,*APT] #f 
,RADIATION & ,HUMAN ,HEAL? 

#aifbaifb 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,\R ,SYN!TIC ,5VIRONM5T 

  
,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

  
,*,A,P,T,] ,S,I,X3 ,R,A,D,I,A,T,I,O,N ,& ,H,U,M,A,N ,H,E,A,L,? 

  
,! ,EFFECTS ( ,RADIATION  

,IT IS H>DLY NECESS>Y TO EMPHASIZE ?AT S9CE ! EXPLOSION ( A NUCLE> WEAPON AT ,ALAMOGORDO1 ,NEW ,MEXICO1 9 ,JULY #aide IONIZ+ RADIATION HAS BECOME ! MO/ S]I\S ?REAT TO MAN'S SURVIVAL4 ,IF NUCLE> WEAPONS >E FUR!R DEVELOP$ OR 9CREAS$ 9 NUMB]1 IT IS QUITE CONCEIVABLE ?AT A FUTURE W> WILL VIRTUALLY EXT+UI% HUMAN LIFE4 ,GRAVE AS ?IS DANG] MAY BE1 IONIZ+ RADIATION IS ASSOCIAT$ ) A NUMB] ( SUBTLE HAZ>DS ?AT W>RANT EQUAL PUBLIC CONC]N4 0,TODAY444 S\RCES ( IONIZ+ RADIATION >E RAPIDLY BECOM+ MORE & MORE WIDELY US$10 OBS]VES A TEAM ( RADIATION SPECIALI/S = ! ,U4 ,S4 ,PUBLIC ,HEAL? ,S]VICE4 0,EA* ATOMIC REACTOR PRODUCES ! RADIOACTIVE EQUIVAL5T ( HUNDR$S ( P\NDS ( RADIUM4 ,RADIOACTIVE SUB/ANCES >E US$ 9 9CREAS+ NUMB]S ( HOSPITALS1 9DU/RIES1 & RESE>* E/ABLI%M5TS4 ,X-RAY MA*9ES >E 5C\NT]$ 9 TUB]CULOSIS SURVEYS1 9 %OE /ORES1 9 PHYSICIANS' (FICES & 9 F\NDRIES4 ,POT5TIALLY1 IONIZ+ RADIATION HAS COME TO AFFECT ! 5VIRONM5T ( EV]Y MEMB] ( ! COMMUNITY40 

,RADIOACTIVE ELEM5TS >E AMONG ! MO/ LE?AL TOXICANTS 9 MAN'S 5VIRONM5T4 ,AS LITTLE AS F\R MICROGRAMS 7ONE SEV5-MILLION? ( AN \NCE7 ( RADIUM IS CAPABLE ( PRODUC+ CANC] 9 MAN YE>S AFT] LODG+ 9 HIS BONES4 ,NOT ALL RADIOACTIVE ELEM5TS >E DANG]\S 9 ! SAME WAY AS RADIUM4 ,SOME >E DI/RIBUT$ DIFF]5TLY 9 ! BODY & >E NOT RETA9$ = LONG P]IODS2 O!RS1 AL?\< RETA9$ = YE>S1 EMIT DIFF]5T K9DS ( RADIATION4 ,/RONTIUM-#i1 = EXAMPLE1 IS RAT$ AB\T ONE T5? AS LE?AL AS RADIUM1 AL?\< IT1 TOO1 LODGES PRIM>ILY 9 ! BONES4 ,ATTEMPTS TO COMP>E ! POT5CY ( ! TWO ELEM5TS 9 QUANTITATIVE T]MS1 H[EV]1 CAN BE SOME:AT MISLEAD+4 ,RADIUM CAUSES BIOLOGICAL DAMAGE ?R\< ! EMISSION ( ALPHA P>TICLES1 :]EAS /RONTIUM-#i IS HAZ>D\S TO LIV+ ?+S BECAUSE IT IS AN 5]GETIC EMITT] ( BETA P>TICLES4 0,LEUKEMIA HAS BE5 OBS]V$ TO OCCUR 9 RADIUM PATI5TS1 ?\< NOT AS A PROM95T PH5OM5ON10 OBS]VES ,W4 ,F4 ,NEUMAN1 ( ! ,UNIV]SITY ( ,RO*E/]4 0,LEUKEMIA IS1 H[EV]1 A COMMON F9D+ 9 PEOPLE :O HAVE SUFF]$ IRRADIATION ( ! BONE M>R[ OR ( ! :OLE BODY4 ,S9CE ! BETA RAYS FROM /RONTIUM-#i >E MORE P5ETRAT+ ?AN ! ALPHA RAYS FROM RADIUM1 A GREAT] PROPORTION ( ! RAYS FROM /RONTIUM-#i WILL P5ETRATE 9TO ! M>R[40 ,IT IS QUITE POSSIBLE ?AT1 = 9DIVIDUALS PRONE TO LEUKEMIA1 /RONTIUM-#i POSES HAZ>DS 9 ADDITION TO ?OSE ?AT W\LD BE EXPECT$ ON ! BASIS ( CRIT]IA D]IV$ FROM EXP]I5CES ) RADIUM4 

,TO GA9 A CLE> UND]/&+ ( ! V>I\S K9DS ( RADIATION & !IR BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS1 IT WILL BE USEFUL TO REVIEW BRIEFLY SOME ELEM5T>Y CONCEPTS ( ATOMIC PHYSICS4 ,RADIOACTIVITY IS PRODUC$ BY *ANGES ?AT OCCUR )9 ! NUCLEUS ( AN ATOM4 ,!SE *ANGES EI!R DIRECTLY OR 9DIRECTLY 9VOLVE TWO NUCLE> P>TICLES1 ! NEUTRON & ! PROTON4 ,! NUMB] ( NEUTRONS 7ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL P>TICLES7 & PROTONS 7POSITIVELY *>G$ P>TICLES7 9 AN ATOMIC NUCLEUS DET]M9ES ! SPECIES TO :I* ! ATOM BELONGS4 ,C>BON-#a#b & C>BON-#a#c = EXAMPLE1 HAVE SIX & SEV5 NEUTRONS1 RESPECTIVELY1 & >E CALL$ ISOTOPES ( ! ELEM5T C>BON4 ,EV]Y C>BON ATOM1 H[EV]1 HAS SIX PROTONS 9 ITS NUCLEUS & AN EQUAL NUMB] ( EXT]NAL ELECTRONS 7NEGATIVELY *>G$ P>TICLES71 :I* CAN BE ?\<T ( AS 0REVOLV+0 >\ND ! NUCLEUS LIKE PLANETS 9 A M9IATURE SOL> SY/EM4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ALL HYDROG5 ATOMS HAVE ONE PROTON & ONE PLANET>Y ELECTRON1 :]EAS HYDROG5-#b & HYDROG5-#c HAVE ONE & TWO NEUTRONS1 RESPECTIVELY4 ,:5 C>BON & HYDROG5 COMB9E TO =M HYDROC>BONS1 ! NUCLE> P>TICLES 7PROTONS & NEUTRONS7 ( ! TWO ELEM5TS >E NOT AFFECT$ BY ! COMB9ATION4 ,! *EMICAL REACTION ( C>BON & HYDROG5 IS DET]M9$ BY ! >RANGEM5T ( !IR PLANET>Y ELECTRONS4 ,EA* ELEM5T CAN BE SEP>AT$ FROM ! O!R )\T ANY LOSS ( ITS ORIG9AL ID5TITY & )\T PRODUC+ IONIZ+ RADIATION4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 IF C>BON W]E TO GA9 OR LOSE ANY PROTONS1 IT W\LD BECOME AN 5TIRELY DIFF]5T ELEM5T4 ,GA9S OR LOSSES 9 ! NUMB] ( PROTONS MAY OCCUR :5 A NEUTRON IS CONV]T$ 9TO A PROTON1 :5 A PROTON IS CONV]T$ 9TO A NEUTRON1 &1 ( C\RSE1 :5 A PROTON TOGE!R ) A NEUTRON IS EMITT$ FROM ! NUCLEUS ( AN ATOM4 ,!SE *ANGES & ! V>I\S 5]GY ADJU/M5TS ?AT OCCUR )9 ! NUCLEUS PRODUCE IONIZ+ RADIATION4 

,! MORE FAMILI> ELEM5TS ?AT MAKE UP ! E>? DO NOT UND]GO NUCLE> *ANGES SPONTANE\SLY4 ,!IR NUCLEI >E EXTREMELY /ABLE4 ,A FEW ELEM5TS1 H[EV]1 SU* AS URANIUM1 RADIUM1 & POLONIUM1 HAVE UN/ABLE NUCLEI4 ,!Y EMIT P>TICLES & EV5TUALLY BREAK D[N 9TO MORE /ABLE ELEM5TS4 ,RADIUM1 :I* IS D]IV$ FROM ! DECAY ( URANIUM1 DIS9TEGRATES 9TO RADON BY EMITT+ TWO PROTONS & TWO NEUTRONS4 ,DECAY CONT9UES ?R\< A S]IES ( RADIOACTIVE DAU<T] PRODUCTS UNTIL ! ATOM BECOMES LEAD4 ,! TWO PROTONS & TWO NEUTRONS EMITT$ BY ! RADIUM ATOM REMA9 TOGE!R & CON/ITUTE AN ALPHA P>TICLE4 ,/REAMS ( !SE NEUTRON-PROTON GR\PS1 OR ALPHA 0RAYS10 >E EMITT$ FROM RADIUM NUCLEI AT VELOCITIES ( AB\T #d#d1 MILES P] SECOND4 ,9 ADDITION1 RADIUM EMITS GAMMA RAYS1 & SEV]AL DAU<T] PRODUCTS ( ! ELEM5T EMIT BETA RAYS4 ,BETA RAYS >E /REAMS ( ELECTRONS & POSITRONS 7! POSITIVE C\NT]P>TS ( ELECTRONS72 !Y TRAVEL AT V>Y+ SPE$S1 SOMETIMES APPROA*+ ! SPE$ ( LI<T 7#a#h#f1 MILES P] SECOND74 ,GAMMA RAYS >E PHYSICALLY ! SAME AS ,X RAYS1 ! DIFF]5CE 9 NAME >IS+ FROM ! DIFF]5CE 9 ! S\RCES ( EMISSION47,X RADIATION IS PRODUC$ :5 A FA/-MOV+1 FREE ELECTRON COLLIDES VIOL5TLY ) AN ATOMIC NUCLEUS & LOSES P>T ( ITS SURR\ND+ ELECTRIC FIELD4 ,UNLIKE GAMMA RADIATION1 H[EV]1 ,X RADIATION DOES NOT 9VOLVE ANY 5]GY ADJU/M5TS )9 ATOMIC NUCLEI47 

,IT TAKES #a1#f YE>S = HALF A GIV5 QUANTITY ( RADIUM TO DIS9TEGRATE 9TO RADON4 ,ANO!R #a1#f YE>S MU/ PASS BE=E ! REMA9+ QUANTITY ( RADIUM IS HALV$ AGA94 ,AS ?IS PROCESS GOES ON 9DEF9ITELY1 ALWAYS LEAV+ A REMA9D] TO BE HALV$ EA* #a1#f YE>S1 SOME RADIUM WILL REMA9 = AN IMM5SELY LONG P]IOD4 ,BY ! SAME TOK51 BY ADD+ RADIOACTIVE SUB/ANCES TO HIS 5VIRONM5T1 MAN 9CREASES ! AM\NT ?AT WILL REMA9 9DEF9ITELY1 :E!R ! HALF-LIFE ( AN ELEM5T IS #e1#i YE>S 7C>BON-#a#d7 OR #bh YE>S 7/RONTIUM-#f74 ,AL?\< MAN CAN CREATE RADIOACTIVE ELEM5TS SU* AS /RONTIUM-#i1 !RE IS NO?+ HE CAN DO TO R$UCE !IR RADIOACTIVITY4 ,RADIATION CONT9UES UNDI/URB$1 & IS DIM9I%$ ONLY ) ! PASSAGE ( TIME4 

,:AT EFFECTS DO ALPHA1 BETA1 & GAMMA RAYS PRODUCE 9 LIV+ TISSUES8 ,AL?\< ! LONG-RANGE EFFECTS ( L[-LEVEL RADIATION ON ANIMALS & MAN >E V]Y MU* 9 DISPUTE1 !RE SEEMS TO BE LITTLE D\BT AB\T ! H>MFUL *ANGES RADIATION PRODUCES 9 CELLS4 ,RADIATION P>TICLES HAVE BE5 COMP>$ TO BULLETS TE>+ 9TO AN ORGANISM1 BUT ! DAMAGE !Y CAUSE DEP5DS UPON ! NUMB] ( P>TICLES ?AT REA* ! TISSUES4 ,! P>TICLES 9T]ACT ) MANY ( ! ATOMS ?AT MAKE UP \R CELLS1 EI!R CAUS+ ELECTRONS TO LEAVE !IR ORBITS 7IONIZATION7 OR EXCIT+ COMB9ATIONS ( ATOMS 7MOLECULES7 TO A PO9T :]E !Y BREAK AP>T4 ,! RESULT+ DAMAGE MAY BE M9OR & EASILY REPAIR$2 ON ! O!R H&1 IT MAY BE S]I\S & P]MAN5T4 ,IRRADIAT$ G]M CELLS MAY ONE DAY GIVE RISE TO H>MFUL MUTATIONS1 & IRRADIAT$ BODY CELLS MAY TAKE ! FIR/ /EP T[>D ! DEVELOPM5T ( CANC]4 ,AN 9DIVIDUAL EXPOS$ TO L>GE DOSAGES ( RADIATION MAY EXHIBIT SYMPTOMS ( 0RADIATION SICKNESS0 - NAUSEA1 VOMIT+1 LOSS ( HAIR1 PROGRESSIVE WEAKNESS1 & HEMORRHAGES4 ,SEV]E IRRADIATION ( ! 5TIRE BODY DAMAGES ! BLOOD-=M+ ORGANS 9 MAN & HI<] ANIMALS1 (T5 CLAIM+ LIFE )9 SEV]AL WEEKS AFT] EXPOSURE4 ,IF ! :OLE BODY IS EXPOS$ TO V]Y HI< LEVELS ( RADIATION1 !RE WILL BE WIDESPREAD DE/RUCTION ( ! 9TE/9AL TRACT & N]VE CELLS4 ,9 SU* CASES1 DEA? IS C]TA9 TO OCCUR )9 A FEW DAYS AFT] EXPOSURE4 

,QUANTITIES ( RADIATION >E USUALLY EXPRESS$ 9 T]MS ( RADS & RO5TG5S4 7,!SE UNITS >E US$ 9 MO/ ( ! WORKS CIT$ 9 ?IS DISCUSSION4 ,DUR+ ! PA/ FEW YE>S1 H[EV]1 ! RAD HAS BE5 /EADILY SUPPLANT$ BY ! REM 7RO5TG5 EQUIVAL5T MAN7 9 DISCUSSIONS ( ! EFFECTS ( RADIATION ON HUMANS4 ,! T]MS 0REM0 & 0RAD0 SIGNIFY ID5TICAL VALUES = EXPOSURE TO BETA & GAMMA RADIATION47 

,A RAD D5OTES ! QUANTITY ( RADIATION AN 9DIVIDUAL ABSORBS2 A RO5TG5 D5OTES ! AM\NT ( RADIATION 7ORD9>ILY ,X RADIATION7 TO :I* HE IS EXPOS$4 ,= ! PURPOSES ( ?IS DISCUSSION1 NO SIGNIFICANT DI/9CTION NE$ BE MADE BETWE5 ! TWO UNITS4 ,A S+LE RAD OR RO5TG5 CAN BE ?\<T ( AS GIV+ RISE TO AB\T #a1 IONIZATIONS 9 A S+LE CELL4 ,AN 9DIVIDUAL NORMALLY RECEIVES A TOTAL DOSAGE ( #c TO #e RO5TG5S FROM NATURAL BACKGR\ND RADIATION DUR+ ! FIR/ ?IRTY YE>S ( HIS LIFE4 ,BACKGR\ND RADIATION COMES FROM COSMIC RAYS1 RADIOACTIVITY 9 ROCKS1 & RADIOACTIVE ELEM5TS 9 FOOD & WAT]4 ,IT CON/ITUTES ! RADIATION TO :I* MAN HAS EVID5TLY ADAPT$ HIMSELF OV] LONG P]IODS ( BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION4 ,AL?\< BACKGR\ND RADIATION WILL V>Y 9 AM\NT FROM ONE LOCALE TO ANO!R1 ! ABSOLUTE QUANTITIES 9VOLV$ >E ORD9>ILY V]Y SMALL4 ,A MAN LIV+ AT SEA LEVEL USUALLY ABSORBS AB\T #c MILLIRADS 7#c ?\S&?S ( A RAD7 ( COSMIC RADIATION A YE>4 ,A MAN LIV+ AT #e1 FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL IS LIKELY TO ABSORB AB\T #g MILLIRADS ANNUALLY4 ,AN 9DIVIDUAL :O MOVES FROM SEA LEVEL TO A HEI<T ( #e1 FEET WILL ?US RAISE HIS ABSORPTION ( COSMIC RADIATION BY LITTLE MORE ?AN A RAD DUR+ A ?IRTY-YE> P]IOD4 ,A MAN :O REMA9S BEH9D AT SEA LEVEL MAY WELL ACQUIRE MORE ?AN ?AT AM\NT 9 C]TA9 P>TS ( HIS BODY1 BY HAV+ A TOO? ,X-RAY$1 = EXAMPLE4 ,9 FACT1 A S]IES ( D5TAL ,X RAYS WILL SUPPLY HIS JAW & NECK ) A L>G] AM\NT ( RADIATION ?AN !Y >E LIKELY TO ACQUIRE FROM NATURAL BACKGR\ND S\RCES 9 ! GREAT] P>T ( A NORMAL LIFE SPAN4 

,:5 ,X RAYS >E US$ = DIAGNO/IC OR !RAPEUTIC PURPOSES1 ! GOOD !Y DO \TWEI<S ! H>M4 ,DIAGNO/IC ,X RAYS >E USUALLY DIRECT$ AT LIMIT$ >EAS ( ! BODY1 A =M ( EXPOSURE ?AT IS F> LESS HAZ>D\S ?AN IRRADIATION ( ! :OLE BODY4 ,H[EV]1 DESPITE REC5T CLAIMS TO ! CONTR>Y1 !RE IS NO CONCLUSIVE EVID5CE ?AT SMALL DOSES ( RADIATION >E H>MLESS4 ,AL?\< SOME RESE>* WORK]S HAVE REPORT$ ?AT V]Y L[ LEVELS ( RADIATION 7#e RO5TG5S OR LESS P] WEEK7 9CREASE LONGEVITY 9 ANIMALS1 O!RS WORK+ ) SIMIL> DOSES ( RADIATION HAVE F\ND ?AT ! LIFE SPAN IS %ORT5$4 ,9 ! CASES 9 :I* 9CREASES 9 LONGEVITY W]E REPORT$1 ! LA/ ANIMALS TO DIE W]E G5]ALLY NON-IRRADIAT$ CONTROL ANIMALS4 ,IF RADIATION HAD ANY 0B5EFICIAL0 EFFECT1 IT WAS ?AT IT SEEM$ TO R$UCE ! DEA? RATE ( IRRADIAT$ ANIMALS 9 E>LY AGE GR\PS1 BUT ! MAXIMUM LIFE SPAN ( ! ANIMALS WAS %ORT5$4 7,9 ! OP9ION ( ,ALEX ,COM=T1 ONE ( ,5GL&'S =EMO/ AU?ORITIES ON ! AG+ PROCESS 9 ANIMALS & MAN1 ! 9CREASE 9 LONGEVITY PRODUC$ BY L[-LEVEL RADIATION 'IS DUE P>TLY TO ! SLI<T PHYSIOLOGICAL /IMULUS >IS+ FROM '/RESS' & P>TLY TO ! FACT ?AT RADIATION AT !SE L[ LEVELS DOES MORE H>M TO P>ASITES ( V>I\S K9DS ?AN TO ! ANIMALS 9FECT$ ) !M4 ,9 ANY CASE1 ! LIFE EXT5SION IS SE5 ONLY 9 ANIMAL COLONIES :]E ! SURVIVAL CURVE IS SUBOPTIMAL4 ,AMONG ANIMALS ?AT >E WELL C>$ =1 RADIATION1 IF IT HAS ANY VISIBLE EFFECT1 %ORT5S LIFE407 

,!RE SEEMS TO BE V]Y LITTLE AMBIGUITY1 H[EV]1 AB\T ! G5ETIC EFFECTS ( RADIATION4 ,ALL ! FACTS AT H& 9DICATE ?AT ANY 9CREASE 9 ! AM\NT ( RADIATION RECEIV$ BY A L>GE POPULATION PRODUCES A RISE 9 ! OCCURR5CE ( H>MFUL MUTATIONS4 ,NOR DO WE HAVE TO RELY EXCLUSIVELY ON EXP]IM5TS ) ANIMALS TO ACQUIRE /ATI/ICALLY SIGNIFICANT EVID5CE TO SUPPORT ?IS CONCLUSION4 ,A /UDY MADE BY ,JOHN ,T4 ,G5TRY & HIS COLLEAGUES 9 ! ,NEW ,YORK ,/ATE ,DEP>TM5T ( ,HEAL? SUGGE/S ?AT >EAS ) RELATIVELY HI< CONC5TRATIONS ( RADIOACTIVE ROCK >E CORRELAT$ ) A HI< 9CID5CE ( CONG5ITALLY MAL=M$ *ILDR5 - MANY1 P]HAPS MO/1 ( :OSE DEFECTS >E BELIEV$ TO BE CAUS$ BY DEFECTIVE G5ES4 ,BY WORK+ PRIM>ILY ) /ATI/ICS COMPIL$ FROM A MILLION & A QU>T] BIR? C]TIFICATES 9 ,NEW ,YORK ,/ATE 7EXCLUSIVE ( ,NEW ,YORK ,CITY71 ,G5TRY F\ND ?AT ! OV]-ALL 9CID5CE ( CONG5ITAL MAL=MATION AM\NT$ TO #a#b4#i P] #a1 LIVE BIR?S 9 >EAS ( ! /ATE :I* SEEM$ TO HAVE ! LEA/ AM\NT ( GEOLOGIC RADIOACTIVITY4 ,! 9CID5CE ( CONG5ITAL MAL=MATION = >EAS :I* SEEM$ TO HAVE ! HI<E/ AM\NT ( GEOLOGIC RADIOACTIVITY WAS #a#g4#e - A DIFF]5CE ( NE>LY #d P]C5T4 ,NEW ,YORK ,/ATE1 IT %\LD BE NOT$1 IS NOT P>TICUL>LY RADIOACTIVE2 FIELD MEASUREM5TS ( BACKGR\ND RADIATION W]E F\ND TO LIE MA9LY 9 ! RANGE ( #b4#a TO #c4#b RO5TG5S P] ?IRTY-YE> P]IOD4 ,ADDITIONAL EVID5CE ?AT ! RATE ( MAL=MATION IS 9FLU5C$ BY ! RADIOACTIVITY ( ! GEOLOGIC 5VIRONM5T APPE>S 9 A PRELIM9>Y NATION-WIDE /UDY BY ,JACK ,KRAT*MAN & ,D\GLAS ,GRAHN1 ( ! ,U4 ,S4 ,ATOMIC ,5]GY ,COMMISSION4 ,BY GR\P+ C\NTY & /ATE MORTALITY DATA ACCORD+ TO ! GEOLOGIC PROV9CES ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 ,KRAT*MAN & ,GRAHN F\ND ?AT 0MORTALITY 9CID5CE FROM MAL=MATION MAY BE HI<] 9 ?OSE GEOLOGIC PROV9CES444 ?AT CONTA9 MAJOR URANIUM ORE DEPOSITS1 URANIF]\S WAT]S OR HELIUM CONC5TRATIONS40 

,!SE /UDIES >E A REM9D] ?AT MAN IS PROBABLY F> MORE S5SITIVE TO RADIATION ?AN HAS G5]ALLY BE5 SUPPOS$4 ,AL?\< ! LIV+ MATT] ?AT SURR\NDS ! NUCLEUS ( A CELL CAN (T5 ABSORB A GREAT DEAL ( RADIATION )\T BE+ SIGNIFICANTLY H>M$1 ! NUCLEUS ITSELF IS HI<LY VULN]ABLE4 ,!ODORE ,T4 ,PUCK & HIS C[ORK]S AT ! ,UNIV]SITY ( ,COLORADO ,M$ICAL ,C5T] HAVE REC5TLY %[N ?AT VISIBLE DAMAGE CAN BE 9FLICT$ ON *ROMOSOMES 7! /R&S 9 ! NUCLEUS ( ! CELL ?AT C>RY ! G5ES7 ) AS LITTLE AS #b TO #be RO5TG5S4 ,! G5ETIC APP>ATUS ( AN ORD9>Y BODY CELL 0?US %[S EXTRAORD9>Y S5SITIVITY TO RADIATION10 ,PUCK OBS]VES4 0,CALCULATION 9DICATES ?AT ! IONIZATION ( NOT MORE ?AN A FEW HUNDR$ ATOMS )9 OR >\ND ! SPACE OCCUPI$ BY ! *ROMOSOME MAY BE SUFFICI5T TO PRODUCE A VISIBLE BREAK4 ,IT SEEMS PROBABLE ?AT AN EV5 GREAT] NUMB] ( LESIONS MAY OCCUR & REMA9 9VISIBLE1 EI!R BECAUSE !Y >E SUBMICROSCOPIC OR BECAUSE !Y BECOME RESEAL$ BE=E !Y >E EXP&$40 

,IF RADIATION IS 9CREAS$ TO #e RO5TG5S1 MANY CELLS SOON LOSE ! ABILITY TO REPRODUCE1 AL?\< !Y DO NOT NECESS>ILY DIE4 ,! NUCLE> MAT]IAL ( ! CELL MAY BE DAMAG$ BEYOND RECOV]Y1 BUT ! CYTOPLASM SURR\ND+ ! NUCLEUS SURVIVES & P]=MS ! ESS5TIAL FUNCTIONS ( LIFE4 ,9/EAD ( REPRODUC+1 ! CELLS CONT9UE TO ABSORB NUTRIM5T & GR[ UNTIL !Y REA* 5ORM\S SIZE4 ,!Y BECOME SO-CALL$ 0GIANT CELLS10 SEV5 TO T5 TIMES L>G] ?AN A CELL ?AT HAS NOT BE5 IRRADIAT$4 ,IRRADIATION ( ! :OLE BODY ) #d TO #e RO5TG5S IS FATAL TO HALF ! HUMAN BE+S SO EXPOS$1 APP>5TLY BECAUSE OV] #ii P]C5T ( ! BODY'S REPRODUC+ CELLS LOSE ! ABILITY TO MULTIPLY NORMALLY4 ,9DIVIDUALS :O RECEIVE LE?AL DOSAGES ( RADIATION MAY LIVE = WEEKS AFT] EXPOSURE1 BUT ! BODY'S 9ABILITY TO =M A SUFFICI5T NUMB] ( R$ & :ITE BLOOD CELLS EV5TUALLY LEADS TO DEA? FROM ANEMIA OR 9FECTION4 

,*ILDR5 >E PROBABLY MORE S5SITIVE TO RADIATION ?AN ADULTS1 & ! FETUS APPE>S TO BE MORE S5SITIVE ?AN ! *ILD4 ,RADIATION NOT ONLY HAS A SELECTIVE EFFECT UPON DIFF]5T P>TS ( A CELL2 IT DOES ! GREATE/ DAMAGE TO ?OSE CELLS ?AT HAVE A HI< RATE ( REPRODUCTION4 ,IT SEEMS TO BE MO/ H>MFUL DUR+ ?OSE /AGES ( LIFE AT :I* METABOLISM IS AT ITS PEAK1 NOTABLY ! YE>S ( GR[?4 ,S5SITIVITY V>IES M>K$LY FROM 9DIVIDUAL TO 9DIVIDUAL & FROM ONE ORGAN ( ! BODY TO ANO!R4 ,A L>GE :OLE-BODY DOSE ( RADIATION FROM :I* SOME 9DIVIDUALS RECOV] ) A SELF-LIMIT+ CASE ( 0RADIATION SICKNESS0 MAY LEAD 9 O!RS TO P]MAN5T DAMAGE & DEA?4 ,IF CONC5TRAT$ ON ! H&1 ! SAME DOSE MAY PRODUCE NO?+ MORE ?AN A RADIATION BURN4 ,DIRECT$ AT ! ABDOM9AL >EA1 H[EV]1 IT WILL (T5 CAUSE S]I\S DAMAGE & M>K$ PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS4 

,F9ALLY1 !RE >E DIFF]5T K9DS ( RADIATION & V>I\S EMITT]S ( RADIATION4 ,! EFFECTS PRODUC$ BY ALL =MS ( RADIATION >E ORD9>ILY R$UCIBLE TO ! AM\NT ( IONIZATION !Y PRODUCE4 ,BUT EA* =M ( RADIATION HAS DI/9CTIVE FEATURES ( ITS [N4 ,! ALPHA P>TICLE IS ! 0HEAVY >TILL]Y %ELL0 ( IONIZ+ RADIATION4 ,AS IT IS MADE UP ( TWO PROTONS JO9$ ) TWO NEUTRONS 7ACTUALLY A NUCLEUS ( ! ELEM5T HELIUM71 AN ALPHA P>TICLE HAS AB\T #g1#c TIMES ! MASS ( ! LI<T]1 FA/] BETA P>TICLE4 ,! P5ETRAT+ P[] ( ALPHA RAYS IS V]Y LIMIT$2 !Y CAN BE /OPP$ BY A ?9 %EET ( PAP]4 ,BUT AL?\< ALPHA P>TICLES DO NOT P5ETRATE V]Y F> 9TO LIV+ TISSUE1 !Y SCORE A L>GE NUMB] ( 0DIRECT HITS0 ON ATOMS4 ,AN IRRADIAT$ CELL IS DAMAG$ MORE SEV]ELY BY ALPHA P>TICLES ?AN BY O!R =MS ( RADIATION1 AL?\< FEW] CELLS >E IRRADIAT$ BY AN ALPHA EMITT]4 ,IF ! ALPHA P>TICLE HAD ! P5ETRAT+ P[] POSSESS$ BY BETA & GAMMA RAYS1 IT W\LD BE EXTREMELY DE/RUCTIVE TO LIV+ ?+S4 

,BETA P>TICLES TRAVEL AB\T #a TIMES F>!R ?AN ALPHA P>TICLES4 ,:]EAS ALPHA P>TICLES SELDOM PASS BEYOND ! \T]1 DEAD LAY] ( ! SK91 ! FREE1 FA/-MOV+ ELECTRONS & POSITRONS ?AT CON/ITUTE BETA RADIATION P5ETRATE = AB\T A QU>T] ( AN 9* 9TO LIV+ MATT]4 ,GAMMA RAYS & ,X RAYS WILL PASS READILY ?R\< A L>GE ORGANISM2 !Y REA* ! 9N]MO/ RECESSES ( ! BODY & 9JURE HI<LY S5SITIVE TISSUES1 BUT !Y PRODUCE ONLY AB\T ONE TW5TIE? ( ! DAMAGE 9FLICT$ ON CELLS BY ALPHA P>TICLES4 

,AS GAMMA RAYS >E PHYSICALLY ! SAME AS ,X RAYS1 WE MI<T SAY ?AT MO/ ( ! EFFECTS PRODUC$ 9 MAN BY GAMMA RADIATION >E DUE TO ! WIDESPREAD USE ( ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T4 ,ALPHA & PRIM>Y BETA RADIATIONS >E C>RI$ TO MAN'S VITAL ORGANS BY RADIOACTIVE ELEM5TS4 7,! WORD 0PRIM>Y0 IS US$ BECAUSE BETA RADIATION 9DUCES GAMMA RADIATION 9 MU* ! SAME WAY ?AT A /REAM ( ELECTRONS /RIK+ A METAL T>GET PRODUCES ,X RAYS4 ,GAMMA RADIATION1 9 TURN1 BY IMP>T+ 5]GY TO ! PLANET>Y ELECTRONS ( ATOMS1 CAUSES !M TO LEAVE !IR ORBITS4 ,! FREE ELECTRONS BEHAVE LIKE A BETA RAY4 ,?US1 A %ORT-LIV$ S]IES ( RADIATIONS1 ALT]NAT+ BETWE5 BETA & GAMMA RAYS1 C\LD EXT5D ! RANGE ( BIOLOGICAL DAMAGE TO TISSUES ?AT MI<T NOT ORD9>ILY BE REA*$ BY ! PRIM>Y BETA RAY47 ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T CAN BE TURN$ ON & (F2 ?US1 EXPOSURE TO ,X RADIATION NE$ NOT BE CONT9U\S OR UNCONTROLL$4 ,BUT RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES CANNOT BE 0TURN$ (F40 ,ONCE !Y COMB9E ) ! SKELETON & ! S(T TISSUES ( ! BODY1 !Y >E NO LONG] )9 HUMAN CONTROL4 ,LIKE ! NUTRI5TS ?AT SU/A9 LIFE & GR[?1 MANY RADIOACTIVE ELEM5TS BECOME P>T ( ! ORGANISM4 ,! BODY T5DS TO USE RADIUM & /RONTIUM-#i1 = EXAMPLE1 ! SAME WAY ?AT IT EMPLOYS CALCIUM1 AL?\< IT %[S A PREF]5CE = ! LATT]4 ,RADIUM & /RONTIUM-#i MIGRATE TO ! M9]AL P>T ( ! SKELETON1 :]E ! RATE ( METABOLIC ACTIVITY IS RELATIVELY L[1 & !Y BOMB>D BONE MATT] & HI<LY S5SITIVE BONE M>R[ ) ALPHA & BETA P>TICLES = A LONG P]IOD ( TIME4 ,! BODY DOES NOT DISCRIM9ATE BETWE5 RADIOACTIVE & /ABLE C>BON ISOTOPES4 ,C>BON-#a#d APPE>S 9 EV]Y K9D ( TISSUE1 9CLUD+ G]M CELLS1 & IRRADIATES ! >EA 9 :I* IT LODGES ) BETA P>TICLES4 

,9 ! FIELD ( RADIOBIOLOGY1 IT IS V]Y IMPRUD5T TO MAKE IRONCLAD G5]ALIZATIONS ?AT >E LIKELY TO AFFECT ! WELL-BE+ ( L>GE POPULATIONS4 ,! FIELD IS BESET ) SO MANY UNC]TA9TIES ?AT SCI5TIFIC OP9ION CAN BE EXPECT$ TO DIFF] ON NE>LY EV]Y ISSUE BUT ! 0NE$ = FUR!R RESE>*40 ,! PUBLIC1 9 TURN1 W\LD PROBABLY ACKN[L$GE ?IS NE$ ) TRANQUILITY IF ! PROBLEMS ( RADIATION W]E CONF9$ TO ! LABORATORY4 ,BUT !Y >E NOT4 ,X-RAY MA*9ES >E N[ P>T ( ! EQUIPM5T ( EV]Y PHYSICIAN & D5TI/2 ! DEVICES HAVE BECOME 9DISP5SABLE 9 M$ICAL PRACTICE4 ,RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES >E US$ WIDELY 9 LABORATORIES1 HOSPITALS1 & 9DU/RY4 ,NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/S HAVE DIS*>G$ RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS 9TO ! SOIL1 WAT]1 & ATMOSPH]E1 & NUCLE> REACTORS >E ANNUALLY PRODUC+ HUGE QUANTITIES ( HI<LY RADIOACTIVE WA/ES4 ,! EXP]IM5TAL ANIMALS NE$$ = FUR!R RESE>* CURR5TLY 9CLUDE ALL ( HUMANITY1 & ! MOD]N RADIATION LABORATORY 5COMPASSES ! 5TIRE E>?4 ,BUT MANY S]I\S QUE/IONS HAVE BE5 LEFT UNANSW]$4 ,>E WE US+ RADIATION ) ! CAUTION & RESPECT IT DES]VES8 ,TO :AT EXT5T HAVE WE CONTAM9AT$ ! 5VIRONM5T8 ,9 :AT DIRECTION >E WE GO+8 ,UNLESS !SE QUE/IONS >E ANSW]$ FRANKLY & EXI/+ ABUSES CORRECT$1 ! DATA ACQUIR$ BY FUR!R RESE>* MAY WELL PROVE TO BE ( ACADEMIC IMPORTANCE4 

,! ,PROBLEMS ( ,X ,RADIATION 

,X-RAYS W]E ! FIR/ =M ( IONIZ+ RADIATION TO BE DELIB]ATELY PRODUC$ BY MAN1 & 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES & WE/]N ,EUROPE !Y N[ CON/ITUTE ! RADIATION TO :I* HE IS MO/ HEAVILY EXPOS$4 ,MANY PEOPLE ( ALL AGES & ALL WALKS ( LIFE >E GIV5 R\T9E ,X RAYS DUR+ P]IODIC M$ICAL & D5TAL EXAM9ATIONS4 ,MOREOV]1 EXPOSURE TO ,X RAYS HAS BE5 9CREAS+ /EADILY OV] ! PA/ ?REE DECADES4 ,ACCORD+ TO DATA GA!R$ BY ! ,NATIONAL ,ADVISORY ,COMMITTEE ON ,RADIATION1 ! ANNUAL ,X-RAY DOSAGE RECEIV$ BY ! AV]AGE ,AM]ICAN 9CREAS$ #i P]C5T BETWE5 #aibe & #a#i#e#e4 ,! RADIATION HE RECEIVES FROM ,X RAYS IS #ace P]C5T GREAT] ?AN ! RADIATION HE ACQUIRES FROM NATURAL S\RCES4 0,! CONT9U$ UPW>D TR5D EXHIBIT$ BY ,X-RAY DATA10 OBS]VES ! COMMITTEE1 0SUGGE/S ! LIKELIHOOD ?AT ! CURR5T EXPOSURE ( ! POPULATION FROM ,X-RAY APP>ATUS MAY 9CREASE /ILL FUR!R UNLESS APPROPRIATE RADIATION CONTROL MEASURES >E SY/EMATICALLY APPLI$40 

,SY/EMATIC CONTROL ( ,X RADIATION IS LONG OV]DUE4 ,MAN-9DUC$ RADIATION HAS BE5 9 USE S9CE #a#h#i#f1 ! YE> ,RO5TG5'S DISCOV]Y ( ,X RAYS ATTRACT$ WORLD-WIDE ATT5TION1 & ! EFFECTIVE APPLICATION ( !SE RAYS TO M$ICAL PROBLEMS ANT$ATES ,WORLD ,W> ,I4 ,SURPRIS+LY1 A GOOD WORK+ KN[L$GE ( ! HAZ>DS ( ,X RADIATION & VALUABLE RECOMM5DATIONS = ! PROP] USE ( ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T W]E AVAILABLE %ORTLY AFT] ,RO5TG5'S WORK BECAME WELL KN[N4 ,ELIHU ,?OMSON1 AFT] EXP]IM5T+ ) ! NEW RAYS ON HIS LITTLE F+]1 REPORT$ A GREAT DEAL ( ! DATA NE$$ TO 5ABLE RADIOLOGI/S TO USE ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T ) A REASONABLE AM\NT ( SAFETY4 ,HIS SUGGE/IONS W]E L>GELY IGNOR$4 ,= MANY YE>S ,X-RAY TUBES W]E EMPLOY$ ) LITTLE OR NO %IELD+1 :ILE PHYSICIANS1 9 BLISSFUL DISREG>D ( ,?OMSON'S RECOMM5DATIONS1 (T5 EXPOS$ !MSELVES AS WELL AS !IR PATI5TS TO HEAVY DOSES ( RADIATION4 ,BY ! E>LY #a#i#bS1 SCORES ( RADIOLOGI/S HAD NE$LESSLY SACRIFIC$ !IR LIVES &1 9 ALL PROBABILITY1 9FLICT$ A GREAT DEAL ( DAMAGE ON MANY ( !IR UNSUSPECT+ PATI5TS4 

,TO MAKE MATT]S WORSE1 ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T WAS RAPIDLY DEBAS$ 9TO A COSMETIC AG5T &1 F9ALLY1 9TO A SALES PROMOTION DEVICE4 ,IT WAS F\ND ?AT ,X RAYS C\LD CAUSE A LOSS ( HAIR 7EPILATION71 AN EFFECT ?AT SUGGE/$ LUCRATIVE POSSIBILITIES4 ,BY ! #a#i#bS MANY PHYSICIANS1 BEAUTICIANS1 & SELF-APPO9T$ 0EPILATION SPECIALI/S0 HAD BEGUN TO TREAT WOM5 ) RADIATION = ! REMOVAL ( 0SUP]FLU\S HAIR40 ,ONE ,NEW ,YORK PHYSICIAN1 ,DR4 ,ALB]T ,C4 ,GEYS]1 DEVELOP$ A 0H>MLESS0 ME?OD ( HAIR REMOVAL ?AT 9VOLV$ CUMULATIVE DOSAGES ( AT LEA/ #e RO5TG5S OV] A TWELVE-WEEK P]IOD ( RADIATION TREATM5T4 ,! ME?OD1 NAM$ ! 0,TRI*O ,SY/EM10 WAS V]Y SUCCESSFUL1 & BEAUTICIANS TRA9$ BY ,GEYS]'S 0,TRI*O ,9/ITUTE0 BEGAN OP]AT+ 9 MANY P>TS ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES & ,CANADA4 ,IT SOON BECAME EVID5T1 H[EV]1 ?AT WOM5 TREAT$ ACCORD+ TO ! 0,TRI*O ,SY/EM0 LO/ SUB/ANTIALLY MORE ?AN UNWANT$ HAIR4 ,MANY 9DIVIDUALS ACQUIR$ RADIOD]MATITIS 7SK9 9FLAMMATION71 SEV]E RADIATION BURNS1 FE/]+ SK9 ULC]S1 &1 9 TIME1 CANC]4 ,! 0,TRI*O0 /ORY IS ONE ( ! MORE TRAGIC EPISODES 9 ! HI/ORY ( RADIATION4 ,IT IS BELIEV$ ?AT ! VICTIMS ( ,GEYS]'S SY/EM NUMB]$ 9 ! ?\S&S2 ! EXACT NUMB] ( ?OSE :O SUFF]$ LAT5T 9JURY & PREMATURE DEA? WILL NEV] BE KN[N4 

,AL?\< RADIATION IS NO LONG] EMPLOY$ 9 ! ,AM]ICAN BEAUTY P>LOR1 ! USE ( ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T TO FIT %OES /ILL L+]S 9 A NUMB] ( COMMUNITIES4 ,! EQUIPM5T IS US$ MA9LY ON ! FEET ( *ILDR54 ,AS ( #a#i#f1 ! USE ( ! %OE-FITT+ FLUOROSCOPE HAD BE5 BANN$ 9 TW5TY-N9E /ATES4 ,SOME ( ! O!R /ATES REGULATE ! USE ( ! MA*9E1 BUT 9 A FEW /ATES !RE >E NO RE/RICTIONS AT ALL4 ,A NUMB] ( LOCAL SURVEYS CIT$ BY ,S*UB]T & ,LAPP HAVE %[N ?AT ! MA*9ES >E (T5 DEFECTIVE1 GIV+ HI< DOSES ( RADIATION TO BO? ! *ILD & ! SALESMAN4 ,! ,MI*IGAN ,DEP>TM5T ( ,HEAL?1 = EXAMPLE1 F\ND %OE-FITT+ MA*9ES ?AT EMITT$ AS MANY AS #fe RO5TG5S 7R7 A M9UTE4 ,A SURVEY 9 ,BO/ON %[$ ?AT IRRADIATION ( ! FOOT RANG$ FROM 4#e TO #e4#h R A SECOND4 7,! USE ( %OE-FITT+ FLUOROSCOPES HAS BE5 BANN$ 9 ,BO/ON BY /ATE LAW & IS REGULAT$ 9 ,MI*IGAN47 0,= A #b#b-SECOND EXPOSURE1 :I* IS COMMONLY US$1 ! FEET RECEIVE FROM #a TO #aaf RL0 ,S*UB]T & ,LAPP WRITE4 0,REMEMB]1 TOO1 ?AT ONE *ILD MAY HAVE HIS FEET EXAM9$ MANY TIMES :ILE TRY+ ON DIFF]5T %OES4 ,SIMIL> DOSAGE MEASUREM5TS HAVE BE5 REPORT$ BY ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ,PUBLIC ,HEAL? ,S]VICE1 :I* /ATES ?AT ! AV]AGE DOSAGES TO ! *ILDR5'S FEET >E BETWE5 #g R & #ad R P] EXPOSURE40 ,! AM\NT ( SCATT]$ RADIATION ?AT REA*ES ! *ILD'S PELVIC REGION & GONADS MAY RUN AS HI< AS 4#b RO5TG5S = A ,TW5TY SECOND EXPOSURE4 

,SOCIETY HAS F\ND IT V]Y DIFFICULT TO ACCEPT ! FACT ?AT A VALUABLE DEVICE CAN BECOME EXTREMELY DANG]\S IF IT IS US$ IMPROP]LY4 ,S*UB]T & ,LAPP OBS]VE ?AT A MAJOR REASON :Y ,GEYS] WAS NOT /OPP$ UNTIL HIS 0SY/EM0 HAD 9JUR$ A L>GE NUMB] ( WOM5 IS ?AT ! M$ICAL COMMUNITY G5]ALLY ACCEPT$ RADIATION AS A =M ( TREATM5T = M9OR SK9 DISORD]S4 ,TO ?IS DAY1 MANY PHYSICIANS >E LIKELY TO UND]E/IMATE ! AM\NT ( LAT5T DAMAGE CAUS$ BY REPEAT$ EXPOSURE TO ,X RADIATION4 ,9 SOME CASES1 PHYSICIANS >E 9CL9$ TO USE ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T AS FREELY AS !Y USE ! /E?OSCOPE1 & (T5 IT IS ! CO/ ( AN ,X-RAY PICTURE RA!R ?AN ! 'RISK ( IRRADIATION ?AT KEEPS ! TWO DEVICES FROM OCCUPY+ PLACES ( EQUAL IMPORTANCE 9 R\T9E M$ICAL EXAM9ATIONS4 ,! PHYSICIAN (T5 FEELS ?AT !RE IS NO DANG] 9VOLV$ 9 TAK+ DIAGNO/IC ,X RAYS2 ! WORD 0DIAGNO/IC0 SEEMS TO IMP>T B5IGN QUALITIES TO RADIATION4 ,BUT ! NE$ = AN ,X RAY DOES NOT 9 ANY WAY DIM9I% ! EFFECT ( EXPOSURE2 IT M]ELY PROVIDES A SCALE ON :I* ! HAZ>DS ( ,X RADIATION %\LD BE WEI<$ AGA9/ ! HAZ>DS ( AN 9COMPLETE & FAULTY DIAGNOSIS4 

,?IS REQUIRES C>EFUL EVALUATION4 ,A MIDDLE-AG$ MAN :O REFUSES TO BE EXPOS$ TO ! SMALL AM\NT ( RADIATION 9VOLV$ 9 AN ANNUAL *E/ ,X RAY C>RIES HIS FE> ( RADIATION TO EXTREMES4 ,! RISK 9VOLV$ 9 HAV+ AN ,X RAY TAK5 IS MU* SMALL] ?AN ! RISK 9VOLV$ 9 P]MITT+ A S]I\S LUNG DISEASE TO REMA9 UNDIAGNOS$4 ,S*UB]T & ,LAPP E/IMATE ?AT SIXTY *E/ ,X RAYS TAK5 ON A #a#d-BY-#a#g-9* PLATE )\T ACCOMPANY+ FLUOROSCOPIES WILL GIVE AN 9DIVIDUAL A CUMULATIVE DOSE ( #c RO5TG5S4 ,) NEWLY DEVELOP$ FA/ FILMS1 EXPOSURE IS LIKELY TO BE R$UC$ APPRECIABLY4 ,SIMIL>LY1 A MAN ) M>K$ & PROLONG$ GA/RO9TE/9AL DI/RESS :O FAILS TO RESPOND TO TREATM5T = B5IGN /OMA* DISORD]S W\LD BE FOOLH>DY IF HE REFUS$ TO HAVE ,X RAYS TAK5 ( HIS ABDOM9AL REGION4 ,! DANG] ( S]I\S DISEASE W\LD \TWEI< BY F> ! AM\NT ( H>M CAUS$ BY A S+LE S]IES ( ,X RAYS4 

,BUT 9DIVIDUALS )\T M$ICAL COMPLA9TS :O >E EXPOS$ P]IODICALLY TO A L>GE AM\NT ( DIAGNO/IC RADIATION MI<T DO WELL TO 5T]TA9 SOME SECOND ?\<TS4 ,= EXAMPLE1 MANY L>GE ,AM]ICAN CORPORATIONS HAVE E/ABLI%$ ! PRACTICE ( S5D+ !IR EXECUTIVES TO CL9ICS = ANNUAL M$ICAL EXAM9ATIONS4 ,!SE EXAM9ATIONS TAKE SEV]AL DAYS TO P]=M & NORMALLY 9CLUDE A PROGRAM ( ,X RAYS & FLUOROSCOPIES ( IMPORTANT ORGANS ( ! BODY4 ,S*UB]T & ,LAPP F\ND ?AT AN EXECUTIVE CAN EXPECT TO RECEIVE #ce RO5TG5S ) EA* *ECKUP2 FREQU5TLY ! DOSAGES REA* #e RO5TG5S4 ',WE GRANT ?AT ! EXECUTIVE IS NOT EXPOS$ TO TOTAL BODY RADIATION1 :I* IS MORE S]I\S ?AN LOCALIZ$ RADIATION10 !Y WRITE4 0,NEV]!LESS1 ! MO/ VITAL ORGANS >E EXPOS$ & AT ! V]Y LEA/ ONE MAY EXPECT A %ORT5+ ( LIFE SPAN ( ! EXPOS$ 9DIVIDUAL1 ESPECIALLY IF ! EXECUTIVE RECEIVES ! X-RAY BOMB>DM5T YE> AFT] YE>4 ,WE DO NOT D5Y ! VALUABLE DATA :I* DOCTORS MAY GA9 9 ! C\RSE ( X-RAY EXAM9ATION1 :I* MAY L5G!N ! LIFE SPAN1 BUT WE DO REG>D ! ANNUAL IRRADIATION ( #e R P] EXECUTIVE ) SOME DEGREE ( APPREH5SION = ! 9DIVIDUAL'S FUTURE WELF>E40 

,A NUMB] ( RADIOBIOLOGI/S BELIEVE ?AT C]TA9 ,X RAYS %\LD NOT BE UND]TAK5 UNLESS !Y >E ABSOLUTELY NECESS>Y = ! WELL-BE+ ( ! PATI5T4 ,A CASE 9 PO9T IS ! PELVIC ,X RAY 7PELVIMETRY7 ( PREGNANT WOM54 0,X-RAY PELVIMETRIES HAVE BE5 A RELATIVELY COMMON PRACTICE = MANY YE>S - & /ILL IS AS F> AS IS KN[N10 ,S*UB]T TOLD A CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEE HOLD+ HE>+S ON RADIATION 9 #a#i#e#i4 ,AN E/IMAT$ #d#d1 ,AM]ICAN WOM5 & #a1 ,5GLI% WOM5 W]E GIV5 PELVIC ,X RAYS ANNUALLY DUR+ ! LATE #a#i#eS4 ,! PRACTICE HAD ALWAYS >\S$ A C]TA9 AM\NT ( CONC]N BECAUSE ( ! H>MFUL G5ETIC EFFECTS IT C\LD PRODUCE 9 LAT] G5]ATIONS1 BUT REC5T /UDIES %[ ?AT ! HAZ>DS MAY BE MORE IMM$IATE4 ,9 AN EXT5SIVE SURVEY ( DEA?S FROM CANC] AMONG ,5GLI% & ,WEL% *ILDR51 ,ALICE ,/EW>T & H] C[ORK]S AT ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY F\ND A /ATI/ICAL RELATION%IP BETWE5 FETAL IRRADIATION & ! 9CID5CE ( CANC] AMONG *ILDR54 ,! SURVEY1 P]HAPS ! MO/ EXT5SIVE ( ITS K9D1 COV]$ MO/ ( ! *ILDR5 :O HAD DI$ ( LEUKEMIA & O!R CANC]S BETWE5 #aiec & #a#i#e#e4 ,! DATA GA!R$ BY ! 9VE/IGATORS %[ ?AT1 AMONG *ILDR5 UND] T51 ! *ANCES ( DY+ FROM CANC] >E TWICE AS GREAT = ?OSE :O W]E IRRADIAT$ DUR+ ! FETAL /AGE4 

,MOD]ATE 5L>GEM5T ( ! ?YMUS GL&1 A CONDITION = :I* A L>GE NUMB] ( *ILDR5 HAVE RECEIV$ RADIO!RAPY1 IS N[ REG>D$ AS H>MLESS BY MANY M$ICAL AU?ORITIES4 ,AL?\< ?YMIC 5L>GEM5T IS NO LONG] TREAT$ ) RADIATION 9 ,5GL&1 ! PRACTICE /ILL P]SI/S 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4 ,C4 ,L5ORE ,SIMPSON & H] C[ORK]S HAVE C>EFULLY SURVEY$ AB\T #b1 SU* CASES 9 ,NEW ,YORK ,/ATE1 MA9LY 9 ,RO*E/] & ,BUFFALO4 ,BY COMP>+ ! 9CID5CE ( CANC] 9 TREAT$ CASES ) ?AT 9 *ILDR5 9 ! G5]AL POPULATION1 !Y F\ND NE>LY A SEV5FOLD 9CREASE 9 CANC] AMONG *ILDR5 :O HAD BE5 EXPOS$ TO HI< DOSAGES ( RADIATION = ?YMIC 5L>GEM5T4 ,! NUMB] ( LEUKEMIA CASES F\ND BY ,SIMPSON WAS NE>LY T5 TIMES HI<] ?AN ! NUMB] ?AT W\LD NORMALLY HAVE BE5 EXPECT$4 

,IT REMA9S TO BE SE5 :E!R MO/ RADIOBIOLOGI/S WILL DECIDE ?AT PELVIMETRIES & ?YMIC IRRADIATION PRODUCE CANC] 9 *ILDR54 ,! EVID5CE IS NOT ALTOGE!R CLE>-CUT4 ,SEV]AL LAT] SURVEYS ( A MORE LIMIT$ NATURE HAVE REPORT$ F9D+S ?AT CONFLICT ) ! RESULTS OBTA9$ BY ,/EW>T & ,SIMPSON1 :]EAS O!R SURVEYS SUPPORT !M4 ,! RESULTS SEEM TO V>Y ) ! ME?ODS US$ & ! COMMUNITIES /UDI$4 ,! ,/EW>T & ,SIMPSON SURVEYS1 H[EV]1 HAVE UNE>!D /ATI/ICAL PROBABILITIES ?AT >E F> TOO HI< TO BE DISMISS$ LI<TLY4 ,AL?\< !SE PROBABILITIES CAN BE EXPECT$ TO V>Y ) ! TE*NIQUES ( ! RADIOLOGI/S 9 DIFF]5T COMMUNITIES & M$ICAL 9/ITUTIONS1 !RE SEEMS TO BE LITTLE REASON TO D\BT ! VALIDITY ( ! F9D+S ( ,/EW>T & ,SIMPSON4 

,PHYSICIANS HAVE OBS]V$ ?AT MANY *ILDR5 ) ?YROID CANC] RECEIV$ RADIATION >\ND ! HEAD & NECK DUR+ 9FANCY & E>LY *ILDHOOD4 ,GEORGE ,CRILE1 ( ! ,CLEVEL& ,CL9IC ,F\NDATION1 = EXAMPLE1 REPORTS ?AT 9 #ah CASES TREAT$ BY HIS CL9IC1 ! P>5TS ( #ad W]E ASK$ :E!R !IR *ILDR5 HAD BE5 EXPOS$ TO ,X RAYS 9 ! G5]AL >EA ( ! ?YROID GL&4 ,ONLY #c HAD NOT RECEIV$ RADIATION4 ,! REMA9+ #aa HAD HI/ORIES ( RADIO!RAPY = 5L>GEM5T ( ! ?YMUS GL& & LYMPH NODES1 = ECZEMA1 & = O!R DISORD]S4 0,9 ! #ae YE>S BETWE5 #aibd & #a#i#c#i10 ,CRILE NOTES1 0AT A TIME :5 MANY MORE OP]ATIONS ON ! ?YROID W]E BE+ DONE AT ! ,CLEVEL& ,CL9IC ?AN >E BE+ DONE TODAY1 NO *ILDR5 ) CANC]S ( ! ?YROID W]E SE54 ,ONLY ?REE W]E SE5 BETWE5 #aici & #a#i#e1 & BETWE5 #aie & #aieh !RE W]E #ae CASES4 ,! QUE/ION IMM$IATELY >ISES AS TO :E!R ! 9CREAS+ 9CID5CE ( CANC] ( ! ?YROID 9 *ILDR5 IS ! RESULT ( AN 9CREASE 9 ! USE ( RADIATION !RAPY 9 9FANCY & E>LY *ILDHOOD40 ,CRILE NOTES ?AT FACTORS O!R ?AN RADIATION MAY ACC\NT = ! RISE 9 ?YROID CANC] AMONG *ILDR5 BUT ADDS ?AT 0! 9CREAS+ 9CID5CE ( CANC] ( ! ?YROID 9 REC5T YE>S SUGGE/S ?AT AN 5VIRONM5TAL FACTOR SU* AS RADIATION IS 9VOLV$40 

,MANY 9DIVIDUALS >E /ILL EXPOS$ TO L>GE DOSAGES ( ,X RADIATION = :AT >E ESS5TIALLY COSMETIC PURPOSES4 ,LOCALIZ$ ECZEMAS1 W>TS1 & *ILDHOOD BIR?M>KS ?AT >E LIKELY TO DISAPPE> SPONTANE\SLY AFT] A FEW YE>S HAVE 9 MANY CASES BE5 HEAVILY IRRADIAT$4 ,?IS PRACTICE IS DECL9+ [+ TO A GREAT] AW>5ESS ( RADIATION HAZ>DS1 BUT IT IS /ILL F\ND TOO (T5 TO BE OV]LOOK$4 

,RADIATION1 TO BE SURE1 IS /ILL ! ONLY EFFECTIVE ME?OD = TREAT+ C]TA9 IRRITAT+ OR DISFIGUR+ SK9 DISORD]S1 & ! PATI5T MAY BE ! FIR/ TO DEM& RADIO!RAPY 9 FULL AW>5ESS ( ! RISK 9VOLV$4 ,RADIO!RAPY ALSO R$UCES ! SEV]E PA9 ?AT ACCOMPANIES ANKYLOS+ SPONDYLITIS1 AN >?RITIC DISEASE ( ! SP9E ?AT AFFLICTS ?\S&S ( M5 & (T5 LEADS TO A USELESS OR IMPAIR$ LIFE4 ,9 SU* CASES1 :]E IRRITATION OR PA9 MAY BE SEV]E1 IT IS UNLIKELY ?AT ! HAZ>DS ( RADIATION WILL DET] A PATI5T FROM ACCEPT+ RADIO!RAPY4 ,HE WILL PROBABLY TAKE ! RISK - ESPECIALLY IF ! RISK IS RELATIVELY SMALL4 7,9 ,5GL& ! 9CID5CE ( LEUKEMIA AMONG M5 :O HAVE BE5 TREAT$ ) ,X RADIATION = ANKYLOS+ SPONDYLITIS 0IS AB\T ONE ?IRD ( ONE P]C5T2 YET CALCULATIONS BAS$ ON ! NATIONAL DEA? RATES444 %[ ?AT EV5 ?IS L[ 9CID5CE IS AB\T T5 TIMES GREAT] ?AN W\LD HAVE BE5 EXPECT$ 9 ! ABS5CE ( IRRADIATION407 

,! ELEM5T ( RISK CANNOT BE AVOID$1 BUT ! AM\NT ( RISK CAN BE R$UC$ APPRECIABLY4 ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T CAN BE US$ ) MOD]ATION & ) GOOD S5SE4 ,DOCTORS %\LD BE MADE ?OR\<LY AW>E ( ! HAZ>DS 9VOLV$ & !Y %\LD BE TAU<T ! MO/ ADVANC$ ME?ODS ( R$UC+ EXPOSURE4 ,! PHYSICIAN %\LD LIMIT ! USE ( HIS EQUIPM5T TO ?OSE ASPECTS ( RADIOLOGY ) :I* HE IS ?OR\<LY FAMILI>4 ,A G5]AL PRACTITION] IS NOT A RADIOLOGI/4 ,:]E COMPLEX TE*NIQUES >E REQUIR$ TO DIAGNOSE A DISEASE OR TREAT A PATI5T1 ! PATI5T %\LD HAVE ! B5EFIT ( ! SPECIAL TRA9+ & EXP]I5CE ?AT COME FROM LONG S]VICE 9 ! FIELD ( RADIOLOGY4 ,!RE IS ALSO AN >EA :I* BO? LAYMAN & PHYSICIAN CAN 5T] ) EQUAL AU?ORITY - ?AT ( RADIATION SAFETY4 ,C>EFUL %IELD+ FROM SCATT]$ ,X RAYS %\LD ALWAYS BE PROVID$ = S5SITIVE >EAS ( ! BODY1 SU* AS ! GONADS1 NECK1 & ABDOM9AL REGION1 P>TICUL>LY :5 *ILDR5 & Y\NG PEOPLE >E BE+ IRRADIAT$4 ,A PATI5T HAS A RI<T TO 9SI/ UPON PROTECTION :5EV] IT IS FEASIBLE1 & 9 ?IS HE HAS ! EMPHATIC SUPPORT ( ! MO/ KN[L$GEABLE AU?ORITIES 9 ! FIELD ( RADIOLOGY4 

,! USE ( ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T %\LD BE C>EFULLY REGULAT$4 ,!SE DEVICES DO NOT BELONG 9 ! H&S ( QUACKS & %OE SALESM54 ,TE*NICIANS %\LD BE LIC5S$ P]SONNEL :O HAVE GIV5 SUB/ANTIAL EVID5CE ( !IR QUALIFICATIONS TO OP]ATE ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T4 ,!IR WORK REQUIRES C>EFUL TRA9+ ?AT CANNOT BE PICK$ UP ?R\< IRREGUL>1 (FH& 9/RUCTION4 ,!RE %\LD BE COMPULSORY P]IODIC 9SPECTIONS ( ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T BY COMPET5T AG5CIES4 ,CONC]T$ EF=TS MU/ BE MADE TO BR+ ! LATE/ ADVANCES 9 RADIOLOGY 9TO PHYSICIANS' (FICES & HOSPITALS4 ,RESE>* HAS PRODUC$ FA/] FILMS1 ELECTRONIC DEVICES TO 9CREASE ! BRI<TNESS ( FLUOROSCOPIC SCRE5S 7) CONCOMITANT R$UCTIONS 9 ,X-RAY DOSAGE71 IMAGE 9T5SIFI]S1 & IMPROV$ FILT]S ?AT ELIM9ATE DIAGNO/ICALLY USELESS LONG-WAVE RADIATION4 ,SOME ( !SE IMPROVEM5TS >E TOO CO/LY = ! ORD9>Y PHYSICIAN2 H5CE ! NE$ TO MAKE USE ( ! S]VICES ( A WELL-EQUIPP$ RADIOLOGI/ OR HOSPITAL :5 A PROGRAM IRRADIATION IS REQUIR$4 ,IT IS ! RESPONSIBILITY ( ! COMMUNITY TO SEE ?AT \TDAT$ ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T IS SCRAPP$ & ?AT NO ONE IS EXPOS$ TO DEFECTIVE & POT5TIALLY H>MFUL MA*9ES4 

,UN=TUNATELY1 ! AVAILABLE EVID5CE SUGGE/S ?AT1 9 MO/ CASES1 BO? ! MA*9ES & ! PHYSICIANS' TE*NIQUES >E UNSATISFACTORY4 ,A REC5T TWO-YE> SURVEY ( DIAGNO/IC ,X-RAY EQUIPM5T 9 ,NEW ,YORK ,CITY1 = EXAMPLE1 %[$ ?AT #ib P]C5T ( #c1#f#b#c MA*9ES 9SPECT$ BY ! ,BO>D ( ,HEAL? EI!R W]E NOT BE+ US$ PROP]LY OR W]E DEFECTIVE4 ,! SURVEY DISCLOS$ ?AT ,X-RAY BEAMS W]E V]Y BROAD1 NE$LESSLY IRRADIAT+ P>TS ( ! BODY ?AT W]E NOT UND] /UDY4 ,! MAJORITY ( PHYSICIANS :O W]E NOT RADIOLOGI/S W]E UNFAMILI> ) ! SAFETY RECOMM5DATIONS ( ! ,NATIONAL ,COMMITTEE ON ,RADIATION ,PROTECTION4 ,! 9SPECTORS DID NOT F9D A S+LE PHYSICIAN :O HAD VOLUNT>ILY FOLL[$ E>LI] RECOMM5DATIONS TO SWIT* FROM \TMOD$ TO NEW EQUIPM5T4 ,AL?\< ! SURVEY COV]$ ONLY #ce P]C5T ( ! MA*9ES EMPLOY$ 9 ! CITY1 IT 9CLUD$ ! MO/ FREQU5TLY US$ ,X-RAY MA*9ES1 NOTABLY ?OSE 9 HOSPITALS & 9 ! (FICES ( RADIOLOGI/S4 

,?IS SURVEY1 IT %\LD BE EMPHASIZ$1 TOOK PLACE 9 #aiei & #aif NOT A HALF C5TURY AGO1 :5 RESE>* ON RADIATION WAS /ILL 9 ITS 9FANCY4 ,! SURVEY FOLL[$ A P]IOD ( WIDESPREAD PUBLIC DISCUSSION ON ! HAZ>DS ( RADIATION & NUCLE> FALL\T4 ,IT IS N[ CLE> ?AT ! SITUATION IS MU* WORSE ?AN HAD G5]ALLY BE5 SUPPOS$4 ,EXPOSURE TO RADIATION IS OCCURR+ ON A SCALE ?AT HAS NO PREC$5T 9 MAN'S NATURAL HI/ORY4 ,MILLIONS ( PEOPLE 9 ALL /AGES ( LIFE1 FROM ! FETAL TO ! S5ILE >E BE+ IRRADIAT$ EV]Y YE>4 ,CLE>LY ! PROBLEM ( RADIATION CONTROL HAS REA*$ S]I\S PROPORTIONS4 ,FROM ! V>I\S REPORTS 0ON ! 9FLU5CE ( IONIZ+ RADIATION ON BIOLOGICAL SY/EMS10 OBS]VES ! ,NATIONAL ,ADVISORY ,COMMITTEE ON ,RADIATION1 0444 IT IS EVID5T ?AT S]I\S HEAL? PROBLEMS MAY BE CREAT$ BY UNDUE EXPOSURE & ?AT EV]Y PRACTICAL MEANS %\LD BE ADOPT$ TO LIMIT SU* EXPOSURE BO? TO ! 9DIVIDUAL & TO ! POPULATION AT L>GE40 

,FALL\T 

,X-RAY EQUIPM5T1 WE NOT$ E>LI]1 CAN BE TURN$ ON & (F1 BUT ! RADIOACTIVE WA/ES ?AT 5T] MAN'S 5VIRONM5T ?R\< NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/S & ! ACTIVITY ( NUCLE> REACTORS >E ESS5TIALLY BEYOND HUMAN CONTROL4 ,!Y CONTAM9ATE AIR1 WAT]1 & FOOD1 & !Y IRRADIATE EV]YONE1 IRRESPECTIVE ( AGE OR HEAL?4 ,RADIOACTIVE CONTAM9ANTS ALSO CREATE PROBLEMS NOT 5C\NT]$ ) CONV5TIONAL POLLUTANTS4 ,ORD9>Y CONTAM9ANTS USUALLY LOSE !IR TOXIC PROP]TIES BY UND]GO+ *EMICAL *ANGE1 BUT !RE IS NO LOSS ( RADIOACTIVITY 9VOLV$ 9 ! *EMICAL REACTIONS ( RADIO-ISOTOPES4 ,:5 RADIOC>BON COMB9ES ) OXYG5 TO =M C>BON DIOXIDE1 ! C>BON 9 ! COMP\ND CONT9UES TO EMIT BETA P>TICLES4 ,! SAME IS TRUE = *EMICAL COMP\NDS =M$ BY /RONTIUM-#i4 ,RADIOACTIVITY P]SI/S 9 ALL RADIO-ISOTOPES UNTIL UN/ABLE ATOMS DECAY 9TO /ABLE ONES4 

,UNTIL REC5TLY1 ! LAYMAN WAS GIV5 A HI<LY MISLEAD+ PICTURE ( ! HAZ>DS CREAT$ BY NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/S4 ,?IS PICTURE WAS L>GELY CREAT$ BY ! ,ATOMIC ,5]GY ,COMMISSION1 ! (FICIAL AG5CY ?AT HAD BE5 MADE *IEFLY RESPONSIBLE = FURNI%+ ! PUBLIC ) 9=MATION 9 ! FIELD ( NUCLE> 5]GY4 ,= MANY YE>S ! ,A4,E4,C4 CONSI/5TLY M9IMIZ$ ! DANG] POS$ BY RADIOACTIVE FALL\T PRODUC$ BY NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/S4 ,= EXAMPLE1 IT COMPLETELY IGNOR$ ! EXT5T TO :I* FOOD HAD BE5 CONTAM9AT$ ) /RONTIUM-#i UNTIL ! PROBLEM WAS RAIS$ BY SCI5TI/S :O W]E CRITICAL ( ! AG5CY'S PUBLIC 9=MATION POLICIES4 0,9 ! #a#c? ,SEMIANNUAL ,REPORT ( ! ,E,C1 PUBLI%$ 9 #a#i#e#c10 NOTES ,B>RY ,COMMON]1 ( ,WA%+TON ,UNIV]SITY1 0! ,E,C /AT$ ?AT ! ONLY POSSIBLE HAZ>D TO HUMANS FROM /RONTIUM-#i W\LD >ISE FROM '! +E/ION ( BONE SPL9T]S :I* MI<T BE 9T]M+L$ ) MUSCLE TISSUE DUR+ BUT*]+ & CUTT+ ( ! MEAT4' ,NO M5TION ( MILK WAS MADE0 - OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 ( VEGETABLES & C]EALS4 ,SPOKESM5 = ! ,A4,E4,C4 PR$ICT$ ?AT FALL\T W\LD BE UNI=MLY DI/RIBUT$ OV] ! E>?1 SO ?AT NO >EAS NE$ FE> CONC5TRATIONS ( DEBRIS FROM NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/S4 ,! PUBLIC WAS ASSUR$ ?AT ! GREAT] P>T ( ! DEBRIS S5T 9TO ! /RATOSPH]E W\LD REMA9 AL(T = A P]IOD ( FIVE TO T5 YE>S4 ,AS FALL\T OCCURS V]Y SL[LY1 IT WAS SAID1 ! RADIOACTIVITY ( %ORT-LIV$ RADIO-ISOTOPES W\LD BE ALMO/ 5TIRELY DISSIPAT$ 9 ! /RATOSPH]E4 

,ACTUALLY1 ! RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS ?AT SO>S 9TO ! /RATOSPH]E /AYS !RE1 ON AN AV]AGE1 LESS ?AN FIVE YE>S4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,G5]AL ,H]B]T ,B4 ,LOP]1 ( ! ,DEP>TM5T ( ,DEF5SE1 HALF ! /RATOSPH]IC DEBRIS PRODUC$ BY A NUCLE> EXPLOSION RETURNS TO ! E>? )9 TWO YE>S4 ,FALL\T OCCURS ?REE & ONE HALF TIMES FA/] ?AN ,WILL>D ,F4 ,LIBBY1 =M] COMMISSION] ( ! ,A4,E4,C HAD E/IMAT$4 ,A MODEL ( /RATOSPH]IC AIR CIRCULATION DEVELOP$ BY ,A4 ,W4 ,BREW] & ,G4 ,M4 ,B4 ,DOBSON 9DICATES ?AT ! HEAVIE/ FALL\T 9 ! ,NOR!RN ,HEMISPH]E OCCURS 9 ! TEMP]ATE ZONE1 REA*+ A PEAK BETWE5 #d & #e DEGREES NOR? LATITUDE - OR R\<LY BETWE5 ,MADRID & ,LONDON 9 ,EUROPE & BETWE5 ,NEW ,YORK ,CITY & ,W9NIPEG 9 ,NOR? ,AM]ICA4 ,MEASUREM5TS MADE DUR+ ! #a#i#e#h-#f#a NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/ MORATORIUM 9DICATE ?AT ! HAZ>D FROM FALL\T 9 !SE LATITUDES IS SUB/ANTIALLY GREAT] ?AN ! WORLD-WIDE AV]AGE4 7,LET US GRANT ?AT ! ,A4,E4,C4 HAD MADE AN HONE/ ]ROR1 BUT H[ DID ! AG5CY H&LE ! FACTS :5 IT BECAME EVID5T FROM CLASSIFI$ DATA ?AT ITS PR$ICTIONS W]E WRONG8 ,A *RONOLOGICAL ACC\NT PREP>$ BY ! ,JO9T ,COMMITTEE ON ,ATOMIC ,5]GY 9DICATES ?AT A RE/UDY BY ! ,A4,E4,C41 RELEAS$ E>LY 9 #a#i#e#i1 0MAKES NO M5TION ( .<!.> ,DEF5SE ,DEP>TM5T /UDY0 & 0MA9TA9S .<!.> POSITION ( A RESID5CE TIME ( #e TO #a YE>S1 SELECT+ #f YE>S AS ! MEAN RESID5CE TIME ( /RATOSPH]IC FALL\T4 ,RESULTS ( ANO!R ,E,C ANALYSIS1 ,PROJECT ,A% ,CAN1 :I* 9DICAT$ A RESID5CE TIME ( #c YE>S1 WAS DISC\NT$ AS BE+ D\BTFUL4 ,NO M5TION WAS MADE ?AT ! ,DEP>TM5T ( ,DEF5SE CONCLUSIONS ( RESID5CE HALF LIFE ( #b YE>S T5D$ TO SUPPORT RESULTS ( ,PROJECT ,A% ,CAN407 

,! RAPIDITY ) :I* RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS DESC5DS TO ! E>? PLACES ! DANG] PRES5T$ BY %ORT-LIV$1 SUPPOS$LY H>MLESS RADIOACTIVE ELEM5TS 9 A NEW P]SPECTIVE4 ,CESIUM-#a#d#d & /RONTIUM-#h#i HAVE HALF-LIVES ( ONLY #bi & #ef DAYS1 RESPECTIVELY1 BUT NUCLE> EXPLOSIONS PRODUCE !SE RADIOACTIVE ELEM5TS 9 SU* RELATIVELY L>GE QUANTITIES ?AT1 IF FALL\T IS RAPID1 !Y BECOME A S]I\S HAZ>D TO PUBLIC HEAL?4 ,CESIUM-#a#d#d1 LIKE LONG-LIV$ CESIUM-#a#c#g 7ANO!R COMPON5T ( FALL\T71 IS AN EMITT] ( BETA RAYS4 ,:5 TAK5 9TO ! BODY1 BO? CESIUM ISOTOPES >E H&L$ METABOLICALLY LIKE POTASSIUM2 !Y MIGRATE TO ALL ! S(T TISSUES1 9CLUD+ ! REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS4 ,/RONTIUM-#h#i POSSESSES ! *>ACT]I/ICS ( /RONTIUM-#i2 IT1 TOO1 EMITS BETA RAYS & T5DS TO LODGE 9 BONE MATT]4 ,AL?\< A %ORT-LIV$ BONE SEEK] LIKE /RONTIUM-#h#i MI<T SEEM TO BE RELATIVELY H>MLESS1 IT %\LD NOT BE UND]E/IMAT$ AS A HAZ>D TO PUBLIC HEAL?4 0,S9CE /RONTIUM-#h#i IS PRODUC$ MORE ABUNDANTLY 9 FISSION ?AN /RONTIUM-#i444 10 ! ,SPECIAL ,SUBCOMMITTEE ON ,RADIATION ( ! ,JO9T ,COMMITTEE ON ,ATOMIC ,5]GY REPORT$ 9 #a#i#e#i1 0IT IS POSSIBLE ?AT COMP>ABLE DOSES TO ! BODY FROM ! TWO MAT]IALS C\LD OCCUR40 ,! SUBCOMMITTEE ADD$ ?AT 0IT W\LD REQUIRE #a TIMES MORE 9ITIAL ACTIVITY ( /RONTIUM-#h#i1 :OSE HALF LIFE IS #ef DAYS1 TO DELIV] ! SAME DOSE TO TISSUE ?AT W\LD BE CREAT$ BY #a UNIT ( /RONTIUM-#i4 ,IT IS CONSID]$ SIGNIFICANT ?AT TRANSI5T LEVELS ( /RONTIUM-#h#i ) APPROXIMATELY ?IS RATIO TO /RONTIUM-#i HAVE BE5 OBS]V$ 9 MILK40 

,= A FEW WEEKS AFT] A NUCLE> EXPLOSION1 ! W9D-BORNE DEBRIS 9 ! L[] P>T ( ! ATMOSPH]E MAY CONTA9 APPRECIABLE AM\NTS ( IOD9E-#a#c#a4 ,IOD9E-#a#c#a HAS A HALF-LIFE ( EI<T DAYS4 ,AT ! #aiei HE>+S ( ! ,SPECIAL ,SUBCOMMITTEE ON ,RADIATION1 ,E4 ,B4 ,LEWIS1 ( ! ,CALI=NIA ,9/ITUTE ( ,TE*NOLOGY1 OBS]V$ ?AT 0! RADIOIOD9ES 9 FALL\T >E A SPECIAL HAZ>D TO 9FANTS & *ILDR54 ,?IS HAZ>D >ISES = A V>IETY ( REASONS4 ,RADIOIOD9E IS A SIGNIFICANT FRACTION ( ! FRE% FISSION PRODUCTS RELEAS$ BY NUCLE> WEAPONS EXPLOSIONS4 ,GRAZ+ CATTLE +E/ & 9HALE ! RADIOIOD9ES 9 FALL\T & !N CONC5TRATE IT 9 !IR MILK4 ,9FANTS & *ILDR5 >E EXPECT$ TO +E/ MORE ( ! ISOTOPE ?AN WILL ADULTS S9CE FRE% C['S MILK IS ! PR9CIPAL S\RCE ( FALL\T RADIOIOD9E 9 ! HUMAN DIET & Y\NG PEOPLE OBVI\SLY DR9K MORE FRE% MILK ?AN DO ADULTS4 ,AS HAS LONG BE5 KN[N1 IOD9E ISOTOPES1 NATURAL & RADIOACTIVE1 CONC5TRATE 9 ! ?YROID GL&4 ,MOREOV]1 = ! SAME AM\NT ( RADIOIOD9E ORALLY +E/$1 ! 9FANT ?YROID RECEIVES SOME #ae TO #b TIMES ! DOSE ?AT ! ADULT ?YROID RECEIVES4 7,BRIEFLY1 ?IS IS BECAUSE MORE RADIOIOD9E IS TAK5 UP BY ! 9FANT ?AN BY ! ADULT ?YROID2 AS A RESULT MANY MORE ( ! %ORT-RANG$ IOD9E-#a#c#a BETA RAYS WILL BE G5]AT$ 9 A GRAM ( 9FANT ?AN 9 A GRAM ( ADULT ?YROID TISSUE47 ,F9ALLY1 9 SPITE ( ITS SMALL SIZE1 ! 9FANT ?YROID MAY BE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE ?AN ! ADULT ?YROID TO CANC] 9DUCTION BY IONIZ+ RADIATION40 

,NO ONE D5IES ?AT RADIO-ISOTOPES PRODUCE DAMAGE :5 !Y >E DEPOSIT$ 9 ! HUMAN BODY4 ,CONTROV]SY T5DS TO C5T] >\ND ! 0MAXIMUM P]MISSIBLE CONC5TRATIONS0 7,M,P,C'S7 ?AT HAVE BE5 E/ABLI%$ = ! QUANTITIES ( V>I\S RADIOACTIVE ELEM5TS ?AT ! HUMAN BODY CAN BE ALL[$ TO ACCUMULATE4 7,9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 ! T]M 0MAXIMUM P]MISSIBLE CONC5TRATION0 IS BE+ SUP]S$$ BY 0RADIATION PROTECTION GUIDE0 7,R,P,G71 & ! JOB ( =MULAT+ 0ACCEPTABLE0 VALUES ( EXPOSURE TO RADIATION HAS BE5 PLAC$ 9 ! H&S ( ! NEWLY =M$ ,F$]AL ,RADIATION ,C\NCIL4 ,!SE *ANGES1 H[EV]1 DO NOT AFFECT ! SUB/ANCE ( ! DISCUSSION ?AT FOLL[S47 ,!RE IS NO?+ SAFE AB\T AN ,M,P,C4 ,AN ,M,P,C CON/ITUTES ! AM\NT ( RISK AN (FICIAL AG5CY IS PREP>$ TO 9FLICT UPON C]TA9 9DIVIDUALS & ! G5]AL POPULATION 9 C>RY+ \T A NUCLE>-5]GY PROGRAM4 ,! ,U4 ,S4 ,NAVAL ,RADIOLOGICAL ,LABORATORY PO9TS \T ?AT ANY DEGREE ( EXPOSURE TO IONIZ+ RADIATION PRODUCES 0BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS40 0,S9CE WE DON'T KN[ ?AT !SE EFFECTS CAN BE COMPLETELY RECOV]$ FROM10 OBS]VES ! LABORATORY'S REPORT TO ! ,SPECIAL ,SUBCOMMITTEE ON ,RADIATION1 0WE HAVE TO FALL BACK ON AN >BITR>Y DECISION AB\T H[ MU* WE WILL PUT UP )2 I4E41 :AT IS 'ACCEPTABLE' OR P]MISSIBLE' - NOT A SCI5TIFIC F9D+1 BUT AN ADM9I/RATIVE DECISION40 

,MANY SCI5TI/S TAKE A GRIM VIEW ( ! 0ADM9I/RATIVE DECISIONS0 ?AT HAVE E/ABLI%$ ! P]MISSIBLE LEVELS ( /RONTIUM-#i = ! G5]AL POPULATION4 ,! ,M,P,C = /RONTIUM-#i IS MEASUR$ 9 /RONTIUM UNITS 7,S4,U471 =M]LY CALL$ 0SUN%9E UNITS40 ,A S+LE ,S4,U4 IS ONE MICROMICROCURIE 7UUC7 ( /RONTIUM-#i P] GRAM ( CALCIUM 7A UUC IS EQUAL TO ONE MILLION? ( A MILLION? ( A CURIE2 A CURIE ESS5TIALLY REPRES5TS ! AM\NT ( RADIOACTIVITY ASSOCIAT$ ) ONE GRAM ( RADIUM74 ,= A NUMB] ( YE>S1 ! MAXIMUM P]MISSIBLE CONC5TRATION = /RONTIUM-#i WAS E/ABLI%$ BY A DEF9ITE AL?\< L>GELY UN(FICIAL PROC$URE4 ,! ,M,P,C ORIG9AT$ AS A RECOMM5DATION BY ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,COMMISSION ON ,RADIOLOGICAL ,PROTECTION 7,I4,C4,R4,P471 AN ADVISORY BODY MADE UP ( SCI5TI/S FROM ALL P>TS ( ! WORLD4 ,! ,9T]NATIONAL ,COMMISSION'S RECOMM5DATION1 9 TURN1 WAS USUALLY ADOPT$ BY ! ,NATIONAL ,COMMITTEE ON ,RADIATION ,PROTECTION 7,N4,C4,R4,P471 ! ,AM]ICAN AFFILIATE ( ! ,I4,C4,R4,P4 ,F9ALLY1 ! ,NATIONAL ,COMMITTEE'S RECOMM5DATION WAS G5]ALLY ADOPT$ BY GOV]NM5T AG5CIES4 

,UNTIL #a#i#e#e1 ! RECOMM5DATION ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,COMMISSION DEALT ALMO/ EXCLUSIVELY ) PROBLEMS ( OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE TO RADIATION & RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES4 ,! PROBLEM ( =MULAT+ AN ,M,P,C = ! G5]AL POPULATION WAS LEFT 9 ! H&S ( ! COMMISSION'S NATIONAL AFFILIATES & (FICIAL AG5CIES4 ,?IS CREAT$ A HI<LY UNSATISFACTORY SITUATION4 ,IT MADE IT POSSIBLE = (FICIAL AG5CIES TO GROSSLY UND]/ATE ! HAZ>DS ( NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/S2 !Y PROCE$$ TO EVALUATE ALL ! DANG]S ?AT FALL\T PRES5T$ TO ! G5]AL POPULATION 9 T]MS ( ! L>GE ,M,P,C E/ABLI%$ = WORK]S 9 ATOMIC PLANTS4 0,! MAXIMUM P]MISSIBLE LEVEL ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 ! HUMAN SKELETON1 ACCEPT$ BY ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,COMMISSION ON ,RADIOLOGICAL ,PROTECTION1 CORRESPONDS TO #a1 MICROMICROCURIES P] GRAM ( CALCIUM .<#a1 ,S4,U4.>10 NOT$ ! ,BRITI% ,M$ICAL ,RESE>* ,C\NCIL 9 ! MID-#a#i#eS4 0,BUT ?IS IS ! MAXIMUM P]MISSIBLE LEVEL = ADULTS 9 SPECIAL OCCUPATIONS & IS NOT SUITABLE = APPLICATION TO ! POPULATION AS A :OLE OR TO *ILDR5 ) !IR GREAT] S5SITIVITY TO RADIATION & GREAT] EXPECTATION ( LIFE40 ,TO COPE ) ?IS PROBLEM1 ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,COMMISSION DECID$ 9 #aiee ?AT ! PROLONG$ EXPOSURE ( A L>GE POPULATION TO RADIATION %\LD NOT EXCE$ ONE T5? ( ! MAXIMUM P]MISSIBLE LEVELS ADOPT$ = OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES4 ,= ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES1 ! COMMISSION'S RECOMM5DATION MEANT ?AT ! ,M,P,C = /RONTIUM-#i E/ABLI%$ = ! G5]AL POPULATION %\LD BE R$UC$ FROM #a1 TO #a ,S4,U4 

,IT WAS NOT UNTIL A GREAT DEAL ( CONTROV]SY HAD DEVELOP$ OV] ! E/ABLI%$ ,M,P,C = /RONTIUM-#i ?AT ! ,NATIONAL ,COMMITTEE1 FOLL[$ ) UNDISGUIS$ RELUCTANCE BY ! ,A4,E4,C41 ADOPT$ ! 0ONE-T5? RULE0 RECOMM5D$ BY ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,COMMISSION4 ,IT SOON BECAME EVID5T ?AT EV5 ?IS #i P]C5T R$UCTION WAS 9ADEQUATE4 ,F9ALLY1 ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,COMMISSION MADE A CURI\S1 P]HAPS CONTRADICTORY DECISION3 ,IT RAIS$ ! ,M,P,C = WORK]S 9 ATOMIC PLANTS FROM #a1 TO #b1 ,S4,U4 BUT RECOMM5D$ ?AT ! ,M,P,C = ! G5]AL POPULATION BE R$UC$ TO ONE ?IRTIE? ( ! OCCUPATIONAL LEVEL4 ,?US1 9 A CIRCUIT\S1 (T5 CONFUS+ MANN]1 ! P]MISSIBLE LEVEL ( /RONTIUM-#i = ! G5]AL POPULATION HAS BE5 R$UC$ TO #fg ,S4,U41 OR ONE FIFTE5? ( ! ,M,P,C 7#a1 ,S4,U47 ?AT WAS 9 EFFECT 9 #a#i#e#d4 

,! PROBLEM ( E/ABLI%+ A 0SUITABLE0 ,M,P,C1 H[EV]1 IS /ILL UNSETTL$4 ,/RONTIUM-#i IS NOT UNI=MLY DI/RIBUT$ 9 BONE MATT]4 ,! ELEM5T1 LIKE RADIUM1 T5DS TO =M 0HOT SPOTS10 SOME ( :I* MAY EXCE$ ! AV]AGE SKELETAL DI/RIBUTION MANY TIMES OV]4 ,TO E/IMATE ! DAMAGE :I* SKELETAL CONC5TRATIONS ( /RONTIUM-#i >E LIKELY TO PRODUCE1 A FACTOR1 ,N1 %\LD BE US$ TO 9CREASE ANY AV]AGE RESULT BAS$ ON A UNI=M DI/RIBUTION ( ! ELEM5T 9 ! BONE ESPECIALLY 9 ! CASE ( ADULTS1 :O =M !SE 0HOT SPOTS0 MORE READILY ?AN *ILDR54 ,TWO ,SW$I% 9VE/IGATORS1 ,A4 ,5G/ROM & ,R4 ,BJORN]/$T1 :O HAVE PIONE]$ 9 RESE>* ON ?IS PROBLEM1 EMPHASIZE ?AT ,N IS NOT CON/ANT4 ,! FACTOR MAY V>Y FROM #f TO #f1 DEP5D+ UPON 9DIVIDUAL METABOLISM & V>IATIONS 9 ! AM\NT ( /RONTIUM-#i ?AT APPE> 9 FOOD1 AIR1 & WAT]4 ,AN 9DIVIDUAL :O ACQUIR$ AN AV]AGE1 PRESUMABLY 0SAFE10 SKELETAL BURD5 ( #fe ,S4,U41 = EXAMPLE1 MI<T WELL HAVE M9UTE 0HOT SPOTS0 ( NE>LY #d1 ,S4,U4-5\< TO 9CREASE APPRECIABLY HIS *ANCES ( DEVELOP+ CANC]4 

0,MEAN:ILE1 :AT IS ! C\RSE ( WISDOM80 ASKS ,W4 ,O4 ,CA/]1 ( ! ,UNIV]SITY ( ,M9NESOTA4 0,SOME CLAIM ?AT :]E !RE IS HONE/ D\BT1 PUBLIC SAFETY DEM&S ?AT ! SAFETY /&>DS BE ADJU/$ TO COV] ! WOR/ POSSIBLE CONT+5CY4 ,BUT IF ONE C\PLES ,DR4 ,5G/ROM'S E/IMATE ( #a /RONTIUM UNITS AS ! MAXIMUM P]MISSIBLE LEVEL = RADIATION WORK]S ) ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,COMMISSION'S SUGGE/ION ?AT ! P]MISSIBLE LEVEL = A POPULATION %\LD BE ONE ?IRTIE? ! OCCUPATIONAL LEVEL1 IT W\LD APPE> ?AT ! POPULATION LIMIT %\LD BE ONLY ?REE /RONTIUM UNITS4 ,SOME *ILDR5 HAVE ALREADY PASS$ ?IS M>K4 ,! (FICIAL AG5CIES PO9T \T ?AT1 9 ! ABS5CE ( PRO( ?AT SU* A LEVEL IS 9 ANY WAY DELET]I\S1 IT W\LD BE ! HEI<T ( IRRESPONSIBILITY TO RAISE A PUBLIC AL>M40 ,! PRO( REQUIR$ BY (FICIAL AG5CIES1 H[EV]1 MI<T NOT BE =?COM+ = T5 OR FIFTE5 YE>S4 

,:ATEV] ! ANALYTIC ME?OD EMPLOY$1 !RE IS NO D\BT ?AT CONC5TRATIONS ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 HUMAN BONES HAVE BE5 RIS+ /EADILY OV] ! PA/ DECADE4 ,! PR9CIPAL S\RCE ( ,AM]ICAN DATA ON ! AM\NT ( RADIO-/RONTIUM 5T]+ ! HUMAN BODY IS AN ,A4,E4,C4 F9ANC$ RESE>* PROJECT AT ! ,LAMONT ,GEOLOGICAL ,OBS]VATORY ( ,COLUMBIA ,UNIV]SITY UND] ! DIRECTION ( ,J4 ,LAUR5CE ,KULP4 ,?US F>1 ,KULP'S RESE>* GR\P HAS ISSU$ F\R REPORTS1 COV]+ ! YE>S #a#i#e#d-#i4 ,! DATA %[ ?AT = ! ',WE/]N CULTURE0 >EA 7,EUROPE & ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES71 SITUAT$ BETWE5 #c & #g DEGREES NOR? LATITUDE1 ! AV]AGE AM\NT ( SKELETAL /RONTIUM-#i 9 ADULTS 9CREAS$ FROM 4#g ,S4,U4 9 #ai$ TO 4#c#a ,S4,U4 ,ILL #a#i#e#i4 ,! AM\NT ( RADIO-/RONTIUM 9 ! BONES ( *ILDR5 UP TO F\R YE>S ( AGE ROSE FROM 4#e ,S4,U4 M #aiee TO #b4#c ,S4,U4 9 #a#i#e#i1 A TOTAL SEV5 TIMES ! AM\NT 9 ADULTS4 ,AL?\< ! BODY DISCRIM9ATES 9 FAVOR ( DIET>Y CALCIUM AGA9/ /RONTIUM1 ! DISCRIM9ATORY FACTOR V>IES ) AGE4 ,AS ADULTS NO LONG] UND]GO SKELETAL GR[?1 !Y ADD ONLY AB\T ONE F\R? ( ! /RONTIUM !Y +E/ TO !IR BONES2 *ILDR51 H[EV]1 ADD AB\T HALF4 

,! VALUE ( AV]AG+ ! AM\NT ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 BONES AT A GIV5 COLLECTION PO9T1 & !N AV]AG+ ! AV]AGES = AN 5TIRE 0CULTURE >EA10 IS HI<LY QUE/IONABLE4 ,JACK ,S*UB]T HAS PO9T$ \T ?AT 0:5 DEAL+ ) A POT5TIALLY H>MFUL AG5T 9VOLV+ ! WORLD'S POPULATION1 IT CAN BE MISLEAD+ TO USE AV]AGE VALUES ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 ! BONES4 ,IT IS IMPORTANT1 ESPECIALLY 9 RELATION TO ! SETT+ ( P]MISSIBLE LEVELS = A WORLD POPULATION1 ?AT WE HAVE SOME BASIS = E/IMAT+ ! DEGREE TO :I* APPRECIABLE FRACTIONS ( ! POPULATION ACCUMULATE TWO & MORE TIMES ! AV]AGE AM\NT40 ,US+ MORE SUITABLE MA!MATICAL ME?ODS ?AN ?OSE EMPLOY$ BY ,KULP & HIS COLLEAGUES1 ,S*UB]T %[S ?AT #b#h4#h P]C5T ( ! SKELETAL SPECIM5S ANALYZ$ 9 ! #a#i#e#g-#h ,KULP REPORT 0HAVE ?REE OR MORE TIMES ! AV]AGE 7GEOMETRIC MEAN7 AM\NT ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 !IR BONES4 ,OV] #d P]C5T WILL HAVE SEV5 OR MORE TIMES ! AV]AGE4 ,!SE VALUES >E APPRECIABLY GREAT] ?AN ?OSE ( ,KULP'S :O US$ 9CORRECT AV]AGES & AN 9CORRECT DI/RIBUTION CURVE & H5CE UND]E/IMAT$ ! FRACTION ( ! POPULATION :I* W\LD EXCE$ ! AV]AGE VALUES40 7,= ! B5EFIT ( READ]S :O >E FAMILI> ) /ATI/ICAL ME?ODS1 IT MI<T BE ADD$ ?AT A PROP] EVALUATION ( ,KULP'S DATA REQUIRES A ,POISSON DI/RIBUTION1 NOT ! NORMAL DI/RIBUTION EMPLOY$ BY ,KULP & HIS GR\P47 

,SUBM]G$ 9 ! AVALAN*E ( AV]AGES1 E/IMATES1 & /ATI/ICAL EXTRAPOLATIONS >E ?OSE COMMUNITIES ?AT HAVE BE5 HEAVILY IRRADIAT$ BY FALL\T DEBRIS4 0,SUB/ANTIAL >EAS 9 ,NEVADA & ,UTAH CLOSE TO ! BOMB TE/+ GR\NDS HAD RECEIV$ T5 RO5TG5S ( GAMMA RADIATION AS E>LY AS #a#i#e#e10 ,CA/] OBS]VES4 0,SOME #d COMMUNITIES HAD HAD AV]AGE DOSES BETWE5 ONE & EI<T RO5TG5 UNITS4 ,SU* DOSES >E SUB/ANTIALLY ABOVE ALL[ABLE LEVELS = ! G5]AL POPULATION - OR = PR(ESSIONAL P]SONNEL = ?AT MATT]40 ,9 ,MAY #a#i#e#c1 = EXAMPLE1 A SUDD5 *ANGE 9 WEA!R CAUS$ ! FALL\T 0CL\D0 FROM A ,NEVADA TE/ S]IES TO MOVE OV] WELL-TRAVEL$ & 9HABIT$ >EAS NE> ,YUCCA ,FLATS4 ,ACCORD+ TO AN ACC\NT ( ! EPISODE BY ,PAUL ,JACOBS1 FAIRLY HI< LEVELS ( AIR CONTAM9ATION W]E RECORD$ 9 ,/4 ,GEORGE 7POPULATION #e17 & ,HURRICANE 7POPULATION1 #a1#c#g#e74 7,A SIMIL> 9CID5T OCCURR$ A YE> LAT]1 :5 A L>GE GR\P ( ,M>%ALL ,ISL&]S RECEIV$ HI< DOSES ( RADIATION AS A RESULT ( A HYDROG5-BOMB TE/ AT ! ,A4,E4,C4'S ,5IWETOK ,PROV+ ,GR\NDS 9 ! ,PACIFIC ,OCEAN4 ,EXPOSURE TO FALL\T WAS SUFFICI5TLY HI< TO 9DUCE SYMPTOMS ( 0RADIATION SICKNESS0 9 MANY ( ! NATIVES4 ,HAD ! W9D VE]$ ?IRTY MILES TO ! S\?1 ! 5TIRE POPULATION ( ! ISL&S W\LD HAVE BE5 EXPOS$ TO LE?AL DOSES ( RADIATION 7AB\T #a1 RO5TG5S74 ,HUNDR$S ( MOTOR VEHICLES TRAVEL+ ! HI<WAYS NE> ! TE/ SITE REQUIR$ DECONTAM9ATION1 :ILE RESID5TS ( 5DANG]$ COMMUNITIES 7:5 !Y C\LD BE REA*$7 W]E W>N$ TO REMA9 9DOORS4 ,AT ,/4 ,GEORGE1 REPORTS ,JACOBS1 A 0HI< DEGREE ( CONTAM9ATION CONT9U$ = SIXTE5 DAYS AFT] ! %OTS40 

,RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS FROM ! ,NEVADA TE/ EXPLOSIONS NORMALLY DRIFTS 9 A NOR!A/]LY DIRECTION T[>D ! GRA9 & DAIRY /ATES ( ! UPP] ,MIDWE/4 ,IT T5DS TO SETTLE \T 9 >EAS :]E A L>GE P]C5TAGE ( ! ,AM]ICAN FOOD SUPPLY IS RAIS$4 ,AS A RESULT1 HI< CONC5TRATIONS ( /RONTIUM-#i HAVE BE5 F\ND 9 FOOD PLANTS1 ESPECIALLY C]EALS1 GR[N 9 MANY P>TS ( ! ,GREAT ,PLA9S REGION4 ,9 #a#i#e#g1 = EXAMPLE1 :EAT SAMPLES COLLECT$ FROM SEV5 AGRICULTURAL EXP]IM5T /ATIONS 9 ,M9NESOTA REGI/]$ CONC5TRATIONS ( /RONTIUM-#i AB\T #a P]C5T HI<] ?AN ! CURR5T DAILY MAXIMUM P]MISSIBLE LEVEL 7,M,P,L7 = HUMANS OV] A LIFETIME4 ,! L>GE/ NUMB] ( ,S4,U4 F\ND 9 ONE GR\P ( ,M9NESOTA SAMPLES WAS #b P]C5T GREAT] ?AN ! ,M,P,L4 

,HAD A MORATORIUM ON NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/S NOT BE5 E/ABLI%$ 9 ! AUTUMN ( #a#i#e#h1 ! AM\NT ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 MILK FROM C]TA9 COLLECTION PO9TS 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES MI<T WELL HAVE APPROA*$ OR EQUAL$ ! CURR5T ,M,P,L VALUE ( #cc UUC P] LIT]4 ,! ,A4,E4,C4'S 0,H>DTACK0 S]IES ( EXPLOSIONS 9 ,NEVADA & HI<-YIELD ,RUSSIAN TE/S 9 ,SIB]IA1 BO? CONDUCT$ DUR+ #a#i#e#h1 RESULT$ 9 HEAVY FALL\T4 ,9 #a#i#e#i1 ! AM\NT ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 MILK REA*$ #a#d4#f UUC P] LIT] 9 ,NEW ,YORK ,CITY 7,JULY #a#h71 #a#h4#b 9 ,C9C9NATI1 ,OHIO 7,MAY #a#i71 #b#b4#f 9 ,SPOKANE1 ,WA%+TON 7,MAY #e71 & #b#b4#h 9 ,ATLANTA1 ,GEORGIA 7,MAY #e74 ,HEAVY CONC5TRATIONS ( /RONTIUM-#i APPE>$ 9 :EAT & C]EAL PRODUCTS1 P>TICUL>LY 9 :OLE-:EAT BREAD4 ,DUR+ ,FEBRU>Y #a#i#e#i1 = EXAMPLE1 ! LEVELS ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 :OLE-:EAT BREAD OBTA9$ BY ! ,A4,E4,C4 FROM ,NEW ,YORK ,CITY RETAIL M>KETS G5]ALLY EXCE$$ ! ,M,P,L VALUE ( #cc UUC P] KILOGRAM4 7,) ! RESUMPTION ( NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/S1 ! AM\NT ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 FOOD IS EXPECT$ TO REA* UNPREC$5T$ LEVELS4 ,IT IS LIKELY ?AT ! /RONTIUM-#i 9 ! MILK SUPPLY ( A NUMB] ( ,AM]ICAN COMMUNITIES WILL SUB/ANTIALLY EXCE$ ! ,M,P,L ( #cc UUC P] LIT]4 ,E/IMATES BAS$ ON ! ,F$]AL ,RADIATION ,C\NCIL 0RADIATION PROTECTION GUIDES0 7,R,P,G'S7 PLACE #aifb LEVELS ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 MILK 9 ! L[] P>T ( 0,RANGE ,I,I0 7FROM #b TO #b UUC ( /RONTIUM-#i P] LIT]74 ,?IS RANGE REQUIRES 0ACTIVE SURVEILLANCE & R\T9E CONTROL0 BY PUBLIC HEAL? AU?ORITIES4 ,IT IS H>DLY NECESS>Y TO EMPHASIZE ?AT !RE WILL BE A %>P 9CREASE 9 SKELETAL BURD5S ( /RONTIUM-#i1 ESPECIALLY 9 *ILDR5 & Y\NG ADULTS47 

,ATTEMPTS HAVE BE5 MADE BY HI<LY RESPONSIBLE SCI5TI/S TO E/IMATE ! DAMAGE CAUS$ BY ! FALL\T DEBRIS PRODUC$ TO DATE4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,A4 ,N4 ,/URTEVANT1 PR(ESSOR ( G5ETICS AT ! ,CALI=NIA ,9/ITUTE ( ,TE*NOLOGY1 FALL\T WILL PRODUCE H>MFUL G5ETIC MUTATIONS 9 #d1 PEOPLE 9 ! FIR/ G5]ATION & 9 #d1 PEOPLE 9 G5]ATIONS TO COME4 ,AL?\< !SE FIGURES REPRES5T ,/URTEVANT'S LATE/ PUBLI%$ E/IMATES 7#a#i#e#i7 !Y >E CALCULAT$ ON ! BASIS ( ! RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS PRODUC$ UP TO #a#i#e#f4 ,S9CE !N1 ! TOTAL AM\NT ( FALL\T HAS 9CREAS$ AB\T #g P]C5T4 ,ON ! BASIS ( MORE UP-TO-DATE MAT]IAL4 ,JAMES ,CR[1 PRESID5T ( ! ,G5ETICS ,SOCIETY ( ,AM]ICA1 E/IMATES ?AT #b1 MUTATIONS WILL BE 9H]IT$ BY ! NEXT G5]ATION AS A RESULT ( FALL\T 7HIS E/IMATE IS BAS$ ON ! ASSUMPTION ?AT ! PRES5T WORLD POPULATION WILL PRODUCE A TOTAL ( TWO BILLION *ILDR574 ,! NUMB] W\LD REA* #b1 IF NUCLE> TE/+ W]E RESUM$ & CONT9U$ = ?IRTY YE>S AT ! #a#i#e#d-#h RATE4 

,IF ,E4 ,B4 ,LEWIS'S 'L9E> HYPO!SIS0 IS CORRECT1 FALL\T MAY HAVE CONTRIBUT$ TO ! RIS+ 9CID5CE ( LEUKEMIA4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,LEWIS'S !ORY1 ! *ANCES ( ACQUIR+ LEUKEMIA 9CREASE 9 DIRECT 7OR L9E>7 PROPORTION TO 9CREAS$ IRRADIATION4 ,! HYPO!SIS 'PR$ICTS ?AT CON/ANT EXPOSURE TO EV5 ONE SUN%9E UNIT .</RONTIUM UNIT.> W\LD BE CAPABLE ( PRODUC+ AB\T #e TO #a CASES ( LEUKEMIA ANNUALLY 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES POPULATION40 ,!RE SEEM TO BE V]Y FEW SCI5TI/S :O D5Y ?AT L9E>ITY EXI/S 9 ! MIDDLE DOSE RANGE ( RADIATION1 BUT A GREAT DEAL ( CONTROV]SY HAS >IS5 OV] ,LEWIS'S HYPO!SIS ?AT L9E>ITY EXI/S AT ALL LEVELS ( RADIATION1 9CLUD+ ! V]Y L[ DOSE RANGE 9VOLV$ 9 DIAGNO/IC ,X-RAYS & FALL\T4 ,YET !RE IS A SUB/ANTIAL AM\NT ( DATA TO SUPPORT HIS !ORY4 ,ASIDE FROM ! BASIC EVID5CE ?AT ,LEWIS PRES5T$ :5 HIS VIEWS W]E FIR/ PUBLI%$ 7#a#i#e#g71 ! L9E> HYPO!SIS HAS GA9$ /RONG SUPPORT FROM ! WORK ( ,ALICE ,/EW>T & O!RS ON CANC] 9 *ILDR5 7SEE PAGE #a#g74 ,! PELVIMETRIES /UDI$ BY ,/EW>T & H] C[ORK]S 9VOLV$ DOSAGES ( ONLY #b TO #a RADS2 NEV]!LESS1 ?IS L[ LEVEL ( :OLE-BODY RADIATION DIRECT$ AT ! FETUS WAS 5\< TO D\BLE ITS *ANCES ( ACQUIR+ CANC]4 

,IF ,LEWIS'S HYPO!SIS IS ALSO VALID = O!R =MS ( RADIATION-9DUC$ CANC]1 FALL\T FROM NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/S MAY BE RESPONSIBLE = ?\S&S ( CASES ( BONE CANC]4 ,BY US+ A /ATI/ICAL APPROA* DEVELOP$ BY ! ,BRITI% ,ATOMIC ,SCI5TI/S ,ASSOCIATION1 IT IS POSSIBLE TO MAKE A R\< BUT REASONABLE E/IMATE ( ! NUMB] ( SU* CANC]S ?AT W\LD BE PRODUC$ BY 9CREASES 9 ! AM\NT ( /RONTIUM-#i 9 HUMAN BONES4 ,A LONG-T]M AV]AGE ( ONLY ONE /RONTIUM UNIT 9 ! BONES ( EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL 9 ! WORLD MAY WELL CAUSE #a#b1#e CASES ( BONE CANC]2 AS LITTLE AS TWO /RONTIUM UNITS MAY RESULT 9 #b#e1 CASES4 ,! FIGURE 9CREASES PROPORTIONATELY AS /RONTIUM-#i BECOMES P>T ( ! HUMAN SKELETON4 ,IT IS SOB]+ TO NOTE ?AT IF ! WORLD POPULATION W]E TO ACQUIRE AN AV]AGE SKELETAL CONC5TRATION ( #b /RONTIUM UNITS-OR ONE ?IRD ( ! CURR5T MAXIMUM P]MISSIBLE CONC5TRATION - A QU>T] ( A MILLION PEOPLE MI<T BE AFFLICT$ ) BONE CANC]4 

,ALL ( !SE E/IMATES & HYPO!SES MAY BE WRONG1 BUT ?US F> !RE >E NO CONV9C+ REASONS = BELIEV+ ?AT !Y ]R ON ! SIDE ( PESSIMISM4 0,! BYPRODUCTS ( ATOMIC FISSION >E HI<LY DE/RUCTIVE TO PROTOPLASM10 OBS]VE ,RALPH & ,MILDR$ ,BU*SBAUM1 0& 9 UNIQUE WAYS :I* PRES5T PROBLEMS ?AT W]E NEV] POS$ BY ! O!R HAZ>DS MAN HAS 9TRODUC$ 9TO HIS 5VIRONM5T BY HIS TE*NOLOGY4 ,! DANG]S >E AT PRES5T UND]E/IMAT$1 RA!R ?AN EXAGG]AT$1 9 ! OP9ION ( MO/ BIOLOGI/S40 

,! ,NUCLE> ,AGE 

,IF NUCLE> WEAPONS TE/S W]E 5D$ P]MAN5TLY1 WE W\LD /ILL BE CONFRONT$ ) F>-REA*+ DANG]S CREAT$ BY ! PEACETIME USES ( NUCLE> 5]GY4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO ! M9USCULE QUANTITY ( RADIOACTIVE SUB/ANCES TO :I* MAN HAD ACCESS BE=E #a#i#d1 ! NUCLE>-5]GY 9DU/RY PRODUCES MILLIONS ( CURIES ( WA/E MAT]IALS EV]Y YE>4 ,! 0HI<-LEVEL0 WA/ES CREAT$ BY ! REPROCESS+ ( P>TIALLY SP5T NUCLE> FUELS MAY CONTA9 AS MU* AS SEV]AL ?\S& CURIES ( RADIOACTIVE SUB/ANCES P] GALLON4 ,MORE ?AN #fe MILLION GALLONS ( !SE LE?AL MAT]IALS >E /OR$ 9 GIANT UND]GR\ND TANKS AT ?REE LOCATIONS 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4 ,SO-CALL$ 09T]M$IATE0 & 'L[-LEVEL0 WA/ES >E DIS*>G$ DIRECTLY 9TO ! GR\ND4 ,RADIOACTIVE SUB/ANCES 9 LIQUID =M1 = EXAMPLE1 >E PIP$ 9TO GRAVEL-FILL$ TR5*ES & ALL[$ TO P]COLATE 9TO ! SOIL4 ,OV] #b #a_/#b MILLION CURIES ( SOLID & LIQUID WA/E PRODUCTS HAVE BE5 DISPOS$ ( 9 ! GR\ND4 ,! LIQUID WA/ES 0WORK !IR WAY SL[LY 9TO GR\ND WAT]10 OBS]VES ! ,A4,E4,C4 9 ITS #aiei ,ANNUAL ,REPORT1 'LEAV+ ALL OR P>T ( !IR RADIOACTIVITY HELD EI!R *EMICALLY OR PHYSICALLY 9 ! SOIL40 ,TO PUT ! KEY ?\<T 9 ?IS /ATEM5T LESS OBLIQUELY3 ,P>T ( ! RADIOACTIVITY REA*ES ! GR\ND WAT] & PASSES 9TO MAN'S 5VIRONM5T4 

,L>GE QUANTITIES ( 'L[-LEVEL0 WA/ES HAVE BE5 DIS*>G$ 9TO RIV]S4 ,AT ,HAN=D1 ,WA%+TON1 = EXAMPLE1 AB\T #b1 CURIES ( SUB/ANCES ?AT HAVE BE5 MADE RADIOACTIVE BY NEUTRONS 9 REACTORS >E RELEAS$ DAILY 9TO ! ,COLUMBIA ,RIV]4 ,AFT] MAK+ A SURVEY ( ! ,PRIE/ ,RAPIDS - ,PAT]SON SECTION ( ! RIV]1 A GR\P ( ,U4 ,S4 ,PUBLIC ,HEAL? ,S]VICE 9VE/IGATORS PO9T$ \T ?AT 0VALUES AS HI< AS #b4#b ,X #a-#cUC_/GM4 .<4#b MICROCURIES P] GRAM.> HAVE BE5 F\ND 9 ! MUSCLE ( :ITE FI% NE> ,PRIE/ ,RAPIDS40 ,! WRIT]S REPORT$ ?AT O!R RIV] ORGANISMS 0HAD GROSS BETA ACTIVITY D5SITIES CONSID]ABLY HI<] ?AN ADULT FI%1 BUT !SE ORGANISMS >E NOT UTILIZ$ TO ANY EXT5T BY HUMANS4 ,?US1 !IR MAJOR SIGNIFICANCE IS 9 TRANSMITT+ ?IS ACTIVITY TO O!R ORGANISMS 9 ! FOOD *A94 ,FI% AS WELL AS DUCKS1 GEESE & O!R ANIMALS1 MAY CONSUME !SE ORGANISMS40 ,!SE HI<] ANIMALS1 IT %\LD BE NOT$1 >E CONSUM$ BY MAN4 

,9 ADDITION TO US+ RIV]S AS A MEANS ( DISPOSAL1 ! ,A4,E4,C4 HAS DUMP$ #f#e1 CONCRETE-L9$ DRUMS CONTA9+ 'L[-LEVEL0 RADIOACTIVE G>BAGE 9TO ! ,ATLANTIC & ,PACIFIC OCEANS4 ,[+ TO ! CORROSIVE ACTION ( SEA WAT]1 ! POROSITY ( ! CONCRETE L9]S1 & ! HI< WAT] PRESSURES AT ! FLOOR ( ! OCEAN1 ! DRUMS MAY LA/ AS LITTLE AS T5 YE>S4 ,APPROXIMATELY #f1 CURIES ( RADIOACTIVITY W]E DISPOS$ ( 9 ! OCEANS BE=E ! ,A4,E4,C41 YIELD+ TO WIDESPREAD PUBLIC PROTE/1 DECL>$ A 0MORATORIUM0 ON ?IS TYPE ( DISPOSAL 9 ALL ,ATLANTIC & MANY ,PACIFIC COA/AL WAT]S P5D+ A FUR!R /UDY ( H[ EFFECTIVELY ! WA/ES >E RETA9$ BY !IR CONTA9]S4 ,! ,A4,E4,C41 H[EV]1 IS BY NO MEANS ! WOR/ CONTRIBUTOR TO RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION ( ! OCEANS4 ,BRITI% AU?ORITIES ALL[ !IR ,W9DSCALE 9/ALLATIONS TO PUMP AS MU* AS #a1 CURIES ( %ORT-LIV$ RADIO-ISOTOPES 9TO ! ,IRI% ,SEA EV]Y MON?4 

,:AT HAPP5S TO !SE WA/ES :5 !Y 5T] ! 5VIRONM5T ( FRE%- & SALT-WAT] M>9E LIFE8 ,G5]ALLY1 ECOLOGICAL FACTORS PLAY A NUMB] ( UGLY TRICKS ON MAN2 IT HAS BE5 CLE>LY E/ABLI%$ ?AT RADIOACTIVE MAT]IALS 9 WAT] T5D TO BE CONC5TRAT$ BY PLANKTON1 ALGAE1 MOLLUSKS1 & FI%4 0,AVAILABLE SUB/ANCES >E RAPIDLY TAK5 UP BY ! BIOTA1 NEV] REMA9+ LONG 9 ! WAT] TO BE DILUT$ & WA%$ AWAY10 OBS]VES ,LAUR5 ,R4 ,DONALDSON1 ( ! ,UNIV]SITY ( ,WA%+TON4 0,?IS IS DRAMATICALLY DEMON/RAT$ FOLL[+ AN ATOMIC TE/ 9 :I* RADIOACTIVE MAT]IALS >E DEPOSIT$ 9 ! WAT]4 ,)9 H\RS1 ! GREAT BULK ( !SE MAT]IALS IS TO BE F\ND 9 ! LIV+ ORGANISMS4 ,PLANKTON & SOME ( ! ALGAE1 :I* >E ! KEY ORGANISMS 9 ! FOOD *A91 MAY CONC5TRATE )9 !MSELVES MORE ?AN A ?\S& TIMES ! AM\NT ( RADIOACTIVE SUB/ANCES F\ND 9 ! SEA WAT]4 ,! H]BIVOR\S FI% & 9V]TEBRATES HAVE L[] CONC5TRATIONS ( RADIONUCLIDES AT ANY GIV5 TIME ?AN DO ! PLANTS ON :I* !Y FE$1 & PROGRESS+ ALONG ! FOOD *A9 TO ! C>NIVORES ! CONC5TRATIONS BECOME L[] & L[]40 

,!RE HAVE BE5 CASES1 H[EV]1 9 :I* ! CONC5TRATION ( RADIOACTIVE ELEM5TS WAS HI<] 9 FI% & MOLLUSKS ?AN 9 PLANTS4 ,9 A /UDY ( FALL\T ON A F\R-ACRE POND NE> ,C9C9NATI1 ,L4 ,R4 ,SETT] & ,A4 ,S4 ,GOLD91 ( ! ,U4 ,S4 ,PUBLIC ,HEAL? ,S]VICE1 F\ND EXTREME V>IATIONS 9 ! CONC5TRATION ( RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES AMONG DIFF]5T SPECIES ( WAT] LIFE4 ,9 SOME ALGAE ! AM\NT ( RADIOACTIVITY WAS ONLY #b TIMES GREAT] ?AN ?AT 9 ! WAT]1 BUT BASS HAD FROM #c TO #d TIMES MORE1 & SNAILS FROM #a1 TO #c1 ,DATA SUPPLI$ BY ,RI*>D ,F4 ,FO/]1 ( ! ,HAN=D ,LABORATORIES1 9DICATE ?AT :]EAS ALGAE 9 ! ,COLUMBIA ,RIV] CONC5TRATE RADIOCESIUM BY A FACTOR ( #a1 TO #e11 FI% CONC5TRATE ! ELEM5T BY A FACTOR ( #e1 TO #a14 7,FO/]'S REPORT1 9CID5TALLY1 %[S ?AT ALGAE CAN CONC5TRATE RADIO-POTASSIUM 9 AM\NTS AS MU* AS A MILLION TIMES GREAT] ?AN ?AT 9 RIV] WAT]1 & FI% CAN CONC5TRATE /RONTIUM-#i AS MU* AS A ?\S& TIMES47 ,9 ANY CASE1 AS ONE ORGANISM IS N\RI%$ BY ANO!R1 ! RADIO-ISOTOPES REAPPE> TO A GREAT] OR LESS] DEGREE 9 ! BODIES ( HI<] SPECIES4 ,! R\TE MAY BE DIRECT & SIMPLE OR LONG & COMPLEX1 BUT EV5TUALLY A PORTION ( ! RADIOACTIVE G>BAGE F9DS ITS WAY BACK TO MAN4 

,IT IS RA!R AL>M+ TO SPECULATE ON ! DIRECTION ! NUCLE> AGE MAY YET TAKE4 ,ACCORD+ TO ! ,COMMITTEE ON ! ,EFFECTS ( ,ATOMIC ,RADIATION ON ,OCEANOGRAPHY & ,FI%]IES ( ! ,NATIONAL ,ACADEMY ( ,SCI5CES1 0#c NUCLE> P[]$ %IPS ( ALL NATIONS WILL BE 9 S]VICE BY #a#i#g#e4 ,!SE %IPS C\LD !N POT5TIALLY RELEASE TO ! M>9E 5VIRONM5T APPROXIMATELY #e1 CURIES P] YE> FROM EXPANSION WAT]1 SOME #cd CURIES P] YE> FROM LEAKAGE1 & SOME #i X #a TO ! FIF? P[] .<#i1.> CURIES P] YE> FROM ! ION EX*ANGE B$S40 ,! TOTAL3 #i#h1#d CURIES P] YE>4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 NEW REACTORS ON ! L& CAN BE EXPECT$ TO CREATE EV]-M\NT+ PROBLEMS ( WA/E DISPOSAL4 ,IT HAS BE5 E/IMAT$ ?AT IF NUCLE> P[] FURNI%$ #a P]C5T ( ,AM]ICA'S CURR5T ELECTRICAL \TPUT 7A DI/9CT POSSIBILITY 9 ! NEXT FEW DECADES71 !RE W\LD EXI/ 9 ! WORLD AB\T #ae BILLION CURIES ( RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES FROM ?IS S\RCE ALONE1 9CLUD+ #b4#f BILLION CURIES ( /RONTIUM-#i & #b4#c BILLION CURIES ( CESIUM-#a#c#g4 ,!SE FIGURES1 LET IT BE NOT$1 DO NOT 9CLUDE RADIOACTIVE WA/ES ?AT W\LD BE PRODUC$ BY NUCLE> P[] PLANTS 9 O!R C\NTRIES4 ,ME?ODS = ! P]MAN5T DISPOSAL ( SU* HI<LY LE?AL MAT]IALS W\LD HAVE TO BE 0FOOLPRO(40 ,IF ANY MISCALCULATIONS W]E MADE & ! WA/ES BEGAN TO SEEP UNCONTROLLABLY 9TO MAN'S 5VIRONM5T1 !Y W\LD CAUSE A /AGG]+ AM\NT ( DAMAGE4 

,! NUCLE> AGE C\LD HAVE PR(\ND & F>-REA*+ EFFECTS UPON EXI/+ ECOLOGICAL PATT]NS4 ,UNTIL REC5TLY1 BIOLOGI/S ASSUM$ ?AT ! S5SITIVITY ( LIV+ ?+S TO RADIATION 9CREASES ) ! LEVEL ( !IR EVOLUTION>Y COMPLEXITY4 ,= EXAMPLE1 VIRUSES ABSORB BETWE5 #e1 & #a1 RO5TG5S BE=E HALF OR MORE ( !IR NUMB] >E KILL$2 SPORE-=M+ BACT]IA1 BETWE5 #b1 & #e12 ! WEEVIL1 BETWE5 #a1 & #b1 RO5TG5S4 ,BUT MAMMALS SU* AS ! DOG1 ! GOAT1 & MAN BEG9 TO SUCCUMB TO :OLE-BODY DOSES ( LESS ?AN #e RO5TG5S4 ,9 REVIEW+ ! /RIK+ DIFF]5CES 9 RADIO-RESI/ANCE BETWE5 L[] & HI<] =MS ( LIFE1 MANY BIOLOGI/S CONCLUD$ ?AT IF MAN & O!R MAMMALS C\LD BE PROTECT$ FROM RADIATION1 ! RE/ ( ! BIOSPH]E W\LD MORE OR LESS TAKE C>E ( ITSELF4 

,IT SEEMS UNLIKELY1 H[EV]1 ?AT ?IS CONCLUSION IS CORRECT4 ,!RE APPE> TO BE CRITICAL P]IODS 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MANY HI<LY RADIO-RESI/ANT SPECIES DUR+ :I* !Y CAN BE DAMAG$ OR KILL$ BY FAIRLY L[ LEVELS ( RADIATION4 ,= EXAMPLE1 IT REQUIRES ONLY #af RO5TG5S TO KILL HALF ! EGGS ( ! FRUIT FLY DUR+ ! E>LY /AGES ( CELL DIVISION1 :]EAS #a1 RO5TG5S >E NE$$ TO A*IEVE ! SAME RESULT ) ADULTS4 ,! ORGANISM IS #f TIMES MORE RADIO-RESI/ANT AT ONE /AGE ( ITS DEVELOPM5T ?AN AT ANO!R4 ,AS PLANTS & L[] ANIMALS T5D TO CONC5TRATE RELATIVELY L>GE QUANTITIES ( RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES 9 !IR CELLS1 A LEVEL ( 5VIRONM5TAL CONTAM9ATION 0H>MLESS0 TO MAN MAY PROVE TO BE V]Y H>MFUL TO LESS-DEVELOP$ SPECIES4 ,! USE ( ! SOIL1 ATMOSPH]E1 & BODIES ( WAT] AS DUMP+ GR\NDS = NUCLE> WA/ES C\LD RESULT 9 S]I\S ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCES ?AT W\LD EV5TUALLY AFFECT MAN4 0,:5 RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES >E RELEAS$ 9TO ! 5VIRONM5T10 OBS]VES ,K4 ,Z4 ,MORGAN1 ( ! ,OAK ,RIDGE ,LABORATORY1 0!Y USUALLY 5T] 9TO COMPLEX PHYSICAL & BIOLOGICAL CYCLES & 9TO FOOD *A9S & MAY EXHIBIT UNEXPECT$ MOVEM5TS OR CONC5TRATIONS4 ,IT IS ?R\< SU* ME*ANISMS ?AT DANG]\S LONG-LIV$ RADIONUCLIDES SU* AS /RONTIUM-#i & CESIUM-#a#c#g >E ABLE TO 5T] \R FOOD S\RCES4 ,!SE ECOLOGICAL FOOD *A9S >E ACTUALLY CIRCUL> 9 NATURE OR WEB-LIKE & HAVE A LIMIT$ NUMB] ( L9KS4 ,S]I\S CONSEQU5CES W\LD FOLL[ IF TOO MANY ( !SE FOOD L9KS W]E BROK540 

,MORGAN EMPHASIZES ?AT ! DAMAGE CAN BE V]Y SUBTLE4 ,RADIATION MAY R$UCE ! MOBILITY ( AN ANIMAL OR IMPAIR ITS S5SORY ORGANS1 SU* AS ! EYES4 ,IT MAY R$UCE ! ORGANISM'S F]TILITY4 0,ALSO1 IF A SMALL DOSE HAS ANY EFFECT AT ALL AT ANY /AGE 9 ! LIFE CYCLE ( AN ORGANISM1 !N *RONIC RADIATION AT ?IS LEVEL CAN BE MORE DAMAG+ ?AN A S+LE MASSIVE DOSE :I* COMES AT A TIME :5 ONLY RESI/ANT /AGES >E PRES5T4 ,F9ALLY /RESS & *ANGES 9 MUTATION RATES MAY BE PRODUC$ EV5 :5 !RE IS NO IMM$IATELY OBVI\S EFFECT ON SURVIVAL ( IRRADIAT$ 9DIVIDUALS40 

,NUCLE> 5]GY IS ASSOCIAT$ ) SU* HUGE PROBLEMS 9 HUMAN AFFAIRS ?AT ! SUBTLE DANG]S IT CREATES = ! BIOSPH]E MAY SEEM TO BE NEGLIGIBLE4 ,! T5D5CY TO DEAL ) ! ATOM 9 T]MS ( MASSIVE DE/RUCTION & L>GE-SCALE ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION MAY L[] \R GU>D & LEAD TO S]I\S ECOLOGICAL DI/URBANCES4 ,AL?\< ! WA/ES DIS*>G$ 9TO ! 5VIRONM5T CONTA91 = ! MO/ P>T1 %ORT-LIV$ RADIO-ISOTOPES1 ! DAILY VOLUME ( EFFLU5T IS IMM5SE & ! FL[ CONT9U\S4 ,! RADIO-ISOTOPES >E PICK$ UP1 CONC5TRAT$1 & CIRCULAT$ 9 9CREAS+ AM\NTS BY KEY ORGANISMS 9 ! VIC9ITY ( NUCLE> REACTORS & PROCESS+ E/ABLI%M5TS UNTIL MANY PLANTS & ANIMALS BECOME HEAVILY CONTAM9AT$4 ,! SMALL] NUMB] ( LONG-LIV$ RADIOISOTOPES >E C>RI$ FUR!R 9TO MAJOR FOOD *A9S ?AT 9VOLVE MILLIONS ( PEOPLE4 ,BE=E CREAT+ NEW C5T]S ( RADIOACTIVITY & ADD+ TO EXI/+ PROBLEMS ( WA/E DISPOSAL1 WE W\LD DO WISELY TO ASK :E!R ALL ! HAZ>DS ( EXPOSURE TO L[-LEVEL RADIATION HAVE BE5 EXPLOR$ & :E!R ALL ! ALT]NATIVES TO NUCLE> P[] HAVE BE5 EXHAU/$4 0,IT IS NOT TOO LATE AT ?IS PO9T = US TO RECONSID] OLD DECISIONS & MAKE NEW ONES10 OBS]VES ,WALT] ,S*NEIR 9 AN EXCELL5T >TICLE ON RADIOACTIVE WA/ES4 0,= ! MOM5T AT LEA/1 A *OICE IS AVAILABLE40 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aifa 3 ,*APT] #f -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,FEBRU>Y #a1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #f -- ,ADD$4 

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