !Y REPRES5T TO US !SE FACTS AS RIGID1 9EVITABLE ECONOMIC LAWS4 ,AS TO SOCIALI/ POLITICAL ECONOMY1 AL?\< IT CRITICIZES SOME ( !SE D$UCTIONS1 OR EXPLA9S O!RS SOME:AT DIFF]5TLY1--IT HAS NOT YET BE5 ORIG9AL 5\< TO F9D A PA? ( ITS [N4 ,IT /ILL FOLL[S 9 ! OLD GROOVES1 & 9 MO/ CASES REPEATS ! V]Y SAME MI/AKES4 

,& YET1 9 \R OP9ION1 POLITICAL ECONOMY MU/ HAVE AN 5TIRELY DIFF]5T PROBLEM 9 VIEW4 ,IT \<T TO OCCUPY ) RESPECT TO HUMAN SOCIETIES A PLACE 9 SCI5CE SIMIL> TO ?AT HELD BY PHYSIOLOGY 9 RELATION TO PLANTS & ANIMALS4 ,IT MU/ BECOME ! PHYSIOLOGY ( SOCIETY4 ,IT %\LD AIM AT /UDY+ ! NE$S ( SOCIETY & ! V>I\S MEANS1 BO? HI!RTO US$ & AVAILABLE UND] ! PRES5T /ATE ( SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE1 = !IR SATISFACTION4 ,IT %\LD TRY TO ANALYZE H[ F> ! PRES5T MEANS >E EXP$I5T & SATISFACTORY1 ECONOMIC OR WA/EFUL & !N1 S9CE ! ULTIMATE 5D ( EV]Y SCI5CE 7AS ,BACON HAD ALREADY /AT$7 IS OBVI\SLY ITS PRACTICAL APPLICATION TO LIFE1 IT %\LD CONC]N ITSELF ) ! DISCOV]Y ( MEANS = ! SATISFACTION ( !SE NE$S ) ! SMALLE/ POSSIBLE WA/E ( LABOR & ) ! GREATE/ B5EFIT TO MANK9D 9 G5]AL4 ,SU* MEANS W\LD BE1 9 FACT1 M]E COROLL>IES FROM ! RELATIVE 9VE/IGATION M5TION$ ABOVE1 PROVID$ ?IS LA/ HAD BE5 MADE ON SCI5TIFIC L9ES4 

,IT WILL BE CLE>1 EV5 FROM ! HA/Y H9TS GIV5 ALREADY1 :Y IT IS ?AT WE COME TO CONCLUSIONS SO DIFF]5T FROM ?OSE ( ! MAJORITY ( ECONOMI/S1 BO? ( ! MIDDLE CLASS & ! SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC S*OOLS2 :Y WE DO NOT REG>D AS 0LAWS0 C]TA9 ( ! TEMPOR>Y RELATIONS PO9T$ \T BY !M2 :Y WE EXP\ND SOCIALISM 5TIRELY DIFF]5TLY2 & :Y1 AFT] /UDY+ ! T5D5CIES & DEVELOPM5TS 9 ! ECONOMIC LIFE ( DIFF]5T NATIONS1 WE COME TO SU* RADICALLY DIFF]5T CONCLUSIONS AS REG>DS ?AT :I* IS DESIRABLE & POSSIBLE2 :Y WE COME TO ,FREE ,COMMUNISM1 :ILE ! MAJORITY ( SOCIALI/S >RIVE AT ,/ATE-CAPITALISM & ,COLLECTIVISM4 

,P]HAPS WE >E WRONG & !Y >E RI<T4 ,BUT 9 ORD] TO ASC]TA9 :O IS RI<T1 IT WILL NOT DO EI!R TO QUOTE ?IS & ?AT AU?ORITY1 TO REF] TO ,HEGEL'S TRILOGY1 OR TO >GUE BY ! 0DIALECTIC ME?OD40 ,?IS QUE/ION CAN BE SETTL$ ONLY BY TAK+ UP ! /UDY ( ECONOMIC RELATIONS AS FACTS ( NATURAL SCI5CE4#c 

,PURSU+ ! SAME ME?OD1 ,AN>*ISM >RIVES ALSO AT ITS [N CONCLUSIONS CONC]N+ ! ,/ATE4 ,IT C\LD NOT RE/ CONT5T ) CURR5T METAPHYSICAL ASS]TIONS LIKE ! FOLL[+3 

0,! ,/ATE IS ! AFFIRMATION ( ! IDEA ( ! HI<E/ ,JU/ICE 9 ,SOCIETY20 OR 0,! ,/ATE IS ! 9/IGATION & ! 9/RUM5T ( PROGRESS20 OR1 0)\T ! ,/ATE1 ,SOCIETY IS IMPOSSIBLE40 ,AN>*ISM HAS APPROA*$ ! /UDY ( ! ,/ATE EXACTLY 9 ! MANN] ! NATURALI/ APPROA*ES ! /UDY ( SOCIAL LIFE AMONG BEES & ANTS1 OR AMONG ! MIGRATORY BIRDS :I* HAT* !IR Y\NG ON ! %ORES ( SUB->CTIC LAKES4 ,IT W\LD BE USELESS TO REPEAT H]E ! CONCLUSIONS TO :I* ?IS /UDY HAS BR\<T US ) REF]5CE TO ! HI/ORY ( ! DIFF]5T POLITICAL =MS 7& TO !IR DESIRABLE OR PROBABLE EVOLUTION 9 ! FUTURE72 IF ,I W]E TO DO SO1 ,I %\LD HAVE TO REPEAT :AT HAS BE5 WRITT5 BY ,AN>*I/S FROM ! TIME ( ,GODW91 & :AT MAY BE F\ND1 ) ALL NECESS>Y EXPLANATIONS1 9 A :OLE S]IES ( BOOKS & PAMPHLETS4 

,I WILL SAY ONLY ?AT ! ,/ATE IS A =M ( SOCIAL LIFE :I* HAS DEVELOP$ 
9 \R ,EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION1 UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( A S]IES ( CAUSES1#d ONLY S9CE ! 5D ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY4 ,BE=E ! SIXTE5? C5TURY ! ,/ATE1 9 ITS ,ROMAN =M1 DID NOT EXI/--OR1 MORE EXACTLY1 IT EXI/$ ONLY 9 ! M9DS ( ! HI/ORIANS :O TRACE ! G5EALOGY ( ,RUSSIAN AUTOCRACY TO ,RURIK & ?AT ( ,FRANCE TO ! ,M]OV+IAN K+S4 

,FUR!RMORE1 ! ,/ATE 7,/ATE-,JU/ICE1 ,/ATE-,*UR*1 ,/ATE-,>MY7 
& ,CAPITALISM >E1 9 \R OP9ION1 9SEP>ABLE CONCEPTS4 ,9 HI/ORY 
!SE 9/ITUTIONS DEVELOP$ SIDE BY SIDE1 MUTUALLY SUPPORT+ & 
RE9=C+ EA* O!R4 ,!Y >E B\ND TOGE!R1 NOT BY A M]E 
CO9CID5CE ( CONTEMPORANE\S DEVELOPM5T1 BUT BY ! BOND ( CAUSE 
& EFFECT1 EFFECT & CAUSE4 ,?US1 ! ,/ATE APPE>S TO US AS A 
SOCIETY = ! MUTUAL 9SURANCE ( ! L&LORD1 ! W>RIOR1 ! 
JUDGE1 & ! PRIE/1 CON/ITUT$ 9 ORD] TO 5ABLE EV]Y ONE ( 
!M TO ASS]T HIS RESPECTIVE AU?ORITY OV] ! PEOPLE & TO EXPLOIT 
! POOR4 ,TO CONTEMPLATE ! DE/RUCTION ( ,CAPITALISM )\T ! 
ABOLITION ( ! ,/ATE--?\< ! LATT] WAS CREAT$ SOLELY = ! 
PURPOSE ( FO/]+ ,CAPITALISM & HAS GR[N UP ALONGSIDE ( IT--IS 
JU/ AS ABSURD1 9 \R OP9ION1 AS IT IS TO HOPE ?AT ! EMANCIPATION 
( ! LABOR] WILL BE ACCOMPLI%$ ?R\< ! ACTION ( ! 
,*RI/IAN *UR* OR ( ,CAES>ISM4 ,MANY SOCIALI/S ( ! ?IRTIES & 
=TIES1 & EV5 ! FIFTIES1 HOP$ = ?IS2 BUT = US1 :O HAVE 
5T]$ UPON ! TW5TIE? C5TURY1 IT IS RIDICUL\S TO *]I% SU* 
HOPES AS ?IS6 

,FOOTNOTES 

  

#a 

0,COMPULSORY >BITRATION0--,:AT A GL>+ CONTRADICTION6 

#b,I AM NOT QUOT+ AN IMAG9>Y EXAMPLE1 BUT  
ONE TAK5 FROM A CORRESPOND5CE :I* ,I HAVE REC5TLY C>RI$ ON ) A ,G]MAN  
DOCTOR ( LAW4 

#c,A FEW EXTRACTS FROM A LETT] WRITT5 BY A R5[N$ ,BELGIAN BIOLOGI/ & RECEIV$ :5 !SE L9ES W]E 9 PR9T1 WILL HELP ME TO MAKE MY MEAN+ CLE>] BY A LIV+ ILLU/RATION4 ,! LETT] WAS NOT 9T5D$ = PUBLICATION1 & !RE=E ,I DO NOT NAME ITS AU?OR3 0,! FUR!R ,I READ .<SU* & SU* A WORK.>--HE WRITES--! SUR] ,I BECOME ?AT N[ADAYS ONLY ?OSE >E CAPABLE ( /UDY+ ECONOMIC & SOCIAL QUE/IONS :O HAVE /UDI$ ! NATURAL SCI5CES & HAVE BECOME IMBU$ ) !IR SPIRIT4 ,?OSE :O HAVE RECEIV$ ONLY A SO-CALL$ CLASSICAL $UCATION >E NO LONG] ABLE TO UND]/& ! PRES5T 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T & >E EQUALLY 9CAPABLE ( /UDY+ A MASS ( SOCIAL QUE/IONS4 4 4 4 4 ,! IDEA ( ! 9TEGRATION ( LABOR & ( DIVISION ( LABOR 9 TIME ONLY .<! IDEA ?AT IT W\LD BE EXP$I5T = SOCIETY TO HAVE EV]Y P]SON CULTIVAT+ ! L& & FOLL[+ 9DU/RIAL & 9TELLECTUAL PURSUITS 9 TURN1 ?US V>Y+ HIS LABOR & BECOM+ A V>I\SLY-DEVELOP$ 9DIVIDUAL.> WILL BECOME 9 TIME ONE ( ! CORN]/ONES ( ECONOMIC SCI5CE4 ,A NUMB] ( BIOLOGICAL FACTS >E 9 H>MONY ) ! ?\<T JU/ UND]L9$1 :I* %[S ?AT WE >E H]E DEAL+ ) A LAW ( NATURE .<?AT 9 NATURE1 9 O!R WORDS1 AN ECONOMY ( =CES MAY FREQU5TLY RESULT 9 ?IS WAY.>4 ,IF WE EXAM9E ! VITAL FUNCTIONS ( ANY LIV+ BE+ AT DIFF]5T P]IODS ( ITS LIFE1 & EV5 AT DIFF]5T TIMES ( ! YE>1 & SOMETIMES AT DIFF]5T MOM5TS ( ! DAY1 WE F9D ! APPLICATION ( ! DIVISION ( LABOR 9 TIME1 :I* IS 9SEP>ABLY CONNECT$ ) ! DIVISION ( LABOR AMONG ! DIFF]5T ORGANS 7! LAW ( ,ADAM ,SMI?74  

0,SCI5TIFIC PEOPLE UNACQUA9T$ ) ! NATURAL SCI5CES1>E FREQU5TLY UNABLE TO UND]/& ! TRUE MEAN+ ( A LAW ( NATURE2 ! WORD LAW BL9DS !M1 & !Y IMAG9E ?AT LAWS1 LIKE ?AT ( ,ADAM ,SMI?1 HAVE A FATALI/IC P[] FROM :I* IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO RID ONESELF4 ,:5 !Y >E %[N ! REV]SE SIDE ( ?IS LA/--! SAD RESULTS ( 9DIVIDUALISM1 FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( DEVELOPM5T & P]SONAL HAPP9ESS1--!Y ANSW]3 ?IS IS AN 9EXORABLE LAW1 & SOMETIMES !Y GIVE ?IS ANSW] SO (F-H&$LY ?AT !Y !REBY BETRAY !IR BELIEF 9 A K9D ( 9FALLIBILITY4 ,! NATURALI/1 H[EV]1 KN[S ?AT SCI5CE CAN P>ALYZE ! H>MFUL CONSEQU5CES ( A LAW2 ?AT FREQU5TLY HE :O GOES AGA9/ NATURE W9S ! VICTORY4 

0,! =CE ( GRAVITY COMPELS BODIES TO FALL1 BUT IT ALSO COMPELS ! BALLOON TO RISE4 ,TO US ?IS SEEMS SO CLE>2 BUT ! ECONOMI/S ( ! CLASSICAL S*OOL APPE> TO F9D IT DIFFICULT TO UND]/& ! FULL MEAN+ ( ?IS OBS]VATION4 

0,! LAW ( ! DIVISION ( LABOR 9 TIME WILL C\NT]-BALANCE ! LAW ( ,ADAM ,SMI?1 & WILL P]MIT ! 9TEGRATION ( LABOR TO BE REA*$ BY EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL40 

#d,AN ANALYSIS ( :I* MAY BE 
F\ND--SAY--9 ! PAMPHLET1 0 ,! ,/ATE & ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE 0 
7,FRE$OM PAMPHLETS74 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

O ,*APT] #a 

,PHOTO BY ,*RI/OPHE ,BECK]1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,IT IS OBVI\S ?AT1 S9CE ,AN>*ISM DIFF]S SO WIDELY 9 ITS ME?OD ( 9VE/IGATION & 9 ITS FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES1 ALIKE FROM ! ACADEMICAL SOCIOLOGI/S & FROM ITS SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC FRAT]NITY1 IT MU/ ( NECESSITY DIFF] FROM !M ALL 9 ITS MEANS ( ACTION4 

,UND]/&+ ,LAW1 ,RI<T1 & ! ,/ATE AS WE DO1 WE CANNOT SEE ANY GU>ANTEE ( PROGRESS1 /ILL LESS ( A SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 9 ! SUBMISSION ( ! ,9DIVIDUAL TO ! ,/ATE4 ,WE >E !RE=E NO LONG] ABLE TO SAY1 AS DO ! SUP]FICIAL 9T]PRET]S ( SOCIAL PH5OM5A1 ?AT MOD]N ,CAPITALISM HAS COME 9TO BE+ ?R\< 0! AN>*Y ( EXPLOITATION10 ?R\< 0! !ORY ( NON9T]F]5CE10 :I* WE >E TOLD ! ,/ATES HAVE C>RI$ \T BY PRACTIC+ ! =MULA ( 0LET !M DO AS !Y LIKE0 7LAISSEZ FAIRE1 LAISSEZ PASS]74 ,WE KN[ ?AT ?IS IS NOT TRUE4 ,:ILE GIV+ ! CAPITALI/ ANY DEGREE ( FREE SCOPE TO AMASS HIS WEAL? AT ! EXP5SE ( ! HELPLESS LABOR]S1 ! GOV]NM5T HAS ,N,O,:,],E & ,N,E,V,] DUR+ ! :OLE N9ETE5? C5TURY AF=D$ ! LABOR]S ! OPPORTUNITY 0TO DO AS !Y PLEAS$40 ,! T]RIBLE REVOLUTION>Y1 ?AT IS1 ,JACOB9I/1 CONV5TION LEGISLAT$3 0,= /RIKES1 = =M+ A ,/ATE )9 ! ,/ATE--DEA?60 ,9 #ahac PEOPLE W]E HANG$ 9 ,5GL& = GO+ \T ON /RIKE1 & 9 #ahca !Y W]E DEPORT$ TO ,AU/RALIA = =M+ ! ,GREAT ,TRADES' ,UNION 7,UNION ( ALL ,TRADES7 ( ,ROB]T ,[52 9 ! SIXTIES PEOPLE W]E /ILL CONDEMN$ TO H>D LABOR = P>TICIPAT+ 9 /RIKES1 & EV5 N[1 9 #a#i#b1 TRADE UNIONS >E PROSECUT$ = DAMAGES AM\NT+ TO HALF A MILLION DOLL>S = PICKET+--= HAV+ DISSUAD$ LABOR]S FROM WORK+ 9 TIMES ( /RIKE4 ,:AT IS ONE TO SAY1 !N1 ( ,FRANCE1 ,BELGIUM1 ,SWITZ]L& 7REMEMB] ! MASSACRE AT ,AIROLO671 & ESPECIALLY ( ,G]MANY & ,RUSSIA8 ,IT IS NE$LESS1 ALSO1 TO TELL H[1 BY MEANS ( TAXES1 ! ,/ATE BR+S LABOR]S TO ! V]GE ( POV]TY :I* PUTS !M BODY & S\L 9 ! P[] ( ! FACTORY BOSS2 H[ ! COMMUNAL L&S HAVE BE5 ROBB$ FROM ! PEOPLE1 & >E /ILL ROBB$ FROM !M 9 ,5GL& BY MEANS ( ! ,5CLOSURE ,ACTS4 ,OR1 MU/ WE REM9D ! READ] H[1 EV5 AT ! PRES5T MOM5T1 ALL ! ,/ATES1 )\T EXCEPTION1 >E CREAT+ DIRECTLY 7:AT IS ! USE ( TALK+ ( 0! ORIG9AL ACCUMULATION0 :5 IT IS CONT9U$ AT ! PRES5T TIME67 ALL K9DS ( MONOPOLIES--9 RAILROADS1 TRAMWAYS1 TELEPHONES1 GASWORKS1 WAT]WORKS1 ELECTRIC WORKS1 S*OOLS1 ETC41 ETC4 ,9 %ORT1 ! SY/EM ( NON9T]F]5CE--! LAISSEZ FAIRE--HAS NEV] BE5 APPLI$ = ONE S+LE H\R BY ANY GOV]NM5T4 ,& !RE=E1 IF IT IS P]MISSIBLE = MIDDLE-CLASS ECONOMI/S TO AFFIRM ?AT ! SY/EM ( 0NON9T]F]5CE0 IS PRACTIC$ 7S9CE !Y 5DEAVOR TO PROVE ?AT POV]TY IS A LAW ( NATURE71 IT IS SIMPLY %AMEFUL ?AT SOCIALI/S %\LD SPEAK ?US TO ! WORK]S4 ,FRE$OM TO OPPOSE EXPLOITATION HAS SO F> NEV] & NO:]E EXI/$4 ,EV]Y:]E IT HAD TO BE TAK5 BY =CE1 /EP BY /EP1 AT ! CO/ ( C\NTLESS SACRIFICES4 0,NON9T]F]5CE10 & MORE ?AN NON9T]F]5CE--DIRECT SUPPORT2 HELP & PROTECTION--EXI/$ ONLY 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! EXPLOIT]S4 ,NOR C\LD IT BE OV]WISE4 ,! MISSION ( ! ,*UR* HAS BE5 TO HOLD ! PEOPLE 9 9TELLECTUAL SLAV]Y2 ! MISSION ( ! ,/ATE WAS TO HOLD !M1 HALF />V$1 9 ECONOMIC SLAV]Y4 

,KN[+ ?IS1 WE CANNOT SEE A GU>ANTEE ( PROGRESS 9 A /ILL GREAT] SUBMISSION ( ALL TO ! ,/ATE4 ,WE SEEK PROGRESS 9 ! FULLE/ EMANCIPATION ( ! ,9DIVIDUAL FROM ! AU?ORITY ( ! ,/ATE2 9 ! GREATE/ DEVELOPM5T ( 9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE & 9 ! LIMITATION ( ALL ! GOV]NM5TAL FUNCTIONS1 BUT SURELY NOT 9 ! EXT5SION !RE(4 ,! M>* =W>D 9 POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS APPE>S TO US TO CONSI/ 9 ABOLI%+1 9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 ! ,/ATE AU?ORITY :I* HAS FIX$ ITSELF UPON SOCIETY 7ESPECIALLY S9CE ! SIXTE5? C5TURY71 & :I* N[ TRIES TO EXT5D ITS FUNCTIONS MORE & MORE2 &1 9 ! SECOND PLACE1 9 ALL[+ ! BROADE/ POSSIBLE DEVELOPM5T = ! PR9CIPLE ( FREE AGREEM5T1 & 9 ACKN[L$G+ ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ALL POSSIBLE ASSOCIATIONS =M$ = DEF9ITE 5DS1 EMBRAC+ 9 !IR F$]ATIONS ! :OLE ( SOCIETY4 ,! LIFE ( SOCIETY ITSELF WE UND]/&1 NOT AS SOME?+ COMPLETE & RIGID1 BUT AS SOME?+ NEV] P]FECT--SOME?+ EV] /RIV+ = NEW =MS1 & EV] *ANG+ !SE =MS 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! NE$S ( ! TIME4 ,?IS IS :AT LIFE IS 9 ,NATURE4 

,SU* A CONCEPTION ( HUMAN PROGRESS & ( :AT WE ?9K DESIRABLE 9 ! FUTURE 7:AT1 9 \R OP9ION1 CAN 9CREASE ! SUM ( HAPP9ESS7 LEADS US 9EVITABLY TO \R [N SPECIAL TACTICS 9 ! /RUGGLE4 ,IT 9DUCES US TO /RIVE = ! GREATE/ POSSIBLE DEVELOPM5T ( P]SONAL 9ITIATIVE 9 EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL & GR\P1 & TO SECURE UNITY ( ACTION1 NOT ?R\< DISCIPL9E1 BUT ?R\< ! UNITY ( AIMS & ! MUTUAL CONFID5CE :I* NEV] FAIL TO DEVELOP :5 A >EA NUMB] ( P]SONS HAVE CONSCI\SLY EMBRAC$ SOME COMMON IDEA4 ,?IS T5D5CY MANIFE/S ITSELF 9 ALL ! TACTICS & 9 ALL ! 9T]NAL LIFE ( EV]Y ,AN>*I/ GR\P1 & SO F> WE HAVE NEV] HAD ! OPPORTUNITY ( SEE+ !SE TACTICS FAIL4 

,!N1 WE ASS]T & 5DEAVOR TO PROVE ?AT IT DEVOLVES UPON EV]Y NEW ECONOMIC =M ( SOCIAL LIFE TO DEVELOP ITS [N NEW =M ( POLITICAL RELATIONS4 ,IT HAS BE5 SO 9 ! PA/1 & SO IT UND\BT$LY WILL BE 9 ! FUTURE4 ,NEW =MS >E ALREADY G]M9AT+ ALL R\ND4 

,FEUDAL RI<T & AUTOCRACY1 OR1 AT LEA/1 ! ALMO/ UNLIMIT$ P[] ( A CZ> OR A K+1 HAVE MOV$ H& 9 H& 9 HI/ORY4 ,!Y DEP5D$ ON EA* O!R 9 ?IS DEVELOPM5T4 ,EXACTLY 9 ! SAME WAY ! RULE ( ! CAPITALI/S HAS EVOLV$ ITS [N *>ACT]I/IC POLITICAL ORD]-- REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T--BO? 9 /RICTLY C5TRALIZ$ MON>*IES & 9 REPUBLICS4 

,SOCIALISM1 :ATEV] MAY BE ! =M 9 :I* IT WILL APPE>1 & 9 :ATEV] DEGREE IT MAY APPROA* TO ITS UNAVOIDABLE GOAL--,COMMUNISM1--WILL ALSO HAVE TO *OOSE ITS [N =M ( POLITICAL /RUCTURE4 ,( ! OLD =M IT CANNOT MAKE USE1 NO MORE ?AN IT C\LD AVAIL ITSELF ( ! HI]>*Y ( ! ,*UR* OR ( AUTOCRACY4 ,! ,/ATE BUREAUCRACY & C5TRALIZATION >E AS IRRECONCILABLE ) ,SOCIALISM AS WAS AUTOCRACY ) CAPITALI/ RULE4 ,ONE WAY OR ANO!R1 ,SOCIALISM MU/ BECOME MORE POPUL>1 MORE COMMUNALI/IC1 & LESS DEP5D5T UPON 9DIRECT GOV]NM5T ?R\< ELECT$ REPRES5TATIVES4 ,IT MU/ BECOME MORE SELF-GOV]N+4 ,BESIDES1 :5 WE CLOSELY OBS]VE ! MOD]N LIFE ( ,FRANCE1 ,SPA9 ,5GL&1 & ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 WE NOTICE 9 !SE C\NTRIES ! EVID5T T5D5CY TO =M 9TO GR\PS ( 5TIRELY 9DEP5D5T COMMUNES1 T[NS & VILLAGES1 :I* W\LD COMB9E BY MEANS ( FREE F$]ATION1 9 ORD] TO SATISFY 9NUM]ABLE NE$S & ATTA9 C]TA9 IMM$IATE 5DS4 ,( C\RSE1 NEI!R ! ,RUSSIAN ,M9I/] ,WITTE NOR ! ,G]MAN ,WILLIAM ,I,I1 NOR EV5 ! ,JACOB9I/S :O TO-DAY RULE ,SWITZ]L&1 >E MAK+ = ?IS GOAL4 ,ALL !SE WORK UPON ! OLD MODEL = CAPITALI/ & GOV]NM5TAL C5TRALIZATION 9 ! H&S ( ! ,/ATE2 BUT ! ABOVE-M5TION$ DISMEMB]M5T ( ! ,/ATE1 BO? T]RITORIAL & FUNCTIONAL1 IS UND\BT$LY AIM$ AT BY ! PROGRESSIVE P>T ( ,WE/ ,EUROPEAN SOCIETY & ( ! ,AM]ICAN PEOPLE4 ,9 ACTUAL LIFE ?IS T5D5CY MANIFE/S ITSELF 9 ?\S&S ( ATTEMPTS AT ORGANIZATION \TSIDE ! ,/ATE1 FULLY 9DEP5D5T ( IT2 AS WELL AS 9 ATTEMPTS TO TAKE HOLD ( V>I\S FUNCTIONS :I* HAD BE5 PREVI\SLY USURP$ BY ! ,/ATE & :I*1( C\RSE1 IT HAS NEV] PROP]LY P]=M$4 ,& !N1 AS A GREAT SOCIAL PH5OM5ON ( UNIV]SAL IMPORT1 ?IS T5D5CY F\ND EXPRESSION 9 ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( #ahga & 9 A :OLE S]IES ( SIMIL> UPRIS+S 9 ,FRANCE & ,SPA92 :ILE 9 ! DOMA9 ( ?\<T--( IDEAS SPREAD+ ?R\< SOCIETY--?IS VIEW HAS ALREADY ACQUIR$ ! =CE ( AN EXTREMELY IMPORTANT FACTOR ( FUTURE HI/ORY4 ,! FUTURE REVOLUTIONS 9 ,FRANCE & 9 ,SPA9 WILL BE COMMUNALI/--NOT C5TRALI/4 

,ON ! /R5G? ( ALL ?IS1 WE >E CONV9C$ ?AT TO WORK 9 FAVOR ( A C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE-CAPITALISM & TO SEE 9 IT A DESID]ATUM1 MEANS TO WORK AGA9/ ! T5D5CY ( PROGRESS ALREADY MANIFE/4 ,WE SEE 9 SU* WORK AS ?IS A GROSS MISUND]/&+ ( ! HI/ORIC MISSION ( ,SOCIALISM ITSELF--A GREAT HI/ORICAL MI/AKE1 & WE MAKE W> UPON IT4 ,TO ASSURE ! LABOR]S ?AT !Y WILL BE ABLE TO E/ABLI% ,SOCIALISM1 OR EV5 TO TAKE ! FIR/ /EPS ON ! ROAD TO ,SOCIALISM1 BY RETA9+ ! 5TIRE GOV]NM5T MA*9]Y1 & *ANG+ ONLY ! P]SONS :O MANAGE IT2 NOT TO PROMOTE1 BUT EV5 TO RET>D ! DAY ON :I* ! WORK+ PEOPLE'S M9DS %ALL BE B5T UPON DISCOV]+ !IR [N1 NEW =MS ( POLITICAL LIFE1--?IS IS 9 \R EYES A COLOSSAL HI/ORICAL BLUND] :I* BORD]S UPON CRIME4 

,F9ALLY1 S9CE WE REPRES5T A REVOLUTION>Y P>TY1 WE TRY TO /UDY ! HI/ORY ( ! ORIG9 & DEVELOPM5T ( PA/ REVOLUTIONS4 ,WE 5DEAVOR1 FIR/ ( ALL1 TO FREE ! HI/ORIES ( REVOLUTIONS WRITT5 UP TILL N[ FROM ! P>TISAN1 & = ! MO/ P>T FALSE1 GOV]NM5TAL COLOR+ ?AT HAS BE5 GIV5 !M4 ,9 ! HI/ORIES HI!RTO WRITT5 WE DO NOT YET SEE ! PEOPLE2 NOR DO WE SEE H[ REVOLUTIONS BEGAN4 ,! /]EOTYP$ PHRASES AB\T ! DESP]ATE CONDITION ( PEOPLE PREVI\S TO REVOLUTIONS1 FAIL TO EXPLA9 :5CE1 AMID ?IS DESP]ATION1 CAME ! HOPE ( SOME?+ BETT]--:5CE CAME ! REVOLUTION>Y SPIRIT4 ,& !RE=E1 AFT] READ+ !SE HI/ORIES1 WE PUT !M ASIDE1 &1 GO+ BACK TO FIR/ S\RCES1 TRY TO LE>N FROM !M :AT CAUS$ ! PEOPLE TO RISE & :AT WAS ITS P>T 9 REVOLUTIONS4 

,?US1 WE UND]/& ! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION NOT AT ALL AS IT IS PICTUR$ BY ,L\IS ,BLANC1 :O PRES5TS IT *IEFLY AS A GREAT POLITICAL MOVEM5T DIRECT$ BY ! ,JACOB9 ,CLUB4 ,WE SEE 9 IT1 FIR/ ( ALL1 A *AOTIC POPUL> MOVEM5T1 *IEFLY ( ! PEASANT FOLK 70,EV]Y VILLAGE HAD ITS ,ROBESPI]RE10 AS ! ,ABBE ,GREGOIRE1 :O KNEW ! PEOPLE'S REVOLT1 REM>K$ TO ! HI/ORIAN ,S*LOSS]74 ,?IS MOVEM5T AIM$ *IEFLY AT ! DE/RUCTION ( EV]Y VE/IGE ( FEUDAL RI<TS & ( ! R$EMPTIONS ?AT HAD BE5 IMPOS$ = ! ABOLITION ( SOME ( !M1 AS WELL AS AT ! RECOV]Y ( ! L&S :I* HAD BE5 SEIZ$ FROM ! VILLAGE COMMUNES BY VULTURES ( V>I\S K9DS4 ,& 9 SO F> ! PEASANT MOVEM5T WAS SUCCESSFUL4 ,!N1 UPON ?IS F\NDATION ( REVOLUTION>Y TUMULT1 ( 9CREAS$ PULSATION ( LIFE1 & ( DISORGANIZATION ( ALL ! P[]S ( ! ,/ATE1 WE F9D1 ON ! ONE H&1 DEVELOP+ AMONG ! T[N LABOR]S A T5D5CY T[>DS A VAGUELY UND]/OOD SOCIALI/ EQUALITY2 &1 ON ! O!R H&1 ! MIDDLE CLASSES WORK+ H>D1 & SUCCESSFULLY1 9 ORD] TO E/ABLI% !IR [N AU?ORITY UPON ! RU9S ( ?AT ( ROYALTY & NOBILITY4 ,TO ?IS 5D ! MIDDLE CLASSES F\<T /UBBORNLY & DESP]ATELY ?AT !Y MI<T CREATE A P[]FUL1 ALL 9CLUSIVE1 C5TRALIZ$ GOV]NM5T1 :I* W\LD PRES]VE & ASSURE TO !M !IR RI<T ( PROP]TY 7GA9$ P>TLY BY PLUND] BE=E & DUR+ ! ,REVOLUTION7 & AF=D !M ! FULL OPPORTUNITY ( EXPLOIT+ ! POOR )\T ANY LEGAL RE/RICTIONS4 ,?IS P[]1 ?IS RI<T TO EXPLOIT1 ! MIDDLE CLASSES REALLY OBTA9$2 & 9 ! ,/ATE C5TRALIZATION :I* WAS CREAT$ BY ! REVOLUTION>Y ,JACOB9I/S1 ,NAPOLEON F\ND AN EXCELL5T SOIL = E/ABLI%+ HIS EMPIRE4 ,FROM ?IS C5TRALIZ$ AU?ORITY1 :I* KILLS ALL LOCAL LIFE1 ,FRANCE IS SUFF]+ EV5 TO ?IS V]Y DAY1 & ! FIR/ ATTEMPT TO ?R[ (F ITS YOKE--AN ATTEMPT :I* OP5$ A NEW ]A 9 HI/ORY--WAS MADE BY ! PROLET>IAT ( ,P>IS ONLY 9 #a#h#g#a4 

,)\T 5T]+ H]E UPON AN ANALYSIS ( O!R REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS1 IT IS SUFFICI5T TO SAY ?AT WE UND]/& ! COM+ SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 NOT AT ALL AS A ,JACOB9I/ DICTATOR%IP--NOT AT ALL AS A RE=M ( ! SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS BY MEANS ( LAWS ISSU$ BY A ,CONV5TION OR A ,S5ATE OR A ,DICTATOR4 ,SU* REVOLUTIONS HAVE NEV] OCCURR$1 & A MOVEM5T :I* %\LD TAKE ?IS =M W\LD BE DOOM$ TO 9EVITABLE DEA?4 ,WE UND]/& ! REVOLUTION AS A WIDESPREAD POPUL> MOVEM5T1 DUR+ :I*1 9 EV]Y T[N & VILLAGE )9 ! REGION ( ! REVOLT1 ! MASSES WILL HAVE TO TAKE UPON !MSELVES ! TASK ( REBUILD+ SOCIETY--WILL HAVE TO TAKE UP !MSELVES ! WORK ( CON/RUCTION UPON COMMUNI/IC BASES1 )\T AWAIT+ ANY ORD]S & DIRECTIONS FROM ABOVE2 ?AT IS1 FIR/ ( ALL1 !Y WILL HAVE TO ORGANIZE1 ONE WAY OR ANO!R1 ! MEANS ( SUPPLY+ FOOD TO EV]YONE & ( PROVID+ DWELL+S = ALL1 & !N PRODUCE :ATEV] WILL BE F\ND NECESS>Y = FE$+1 CLO?+1 & %ELT]+ EV]YBODY4 

,AS TO ! REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T1 :E!R SELF-APPO9T$ OR ELECT$--BE IT 0! DICTATOR%IP ( ! PROLET>IAT10 AS !Y SAID 9 ! =TIES 9 ,FRANCE & >E /ILL SAY+ 9 ,G]MANY1 OR AN ELECT$ 0TEMPOR>Y GOV]NM5T10 OR1 AGA91 A ,JACOB9I/ 0CONV5TION10--WE PLACE 9 IT NO HOPES :ATEV]4 ,NOT BECAUSE WE P]SONALLY DO NOT LIKE IT1 BUT BECAUSE NO:]E & NEV] 9 HI/ORY DO WE F9D ?AT PEOPLE1 C>RI$ 9TO GOV]NM5T BY A REVOLUTION>Y WAVE1 HAVE PROV$ EQUAL TO ! OCCASION2 ALWAYS & EV]Y:]E !Y HAVE FALL5 BEL[ ! REVOLUTION>Y REQUIREM5TS ( ! MOM5T2 ALWAYS & EV]Y:]E !Y BECAME AN OB/ACLE TO ! REVOLUTION4 ,WE PLACE NO HOPE 9 ?IS REPRES5TATION BECAUSE1 9 ! WORK ( REBUID+ SOCIETY UPON NEW COMMUNI/ PR9CIPLES1 SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS1 H[EV] WISE & DEVOT$ TO ! CAUSE1 >E & MU/ BE P[]LESS4 ,!Y CAN ONLY F9D A LEGAL EXPRESSION = SU* A DE/RUCTION AS IS ALREADY BE+ ACCOMPLI%$--AT MO/ !Y CAN BUT WID5 & EXT5D ?AT DE/RUCTION SO AS TO SUGGE/ IT TO REGIONS :I* HAVE NOT YET BEGUN IT4 ,BUT ?AT IS ALL4 ,! DE/RUCTION MU/ BE WR\<T FROM BEL[ 9 EV]Y PORTION ( ! T]RITORY2 O!RWISE IT WILL NOT BE DONE4 ,TO IMPOSE IT BY LAW IS IMPOSSIBLE1 AS1 9DE$1 ! REVOLT ( ! ,V5DEE HAS PROV$4 ,AS = ANY NEW BASES ( LIFE :I* >E ONLY GR[+ AS YET1--NO GOV]NM5T CAN EV] F9D AN EXPRESSION = !M BE=E !Y BECOME DEF9$ BY ! CON/RUCTIVE ACTIVITY ( ! MASSES !MSELVES1 AT ?\S&S ( PO9TS AT ONCE4 

,LOOK+ UPON ! PROBLEMS ( ! REVOLUTION 9 ?IS LI<T1 ,AN>*ISM1 OBVI\SLY1 CANNOT TAKE A SYMPA!TIC ATTITUDE T[>D ! PROGRAM :I* AIMS AT 0! CONQUE/ ( P[] 9 PRES5T SOCIETY0--LA CONQUETE DES P\VOIRS AS IT IS EXPRESS$ 9 ,FRANCE4 ,WE KN[ ?AT BY PEACEFUL1 P>LIAM5T>Y MEANS1 9 ! PRES5T ,/ATE SU* A CONQUE/ AS ?IS IS IMPOSSIBLE4 ,9 PROPORTION AS ! SOCIALI/S BECOME A P[] 9 ! PRES5T B\RGEOIS SOCIETY & ,/ATE1 !IR ,SOCIALISM MU/ DIE \T2 O!RWISE ! MIDDLE CLASSES1 :I* >E MU* MORE P[]FUL BO? 9TELLECTUALLY & NUM]ICALLY ?AN IS ADMITT$ 9 ! SOCIALI/ PRESS1 WILL NOT RECOGNIZE !M AS !IR RUL]S4 ,& WE KN[ ALSO ?AT1 W]E A REVOLUTION TO GIVE ,FRANCE OR ,5GL& OR ,G]MANY A SOCIALI/ GOV]NM5T1 ! RESPECTIVE GOV]NM5T W\LD BE ABSOLUTELY P[]LESS )\T ! ACTIVITY ( ! PEOPLE !MSELVES1 & ?AT1 NECESS>ILY1 IT W\LD SOON BEG9 TO ACT FATALLY AS A BRIDLE UPON ! REVOLUTION4 

,F9ALLY1 \R /UDIES ( ! PREP>ATORY /AGES ( ALL REVOLUTIONS BR+ US TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT NOT A S+LE REVOLUTION HAS ORIG9AT$ 9 P>LIAM5TS OR 9 ANY O!R REPRES5TATIVE ASSEMBLY4 ,ALL BEGAN ) ! PEOPLE4 ,& NO REVOLUTION HAS APPE>$ 9 FULL >MOR--BORN1 LIKE ,M9]VA \T ( ! HEAD ( ,JUPIT]1 9 A DAY4 ,!Y ALL HAD !IR P]IODS ( 9CUBATION1 DUR+ :I* ! MASSES W]E V]Y SL[LY BECOM+ IMBU$ ) ! REVOLUTION>Y SPIRIT1 GREW BOLD]1 COMM5C$ TO HOPE1 & /EP BY /EP EM]G$ FROM !IR =M] 9DIFF]5CE & RESIGNATION4 ,& ! AWAK5+ ( ! REVOLUTION>Y SPIRIT ALWAYS TOOK PLACE 9 SU* A MANN] ?AT1 AT FIR/1 S+LE 9DIVIDUALS1 DEEPLY MOV$ BY ! EXI/+ /ATE ( ?+S1 PROTE/$ AGA9/ IT1 ONE BY ONE4 ,MANY P]I%$--0USELESSLY10 ! >M-*AIR CRITIC W\LD SAY2 BUT ! 9DIFF]5CE ( SOCIETY WAS %AK5 BY !SE PROG5ITORS4 ,! DULLE/ & MO/ N>R[-M9D$ PEOPLE W]E COMPELL$ TO REFLECT1--,:Y %\LD M51 Y\NG1 S9C]E1 & FULL ( /R5G?1 SACRIFICE !IR LIVES 9 ?IS WAY8 ,IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE TO REMA9 9DIFF]5T--IT WAS NECESS>Y TO TAKE A /&1 = OR AGA9/3 ?\<T WAS AWAK5+4 ,!N1 LITTLE BY LITTLE1 SMALL GR\PS CAME TO BE IMBU$ ) ! SAME SPIRIT ( REVOLT2 !Y ALSO REBELL$--SOMETIMES 9 ! HOPE ( LOCAL SUCCESS--9 /RIKES OR 9 SMALL REVOLTS AGA9/ SOME (FICIAL :OM !Y DISLIK$1 OR 9 ORD] TO GET FOOD = !IR HUNGRY *ILDR51 BUT FREQU5TLY ALSO )\T ANY HOPE ( SUCCESS3 SIMPLY BECAUSE ! CONDITIONS GREW UNBE>ABLE4 ,NOT ONE1 OR TWO1 OR T5S1 BUT HUNDR$S ( SIMIL> REVOLTS HAVE PREC$$ & MU/ PREC$E EV]Y REVOLUTION4 ,)\T !SE NO REVOLUTION WAS EV] WR\<T2 NOT A S+LE CONCESSION WAS EV] MADE BY ! RUL+ CLASSES4 ,EV5 ! FAM\S 0PEACEFUL0 ABOLITION ( S]FDOM 9 ,RUSSIA1 ( :I* ,TOL/OY (T5 SPEAKS AS ( A PEACEFUL CONQUE/1 WAS =C$ UPON ! GOV]NM5T BY A S]IES ( PEASANT UPRIS+S1 BEG9N+ ) ! E>LY FIFTIES 7P]PAPS AS AN E*O ( ! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTION ( #a#h#d#h71 SPREAD+ FROM YE> TO YE>1 & GA9+ 9 IMPORTANCE SO AS TO ATTA9 PROPORTIONS HI!RTO UNKN[N1 UNTIL #a#h#e#g4 ,ALEX&] ,H]Z5'S WORDS1 0,BETT] TO ABOLI% S]FDOM FROM ABOVE ?AN TO WAIT UNTIL ! ABOLITION COMES FROM BEL[10--REPEAT$ BY ,ALEXD] ,I,I BE=E ! S]F-[N]S ( ,MOSC[--W]E NOT M]E PHRASES1 BUT ANSW]$ TO ! REAL /ATE ( AFFAIRS4 ,?IS WAS ALL ! MORE TRUE AS TO ! EVE ( EV]Y REVOLUTION4 ,HUNDR$S ( P>TIAL REVOLTS PREC$$ EV]Y ONE ( !M4 ,& IT MAYBE /AT$ AS A G5]AL RULE ?AT ! *>ACT] ( EV]Y REVOLUTION IS DET]M9$ BY ! *>ACT] & ! AIM ( ! UPRIS+S BY :I* IT IS PREC$$4 

,TO WAIT1 !RE=E1 = A SOCIAL REVOLUTION TO COME AS A BIR?DAY PRES5T1 )\T A :OLE S]IES ( PROTE/S ON ! P>T ( ! 9DIVIDUAL CONSCI5CE1 & )\T HUNDR$S ( PRELIM9>Y REVOLTS1 BY :I* ! V]Y NATURE ( ! REVOLUTION IS DET]M9$1 IS1 TO SAY ! LEA/1 ABSURD4 ,BUT TO ASSURE ! WORK+ PEOPLE ?AT !Y WILL GA9 ALL ! B5EFITS ( A SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION BY CONF9+ !MSELVES TO ELECTORAL AGITATION1 & TO ATTACK VEHEM5TLY EV]Y ACT ( 9DIVIDUAL REVOLT & ALL M9OR PRELIM9>Y MASS-REVOLTS--EV5 :5 !Y APPE> AMONG NATIONS HI/ORICALLY F> MORE REVOLUTION>Y ?AN ! ,G]MANS--MEANS TO BECOME AS GREAT AN OB/ACLE TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! REVOLUTION>Y SPIRIT & TO ALL PROGRESS AS WAS & IS ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*4 

,:I?\T 5T]+ 9TO FUR!R DISCUSSION ( ! PR9CIPLES ( ,AN>*ISM & ! ,AN>*I/ PROGRAM ( ACTION1 5\< HAS BE5 SAID1 ,I ?9K1 TO %[ ! PLACE ( ,AN>*ISM AMONG ! MOD]N SOCIOLOGICAL SCI5CES4 

,AN>*ISM IS AN ATTEMPT TO APPLY TO ! /UDY ( ! HUMAN 9/ITUTIONS ! G5]ALIZATIONS GA9$ BY MEANS ( ! NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC 9DUCTIVE ME?OD2 & AN ATTEMPT TO =ESEE ! FUTURE /EPS ( MANK9D ON ! ROAD TO LIB]TY1 EQUALITY1 & FRAT]NITY1 ) A VIEW TO REALIZ+ ! GREATE/ SUM ( HAPP9ESS = EV]Y UNIT ( HUMAN SOCIETY4 

,IT IS ! 9EVITABLE RESULT ( ?AT NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC1 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T :I* BEGAN AT ! CLOSE ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 WAS HAMP]$ = HALF A C5TURY BY ! REACTION ?AT SET 9 ?R\<\T ,EUROPE AFT] ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 & HAS BE5 APPE>+ AGA9 9 FULL VIGOR EV] S9CE ! 5D ( ! FIFTIES4 ,ITS ROOTS LIE 9 ! NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC PHILOSOPHY ( ! C5TURY M5TION$4 ,ITS COMPLETE SCI5TIFIC BASIS1 H[EV]1 IT C\LD RECEIVE ONLY AFT] ?AT AWAK5+ ( NATURALISM :I*1 AB\T =TY YE>S AGO1 BR\<T 9TO BE+ ! NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC /UDY ( HUMAN SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 

,9 ,AN>*ISM !RE IS NO ROOM = ?OSE PSEUDO-SCI5TIFIC LAWS ) :I* ! ,G]MAN METAPHYSICIANS ( ! TW5TIES & ?IRTIES HAD TO CONS5T !MSELVES4 ,AN>*ISM DOES NOT RECOGNIZE ANY ME?OD O!R ?AN ! NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC4 ,?IS ME?OD IT APPLIES TO ALL ! SO-CALL$ HUMANIT>IAN SCI5CES1 &1 AVAIL+ ITSELF ( ?IS ME?OD AS WELL AS ( ALL RESE>*ES :I* HAVE REC5TLY BE5 CALL$ =? BY IT1 ,AN>*ISM 5DEAVORS TO RECON/RUCT ALL ! SCI5CES DEAL+ ) MAN1 & TO REVISE EV]Y CURR5T IDEA ( RI<T1 JU/ICE1 ETC41 ON ! BASES :I* HAVE S]V$ = ! REVISION ( ALL NATURAL SCI5CES4 ,ITS OBJECT IS TO =M A SCI5TIFIC CONCEPT ( ! UNIV]SE EMBRAC+ ! :OLE ( ,NATURE & 9CLUD+ ,MAN4 

,?IS WORLD-CONCEPT DET]M9ES ! POSITION ,AN>*ISM HAS TAK5 9 PRACTICAL LIFE4 ,9 ! /RUGGLE BETWE5 ! ,9DIVIDUAL & ! ,/ATE1 ,AN>*ISM1 LIKE ITS PR$ECESSORS ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 TAKES ! SIDE ( ! ,9DIVIDUAL AS AGA9/ ! ,/ATE1 ( ,SOCIETY AS AGA9/ ! ,AU?ORITY :I* OPPRESSES IT4 ,&1 AVAIL+ ITSELF ( ! HI/ORICAL DATA COLLECT$ BY MOD]N SCI5CE1 IT HAS %[N ?AT ! ,/ATE--:OSE SPH]E ( AU?ORITY !RE IS N[ A T5D5CY AMONG ITS ADMIR]S TO 9CREASE1 & A T5D5CY TO LIMIT 9 ACTUAL LIFE--IS1 9 REALITY1 A SUP]/RUCTURE1--AS H>MFUL AS IT IS UNNECESS>Y1 &1 = US ,EUROPEANS1 ( A COMP>ATIVELY REC5T ORIG92 A SUP]/RUCTURE 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ,CAPITALISM--AGR>IAN1 9DU/RIAL1 & F9ANCIAL--:I* 9 ANCI5T HI/ORY CAUS$ ! DECAY 7RELATIVELY SPEAK+7 ( PO,IITICALLY-FREE ,ROME & ,GREECE1 & :I* CAUS$ ! DEA? ( ALL O!R DESPOTIC C5T]S ( CIVILIZATION ( ! ,EA/ & ( ,EGYPT4 ,! P[] :I* WAS CREAT$ = ! PURPOSE ( WELD+ TOGE!R ! 9T]E/S ( ! L&LORD1 ! JUDGE1 ! W>RIOR1 & ! PRIE/1 & HAS BE5 OPPOS$ ?R\<\T HI/ORY TO EV]Y ATTEMPT ( MANK9D TO CREATE = !MSELVES A MORE ASSUR$ & FRE] MODE ( LIFE1--?IS P[] CANNOT BECOME AN 9/RUM5T = EMANCIPATION1 ANY MORE ?AN ,CAES>ISM 7,IMP]IALISM7 OR ! ,*UR* CAN BECOME ! 9/RUM5T = A SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 

,9 ! ECONOMIC FIELD1 ,AN>*ISM HAS COME TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT ! ROOT ( MOD]N EVIL LIES1 NOT 9 ! FACT ?AT ! CAPITALI/ APPROPRIATES ! PR(ITS OR ! SURPLUS-VALUE1 BUT 9 ! V]Y POSSIBILITY ( !SE PR(ITS1 :I* ACCRUE ONLY BECAUSE MILLIONS ( PEOPLE HAVE LIT]ALLY NO?+ TO SUBSI/ UPON )\T SELL+ !IR LABOR-P[] AT A PRICE :I* MAKES PR(ITS & ! CREATION ( 0SURPLUS VALUES0 POSSIBLE4 ,AN>*ISM UND]/&S1 !RE=E1 ?AT 9 POLITICAL ECONOMY ATT5TION MU/ BE DIRECT$ FIR/ ( ALL TO SO-CALL$ 0CONSUMPTION10 & ?AT ! FIR/ CONC]N ( ! REVOLUTION MU/ BE TO REORGANIZE ?AT SO AS TO PROVIDE FOOD1 CLO?+ & %ELT] = ALL4 0,PRODUCTION10 ON ! O!R H&1 MU/ BE SO ADAPT$ AS TO SATISFY ?IS PRIM>Y1 FUNDAM5TAL NE$ ( SOCIETY4 ,!RE=E1 ,AN>*ISM CANNOT SEE 9 ! NEXT COM+ REVOLUTION A M]E EX*ANGE ( MONET>Y SYMBOLS = LABOR-*ECKS1 OR AN EX*ANGE ( PRES5T ,CAPITALISM = ,/ATE-CAPITALISM4 ,IT SEES 9 IT ! FIR/ /EP ON ! ROAD TO ,NO-GOV]NM5T ,COMMUNISM4 

,:E!R OR NOT ,AN>*ISM IS RI<T 9 ITS CONCLUSIONS1 WILL BE %[N BY A SCI5TIFIC CRITICISM ( ITS BASES & BY ! PRACTICAL LIFE ( ! FUTURE4 ,BUT 9 ONE ?+ IT IS ABSOLUTELY RI<T3 9 ?AT IT HAS 9CLUD$ ! /UDY ( SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS 9 ! SPH]E ( NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC 9VE/IGATIONS2 HAS =EV] P>T$ COMPANY ) METAPHYSICS2 & MAKES USE ( ! ME?OD BY :I* MOD]N NATURAL SCI5CE & MOD]N MAT]IAL PHILOSOPHY W]E DEVELOP$4 ,[+ TO ?IS1 ! V]Y MI/AKES :I* ,AN>*ISM MAY HAVE MADE 9 ITS RESE>*ES CAN BE DETECT$ ! MORE READILY4 ,BUT ITS CONCLUSIONS CAN BE V]IFI$ ONLY BY ! SAME NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC1 9DUCTIVE-D$UCTIVE ME?OD BY :I* EV]Y SCI5CE & EV]Y SCI5TIFIC CONCEPT ( ! UNIV]SE IS CREAT$4 

7,S\RCE3 ,TRANSLAT$ BY ,DAVID ,A4 ,MODELL & PUBLI%$ BY ,! ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE ,CLUB ( ,PHILADELPHIA 9 #a#i#c47 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aib 3 ,MOD]N ,SCI5CE & ,AN>*ISM -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #b#a1 #bag 3 ,MOD]N ,SCI5CE & ,AN>*ISM -- ,ADD$4 
,DECEMB] #c1 #bba 3 ,MOD]N ,SCI5CE & ,AN>*ISM -- ,UPDAT$4 

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