,PA9FUL ,MEMORIES 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 

,TEXT 3 

,9 ?IS ESSAY ,I W\LD LIKE TO TALK AB\T PEOPLE :O LO/ EV]Y?+4 ,IM]9A 7! TRADITIONAL NAME = ! NOR!RN HALF ( ! C5TRAL PLATEAU ( ,MADAGASC>7 IS A PLACE :]E PEOPLE ATTA* 5ORM\S IMPORTANCE TO ! MEMORY ( !IR ANCE/ORS & ! L&S ON :I* !IR ANCE/ORS ONCE LIV$4 ,HI/ORY1 9 ,IM]9A1 IS L>GELY A MATT] ( PLAC+ ! LIV+ 9 AN HI/ORICAL L&SCAPE CREAT$ BY ! DEAD4 ,AB\T A ?IRD ( ! ,M]9A POPULATION1 H[EV]1 IS MADE UP ( ! DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES1 & 9 ,MADAGASC>1 SLAVES >E BY DEF9ITION PEOPLE )\T ANCE/ORS1 'LO/ PEOPLE' 7OBNA V]Y7 :O HAVE BE5 RIPP$ FROM !IR ANCE/RAL L&SCAPES1 LEFT UNAN*OR$ TO ANY PLACE4 ,!SE W]E PEOPLE :O HAD BE5 LIT]ALLY /RIPP$ ( HI/ORY4 ,EV5 TODAY1 ALMO/ A HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] EMANCIPATION1 MO/ 'BLACK PEOPLE' 7AS !IR DESC5DANTS >E CALL$7 REMA9 9 A K9D ( HI/ORICAL LIMBO1 UNABLE TO MAKE A REAL CLAIM TO ! T]RITORIES 9 :I* !Y LIVE & >E BURI$4 

,! QUE/ION ,I WANT TO ASK IS3 :AT =MS DOES HI/ORICAL MEMORY TAKE = SU* PEOPLE8 ,:AT =MS CAN IT TAKE8 

,IT HAS BECOME A COMMONPLACE1 N[ADAYS1 TO >GUE ?AT HI/ORICAL CONSCI\SNESS IS ULTIMATELY AB\T ID5TITY4 ,MEMORIES ( ! PA/ >E WAYS ( DEF9+ :O ONE IS 9 ! PRES5T--& P]HAPS TOO1 ( DEF9+ :AT K9D ( ACTION ONE IS CAPABLE (1 ( 5UNCIAT+ COLLECTIVE PROJECTS 7E4G41 ,CONN]TON #a#i#h#i2 ,FRI$MAN #a#i#i#b74 ,CLE>LY1 ?IS W\LD LEAVE ! HI/ORICAL CONSCI\SNESS ( SLAVES MORE ?AN A LITTLE PROBLEMATIC4 ,SLAVES' ID5TITIES W]E CREAT$ BY EV5TS !IR DESC5DANTS W\LD NOT WI% TO COMMEMORATE1 EV5TS :I* NOT ONLY ANNIHILAT$ ANY L9K TO !IR PREVI\S HI/ORIES1 BUT LEFT !IR VICTIMS G5]ICALLY 9CAPABLE ( PRODUC+ NEW ONES4 ,NOT SURPRIS+ !N ?AT MO/ DESC5DANTS TRI$ !IR BE/ TO AVOID HAV+ TO ADMIT TO !IR ANCE/RY4 ,IT WAS EMB>RASS+4 ,ALMO/ ALL ! /ORIES ,I DID MANAGE TO CULL AB\T ! 'DAYS ( SLAV]Y' C5T]$ ON ! 9SIDI\S MEANS MA/]S US$ TO RITUALLY POLLUTE !IR SLAVES--RUBB+ EXCREM5T ON !IR HEADS1 MAK+ !M SLEEP ALONGSIDE PIGS-- & SO DE/ROY !IR HAS9A1 A WORD :OSE MEAN+ 9 ?IS CONTEXT FALLS AB\T HALFWAY BETWE5 '/ATE ( GRACE' & 'P[]4' ,! ULTIMATE MESSAGE WAS (T5 QUITE EXPLICIT3 IT WAS ONLY BY DE/ROY+ !IR ABILITY TO ACT = !MSELVES ?AT MA/]S W]E ABLE TO KEEP SLAVES 9 SUBJUGATION4 ,BUT IT IS TELL+ ?AT !SE W]E JU/ AB\T ! ONLY MEMORIES ( SLAV]Y ,I EV] HE>D REC\NT$4 ,IT WAS AS IF1 HAV+ EXPLA9$ H[ SLAVES W]E R5D]$ PEOPLE :O DID NOT HAVE ! RI<T TO ACT1 OR EV5 TO SPEAK1 = !MSELVES1 !RE WAS NO?+ LEFT TO SAY4 

,! EXP]I5CE ( SLAV]Y C\LD NOT BE DIRECTLY TOLD1 AS HI/ORY1 IF ONLY BECAUSE ADMITT+ TO SU* A PA/ DEPRIV$ ONE ( ! AU?ORITY ) :I* TO SPEAK4 ,IT WAS 9H]5TLY %AMEFUL4 ,( C\RSE1 ! FEEL+ ?AT ONE IS NOT 5TID$ TO HAVE AN OP9ION1 OR A HI/ORY1 IS A COMMON PH5OM5ON AMONG ! DISPOSSESS$ ( ANY SOCIETY 7,B\RDIEU #a#i#h#d74 ,H[EV]1 :AT ,I AM GO+ TO >GUE 9 ?IS PAP] IS ?AT ,M]9A SLAVES DID1 9 FACT1 DEVELOP A RITUAL IDIOM ) :I* TO REFLECT ON !IR HI/ORY & !IR CONDITION1 & EV5 TO SPEAK TO O!RS ) ! VOICE ( AU?ORITY4 ,IT WAS1 P]HAPS1 SOME:AT VEIL$ & 9DIRECT4 ,BUT H]E TOO ! ABILITY TO SPEAK WAS 9SEP>ABLE FROM ! ABILITY TO ACT2 IT WAS ?R\< ! V]Y PROCESS ( SEIZ+ ! AU?ORITY TO SPEAK ?AT ! DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES1 9 SO MANY CASES1 BEGAN TO TAKE BACK = !MSELVES ! CAPACITY TO ACT AS HI/ORICAL AG5TS 9 !IR [N RI<T1 ACTORS AS WELL AS N>RATORS1 & SO P]HAPS TO BEG9 TO RECUP]ATE A LITTLE BIT ( :AT !Y HAD LO/4.<#a.> 

,M]9A SLAV]Y 

,FROM >\ND #ahb TO SOMETIME >\ND #a#h#e1 HUNDR$S ( ?\S&S ( PEOPLE W]E TAK5 PRISON] BY ,M]9A MILIT>Y EXP$ITIONS & C>RI$ BACK TO ! C5TRAL HI<L&S ( ,IM]9A4 ,! ,M]9A K+DOM'S >MY1 >M$ & TRA9$ BY ITS ,BRITI% ALLIES1 MADE COMMON PRACTICE ( MASSACR+ ALL ! ADULT MALES ( 'REBEL' VILLAGES1 & C>RY+ (F EV]YBODY ELSE TO BE SOLD AS SLAVES4 ,SOMETIME >\ND #a#h#e#e1 ,QUE5 ,RANAVALONA ,I'S SECRET>Y ,RAOMBANA WROTE ( !SE CAMPAIGNS3 

,AS TO ! MIS]IES :I* !SE CONT9UAL W>S BR\<T TO ! PROV9CIAL PEOPLE1 ?AT IS 9DESCRIBABLE1 = BY FI<T+1 BUT MORE DECEIT1 ?AT IS1 ! (F] ( LIFE & P>DON IF !Y YIELD & SUBMIT1 ?\S&S & ?\S&S HAVE ?US BE5 MURD]$ 9 COLD BLOOD1 & !IR NUM]\S WIVES1 *ILDR5 & CATTLE SEIZ$ & R$UC$ TO SLAV]Y4 

,MO!RS >E SEP>AT$ FROM !IR T5D] (FSPR+ & O!R RELATIONS1 AS !Y >E DIVID$ & DI/RIBUT$ AMONG DIFF]5T MA/]S1 & >E ?US TAK5 9TO DIFF]5T P>TS ( ! C\NTRY :]E !Y NEV] DISCOV] ONE ANO!R AGA91 ) V]Y FEW EXCEPTIONS4 

,AN (FIC] :O IS A REAL ,*RI/IAN 9=M$ ME ?AT ! PA9S 9 HELL C\LD NOT BE MORE ?AN ! PA9S SUFF]$ BY !SE UN=TUNATE PEOPLE 9 BE+ SEP>AT$ FROM ONE ANO!R TO BE TAK5 AWAY TO !IR DIFF]5T MA/]S4 ,!IR CRIES1 !IR WEEP+S & !IR LAM5TATIONS1 SAID ! ABOVE ,*RI/IAN1 IS SU* AS ALMO/ SUFFICI5T TO RAISE ! DEAD FROM !IR GRAVES = TO TAKE !IR P>TS4444.<#b.> 

,IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMEMB] ?AT = ITS VICTIMS1 ! V]Y FIR/ ?+ SLAV]Y MEANT WAS A COMPLETE RUPTURE ) EV]Y?+ ?AT HAD MADE !IR LIVES MEAN+FUL3 ( ALL ! TIES ( LOVE1 K9%IP1 %>$ EXP]I5CE ?AT HAD B\ND !M TO A HOME1 TO P>5TS1 FRI5DS1 LOV]S1 TO EV]YONE & EV]Y?+ !Y HAD MO/ C>$ =4 ,IT WAS 9 ?IS S5SE TOO ?AT SLAVES W]E 'LO/ PEOPLE1' ALONE1 9 AN ALI5 PLACE AMONG PEOPLE :O DID NOT KN[ !M4 

,IT IS EV5 MORE IMPORTANT1 P]HAPS1 TO EMPHASIZE ?AT ?IS SITUATION DID NOT 5D ONCE A CAPTIVE HAD BE5 SOLD & SETTL$ 9 ,IM]9A4 ,IT WAS EXTREMELY DIFFICULT = SLAVES TO CREATE ANY K9D ( 5DUR+ TIES1 EI!R TO PEOPLE OR TO PLACES4 ,FREE ,M]9A LIV$ 9 P]MAN5T T[NS OR VILLAGES ON HILLTOPS2 SLAVES1 9 MAKE%IFT SETTLEM5TS 9 ! VALLEY BOTTOMS1 NE> ! PADDY FIELDS4 ,!SE HAMLETS W]E MO/LY /RUCTUR$ >\ND A H&FUL ( OLD] M5 OR WOM52 MO/ Y\NG] SLAVES HAD NO FIX$ ABODE AT ALL BUT CIRCULAT$ BETWE5 SEV]AL HAMLETS 9 DIFF]5T P>TS ( ,IM]9A1 (T5 BETWE5 DIFF]5T MA/]S1 AS WELL AS BETWE5 SCATT]$ FAMILY1 FRI5DS1 & LOV]S4 ,MANY SLAVES MANAG$ TO W9 A REM>KABLE DEGREE ( 9DEP5D5CE FROM !IR MA/]S2 !Y CAME TO MAKE UP ! MAJORITY ( BO? ,IM]9A'S PETTY M]*ANTS & ITS PETTY CRIM9ALS1 AS WELL AS ALMO/ ALL WAGE LABOR]S2 BUT ! MOBILITY :I* MADE ?IS POSSIBLE ALSO 5SUR$ !IR UPROOT$ CONDITION REMA9$ P]MAN5T4.<#c.> 

,! MO/ OBVI\S SYMPTOM ( SLAVES' PLACELESSNESS WAS !IR LACK ( PROP] TOMBS4 ,= FREE ,M]9A1 TOMBS W]E--AS !Y REMA9 TODAY-- ! ULTIMATE L9K BETWE5 PEOPLE & PLACES1 ! AN*ORS ( GR\P ID5TITIES 7CF4 ,BLO*1 #a#i#g#a74 ,IT IS ?R\< COLLECTIVE /ONE TOMBS ?AT EA* DESC5T GR\P IS FIX$ TO AN ANCE/RAL T]RITORY2 ONE MAY SP5D ONE'S 5TIRE LIFE F> FROM ONE'S ANCE/RAL L&S1 BUT ONE NONE!LESS EXPECTS TO BE BURI$ ON !M :5 ONE DIES4 ,TO BE BURI$ 9 A MAGNIFIC5T TOMB1 TO BE REMEMB]$ !RE BY ONE'S DESC5DANTS1 & TO BE P]IODICALLY REWRAPP$ 9 BEAUTIFUL SILK %R\DS CALL$ LAMBAMMAY IS ! ULTIMATE ASPIRATION ( ANY IMPORTANT MAN4 ,BUT ! IDEAL IS H>D TO A*IEVE2 TO GU>ANTEE ONE WILL NOT BE =GOTT51 ONE HAS TO ACQUIRE 5\< L& TO SETTLE A L>GE NUMB] ( DESC5DANTS >\ND ONE'S TOMB4 ,= SLAVES1 ALL ?IS WAS NE>LY 9CONCEIVABLE4 ,MO/ SLAVES W]E NOT BURI$ 9 PROP] /ONE TOMBS AT ALL--MANY W]E BURI$ 9 SIMPLE GRAVES OR IMPROVIS$ PIT-TOMBS NE> !IR SETTLEM5TS1.<#d.> USUALLY ) PEOPLE ( V]Y DIFF]5T ANCE/RIES BURI$ TOGE!R4 ,IT WAS ONLY AFT] EMANCIPATION 7:I* CAME 9 #a#h#i#f1 A YE> AFT] ! ,FR5* CONQUE/ ( ,MADAGASC>7 ?AT MO/ ( ?OSE =M] SLAVES :O *OSE TO REMA9 9 ,IM]9A.<#e.> BEGAN TO CREATE SOLID & SUB/ANTIAL TOMBS ( /ONE LIKE ?OSE ( FREE PEOPLE4 ,USUALLY1 A NUMB] ( FAMILIES W\LD HAVE TO POOL !IR RES\RCES TO DO SO4 ,TO ACQUIRE ! L& TO KEEP ONE'S DESC5DANTS >\ND WAS EV5 MORE DIFFICULT4 ,ALMO/ ALL ':ITE' ,M]9A CLAIM !IR ANCE/ORS =BID !M TO M>RY OR SELL !IR ANCE/RAL L& TO ! DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES2 :5 !Y MAKE EXCEPTIONS1 IT IS ONLY = VA/LY 9FLAT$ PRICES4 ,9 ! VILLAGE ( ,BETAFO1 :]E ,I DID MY FIELDWORK1 = EXAMPLE1 ALMO/ EV]Y 'BLACK' 7MA9TY7 FAMILY ?AT HAD MANAG$ TO E/ABLI% ITSELF OV] TIME HAD ONLY BE5 ABLE TO DO SO BECAUSE ( SOME EXCEPTIONAL W9DFALL3 A GIFT ( L& FROM =M] MA/]S 7= :OM !Y W]E ALSO OBLIG$ TO WORK AS %>ECROPP]S71 A MILIT>Y P5SION1 AN UNUSUALLY ADVANTAGE\S M>RIAGE4444.<#f.> ,! MAJORITY /ILL SP5T !IR LIVES TRAVEL+ BETWE5 PLACES :I* W]E NOT REALLY !IRS2 = MO/1 LIVES ( 5DLESS /RIV+ 5D$ ONLY 9 FAILURE & OBLIVION1 TO BE BURI$ 9 ! TOMB ( A DI/ANT RELATIVE 9 A L& :]E !Y HAD LIKELY NEV] LIV$4 

,!RE IS AN IRONY H]E1 BECAUSE ! V]Y DIFFICULTY ( CREAT+ TOMBS & ANCE/ORS MEANT !Y CAME TO TAKE ON A V]Y DIFF]5T MEAN+ = ! DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES ?AN = ! O!R TWO ?IRDS ( ! ,M]9A POPULATION4 ,AS ,I HAVE >GU$ ELSE:]E 7,GRAEB] #a#i#i#e71 ATTITUDES ( ':ITE' ,M]9A T[>DS ANCE/ORS >E PR(\NDLY AMBIVAL5T4 ,PEOPLE DO WI% TO BE REMEMB]$ AS ANCE/ORS :5 !Y DIE2 BUT 9 P>T = ?AT V]Y REASON1 ! MEMORY ( EXI/+ ANCE/ORS IS SE5 AS AN IMPOSITION ON ! LIV+1 SUPPORT$ BY ! CON/ANT ?REAT ( PUNI%M5T = LAPSES ( MEMORY OR NEGLECT ( ANCE/RAL RE/RICTIONS4 ,MEMORY ITSELF IS FELT AS A K9D ( VIOL5CE4 ,AS A RESULT1 ! FAMADIHANA RITUALS 9 :I* ! BODIES ( ! DEAD >E P]IODICALLY REMOV$ FROM ! TOMB TO BE REWRAPP$ 9 NEW LAMBAM5A1 HAVE A DUAL MEAN+ TOO4 ,:ILE REPRES5T$ AS WAYS ( REMEMB]+ ! DEAD1 !IR COV]T PURPOSE IS TO MAKE IT EASI] TO =GET !M3 R$UC+ ANCE/RAL BODIES TO DU/ SO !IR NAMES CAN BE =GOTT52 !N1 LOCK+ !M 9SIDE ! TOMB4 ,= ! DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES1 ON ! O!R H&1 IT WAS NOT ! PRESSURE ( HI/ORY & MEMORY ?AT WAS FELT AS A K9D ( VIOL5CE1 BUT ! V]Y LACK ( IT1 & = ?AT REASON1 ANCE/ORS TOOK ON A F> MORE B5EVOL5T C\NT5ANCE4 ,IT IS H>D TO BE C]TA91 BUT ,I DID F9D ?AT DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES W]E MU* MORE LIKELY TO 9SI/ ?AT ANCE/ORS REALLY DID PROVIDE CONCRETE B5EFITS = !IR DESC5DANTS1 & ,I HAD A /RONG FEEL+ ?AT1 :ILE ! =M ( MORTU>Y RITUAL WAS ! SAME1 ! CONT5T WAS SLI<TLY DIFF]5T2 ?AT !RE WAS AN HONE/ PIETY 9 'BLACK' ATTITUDES T[>DS ! DEAD (T5 LACK+ 9 !IR ':ITE' NEI<BORS4 

,! FIR/ /ORY ,I HAVE TO REC\NT1 9 FACT1 IS L>GELY AB\T H[ DIFFICULT IT IS = 'BLACK PEOPLE' 7OLONA MA9TY7 TO LAY CLAIMS TO ,M]9A MORTU>Y RITUAL4 

,! /ORY ( ,RA9ITABA 

,! COMMUNITY ( ,BETAFO1 ! FOCUS ( MY [N FIELDWORK :I* ,I CONDUCT$ BETWE5 #aihi & #a#i#i#a1 CONSI/$ ( SOME?+ LIKE #ac SETTLEM5TS & P]HAPS #d PEOPLE1 OCCUPY+ A /RET* ( ROLL+ C\NTRY AB\T =TY M9UTES' WALK TO ! NOR? ( ! T[N ( ,>IVONIMAMO4 ,IT WAS A COMMUNITY DIVID$ BETWE5 ! DESC5DANTS ( AN &RIANA1 'NOBLE1' DESC5T GR\P1 & ! DESC5DANTS ( !IR =M] SLAVES4 ,! LATT] MADE UP AB\T A ?IRD ( ! TOTAL POPULATION4 

,! MA9 REASON !Y W]E !RE WAS BECAUSE %ORTLY AFT] EMANCIPATION1 MEMB]S ( ! WEAL?IE/ &RIANA FAMILIES HAD GIV5 !IR =M] SLAVES A L>GE GRANT ( L& TO 5C\RAGE !M TO /AY ON4 ,ALMO/ ALL ( IT W5T TO TWO M51 :O W]E1 AT ! TIME1 ! *IEF M5 ( A HAMLET CALL$ ,ANT&ROKOMBY :I* SAT1 LIKE MO/ SLAVE SETTLEM5TS1 ON ! $GE ( A /RET* ( T]RAC$ RICE FIELDS4 ,BO? M5 BUILT SUB/ANTIAL TOMBS & KEPT L>GE NUMB]S ( DESC5DANTS >\ND !M2 9 FACT1 MO/ 'BLACK PEOPLE' 9 ,BETAFO W]E DESC5D$ FROM ONE ( !M 9 SOME WAY OR ANO!R4 ,BETAFO WAS ALSO A SOME:AT ANOMAL\S COMMUNITY BECAUSE ON ! :OLE1 ITS 'BLACK PEOPLE' W]E DO+ RA!R WELL3 P>TLY BECAUSE ) !IR GREAT] ACCLIMATIZATION TO WAGE LABOR1 !Y HAD BE5 BETT] ABLE TO ADAPT TO ! ECONOMIC CRISIS ?AT HAD HIT RURAL ,MADAGASC> S9CE ! LATE #a#i#gS2 ALSO1 BECAUSE SOME ( ! FAMILIES ?AT HAD NOT ORIG9ALLY RECEIV$ GRANTS ( L& HAD BE5 ABLE TO CAPITALIZE ON !IR REPUTATIONS AS A/ROLOG]S & MAGICIANS TO ACQUIRE 5\< MONEY TO BUY L& FROM !IR 9CREAS+LY IMPOV]I%$ &RIANA NEI<BORS4 ,ON ! :OLE1 9 FACT1 ,BETAFO'S MA9TY W]E1 BY ! LATE '#hS1 DO+ RA!R BETT] ?AN ! &RIANA7 C]TA9LY ?AT WAS ! &RIANA P]CEPTION ( ! MATT]4 ,BUT !RE W]E SOME MA9TY FAMILIES :O HELD ON MORE T5U\SLY4 ,ONE ( ! MO/ FAM\S WAS MADE UP ( ! DESC5DANTS ( A C]TA9 ,RA9ITABA1 A MAN :O HAD1 APP>5TLY1 ALSO LIV$ 9 ,ANT&ROKOMBY1 BUT :O HAD ALREADY DI$1 LEAV+ BEH9D ONLY A S+LE DAU<T]1 BE=E ! L& WAS DI/RIBUT$ 9 #a#h#i#f4 

,IT HAD NEV] BE5 A PROSP]\S FAMILY1 & MO/ PEOPLE ,I KNEW 9 ,BETAFO W]E CONV9C$ ?AT IT HAD 5TIRELY DI$ \T4 ,NONE!LESS1 EV]YONE HAD HE>D ,RA9ITABA'S /ORY4 

,! /ORY GOES LIKE ?IS3 

,:5 ,RA9ITABA DI$1 HIS *ILDR5 WRAPP$ HIS BODY & BURI$ IT 9 ! TOMB1 BUT :5 !Y OP5$ ! TOMB TO REWRAP HIM1 ! BODY HAD DISAPPE>$4 ,ONLY AN EMPTY CLO? REMA9$4 ,LAT]1 ,RA9ITABA APPE>$ 9 A DREAM TO HIS DAU<T] & TOLD H] HE HAD TAK5 ! =M ( A SNAKE & AB&ON$ ! TOMB1 BECOM+ A ,VAZIMBA SPIRIT 9 ! WAT]S TO ! EA/ ( ! VILLAGE ( ,BETAFO4 

,SOME W\LD REPEAT ! /ORY ) AMUSEM5T1 O!RS ) A TRACE ( SC&AL4 ,BUT ALMO/ ALWAYS1 ! N>RATOR W\LD !N GO ON TO PO9T \T ! C\RSE ( ,RA9ITABA'S ME&]+S S9CE DEA?4 ,FIR/ HE DESC5D$ TO ! WAT]S >\ND ! SPR+ TO ! EA/ ( ! VILLAGE--A SECLUD$ SPOT1 FULL ( %ADE TREES & QUIET POOLS1 :]E PEOPLE US$ TO BE AFRAID TO TAKE *ILDR5 AFT] NI<T LE/ <O/S SEIZE !M & !Y WA/E AWAY & DIE4 ,LAT]1 HE FOLL[$ ! WAT]S ?AT FL[$ BY ! RICE FIELDS TO ! NOR? ( ,BETAFO D[N/REAM UNTIL HE REA*$ ! RU9S ( ,ANT&ROKOMBY--BY !N LONG S9CE AB&ON$4 ,NE> ! RU9S WAS A RE$Y POOL1 & !RE HE WAS SUPPOS$ TO HAVE RESID$ = SOME TIME1 BE=E AGA9 DISAPPE>+4 ,NO ONE WAS QUITE SURE :AT HAPP5$ TO HIM S9CE1 BUT MO/ W]E SURE HE WAS NOT 9 ,BETAFO ANY MORE4 

,N[1 !RE IS EV]Y REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT A MAN NAM$ ,RA9ITABA DID 9DE$ LIVE 9 ,ANT&ROKOMBY 9 ! #a#h#gS OR '#hS.<#g.>2 HIS DAU<T]1 ,RABAKOMANGA1 WAS /ILL LIV+ !RE ) ?REE SONS ( H] [N :5 %E DI$ 7PROBABLY AT ! AGE ( #de OR #e7 9 #a#i#a#b4 ,%E WAS APP>5TLY ! ONE :O HAD ! DREAM 9 :I* H] FA!R REVEAL$ ?AT HE HAD LEFT HIS TOMB1 BUT1 AFT] ?AT1 ALMO/ AIL ( H] DESC5DANTS W]E SAID TO HAVE HAD DREAMS ( HIM1 & SOMETIMES UNRELAT$ PEOPLE1 TOO4 ,I WAS TOLD ,RA9ITABA W\LD ALWAYS APPE> :5EV] ONE ( HIS DESC5DANTS CONCEIV$ A *ILD1 & W\LD (T5 GIVE ADVICE AB\T H[ TO 5SURE A HEAL?Y BIR?4 

,IT WAS ONLY AFT] ,I HAD BE5 WORK+ 9 ,BETAFO = SOME TIME ?AT ,I DISCOV]$ ?AT !RE W]E /ILL SEV]AL DESC5DANTS ( ,RA9ITABA LIV+ 9 ,BETAFO OR1 ANYWAY1 QUITE FREQU5TLY >\ND4 ,! MO/ NOTABLE WAS ,RAZANAMAVO1 AN OLD1 POOR WOMAN :O SP5T MO/ ( H] TIME DO+ ODD JOBS = H] SLI<TLY BETT]-(F NEI<BORS 9 ! MA9LY QU>T] ( ,BETAFO1 OR SEEK+ WORK 9 T[N4 ,%E DIDN'T REALLY HAVE A H\SE 9 ,BETAFO1 BUT LIV$ 9 AN \TBUILD+--LITDE MORE ?AN A %$ REALLY-- :I* A MAN NAM$ ,>M& HAD GIV5 H] AS AN ACT ( *>ITY4 ,MO/ PEOPLE 9 ,BETAFO DID NOT HAVE ANY IDEA ( H] ANCE/RY2 ORD9>ILY1 MO/ T5D$ TO =GET %E EXI/$ AT ALL4 

,I FIR/ MET ,RAZANAMAVO 9 T[N4 ,>M&--:O WAS A GOOD FRI5D ( M9E--KEPT A ROOM 9 ! T[N ( ,>IVONIMAMO1 FROM :I* HE CONDUCT$ A SMALL BUS9ESS SELL+ BANANAS2 PEOPLE FROM ,BETAFO (T5 US$ TO GA!R !RE1 OR DROP BY SEEK+ NEWS4 ,ONCE ,I HAPP5$ BY :ILE ,RAZANAMAVO WAS VISIT+1 & ,>M&'S WIFE1 ,NETY--ALWAYS HELPFUL 9 TRACK+ D[N BITS ( ,BETAFO HI/ORY = ME--IMM$IATELY SEIZ$ ! OPPORTUNITY TO SEE IF WE C\LD GET H] TO TELL US SOME?+ AB\T H] FAM\S ANCE/OR4 

,ACTUALLY1 ,NETY HAD PREVI\SLY WOND]$ :E!R ,RAZANAMAVO W\LD BE WILL+ TO TALK TO ME AT ALL3 '%E MI<T CONSID] IT EMB>RASS+1 HAV+ AN ANCE/OR :O WAS A ,VAZIMBA4' ,BUT AT FIR/ %E SEEM$ QUITE HAPPY TO TELL US4 ,RA9ITABA1 %E SAID1 WAS ORIG9ALLY A NOBLEMAN FROM ,BETSILEO4 ',BACK !N1 Y\ KN[1 PEOPLE W\LD BE B\<T & SOLD' %E SAID4 ',& ?AT WAS ! ORIG9 ( ,RA9ITABA4 ,HE WAS A LO/ P]SON4' ,HE HAD BE5 CAPTUR$ & SOLD 9TO SLAV]Y 9 ,BETAFO4 ,! FACT ?AT PEOPLE REF]R$ TO HIM AS A ,VAZIMBA DID NOT BO!R H]4 ,:AT BO!R$ H]1 %E TOLD ,NETY1 WAS ?AT PEOPLE SAID HE HAD TURN$ 9TO AN ANIMAL4 ',RA9ITABA IS NOT AN ANIMAL1' %E 9SI/$1 'BUT A ,VAZIMBA--A P]SON1 A P]SON LIKE A ,KALANORO4.<#h.> ,HAV5'T Y\ EV] DREAM$ ( HIM8' ,NETY HADN'T4 ,WELL1 ,RAZANAMAVO SAID1 MANY HAVE2 HE US$ TO APPE> TO H] GR&MO!R & H] FA!R REGUL>LY4 ,HE HAD APPE>$ TO H]1 TOO1 BE=E ! BIR? ( H] FIR/ *ILD4.<#i.> 

,RAZANAMAVO HAD AN ODDLY DI/ANT MANN] ( SPEAK+1 SOMEH[ ABS5T2 %E CR\*$ WRAPP$ 9 A YELL[ CLO? />+ (F 9TO ! C\RTY>D AS %E TALK$1 AS IF LOOK+ AT SOME?+ F> AWAY1 OR P]HAPS NO?+ AT ALL1 & NEV] ONCE GAZ$ AT ! O!R PEOPLE 9 ! ROOM1 EV5 :5 %E WAS MORE OR LESS SPEAK+ TO !M4 ,9 P>T %E WAS PROBABLY EXHAU/$ FROM AN AFT]NOON AT WORK2 BUT H] MANN] SEEM$ TO COMPLEM5T ! CONT5T ( H] DISC\RSE1 :I* WAS MU* MORE EVOCATIVE & DREAMY ?AN ! USUAL1 MATT]-(-FACT /YLE ( HI/ORICAL N>RATION4 ,AFT] TELL+ H] /ORY1 & ANSW]+ A FEW ( ,NETY'S QUE/IONS AB\T H] RELATIVES1 %E SEEM$ TO JU/ FADE AWAY1 />+ (F AS IF SO LO/ 9 ?\<T ?AT %E DIDN'T EV5 NOTICE ANYONE WAS TALK+ TO H]1 UNTIL AFT] A LITTLE :ILE1 WE GAVE UP & />T$ TALK+ AB\T SOME?+ ELSE4 

,RAZANAMAVO'4 ,HE1 Y\ KN[--\R GR&MO!R SAID ?AT :5 HE WAS AB\T TO DIE1 HE SAID3 ',I AM AB\T TO DIE N[1 SO TAKE ME TO ! NOR? ( ! VILLAGE1 TO ! DAM4 ,& AS = ME' HE SAID1 'DON'T BURY ME 9 A TOMB BUT JU/ RELEASE ME 9 ! CURR5T ( ! RIV]4 ,& GET A LAMBA >9-DRANO .<#a.> HE SAID1 'LIKE Y\ W\LD = BURY+ A SON-9-LAW4' 

,& !Y SAID3 'MAYBE WE WON'T PUT Y\ 9 ! RIV]1 BECAUSE WE'D BE EMB>RASS$4' 

',NO1 DON'T BE EMB>RASS$1' HE SAID1 'BECAUSE Y\'LL RECEIVE A GREAT BLESS+ IF Y\ DO IT ?AT WAY4' 

,BUT !Y DIDN'T DO IT4 ,!Y JU/ BURI$ HIM NORMALLY & LEFT HIM !RE4 

,SOMEONE3 ,?IS WAS ,RA9ITABA8 

,RAZANAMAVO3 ,A LITTLE HOLE LIKE ?AT !Y BURI$ HIM 9--!RE WAS NO TOMB1 NO 5TRY TO ! WE/4 ,LAT] !Y GOT READY TO DO A FAMADIHANA .<TO MOVE HIM 9TO A PROP] TOMB.>1 & LOOK$ = ! CLO?1 & !Y SET ! CLO? >\ND HIM NICELY4 

',IF Y\ DO ?IS ?+1 !N A GREAT BLESS+ WILL COME TO Y\4' ,!N ! WAT] FLOOD$444 HE WAS DEAD4 ',I DON'T LIKE LAMBAMMD HE SAID1 'BUT LAMBA >9-DRANO1 &444' ?OSE W]E TO BE ! M\RN+ CLO!S4 ',SO Y\R *ILDR5 WILL NEV] BECOME POOR1 NOR ! G5]ATIONS ( Y\R DESC5DANTS TO COME 444' ,?IS IS SOME?+ !Y ALL DREAM$1 ALL ( !M ABSOLUTELY4 ,BUT WE DIDN'T GET ! BLESS+ BECAUSE WE DIDN'T DO IT4 ,!Y PUT HIM 9 ! C5T] ( ! TOP %ELF TO ! NOR? ( ! TOMB1 & HE /ILL HASN'T BE5 MOV$ TO ?IS DAY4 

,ONCE1 !RE W]E A GOOD NUMB] ( DESC5DANTS1 BUT !RE >E FEW LEFT ANY MORE4.<#a#a.> 

,%E TOO TOLD H[ HE HAD MOV$ FROM ! POOL TO ! EA/ ( ! VILLAGE TO ! ONE NE> ,ANT&ROKOMBY4 ,%E WASN'T SURE :]E HE HAD GONE AFT] ?AT1 BUT %E SUSPECT$ HE HAD F9ALLY RETURN$ TO HIS ORIG9AL HOME 9 ,BETSILEO4 

,! 'LITTLE HOLE' %E REF]S TO WAS A TEMPOR>Y GRAVE--IT SEEMS ?AT :5 HE DI$1 HIS DAU<T] SIMPLY BURI$ HIM--AS WAS (T5 DONE BY SLAVES--UNTIL SU* TIME AS A GR\P ( SLAVES C\LD POOL 5\< MONEY TO CREATE A PROP] TOMB4 ,! OPPORTUNITY ONLY >OSE >\ND #a#i#a1 :5 SEV]AL 'BLACK' FAMILIES GOT TOGE!R TO BUILD A COLLECTIVE TOMB ON A HILL OV]LOOK+ ,BETAFO TO ! NOR!A/4 ,RABAKOMANGA CONTRIBUT$ SOME MONEY TO ! EF=T1 & :5 ! TOMB WAS DONE HAD H] FA!R'S BODY WRAPP$ PROP]LY 9 CLO?1 & !N TRANSF]R$ IT TO ONE ( ITS MO/ PROM95T %ELVES4 ,IT WAS AFT] ?IS1 ! FIR/ TIME !Y RETURN$ TO P]=M A FAMADIHANA11 ?AT !Y F\ND ! BODY GONE4 

,AT ! TIME1 ,RABAKOMANGA WAS BY NO MEANS P5NILESS2 %E HAD APP>5TLY RECEIV$ A SMALL AM\NT ( L& FROM H] =M] [N]S1 :I* %E HAD PASS$ ON TO H] SONS4.<#a#b.> ,H] SONS APP>5DY W]E NOT ABLE TO HOLD ON TO MU* ( IT4 ,:AT L& !RE WAS WAS SOLD OR MORTGAG$ (F4 ,?OSE :O REMEMB] H] SONS1 ,+AHIVELONA & ,RAKOTONANAH>Y1 REMEMB] !M AS L&LESS LABOR]S1 & DESP]ATELY POOR4 ,9 FACT1 ! HI/ORY ( ,RA9ITABA'S FAMILY WAS ALWAYS REPRES5T$ AS ONE ( LOSS1 POV]TY & DISP]SAL4 ,!Y NEV] RECEIV$ ! BLESS+ ?AT !Y W]E (F]$4 ,!Y SCATT]$2 N[ !Y'RE GONE4 ,9 FACT1 IT IS ONE ( ! IRONIES ( !IR HI/ORY ?AT IT TOOK ME A LONG TIME TO REALIZE ?AT ! L9EAGE HAD BE5 REALLY QUITE PROLIFIC3 MO/ ( ,RA9ITABA'S GR&*ILDR5 HAD NUM]\S SONS & DAU<T]S4 ,SOME DI$ 9 9FANCY2 O!RS W]E FO/]$ BY RELATIVES 9 O!R PLACES4 ,ALMO/ ALL ( !M W\LD LEAVE ,BETAFO BE=E !Y W]E ?IRTY1 !RE BE+ NO PROP]TY TO SPEAK ( OR REASON = !M TO /AY4 ,:5 ONCE OR TWICE ,I TRI$ TO MAKE LI/S ( !IR NAMES1 ,I F\ND IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE3 PEOPLE W\LD JU/ %RUG & SAID SOME?+ TO ! EFFECT ( 'OH1 !RE W]E LOTS ( !M4 ,:O REMEMB]S8 ,NONE ( !M LIVE >\ND H]E ANY MORE4'.<#a#c.> 

,AB\T ,VAZIMBA 

,UNREALIZ$ PROMISES1 CURR5TS1 DISP]SAL1 DISAPPE>ANCE 444 ! TRADITIONS SURR\ND+ ,RA9ITABA SEEM TO E*O ! S5SE ( LOSS & DISPLACEM5T 9H]5T TO ! EXP]I5CE ( SLAV]Y1 & TO MAKE IT A FIGURE = ! L9EAGE'S [N EV5TUAL DISP]SAL1 ITS WI!R+ AWAY AS A PRES5CE 9 ,BETAFO4 ,9 FACT1 IT IS A V]Y COMPLICAT$ /ORY1 :I* DRAWS TOGE!R A S]IES ( V]Y OLD IDEAS & IMAGES--SOME ,M]9A1 SOME ,BETSILEO--9TO A N>RATIVE SO P[]FUL ?AT IT HAS GONE FROM AN OBSCURE PIECE ( FAMILY HI/ORY TO AN ESS5TIAL P>T ( ! HI/ORICAL CONSCI\SNESS ( ! COMMUNITY1 A /ORY EV]YONE C\LD REPEAT4 

,P>T ( H[ IT C\LD DO ?IS WAS BY SEIZ+ ON ! RI*NESS ( ! T]M ',VAZIMBA1' A WORD :I* CAN BE US$ TO REF] TO ANCI5T ABORIG9ES1 LO/ ANCE/ORS1 OR DANG]\S SPIRITS ( ! WAT]--CATEGORIES :I* T5D TO OV]LAP CONSID]ABLY4 ,IT MI<T BE HELPFUL TO EXPLORE SOME ( ! T]M'S MEAN+S3 NOT LEA/ BECAUSE IT HAS BECOME SOME?+ ( A NOTORI\S ISSUE 9 ! S*OL>LY LIT]ATURE4 

,! SO-CALL$ ',VAZIMBA PROBLEM' HAS1 9 FACT1 G5]AT$ A V]Y LONG & 79 MY OP9ION7 L>GELY PO9DESS 9TELLECTUAL HI/ORY4 ,IT ALL />T$ 9 ! #a#i? C5TURY1 :5 E>LY MISSION>IES HE>D /ORIES AB\T D>K1 DIM9UTIVE ,VAZIMBA SPIRITS LURK+ 9 WILD PLACES1 & CONCLUD$ ?AT !Y MU/ REFLECT ! MEMORY ( AN ANCI5T 'ABORIG9AL RACE' ?AT HAD OCCUPI$ ! HI<L&S ( ,MADAGASC> BE=E ITS PRES5T-DAY 9HABITANTS 7SEE ,B]G #a#i#g#e1 #a#i#g#g74 ,! LOGIC SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 ?IS3 ! PEOPLE ( ,IM]9A T5D$ TO HAVE /RAI<T HAIR & MORE ,ASIAN FEATURES ?AN MO/ O!R ,MALAGASY4 ,!RE=E1 !Y HAD TO BE ! DESC5DANTS ( REC5T IMMIGRANTS FROM ! ,MALAY >*IPELAGO4.<#a#d.> ,! ,VAZIMBA1 !N1 W\LD HAVE TO BE ! PEOPLE ALREADY LIV+ 9 ! HI<L&S :5 !Y >RIV$3 BACKW>D1 D>K-SK9N$ SAVAGES1 ORIG9ALLY FROM ,EA/ ,AFRICA4 ,= ,5GLI% & ,FR5* MISSION>IES WORK+ 9 ,IM]9A1 ?IS SOON BECAME A MATT] ( SIMPLE COMMON S5SE4 ,!RE WAS SOME SPECULATION ! ,VAZIMBA MI<T HAVE BE5 PYGMIES2 O!RS >GU$ ?AT ! ,CRACE ( PYGMIES' 7CALL$ ,KIMOSY7 WAS AN EV5 E>LI] /RATA ! 7P]HAPS PA/ORAL7 ,VAZIMBA DROVE \T1 BE=E !Y W]E 9 TURN PUT TO FLI<T BY CONQU]+ ,MALAYS4 

,NE$LESS TO SAY1 NO EVID5CE WAS EV] PRODUC$ TO BACK UP ANY ( ?IS1 & !RE W\LD BE LITDE REASON TO GO 9TO IT W]E IT NOT = ! FACT ?AT ?IS PICTURE ( ,MALAGASY HI/ORY HAS BECOME 5TR5*$ 9 S*OOLBOOKS &1 !RE=E1 ?AT ANYONE :O HAS BE5 TO S*OOL HAS BE5 EXPOS$ TO IT4 ,:5 ! DESC5DANTS ( FREE ,M]9A CALL !MSELVES ':ITE PEOPLE' TODAY1 9 CONTRA/ TO ! DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES1 :O LIKE PEOPLE ( ! COA/ >E CALL$ ,CBLACK' !Y DRAW ON ?IS PICTURE ( ,MALAGASY HI/ORY4.<#a#e.> ,ON ! O!R H&1 POPUL> CONCEPTIONS ( ,VAZIMBA !MSELVES SEEM TO HAVE *ANG$ LITTLE FROM ! ONES ,G]ALD ,B]G 7#a#i#g#g3 #g-#a#b7 DOCUM5TS = ! E>LY #a#i? C5TURY--! /ORIES ?AT MISSION>IES FIR/ SEIZ$ ON & MIS9T]PRET$4.<#a#f.> 

,FIR/ & =EMO/1 ,VAZIMBA W]E ANCE/ORS :OSE BODIES HAD BE5 LO/4 ,IF A MAN OR WOMAN DR[N$ OR DI$ 9 A F>-(F C\NTRY & !IR BODY WAS NOT RECOV]$1 !Y W]E (T5 SAID TO HAVE 'BECOME A ,VAZIMBA4' ,?IS C\LD BE A SIMPLE FIGURE ( SPEE*2 ONE DID NOT NECESS>ILY MEAN ANY?+ MORE ?AN ?AT ! P]SON W\LD NEV] BECOME A PROP] ANCE/OR1 NEV] BE WRAPP$ & PLAC$ 9SIDE ! TOMB4 ,BUT1 MORE (T51 ! T]M ,VAZIMBA WAS APPLI$ TO ! <O/S ( SU* UN=TUNATES1 DANG]\S SPIRITS1 ANGRY BECAUSE !Y W]E CUT (F FROM PROP] RELATIONS ) !IR DESC5DANTS4.<#a#g.> 

,= ALL !Y LACK$ BODIES1 ,VAZIMBA W]E ALWAYS ID5TIFI$ ) A SPECIFIC PLACE4 ,MO/ (T51 !IR <O/S 9HABIT$ M>%Y PLACES F> FROM HUMAN HABITATION3 LITTLE SPR+S OR POOLS BETWE5 ! RICE FIELDS1 GROTTOES (T5 M>K$ BY ! PRES5CE ( R$ FI% OR R$ CRABS1 KNOTS ( BAMBOO1 RE$S & RU%ES1 SOMETIMES1 9 C]TA9 K9DS ( TREE4 ,ONE MI<T OCCASIONALLY 5C\NT] A ,VAZIMBA BY A ROCK OR SPR+ ON AN ISOLAT$ HILLSIDE OR EV5 AMID ! CRAGS ( A M\NTA91 BUT IT WAS UNUSUAL TO F9D !M F> AWAY FROM WAT]4 

,I HE>D A LOT ( SPECULATION AB\T ! ORIG9 ( SU* <O/S4 ,ONE M$IUM FROM ,>IVONIMAMO TOLD ME !Y W]E USUALLY ANCE/ORS :OSE DESC5DANTS NO LONG] 'TOOK C>E ( !M4' ,IF DESC5DANTS /OPP$ CONDUCT+ FAMADIHANA1 /OPP$ KEEP+ UP ! TOMB1 EV5TUALLY ! ANCE/OR'S FANAHY OR S\L W\LD LEAVE ! CRUMBL+ TOMB 5TIRELY TO SETTLE 9 WAT]Y PLACES1 HAV+ BECOME A FI]CE CREATURE FULL ( RES5TM5T T[>DS ! LIV+4 ,O!RS SUGGE/$ MO/ ,VAZIMBA W]E ! SPIRITS ( TRAVEL]S FROM O!R P>TS ( ,MADAGASC>--,B>A1 ,SAKALAVA1 ,BETSILEO-- :O HAPP5$ TO DIE :ILE PASS+ ?R\<1 & W]E BURI$ HA/ILY ON ! SPOT BY :OEV] F\ND !M !RE4 ,O!RS W\LD PO9T TO ! EXI/5CE ( ,KALANORO3 SMALL HUMAN-LIKE CREATURES RUMOR$ TO LIVE 9 DI/ANT LAKES & M>%ES4 ,VAZIMBA1 !Y SUGGE/$1 W]E ! <O/S ( ,KALANORO4 ,F9ALLY1 SOME 7= 9/ANCE1 ,BETAFO'S S*OOLTEA*]1 OR ONE ( ITS =M] PA/ORS7 DID SPEAK ( ,VAZIMBA AS IF !Y W]E A =M] POPULATION1 LONG S9CE DRIV5 AWAY1 & !RE=E1 :OSE ANCE/ORS NO LONG] HAD ANY DESC5DANTS TO REMEMB] !M4 

,MANY REFUS$ TO EV5 SPECULATE4 ,! IMPORTANT ?+ AB\T ,VAZIMBA1 ,>M&'S BRO!R ,G]MA9 ONCE TOLD ME1 IS ?AT Y\ DON'T KN[ :AT !Y >E OR :]E !Y COME FROM4 ,!Y >E BY DEF9ITION MY/]I\S1 9VISIBLE1 A K9D ( UNKN[N P[]3 

,G]MA93 ,VAZIMBA >E A K9D ( ?+ ?AT ISN'T SE54 ,!Y DON'T %[ !IR BODIES LIKE1 SAY1 PEOPLE DO1 OR ! DIV9E SPIRITS :O POSSESS M$IUMS & CURE PEOPLE4 ,IF Y\ C>RY PORK TO A PLACE :]E ONE IS1 !N ?AT NI<T1 AS SOON AS Y\ KILL ! LI<T Y\ LOOK & !RE'S ?IS H& MOV+ T[>DS Y\4 ,AS SOON AS Y\ LI<T ! C&LE AGA91 IT'S GONE4 ,OR1 SAY Y\'RE WA%+ Y\R FACE 9 Y\ DON'T KN[ :AT444 & LIKELY AS NOT Y\R FACE WILL SWELL UP HUGELY LIKE ?IS1 & IT ABSOLUTELY WON'T GO AWAY UNTIL Y\ BUM 9C5SE OV] IT4 ,Y\ TAKE IT TO SOMEONE :O WILL MAKE (F]+S1 & !N Y\'RE CUR$4 ,BUT ?AT'S ALL Y\ KN[--Y\ HAVE ABSOLUTELY NO IDEA :AT WAS 9 ! WAT]4.<#a#h.> 

,AS ?IS QUOTE MAKES CLE>1 :5 PEOPLE ?\<T AB\T ,VAZIMBA1 IT WAS USUALLY NOT AS A MATT] = AB/RACT HI/ORICAL SPECULATION BUT AS ONE ( IMM$IATE PRACTICAL CONC]N4 ,ONE DISCOV]$ ?AT A PLACE WAS HAUNT$ BY ,VAZIMBA BECAUSE SOMEONE HAD TAK5 ILL4 ,A *ILD PLAY+ 9 ! FIELDS HAD DRUNK SOME WAT] FROM A RE$Y POOL1 OR TAK5 FI%ES ?AT !Y %\LDN'T HAVE1 OR !Y HAD BE5 T5D+ PIGS OR TAK+ SOME O!R POLLUT+ SUB/ANCE TO ! PLACE :]E A ,VAZIMBA WAS4 ,SU* *ILDR5 W\LD (T5 FALL 9TO A FEV]1 OR P>TS ( !IR BODY W\LD SWELL UP2 USUALLY1 !Y W\LD BE TORM5T$ BY DREAMS OR APP>ITIONS4 ,VAZIMBA W]E NORMALLY 9VISIBLE2 :5 !Y DID APPE>1 IT WAS ALMO/ ALWAYS 9 ! NI<TM>E VISIONS ( AN ADOLESC5T OR A *ILD4 ,NORMALLY !Y APPE> EI!R AS HORRIBLY MUTILAT$--F+]LESS1 NOSELESS--REA*+ \T TO SNAT* ! *ILDR51 OR ELSE1 ESPECIALLY ) OLD] *ILDR5 AS EXTREMELY ATTRACTIVE MEMB]S ( ! OPPOSITE SEX1 TRY+ TO LURE !M 9TO !IR WAT]Y DOMA9S4 ,! RITUAL = EXPELL+ ,VAZIMBA WAS SIMIL> TO RITUALS = EXPELL+ HO/ILE <O/S3 ! CUR] W\LD BURN ?+S1 !RE W\LD BE 9C5SE1 SMOKE4 ,BUT ONE W\LD USUALLY ALSO LEAVE (F]+S AT ! PLACE1 ALMO/ EXACTLY ?OSE ONE W\LD GIVE TO ANCE/ORS AT FAMADIHANA3 RUM OR HONEY1 C&IES1 G+]1 SUET1 BANANAS1 BREAD4 ,IF NO?+ ELSE1 !SE RITUALS W\LD 'CLEAN' ! PLACE ( ! POLLUTION ?AT HAD (F5D$ ! CREATURE & MADE IT 'FI]CE1' TO SOO! IT1 PLACATE IT1 & AT ! SAME TIME1 5SURE IT REMA9$ CONF9$ !RE4.<#a#i.> 

,SOME PLACES ?US DEVELOP REPUTATIONS4 ,I KNEW AT LEA/ SEV5 9 ! EA/]N HALF ( ,BETAFO ALONE :]E !RE W]E RUMOR$ TO BE ,VAZIMBA2 ,I W\LDN'T BE SURPRIS$ IF !RE W]E MORE4 ,(T5 IT WAS NOT 5TIRELY CLE>1 BECAUSE PEOPLE DIFF] ON :E!R !RE IS /ILL A ,VAZIMBA 9 A GIV5 SPOT1 OR IF !RE IS1 :E!R IT IS /ILL MASIAKA1 'FI]CE1' /ILL A =CE TO BE RECKON$ )4 

,= PRES5T PURPOSES1 :AT IS REALLY IMPORTANT IS ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 ,VAZIMBA & SLAVES4 ,?IS RELATION%IP APPE>S TO BE LONG/&+4 ,MANY ( ! CAPTIVES BR\<T TO ,IM]9A QUICKLY DEVELOP$ RITUAL TIES ) LOCAL ,VAZIMBA4.<#b.> ,IT MAKES A C]TA9 S5SE ?AT !Y %\LD FEEL AN AFF9ITY1 S9CE ,VAZIMBA W]E !MSELVES FIGURES ( LOSS & DISP]SAL4 ,! ONE COMMON FEATURE 9 ALL /ORIES AB\T ,VAZIMBA IS ?AT !Y 9VOLVE PEOPLE BE+ UPROOT$1 CA/ \T ( !IR PROP] PLACE4 ,VAZIMBA >E PEOPLE :O HAVE BE5 DRIV5 FROM !IR HOMES1 ANCE/ORS :OSE DESC5DANTS HAVE DISP]S$ & =GOTT5 !M1 :O HAVE !MSELVES LEFT !IR SOLID TOMBS TO 5T] CONFUS$1 WAT]Y PLACES1 LIKE SLAVES1 !N1 !IR DEF9+ FEATURE IS ?AT !Y >E LO/2 !Y EMBODY ! COMPLETE NEGATION ( ?OSE TIES ( DESC5T ?AT B9D ! LIV+ TO ANCE/ORS BURI$ 9 ANCE/RAL SOIL4.<#b#a.> ,IF SLAVES W]E PEOPLE WR5*$ FROM !IR ANCE/ORS1 ,VAZIMBA W]E ANCE/ORS LO/ TO !IR DESC5DANTS4 ,IT IS NOT DIFFICULT1 !N1 TO UND]/& :Y SLAVES MI<T HAVE SEIZ$ ON !SE IMAGES AS A WAY ( CAPTUR+ !IR [N EXP]I5CE--& 9 MANY CASES AT LEA/1 TRANSLAT+ IT 9TO A S\RCE ( P[] ) :I* TO RE/ORE SOME ( :AT !Y'D LO/4 

,NYMPHS & ,M$IUMS 

,! ONLY WELL DOCUM5T$ EXAMPLE ( H[ SU* RITUAL TIES FIR/ DEVELOP$ IS A /ORY PRES]V$ 9 ! ,TANT>A NY ,&RIANA1 A COLLECTION ( #a#i? C5TURY ,MALAGASY TEXTS 7,CALLET #a#i#h3 #b#d-#b#d#c2 ,DAHLE & ,SIMS #a#i#h#d3 #a#i#g73 AB\T A WOMAN ORIG9ALLY FROM ,BETSILEO1 :O BECAME ! M$IUM = A ,VAZIMBA SPIRIT NAM$ ,RANORO4 

,FIR/1 A WORD AB\T ,RANORO4 ,RANORO REMA9S1 EV5 TODAY1 PROBABLY ! MO/ FAM\S ,VAZIMBA 9 ,MADAGASC> 7,DOM5I*9I #a#i#h#e3 #d#a#f-#d#d#e2 ,RAJA(]A #a#i#a#b2 ,AUJAS #a#i#b#g3 #a#f-#a#g2 ,PEETZ #a#i#e#a2 ,H>+ #a#i#h#b3 #c#e#h-#c#e#i2 SEE ,BLO* #a#i#i#a74.<#b#b.> ,%E IS CONSID]$ ONE ( ! MO/ ANCI5T ANCE/ORS ( A L>GE & HI/ORICALLY SIGNIFICANT DESC5T GR\P CALL$ ! ,ANTEHI-ROKA1 :OSE T]RITORY IS JU/ TO ! NOR? ( ! CAPITAL4 ,! ,ANTEHIROKA >E SOMETIMES DESCRIB$ AS ',VAZIMBAS !MSELVES--IF ONLY BECAUSE !Y W]E ! ORIG9AL 9HABITANTS ( ! HILL ON :I* ,ANTANAN>IVO1 ! ,M]9A CAPITAL1 WAS LAT] BUILT1 DISPLAC$ :5 IT WAS TAK5 OV] BY AN E>LY K+4 

,ACCORD+ TO ! /ORY ! ,ANTEHIROKA ANCE/OR ,&RIAMBODILOVA WAS /ROLL+ BY ! BANKS ( ! RIV] ,MAMBA ONE DAY :5 HE *ANC$ ON ,RANORO1 A BEAUTIFUL WAT] NYMPH 7ZAZAVAV9DRANO71 SUNN+ H]SELF ON A ROCK4 ,HE PROPOS$ M>RIAGE4 ,RANORO WAS NOT NECESS>ILY DIS9CL9$1 BUT %E W>N$ HIM ?AT M>RIAGE ) SUP]NATURAL BE+S WAS DIFFICULT2 !RE W]E ALWAYS ALL SORTS ( TABOOS4 ,IF HE WI%$ TO M>RY H]1 HE W\LD HAVE TO AGREE1 AMONG O!R ?+S1 NEV] TO USE SALT OR EV5 TO PRON\NCE ! WORD4 

,SOME V]SIONS EXPLA9 ! REASON = ?IS UNUSUAL DEM&4 ,RANORO KNEW ?AT IF %E AB&ON$ ! WAT]S TO M>RY A MORTAL MAN1 IT W\LD MEAN NEV] AGA9 SEE+ H] FA!R1 :OSE NAME WAS ,&RIANTSIRA1 ',LORD ,SALT4' ,!RE=E1 %E MADE HIM PROMISE NEV] TO SAY OR DO ANY?+ ?AT W\LD REM9D H] ( HIM4 ,HE AGRE$1 ! TWO M>RI$ & HAD *ILDR54 ,BUT ONE DAY MANY YE>S LAT]1 DUR+ A DOME/IC >GUM5T1 HE SPAT IT \T 9 ANG]1 CALL+ H] 'DAU<T] ( SALT4' ,NO SOON] HAD %E HE>D ! WORD ?AN %E TURN$ H] BACK ON HIM & WALK$ TO ! BANKS ( ! RIV]1 DIV$ 91 & WAS NEV] SE5 AGA94 ,! PLACE :]E %E DISAPPE>$1 A ROCKY GROTTO BY ! RIV]1 HAS BE5 A PLACE ( WOR%IP EV] S9CE1 & H] PRES5T-DAY DESC5DANTS CONT9UE TO MA9TA9 A TABOO ON SALT+ FOOD--9 FACT1 MANY V]SIONS ADD ?AT ANY SALT ?AT COMES NE> ! GROTTO IMM$IATELY DISSOLVES4 

,! TABOO ON SALT IS ! MA9 CLAIM TO FAME ! ,ANTEHIROKA HAD AMONG PEOPLE ,I KNEW 9 ,>IVONIMAMO3 IT WAS CONSID]$ ! MO/ DIFFICULT TABOO ANYONE HAD EV] HE>D (4 ,& SALT DOES SEEM ! KEY TO ! /ORY4 ,9 FACT ,I SUSPECT ! :OLE /ORY IS A K9D ( PLAY ON A ,MALAGASY PROV]B3 SIRA LATSAKA AN-DRANO1 TSY HIMPODY 9TSONY1 'LIKE SALT FALL5 9TO ! WAT]1 IT WILL NEV] AGA9 RETURN TO ITS PREVI\S =M4' ,AS ) ,RA9ITABA1 A BROK5 TRU/ LEADS TO A V]Y LIT]AL DISSOLUTION3 :AT WAS ONCE A S+LE OBJECT BECOMES AN 9F9ITY ( T9Y ?+S :I* FL[ AWAY 9 ALL DIRECTIONS4 

,ALREADY 9 ! #a#i? C5TURY1 ,RANORO'S SANCTU>Y1 LIKE H] HUSB&'S TOMB1 HAD BECOME A PLACE :]E PEOPLE CAME FROM F> & WIDE TO MAKE V[S1 & ASK = FAVORS2 ,RANORO IS /ILL FAM\S = HELP+ 9F]TILE WOM5 TO CONCEIVE4.<#b#c.> ,BUT 9 ! #a#i? C5TURY1 !SE W]E PLACES :I* SLAVES W]E NOT ALL[$ TO 5T]4 ,! PRES5CE ( SLAVES WAS CONSID]$ TO BE POLLUT+1 9 MU* ! SAME WAY AS PORK4 ,?IS MAKES IT ALL ! MORE SURPRIS+ ?AT ! MO/ FAM\S DISCIPLE ( ,RANORO ( ?AT C5TURY WAS1 9 FACT1 A SLAVE--%E WAS A WOMAN ORIG9ALLY FROM ! ,BETSILEO C\NTRY 9 ! S\!RN HI<L&S ( ,MADAGASC>4 ,DUR+ ! REIGN ( ,RANAVALONA ,I 7#a#h#b#h-#a#h#f#a71 ?IS WOMAN--ALWAYS H]SELF REF]R$ TO AS ,RANORO--BEGAN P]IODICALLY TO FALL 9TO TRANCE & BE POSSESS$ 7TS9DRIANA7 BY ! ,VAZIMBA'S SPIRIT4 ,H] FAME BEGAN TO SPREAD AFT] %E CUR$ A WOMAN :O HAD BE5 /RUCK BL9D = HAV+ SULLI$ ,RANORO'S GROTTO2 SOON1 EV5 FREE PEOPLE W]E BEG9N+ TO FREQU5T H]1 SEEK+ ADVICE & CURES4 ,ACCORD+ TO ! /ORY PRES]V$ 9 ,CALLET 7#a#i#h71 ! NEWS EV5TUALLY REA*$ ! ,QUE51 :O ORD]$ ! WOMAN TO BE PUT TO ! POISON ORDEAL4 ,:5 %E SURVIV$1 ,RANAVALONA RECOGNIZ$ H] CLAIMS TO BE LEGITIMATE & GRANT$ H] AN HONOR>Y GU>D ( ?IRTY ,M]9A SOLDI]S4 

,! MORTAL ,RANORO APPE>S TO HAVE BECOME A FIGURE ( SOME FAME & 9FLU5CE--DESPITE H] CONT9U$ /ATUS AS A SLAVE4 ,%E IS SAID TO HAVE SLEPT ON AN ELEVAT$ B$ SUSP5D$ FROM ! RAFT]S1 TO HAVE WALK$ ACROSS ! ROOM ON A TI<TROPE :5 POSSESS$1 & P]=M$ O!R REM>KABLE FEATS4 ,= H] LA/ MIRACLE1 %E W5T TO ,RANORO'S GROTTO & DIV$ 9TO ! WAT]2 IT WAS ONLY ?REE DAYS LAT]1 ACCORD+ TO ! /ORY1 ?AT %E EM]G$4 ,9 ! 9T]IM1 %E TOLD H] FOLL[]S1 %E HAD LIV$ ) ,VAZIMBA 9 ! BOTTOM ( ! CAVE1 :O F$ ON RAW FI% & RAW CRABS4 ,!Y TRI$ TO MAKE H] JO9 !M 9 !IR MEALS1 BUT ! FOOD REPELL$ H]1 & HAV+ REFUS$ !M1 %E WAS RETURN$ TO ! SURFACE4 ,! SPIRITS HAD REJECT$ H]4 ,CLAIM+ H] CONTACT HAD ?US BE5 BROK51 ! WOMAN LEFT & W5T BACK TO F9D H] FA!R1 :O %E BELIEV$ WAS /ILL ALIVE SOME:]E 9 ,BETSILEO4 

,9 H] CASE AT LEA/--& H]S WAS CLE>LY V]Y UNUSUAL--IT WAS POSSIBLE TO USE ACCESS TO ,VAZIMBA AS A WAY ( RE/OR+ ! SEV]$ BONDS ( DESC5T4 

,FANANY3 PEOPLE :O COME BACK AS SNAKES 

,IT IS WOR? EXPLOR+ ! CONNECTION TO ,BETSILEO 9 MORE DETAIL1 S9CE MO/ 'BLACK PEOPLE' 9 ,IM]9A TODAY CLAIM ,BETSILEO ORIG9S4 

,BETSILEO IS ! NAME GIV5 ! C\NTRY DIRECTLY TO ! S\? ( ,IM]9A1 9CLUD+ MO/ ( ! S\!RN P>T ( ! VA/ PLATEAU ?AT =MS ! C5T] ( ,MADAGASC>1 AS WELL AS TO ! PEOPLE :O LIVE !RE4 ,9 ! #a#h? C5TURY1 !Y W]E DIVID$ 9TO A NUMB] ( 9DEP5D5T K+DOMS2 9 ! BEG9N+ ( ! #a#i?1 ,BETSILEO WAS CONQU]$ BY ! 

,M]9A K+ ,&RIANAMPO9IM]9A4 ,FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( PRES5T-DAY ,M]9A1 ! ,BETSILEO >E A BIT ( AN ANOMALY4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 LIKE ALL O!R ,MALAGASY !Y >E CONSID]$ 'BLACK PEOPLE'--IF ONLY BECAUSE !Y >E MU* LESS LIKELY TO HAVE /RAI<T HAIR4 ,H[EV]1 9 ALMO/ EV]Y O!R WAY1 !Y >E 9DI/+UI%ABLE FROM ,M]9A4 ,!IR WAY ( SPEAK+ IS SIMIL>2 SO >E !IR H\SES1 CLO!S1 & RITUAL PRACTICES4 ,IF ANY DIFF]5CES >E WIDELY REM>K$ UPON1 IT IS ?AT ,BETSILEO T5D TO BE MORE OP5 & EASY-GO+ ?AN ,M]9A 7?OSE FROM ,AMBA-LAVAO >E WIDELY HELD TO BE ! MO/ TALKATIVE PEOPLE 9 ,MADAGASC>71 & >E MU* MORE SOPHI/ICAT$ F>M]S3 !IR SKILL AT IRRIGATION & T]RAC+1 = EXAMPLE1 IS FAM\S ?R\<\T ,MADAGASC>4 

,N[ADAYS1 DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES 9 ,IM]9A ALMO/ ALWAYS CLAIM TO BE ,BETSILEO 7,I MET DOZ5S1 9 FACT1 :O 9SI/$ !Y W]E DESC5DANTS ( ! FAM\S ,BETSILEO K+ ,&RIAMANAL9A74 ,!RE >E ANY NUMB] ( REASONS :Y ! ID5TITY MI<T SEEM APPEAL+4.<#b#d.> ,NOT ONLY W]E ,BETSILEO ALSO 'BLACK PEOPLE' :O W]E O!RWISE 9DI/+UI%ABLE FROM ,M]9A1 !Y ALSO HAD A R5[N AS MIGRANT LABOR]S4 ,DUR+ ! #e#eS & '#fS1 ?\S&S US$ TO CROSS ,IM]9A EV]Y YE>1 FOLL[+ ! RICE REPLANT+ & ! H>VE/2 MANY 5D$ UP M>RY+ LOCAL PEOPLE & /AY$ ON4 ,S9CE LOCAL ATTITUDES T[>DS ,BETSILEO MIGRANTS W]E SO /RIK+LY MORE ACCEPT+ ?AN !Y W]E ( =M] SLAVES 7:OM MO/ CLAIM$ !IR ANCE/ORS =BID !M TO M>RY7 IT IS EASY TO SEE H[ MA9TY LABOR]S ALREADY LIV+ 9 ,IM]9A W\LD WI% TO BLUR ANY DI/9CTION BETWE5 !M4 

,TO UND]/& ! /ORY ( ,RA9ITABA1 ?\<1 ONE HAS TO UND]/& SOME?+ AB\T ,BETSILEO MORTU>Y CU/OM4 ,:ILE ORD9>Y ,BETSILEO >E BURI$ 9 MU* ! SAME WAY AS ,M]9A1.<#b#e.> ! S\LS ( ROYALTY W]E BELIEV$ TO TRANS=M !MSELVES 9TO SNAKES2 SPECIFICALLY1 A SPECIES ( WAT] SNAKE CALL$ FANANY OR FANGANY 7,%AW #a#h#g#h3 #d#a#a2 ,AB9AL #a#h#h#e3 #b#d#b-#b#d#f2 ,SIBREE #a#h#h3 #a#g2 #a#h#i#f3 #a#i#h2 ,DUBOIS #a#i#c#h3 #g#a#f-#a#h2 ,DELORD #a#i#e#h2 ,RAZAF9TSALAMA #a#i#h#c74 ,BETSILEO ROYAL FUN]ALS 9VOLV$ A V>IETY ( SOMETIMES ELABORATE PROCESSES AIM$ AT SEP>AT+ ! WET PORTIONS ( ! BODY FROM ! DRY4 ,SOMETIMES ! 5TRAILS W]E REMOV$ & ?R[N 9TO LAKES1 :]E !Y >E ?\<T TO TRANS=M 9TO FANANY_* 9 O!R CASES FLUIDS W]E DRA9$ FROM ! CORPSE1 & ! SNAKE WAS BELIEV$ TO DEVELOP FROM A WORM ?AT F$ FROM ?OSE FLUIDS2 ! WORM HAV+ BE5 PLAC$ 9SIDE ! TOMB AT ! SAME TIME AS ! DRI$ CADAV]1 ALONG ) A BAMBOO TUBE BY :I* IT CAN ESCAPE4 

,FANANY >E /RIK+-LOOK+ SNAKES1 EASILY ID5TIFIABLE BECAUSE ( !IR COLORATION1 :I* IS SAID TO RESEMBLE ?AT ( A LAMBA >9-DRANO1 ) B&S ( :ITE1 ORANGE1 & BLACK4 ,BUT !Y >E R>ELY SI<T$ ON DRY L&4 

,:5 ONE ( !SE IS F\ND ! PEOPLE ASSEMBLE & ASK IT IF IT IS ! FANGANY ( ,SO-&-SO1 M5TION+ 9 SUCCESSION ! NAMES ( ! V>I\S *IEFS :O >E DEAD2 & ! ANIMAL IS ASS]T$ TO NOD ITS HEAD :5 ! RI<T NAME IS M5TION$4 ,! RELATIVES ( ! MAN AT :OSE NAME ! BEA/ MOVES ITS HEAD !N TAKE POSSESSION ( IT BY 9DUC+ IT TO WRIGGLE ON TO A CLEAN LAMBA1 BY :I* IT IS C>RI$ TO ! =M] RESID5CE ( ! DEAD MAN4 ,OX5 >E KILL$1 FEA/+ COMM5CES1 & A SC5E SIMIL> TO ?AT AT A FUN]AL 5SUES4 ,A LITTLE ( ! BLOOD IS PRES5T$ TO ! FANGANY1 AFT] :I* IT IS SET FREE 9 ! NEI<BORHOOD ( ! *IEF'S GRAVE 7,%AW #a#h#g#h3 #d#a#a74 

,:ILE ?IS WAS A #a#i? C5TURY ,BETSILEO CU/OM RE/RICT$ TO ROYALTY1 JU/ AB\T EV]YONE ,I SPOKE TO 9 #b? C5TURY ,IM]9A HAD HE>D ( IT4 ,C]TA9LY1 ALL OLONA MA9TY4 ,ALMO/ ALL ( !M ?\< W]E UND] ! IMPRESSION ?AT ?IS WAS SOME?+ ?AT CAN HAPP5 SPONTANE\SLY TO ANYONE FROM ,BETSILEO4 

,! WAY ,I USUALLY HE>D ! /ORY WAS ?IS3 %\LD A FANANY HAPP5 TO APPE> 9 A ,BETSILEO'S H\SE1 ! FAMILY IMM$IATELY ASSEMBLES & LI/S ! NAMES ( !IR ANCE/ORS1 UNTIL IT NODS ITS HEAD TO TELL !M :I* IT IS4 ,AFT] ?AT1 !Y FE$ IT RICE ) MILK & HONEY1 SOMETIMES PLAY MUSIC OR O!RWISE CELEBRATE ITS PRES5CE1 BUT AFT]W>DS1 ! HEAD ( ! FAMILY MAKES A SPEE*1 ?ANK+ IT = COM+1 BUT ASK+ IT TO LEAVE N[ 'BECAUSE' 7AS ,NETY PUT IT7 'Y\'RE FRI<T5+ ! *ILDR54' 

,H]E >E TWO DIFF]5T /ORIES ,I HE>D FROM OLD M5 FROM ,BETAFO1 /ORIES AB\T ,BETSILEO WAGE LABOR]S :I* BO? SEEM TO DATE BACK TO >\ND ! #a#i#bS.<#b#f.>--WELL BE=E ! MASSIVE MIGRATIONS ( ! #a#i#eS & '#fS4 ,ONE WAS TOLD ME BY ! CATE*I/ FROM ! VILLAGE ( ,AMBA-RIBE1 9 ! F> WE/ ( ,BETAFO'S T]RITORY4 ,HIS UNCLE1 HE EXPLA9$ TO ME1 HAD ONCE EMPLOY$ AN ANCI5T ,BETSILEO CATTLEH]D1 :O WAS ALSO A M$IUM1.<#b#g.> & HIS GREAT-UNCLE HAD ALSO ONCE EMPLOY$ HIM TO CAT* A ,VAZIMBA & MOVE IT 9TO A NE>BY MOAT--:I* HE DID1 TRAPP+ ! SPIRIT 9 A GIANT SOBIKA BASKET4 ,LAT] ! M$IUM HIMSELF GREW SICK & WAS AB\T TO DIE4 

,RAM5A3 ,H[EV]1 :5 HE WAS AB\T TO DIE--& HE WAS V]Y OLD--HE W\LDN'T LET !M WRAP HIM 9 A LAMBAM5A1 OR B9D HIM4 ,!Y PUT HIM 9 ! BOTTOM ( A SOBIKA1 & COV]$ IT UP ) E>?4 ,?REE DAYS LAT]1 :5 !Y LOOK$ AGA91 SURE 5\< HE WASN'T 9 !RE ANY MORE4 ,! HOLE WAS WIDE OP54.<#b#h.> 

,! REFUSAL ( PROP] %R\DS ( C\RSE E*OES ! /ORY ( ,RA9ITABA1 AS DOES ! DISAPPE>+ BODY4 ,BUT ,RAM5A LEAVES ! RE/ AMBIGU\S4 ,AN OLD MAN FROM ,&RIANONY TOLD ME A MU* MORE EXPLICIT /ORY AB\T A ,BETSILEO LABOR] :O TURN$ 9TO A FANANY3 

,RAMWAO3 ,IT WAS A LONG TIME AGO1 BACK :5 !Y US$ TO DRIVE CATTLE OV] ! RICE FIELDS 9/EAD ( H>R[+ !M4 ,& !RE WAS A HIREL+ ( ,RAKOTOMANGA'S1 :O LIV$ 9 ,ANTANETY4 ,HE WAS ,BETSILEO4 ,! MAN HAD BE5 HIR$ TO H>VE/ RICE1 BUT HE GOT SICK & DI$ :ILE HE WAS WORK+ 9 ! FIELDS4 ,SO !Y BURI$ ! ,BETSILEO 9 ! GR\ND ABOVE ! RICE FIELD4 ,AFT] HE'D BE5 9 !RE = A YE>1 HE CAME \T AS A FANANY4 ,CAME \T AS AN ANIMAL4 

,& HAV+ COME \T AS AN ANIMAL1 HE W5T UP TO ,RAKOTOMANGA'S H\SE4 ,& !Y SAID ',:AT8' ,& !Y SAID3 ',>E Y\ :AT'S LEFT ( ,SO-&-SO8' ,! CREATURE NODD$ HIS HEAD4 ,!Y GAVE IT RICE4 ,! CREATURE ATE ! RICE 7!Y SAY IT WAS REALLY HUGE1 BUT ,I DIDN'T SEE IT ) MY [N EYES7 & AFT] A :ILE1 !Y TOLD IT 'IF ?IS IS TRULY Y\ :O >E H]E BE=E US1 !N LEAVE US & GO HOME4 ,GO BACK TO Y\R ANCE/RAL L&S4' ,:5 ! CREATURE HAD ITS FILL ( RICE1 IT HEAD$ (F4 ,& :5 IT HAD >RIV$ !RE1 !N ! MAN HAD A DREAM :]E IT TOLD HIM ',I HAVE >RIV$ AT MY ANCE/RAL L&S4'.<#b#i.> 

,SU* /ORIES--AB\T ISOLAT$ ,BETSILEO WORK]S--ALREADY OV]LAP ) IDEAS AB\T LO/ TRAVEL]S :O DIE AWAY FROM HOME & BECOME ,VAZIMBA4 ,BUT 9 ?IS CASE1 TRANS=MATION CONTA9S ! POSSIBILITY ( RESOLUTION2 A NUMB] ( PEOPLE TOLD ME ?AT ,BETSILEO :O HAPP5 TO DIE & >E BURI$ F> FROM HOME WILL ALMO/ ALWAYS TURN 9TO S]P5TS & GO HOME4 

,AT ?IS PO9T1 IT IS CLE> H[ ! /ORY ( ,RA9ITABA--:I* PROBABLY ALSO TOOK =M 9 ! #a#i#bS--PAT*ES TOGE!R ELEM5TS TAK5 FROM ,VAZIMBA /ORIES ) ?OSE AB\T FANANY4 ,ACCORD+ TO HIS DESC5DANTS1 

,RA9ITABA WAS AN &RIANA FROM ,BETSILEO :O HAD BE5 KIDNAPP$ & TAK5 TO ,IM]9A4 ,:5 HE DI$1 HE REFUS$ TO BE TI$ D[N & CONTA9$ LIKE A ,M]9A ANCE/OR2 9/EAD1 HE WANT$ HIS *ILDR5 TO RELEASE HIM 9 ! CURR5TS ( ! RIV]1 WRAPP$ 9 A ,BETSILEO CLO? ?AT WAS COLOR$ LIKE ! COAT ( A FANANY4 ,:5 !Y C\LDN'T BR+ !MSELVES TO SO COMPLETELY (F5D ! S5SIBILITIES ( !IR ,M]9A NEI<BORS1 HE MADE ! TRANS=MATION ON HIS [N2 BUT AS A RESULT1 !Y LO/ ! BLESS+ HE W\LD O!RWISE HAVE GIV5 !M4 ,HIS SUBSEQU5T HI/ORY HAD HIM FOLL[+ ! C\RSE ( ! WAT]S D[N/REAM1 BUT ALSO 9 A S5SE1 MOV+ BACKW>DS 9 TIME3 FROM ,BETAFO TO HIS OLD SETTLEM5T ( ,ANTAN-DROKOMBY1 & F9ALLY1 BACK TO ,BETSILEO ONCE AGA94 ,BUT AS ) ,RANORO 7:O WAS ALSO SOMETIMES SAID TO HAVE MOV$ /EADILY D[N/REAM1 EV] FUR!R FROM H] =M] HOME71 RETURN+ HOME MEANT ORPHAN+ ONE'S [N DESC5DANTS4 

,( C\RSE1 IT IS ONLY N[ ?AT HIS DESC5DANTS HAVE ALMO/ 5TIRELY DISP]S$1 ?AT PEOPLE SAY HE'S AB&ON$ ,IM]9A 5TIRELY4 ,= DECADES1 HE L+]$ 9 ! WAT]S >\ND ,BETAFO1 VISIT+ HIS GR&*ILDR5 9 !IR DREAMS1 SUSP5D$ HALFWAY 9 A MOVEM5T ( ESCAPE HE C\LD NOT YET BE> TO BR+ TO ITS CONCLUSION4 

,ONE REASON ! /ORY SEEM$ TO /RIKE SU* A *ORD ) PEOPLE WAS ?AT IT 5CAPSULAT$ SOME?+ FUNDAM5TAL AB\T ! EXP]I5CE ( SLAVES & !IR DESC5DANTS4 ,P]HAPS1 ONE CAN EV5 SAY1 ! EXP]I5CE ( SLAV]Y ITSELF4 ,!RE >E ?OSE ?AT HAVE PROPOS$ ?AT SLAVES >E BY DEF9ITION HUMAN BE+S :O HAVE BE5 WR5*$ FROM ! SOCIETY :I* =M$ !M1 ! WEB ( SOCIAL TIES :I* HAS MADE !M :AT !Y >E2 PLUNG$ 9TO A K9D ( 'SOCIAL DEA?' 7,MEILLASS\X #a#i#i#a2 ,PATT]SON #a#i#h#b74 ,FROM ?IS P]SPECTIVE1 SLAV]Y AS AN 9/ITUTION IS F\ND$ ON ! DE/RUCTION ( SOCIAL WORLDS1 & IT IS 9 FACT ! MOM5T DESCRIB$ BY ,RAOMBANA1 :5 *ILDR5 >E TOM FROM !IR MO!R'S >MS & FAMILIES BROK5 AP>T1 :I* MAKES A SLAVE A SLAVE4 

,IT IS DIFFICULT TO ASSESS ! FULL IMPLICATIONS ( SU* A MOM5T = ! HI/ORICAL CONSCI\SNESS ( ?OSE :O PASS$ ?R\< IT4 ,R>ELY DO L>GE NUMB]S ( PEOPLE GO ?R\< A RUPTURE SO UTT] & EXTREME4 ,IT BR+S TO M9D ,ELA9E ,SC>RY'S 7#a#i#h#e7 OBS]VATION ?AT PHYSICAL PA9 EMPTIES WORLDS ( !IR MEAN+4 ,9 NORMAL LIFE1 ONE IS 9VE/$ 9 A ?\S& WAYS 9 ONE'S SURR\ND+S1 9 PEOPLE1 PLACES1 PROJECTS1 ?+S ONE C>ES AB\T2 SO ?AT ONE'S S5SE ( SELF EXP&S \TW>DS TO IMBUE & BECOME 5TANGL$ ) A MU* L>G] SOCIAL WORLD4 ,ONE EFFECT ( EXTREME PHYSICAL PA91 %E SAYS1 IS TO EMPTY !SE 9VE/M5TS ( ALL MEAN+2 ONE'S S5SE ( SELF COLLAPSES 9TO ! N>R[ CONF9ES ( ! HURT+ BODY4 ,= ?AT MOM5T NO?+ & NO ONE ELSE IS REAL4 ,! SC5E DESCRIB$ BY ,RAOMBANA 9 A WAY REV]SES ?IS3 ! VICTIMS >E1 = ! MO/ P>T1 PHYSICALLY UNSCA!D1 BUT AS !Y >E LEAD (F FROM BURN+ VILLAGES1 MO/ ( ! M5 !Y HAVE EV] KN[N LY+ DEAD 9 BLOODY POOLS1 WOM5 & *ILDR5 DRAGG$ FROM EA* O!RS' >MS2 9 A MATT] ( H\RS1 ! 5TIRE UNIV]SE ( SOCIAL RELATIONS 9 :I* !Y HAVE COME 9TO BE+ WAS UTT]LY ANNIHILAT$4 ,! RESULT1 AS ,RAOMBANA'S FRI5D HIMSELF OBS]V$1 WAS A TRAUMA SO 9T5SE ?AT NO M]E PHYSICAL PA9 C\LD POSSIBLY SURPASS IT4 

,ALL ?IS DOES NOT MEAN ?AT MEMORIES ( SU* A MOM5T >E LIKELY TO BECOME A P>T ( HI/ORICAL CONSCI\SNESS4 ,9 FACT !Y >E JU/ ! SORT ( EV5TS ?AT W\LD NOT2 ?AT ONE W\LD NORMALLY SUSPECT SURVIVORS W\LD PREF] NEV] TO HAVE TO TALK AB\T4 ,C]TA9LY ! MEMORY ( !M IS NOT PRES]V$ 9 ORAL HI/ORIES ( ! PRES5T DAY4 ,BUT IF = SLAVES & !IR DESC5DANTS1 ?AT ONE MOM5T1 :5 WORLDS DISSOLV$ AWAY1 SEEMS TO HAVE REV]B]AT$ 5DLESSLY1 IT IS BECAUSE SU* EXP]I5CES DID NOT /OP4 ,DISP]SAL1 FAMILIES DRIFT+ AP>T1 PEOPLE UPROOT$ FROM !IR MEMORIES3 = MO/1 IT WAS REPEAT$ ) EV]Y G5]ATION4 

,IT ALSO TOOK PLACE )9 A CULTURAL MILIEU :I* PLAC$ AN EXTRAORD9>Y EMPHASIS ON ! POLITICS ( MEMORY4 ,! MANIPULATION & TRANS=MATION ( SU* MEMORIES--P>TICUL>LY1 WOM5'S MEMORIES ( !IR P>5TS & ANCE/RAL HOMES--WAS A CON/ANT !ME ( ,M]9A RITUAL4 ,9 M>RIAGE NEGOTIATIONS1 = 9/ANCE1 ! SUITORS' FAMILY (F]$ A S]IES ( CA% PAYM5TS :I* COMP5SAT$ EI!R = ! NURTURANCE & C>E ! GIRL'S P>5TS HAD PROVID$ H]--SU* AS ! VALIM-BAB5A1 ! 'ANSW] = HAV+ C>RI$ AN 9FANT ON ONE'S BACK'--OR S]VICES ! DAU<T] H]SELF W\LD NO LONG] BE ABLE TO PROVIDE--! AKANA KITAY1 'GA!R+ FIREWOOD1' OR ALANA VOLO FOTSY1 'PULL+ \T :ITE HAIRS4' ,9 ! LATT] CASE ESPECIALLY1 AN IMAGE SO 9TIMATE ( A DAU<T] POR+ OV] H] FA!R OR H] MO!R'S HEAD1 SE>*+ = :ITE HAIRS TO PLUCK \T1 EVOKES A :OLE WORLD ( DOME/IC S5TIM5TS3 PROTECTIVE AFFECTION1 ! FE> ( AG+ & RESULTANT LOSS1 ! PA9 ( RUPTUR$ DOME/ICITY :5 ! WOMAN MOVES AWAY4 ,! MONEY1 (FICIALLY MEANT TO 'ASK = ! P>5T'S BLESS+' = ! M>RIAGE1 CAN EQUALLY BE SE51 ,I ?9K1 AS COMP5SATION = ?AT PA94 ,9 FAMADIHANA ! EVOCATION ( EMOTIONALLY-*>G$ MEMORIES BECOMES EV5 MORE EXPLICIT4 ,:5 ONE PLACES ! CORPSES ( WOM5'S RELATIVES ON !IR LAPS1 ! EFFECT IS TO BREAK ! P[] ( WOM5'S MO/ VIVID1 9TIMATE MEMORIES ( PEOPLE ?AT !Y LOV$4 ,IT EVOKES ?AT 5TIRE WORLD 9 ORD] TO EFFACE IT1 TO FREE ! LIV+ FROM !IR ATTA*M5TS TO ! DEAD4 

,= WOM5 :O HAD BE5 C>RI$ 9TO SLAV]Y1 EVOCATION ( SU* MEMORIES C\LD ONLY S]VE AS A REM9D] ( ACTS ( SU* IRREP>ABLE VIOL5CE1 ?AT ! 5TIRE WORLD ( ?OSE MEMORIES HAD BE5 BRUTALLY DE/ROY$4 ,IT IS H>DLY SURPRIS+ ?AT ! ,BETSILEO WOMAN %\LD HAVE FELT SU* AN AFF9ITY ) ! FIGURE ( ,RANORO4 ,RANORO WAS A WOMAN :O C\LD NOT BE> TO HE> H] FA!R'S NAME2 ! MEMORIES IT EVOK$ = H] W\LD BE TOO PA9FUL4 ,IT WAS A /ORY AB\T SALT DROPP$ 9 WAT]1 ?+S ?AT C\LD NEV] BE BR\<T BACK TOGE!R OR ATTA9 !IR PREVI\S =M4 ,9 ?IS ONE CASE1 ( C\RSE1 ! /ORY MAY HAVE TAK5 ON A DIFF]5T LEVEL ( POIGNANCY BECAUSE ! WOMAN POSSESS$ BY ,RANORO BELIEV$ H] FA!R WAS /ILL ALIVE--AT LEA/1 9 ! 5D %E MANAG$ TO W9 H] FRE$OM SO AS TO TRY TO F9D HIM4 ,?\< ONE CANNOT HELP BUT WOND] :E!R ! DREAM ( F9D+ H] FA!R WAS REALLY AS MU* A PROJECTION ( H] IMAG9ATION AS ,RANORO H]SELF HAD BE54 

,CONTA9M5T & ,R$EMPTION 

,AT ?IS PO9T1 LET ME RETURN BRIEFLY TO ! QUE/ION ) :I* ,I BEGAN3 AB\T /ORIES ?AT CAN1 & CAN'T1 BE TOLD4 

,/UD5TS ( WORK+-CLASS HI/ORY HAVE NOT$ ?AT IT IS RELATIVELY EASY TO CULL ORAL HI/ORIES ( P]IODS ( SUCCESSFUL /RIKES1 POLITICAL ADVANCES1 9 :I* WORK]S HAD SOME CONTROL ( !IR DE/9Y2 MU* H>D] = P]IODS ( MASSIVE RETR5*M5T OR DEFEAT4 ,:5 ,ITALIAN WORK]S TOLD ! /ORIES ( !IR LIVES1 = 9/ANCE1 ! TWO DECADES ( FASCI/ RULE (T5 SEEM$ TO DROP \T 5TIRELY 7,PASS]9I #a#i#h#g74 ,9 A FASC9AT+ ESSAY1 ,MI*EL ,BOZON & ,ANNE-,M>IE ,?IESSE 7#a#i#h#f7 ASK$3 :AT HAPP5S1 !N1 TO WORK]S :O HAVE NEV] KN[N ANY?+ BUT DEFEAT8 ,!IR RESE>* FOCUS$ ON F>M LABOR]S FROM ! C\NTRYSIDE NE> ,P>IS1 PEOPLE :O HAD BEGUN !IR LIVES AT ! BOTTOM ( ! SOCIAL HEAP & !N MOV$ D[N /EADILY3 MADE R$UNDANT BY ME*ANIZATION1 SET TO SCRABBL+ = 5DLESS MIS]ABLE JOBS :]EV] !Y C\LD GET !M4 ,!Y DISCOV]$ ?AT1 9DE$1 MO/ F\ND IT IMPOSSIBLE TO GIVE ANY ACC\NT ( !IR LIVES S9CE *ILDHOOD2 MANY F\ND IT PA9FUL TO EV5 TRY4 ,9/EAD1 !Y T5D$ TO FALL BACK ON QUASI-E?NOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTIONS--,G,B,PH[ WE US$ TO DO ?+S 9 ! OLD DAYS'--& ANECDOTES AB\T !IR [N EXP]I5CE ( FAM\S HI/ORICAL EV5TS--MA9LY1 ( ,FRANCE'S W>S4 ,!SE ANECDOTES1 H[EV]1 W]E 9 ALMO/ EV]Y CASE & !MSELVES LITTLE IMAGES ( LOSS & DISP]SAL3 PEASANTS FLEE+ BE=E UNE>?LY ,G]MAN HORSEM51 ! GOV]NM5T FLEE+ ,P>IS BY BALLOON4444 ,IT WAS AS IF1 HAV+ BE5 TOLD ALL !IR LIVES !Y HAD NO RI<T TO SPEAK ( OR = !MSELVES1 !Y C\LD ONLY DO SO ?R\< ! BORR[$ AU?ORITY ( 'NATIONAL' HI/ORY4 

,MALAGASY UND]/&+S ( :AT HI/ORY IS1 & :AT GIVES ONE ! AU?ORITY TO TELL IT1 >E RA!R DIFF]5T4 ,HI/ORIES >E1 9DE$1 MATT]S ( PRIVILEGE1.<#c.> BUT !Y >E ALSO 9TR9SICALLY TI$ TO PLACES--:]E ANCE/ORS LIV$ & >E BURI$1 :]E FAM\S EV5TS TOOK PLACE4 ,& !RE IS A V]Y DEEP-SEAT$ FEEL+ ?AT ONLY ?OSE :O LIVE NE> A PLACE CAN REALLY KN[ ITS HI/ORY4 ,EV5 ! WEAL?IE/ & MO/ P[]FUL DESC5DANTS ( ,BETAFO'S NOBLE FAMILIES W\LD LOOK MILDLY IRRITAT$ :5 ,I ASK$ !M AB\T ! HI/ORIES ( !IR ILLU/RI\S =BE>S1 UNABLE TO SPEAK AB\T ! PLACE BECAUSE !IR FAMILIES HAD LONG S9CE RELOCAT$ TO ! CITY4 ,SEV]AL 5D$ UP REF]R+ ME TO ! DESC5DANTS ( !IR =M] SLAVES1 :O /ILL LIV$ !RE4 ,9 ?IS S5SE :AT ,VAZIMBA POOLS PROVIDE IS NOT JU/ A WAY TO CONCEPTUALIZE A HI/ORY ( PA9 & DISP]SAL1 BUT ! RI<T TO SPEAK ( IT3 AFT] ALL1 MO/ ( !SE POOLS W]E 9 WILD PLACES 9 ! VALLEY BOTTOMS1 ! V]Y PLACES TO :I* SLAVES TOO W]E ONCE EXIL$4.<#c#a.> 

,EV5 IF :AT !Y SPOKE ( WAS1 ULTIMATELY1 !IR [N S5SE ( LOSS1 !IR [N DISEMP[]M5T1 ! ABILITY TO SPEAK AB\T SU* ?+S ITSELF OP5$ UP POSSIBILITIES ( TAK+ ACTION & BEG9N+ TO REV]SE ! SITUATION4 ,9 ! CASE ( ,RANORO ?IS WAS FAIRLY OBVI\S2 LESS SO1 P]HAPS1 9 ! CASE ( ,RA9ITABA4 ,BUT HI/ORIES KEEP *ANG+1 & ,VAZIMBA PROVIDE 5DLESS POSSIBILITIES ( MOV+ FROM SPEE* TO ACTION4 

,ONE ( ! LA/ DESC5DANTS ( ,RA9ITABA EV]YONE REMEMB]$1 = EXAMPLE1 WAS AN OLD MAN NAM$ ,PASCAL1 A L&LESS LABOR] :O HAD DI$ SEV]AL YE>S BE=E ,I CAME1 :51 :ILE WORK+ A NEI<BOR'S FIELD1 HE HAD AN EPILEPTIC FIT & FELL ON HIS [N %OVEL4 ,PASCAL1 ,I WAS TOLD1 WAS HAUNT$ BY A ,VAZIMBA1 :O W\LD P]IODICALLY POSSESS HIM4 ,SOME SAID IT WAS ,RA9ITABA HIMSELF2 O!RS 9SI/$ IT WAS A DIFF]5T1 NAMELESS SPIRIT1 ?AT HE HAD FIR/ 5C\NT]$ :ILE SWIMM+ 9 A POOL TO ! NOR? ( ! VILLAGE4 ,ALL ?\< REMEMB]$ H[ ,PASCAL W\LD P]IODICALLY ANN\NCE HE FELT ! ,VAZIMBA BEG9N+ TO MOVE 9 HIM1 & H[ PRACTICALLY ! 5TIRE POPULATION ( ! MA9TY QU>T] ( ,BETAFO W\LD SET \T ACROSS ! FIELDS TO ! NOR? ( ! VILLAGE1 & !N GA!R TO S+ & CLAP1 5C\RAG+ ! SPIRIT TO EM]GE4 ,! SESSIONS W\LD ALWAYS 5D ! SAME WAY4 ,AFT] SOME TIME1 ! ,VAZIMBA W\LD COME TO HIM1 & ,PASCAL W\LD BOLT (F R&OMLY 9TO ! SURR\ND+ WOODS OR WAT]S1 :]EON EV]YONE W\LD *ASE AFT] HIM1 TO BR+ HIM BACK AGA9--9 AN 5DLESS DRAMA ( DISP]SAL & RETRIEVAL4 

,!SE GA!R+S W]E ORGANIZ$ ) ! HELP ( ANO!R MAN-- ONE ,I WILL CALL ,RA9IBE4 ,UNLIKE ,PASCAL1 ,RA9IBE WAS AN EXP]I5C$ M$IUM4 ,?IS IS NOT H[ PEOPLE >\ND ,BETAFO PUT IT1 ?\<4 ,RA9IBE1 PEOPLE W\LD TELL ME1 'HAD' A ,VAZIMBA4 ,MANY 9SI/$ ?AT HE HAD MOV$ \T FROM HIS OLD HOME 9 ,BETAFO TO F\ND A NEW HAMLET AT ! 5D ( A LONG VALLEY TO ! NOR!A/ JU/ TO BE CLOS] TO ! FIELD :]E IT WAS4 ,EV]Y NI<T :5 !RE WAS A NEW MOON HIS :OLE FAMILY C\LD BE HE>D \T !RE1 CLAPP+ & S++ TO BR+ IT \T4 ,RA9IBE HIMSELF NEV] ADMITT$ ANY ( ?IS TO ME--9 FACT1 HE D5I$ ?AT HE EV5 WORK$ AS A CUR]4 ,BUT ?IS SORT ( COYNESS WAS TYPICAL ( PEOPLE :O HAD ,VAZIMBA1 BECAUSE BE+ TOO CLOSE TO A ,VAZIMBA IS A MORALLY DUBI\S ?+3 SU* SPIRITS CAN NOT ONLY HELP ONE 9 CUR+1 !Y CAN ALSO TAKE V5GEANCE ON ONE'S 5EMIES1 MAK+ ONE LITTLE BETT] ?AN A WIT*4 ,MO/ PEOPLE 9 ,BETAFO W]E V]Y C>EFUL NOT TO PICK A QU>REL ) ,RA9IBE1 & FROM ! MONEY HE GOT FROM CUR+ & ! FE> HE 9SPIR$ HE HAD MANAG$ TO ACQUIRE QUITE A BIT ( L&1 & TO KEEP A V]Y L>GE NUMB] ( HIS *ILDR5 & GR&*ILDR5 >\ND HIM 9 HIS LITTLE HAMLET BY ! FIELDS4 ,?IS WAS ! MA9 ?+ ?AT /RUCK ME :5 ,I W\LD VISIT HIM 9 HIS HAMLET1 OCCUPI$ 5TIRELY BY HIS [N DESC5DANTS4 ,HE WAS ALWAYS SURR\ND$ BY *ILDR54 

,RA9IBE DID NOT 5TIRELY D5Y HIS L9KS ) ,VAZIMBA4 ,HIS GR&FA!R1 HE SAID1 HAD MANY YE>S BE=E BE5 MY/]I\SLY PULL$ 9TO ! WAT]S UND]NEA? ! DAM TO ! NOR!A/ ( ,BETAFO1 & WASN'T SE5 = DAYS4 ,:5 HE F9ALLY REEM]G$1 HE TOLD LITTLE1 EXCEPT ?AT ! SPIRIT WAS AN OLD MAN ) A LONG BE>D1 DRESS$ ALL 9 R$1 SURR\ND$ BY 5DLESS NUMB]S ( T9Y *ILDR54 ,HE HAD /AY$ !RE = ?REE DAYS 9 ALL1 & ALL HE HAD TO EAT WAS CRABS4 

',RAW CRABS8' ASK$ MY COMPANION1 AN &RIANA FROM ,BETAFO4 

',I HAVE NO IDEA IF !Y W]E RAW OR !Y W]E COOK$4' ,!N1 DECID+ ?IS MI<T BE A BIT TOO COY3 'WELL1 ,I GUESS !RE W\LDN'T HAVE BE5 COOK$ ONES4' 

',BECAUSE Y\ KN[ :AT !Y SAY' 7EV]YONE1 APP>5TLY1 KNEW ?IS /ORY73 'IF Y\ EAT ?OSE1 !N !Y BECOME Y\R FRI5D = LIFE4 ,BUT IF Y\ REFUSE1 !Y MI<T EV5 KILL Y\4' 

',YES1' HE SMIL$4 ,SO !Y SAY4 

,JU/ SO AS TO %[ ?AT ANY?+ IS POSSIBLE1 LET ME 5D BY NOT+ ?AT T[>DS ! 5D ( ! TIME ,I WAS 9 ,BETAFO ,I DISCOV]$ !RE WAS ANO!R ( ,RA9ITABA'S DESC5DANTS LIV+ !RE4 ,HE WAS ONE ( ,RAZANAMAVO'S SONS1 A MAN 9 HIS ?IRTIES NAM$ ,TRATRA4 ,TRATRA TOO CLAIM$ TO BE A M$IUM4 ,NOBODY ,I TALK$ TO TOOK !SE CLAIMS P>TICUL>LY S]I\SLY3 MO/ CONSID]$ HIM A DRUNK5 BLO:>D1 & A BIT ( A BUFFOON 7'IF Y\ REALLY HAVE SPIRITS1' ,>M& TOLD ME1 'Y\ DON'T GO >\ND TELL+ EV]YONE4'7 ,BUT A FEW YE>S BE=E HE HAD BUILT A LITTLE H\SE NE> ! RU9S ( ,ANT&ROKOMBY1 JU/ A FEW MET]S AWAY FROM ! RE$Y POOL ,RA9ITABA IS SAID TO HAVE 9HABIT$ BE=E HE DISAPPE>$4 ,HE C\LDN'T AF=D TO BE >\ND V]Y (T52 MO/ ( ! TIME1 LIKE HIS MO!R1 HE WAS (F LOOK+ = WORK4 ,BUT IT AT LEA/ SUGGE/S ! POSSIBILITY ?AT1 W]E ONE TO COME BACK 9 TW5TY YE>S1 ,RA9ITABA MI<T HAVE ACQUIR$ A NEW & 5TIRELY DIFF]5T HI/ORY4 

,NOTES 

,I %\LD ?ANK ,BRUCE ,APPLEBAUM1 ,J5NIF] ,COLE1 ,JEAN ,COM>(F1 ,NHU ,?I ,LE1 ,/U>T ,ROCKEFELL]1 & ,HYLTON ,:ITE = !IR MANY HELPFUL COMM5TS & SUGGE/IONS4 

,BIBLIOGRAPHY 

,AB9AL1 ,A4 

#ahhe ,V+T ANS A ,MADAGASC>3 COLONIZATION1 TRADITIONS HI/ORIQUES1 MOEURS ET CROYANCES4 ,P>IS4 ,AUJAS1 ,LUIS 

#aibg ,LES RITES DU SACRIFICE A ,MADAGASC>4 ,TANAN>IVE3 ,MEMOIRE DE L',ACADEMIE ,MALGA*E1 FASC4 ,I,I4 

,B]G1 ,G]ALD 

#aige ,HI/ORICAL ,TRADITIONS & ! ,F\NDATIONS ( ,MON>*Y 9 ,IM]9A4 ,DOCTORAL ,DISS]TATION1 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,CALI=NIA1 ,B]KELEY4 

#aigg ',! MY? ( RACIAL /RIFE & ,M]9A K+LI/S3 ! TRANS=MATION ( TEXTS_/ ,HI/ORY 9 ,AFRICA VOL4 #d1 #a-#c4 

#aih ',SOME WORDS AB\T ,M]9A ,HI/ORICAL ,TEXTS4' ,9 ,! ,AFRICAN ,PA/ ,SPEAKS3 ,ESSAYS ON ,ORAL ,TRADITION & ,HI/ORY 7,J4,G4 ,MILL]1 $474 ,LONDON3 ,DAWSON1 PP4 #b#b#a-#b#c#i4 

,BLO*1 ,MAURICE 

#aiga ,PLAC+ ! DEAD3 TOMBS1 ANCE/RAL VILLAGES1 & K9%IP ORGANIZATION 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,LONDON3 ,SEM9> ,PRESS4 

#ai< ',M>RIAGE AMONG ,EQUALS3 ,AN ,ANALYSIS ( ,M]9A ,M>RIAGE ,RITUALS4' ,MAN 7N4S47 #a#c3 #b#a-#c#c4 

#aigi ',SLAV]Y & ,MODE ( ,PRODUCTION 9 ,MADAGASC>3 ,TWO ,CASE ,/UDIES4' ,9 ,ASIAN & ,AFRICAN ,SY/EMS ( ,SLAV]Y 7,L4,J4 ,WATSON1 $474 ,B]KELEY3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,CALI=NIA ,PRESS1 PP4 #a#b#c-#d#e4 

#aihb ',DEA?1 WOM5 & P[]4' ,9 ,DEA? & ! ,REG5]ATION ( ,LIFE 7,M4 ,BLO* &J4 ,P>RY $S474 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 PP4 #b#a#a-#b#c4 

#aihe ',ALMO/ ,EAT+ ! ,ANCE/ORS4' ,MAN 7N4S47 #b3 #f#c#a-#f#d#f4 

#aihf ,FROM ,BLESS+ TO ,VIOL5CE3 HI/ORY & IDEOLOGY 9 ! CIRCUMCISION RITUAL ( ! ,M]9A ( ,MADAGASC>4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

#aiid ',! ,SLAVES1 ! ,K+1 & ,M>Y 9 ! ,SLUMS ( ,ANTANAN>IVO' 9 ,%AMANISM1 ,HI/ORY & ! ,/ATE 7,N4 ,?OMAS & ,C>OL9E ,HUMPHREY $S471 ,ANN ,>BOR3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,MI*IGAN ,PRESS4 

,B\RDIEU1 ,PI]RE 

#aihd ,DI/9CTION3 ,A ,SOCIAL ,CRITIQUE ( ! ,JUDGM5T ( ,TA/E4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,BOZON1 ,MI*EL & ,ANNE-,M>IE ,?IESSE 

#aihf ',! ,COLLAPSE ( ,MEMORY3 ! ,CASE ( ,F>M ,WORK]S 7,FR5* ,VEX91 PAYS DE ,FRANCE74' ,HI/ORY & ,AN?ROPOLOGY #b3 #b#c#g-#b#e#i4 

,CABANES1 ,ROB]T 

#aigb ',CULTES DE POSSESSION DANS LA PLA9E DE ,TANAN>IVE4' ,CAHI]S DU ,C5T] D'FITUDES DES ,C\TUMES #i3 #c#c-#f#f4 

,CALLET1 ,F4 

#aih ,TANT>A NY ,&RIANA ETO ,MADAGASC>1 ,ANTANAN>IVO3 ,IMPRIM]IE (FICIELLE4 

,CONNECTION1 ,PAUL 

#aihi ,H[ ,SOCIETIES ,REMEMB]4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,C\S9S1 ,WILLIAM 

#ahif ',! ,ABOLITION ( ,SLAV]Y 9 ,MADAGASC>3 ) ,SOME ,REM>KS ON ,MALAGASY ,SLAV]Y ,G5]ALLY' ,ANTANAN>IVO ,ANNUAL & ,MALAGASY ,MAGAZ9E #b#a3 #d#d#f-#e4 

,DAHLE1 ,L>S & ,L\IS ,SIMS 

#aihd ,ANGANON'NY ,NTAOLO1 ,TANT>A ,MAMPISEHO NY ,FOMB&RAZANA SY NY ,F9OANA ,SASANY ,NANGANANY4 ,ANTANAN>IVO3 ,TRANO ,PR9TY ,LOT]ANA4 

,DELIVRE1 ,ALA9 

#aigd ,U,HI/MRE DES ,ROIS D',IM]9A3 9T]PRETATION D#cUNE TRADITION ORALE4 ,P>IS3 ,KL9CKSIECK4 

,DELORD1 ,J4 

#aieh ',NOTE SUR LA CROYANCE 5 LA RE9C>NATION DES PR9CES BETSILEO S\S LA =ME D'UN S]P5T4' ,BULLET9 DE L#c,ACADEMIE ,MALGA*E #d#g3 #a#e#e-#a#g4 

,DOM5I*9I1 ,JEAN-,PI]RE 

#aihe ,LES ,DIEUX AU ,S]VICE DES ,ROIS3 ,HI/OIRE ORALE DES ,SAMP9#c &RIANA \ PALLADIUMS ROY-AUX DE ,MADAGASC>1 ,P>IS1 ,C,N,R,S1 #g#a#fP4 

,DUBOIS1 ,H5RI 

#ai* ,E?NOGRAPHIC DES ,BETSILEO4 ,P>IS3 ,9/ITUT D',E?NOGRAPHIE4 

,ELLIS1 ,WILLIAM 

#ah* ,HI/ORY ( ,MADAGASC>4 #b VOLS4 ,LONDON3 ,FI%] @& ,SON4 

,FAUBLEE1 ,JACQUES 

#ai$ ,LES ESPRITS DE LA VIE A ,MADAGASC>4 ,P>IS3 ,PRESSES ,UNIV]SITAIRES DE ,FRANCE4 

,FEELEY-,HAMIK1 ,GILLIAN 

#aihb ',! ,K+'S M5 9 ,MADAGASC>3 ,SLAV]Y1 CITIZ5%IP & ,SAKALAVA MON>*Y4' ,AFRICA #e#b3 #c#a-#e4 

#aihf ',RITUAL & ,WORK 9 ,MADAGASC>4' ,9 ,MADAGASC>3 ,SOCIETY & ,HI/ORY 7,C4,P4 ,KOTTAK1 ,J4-,A4 ,RAKOTO>ISOA1 ,A4 ,S\?ALL & ,P4 ,V]91 $S47 ,DURHAM3 ,C>OL9A ,ACADEMIC ,PRESS1 PP4 #a#e#g-#a#g#d4 

#aiia ,A ,GRE5 ,E/ATE43 RE/OR+ 9DEP5DMCE 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,WA%+TON ,D4,C43 ,SMI?SONIAN ,9/ITUTION ,PRESS4 

,FRI$MAN1 ,JONA?AN 

#aiib ',! PA/ 9 ! FUTURE4' ,AM]ICAN ,AN?ROPOLOGI/ #i#d3 #h#c#g-#e#i4 

,GRAEB]1 ,DAVID 

#aiie ',DANC+ ) ,CORPSES ,RECONSID]$3 AN ,9T]PRETATION ( ,FAMADIHANA 79 ,>IVONIMAMO1 ,MADAGASC>74' ,AM]ICAN ,E?NOLOGI/ #b#b3 #b#e#h-#b#g#h4 

#a#i#i#fA ,! ,DISA/R\S ,ORDEAL ( #a#i#h#g3 ,MEMORY & ,VIOL5CE 9 ,RURAL ,MADAGASC>4 ,PH4,D4 DISS]TATION1 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO4 

#a#i#i#fB ',BEADS & ,MONEY3 ,NOTES ,T[>D A ,!ORY ( ,WEAL? & ,P[]4' ,AM]ICAN ,E?NOLOGI/ #b#c3 #a-#c#b4 

#a#i#i#fC ',LOVE ,MAGIC & ,COLONIAL ,LABOR ,POLICY 9 ,C5TRAL ,MADAGASC>4' ,G5D] & ,HI/ORY #h4 

,HAILE1 ,JOHN 

#ahic ,MALAGASY ,VILLAGE ,LIFE3 ,P5 & ,9K ,SKET*ES ( ! ,PEOPLE ( ,WE/]N ,IM]9A4 ,ANTANAN>IVO ,ANNUAL & ,MALAGASY ,MAGAZ9E #a#h3 #a-#b4 

,H>+1 ,LEE 

#aihb ,MALAGASY ,TALE ,9DEX4 ,FOLKLORE ,FELL[S ,COMMUNICATIONS NO4 #b#c#a4 ,HELS9KI3 ,SUOMALA95 ,TI$EAKATEMIA4 

,JULLY1 ,ANTO9E 

#ahid ',FUN]AILLES1 TOMBEAUX ET HONNEURS R5DUS AUX MORTS A ,MADAGASC>4' ,AN?RO-POLOGIE #e3 #c#h#e-#d#a4 

,L>SON1 ,PI] 

#aiib ,MAK+ ,E?NIC ,TRADITION 9 A ,PRE-,COLONIAL ,SOCIETY3 ,CULTURE1 ,G5D]1 & ,PROTE/ 9 ! ,E>LY ,M]9A ,K+DOM1 #a#g#e-#a#h#b#b4 ,DOCTORAL DISS]TATION1 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,WISCONS9-,MADISON4 

,MEILLASS\X1 ,CLAUDE 

#aiia ,! ,AN?ROPOLOGY ( ,SLAV]Y3 ,! ,WOMB ( ,IRON & ,GOLD4 ,*ICAGO3 ,UNIV]SITY 

( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS4 

,PASS]9I1 ,LUISA 

#aihg ,FASCISM 9 POPUL> MEMORY3 ! CULTURAL EXP]I5CE ( ! ,TUR9 ,WORK+ CLASS4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,PATT]SON1 ,ORL&O 

#aihb ,SLXW]Y & ,SOCIAL ,DEA?3 A ,COMP>ATIVE ,/UDY4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY 

,PRESS4 

,PIOLET1 ,J4-,B4 

#ahif ',DE L',ESCLAVAGE A ,MADAGASC>4' ,LE ,CORRESPONDANT .<,P>IS71 #a ,FEBRU>Y #a#h#i#f1 

#d#d#g-#d#h4 

,RAISON-,J\RDE1 ,FRAN@5OISE 

#aiia ,BIBLE ET P\VOIR A ,MADAGASC> AU ,X,I,X"9 SIECLE4 ,P>IS3 ,K>?ALA4 

,RAJA(]A1 ,H5RI 

#aiab ',LA CULTE D',&RIAMBODILOVA4' ,TANAN>IVE3 ,BULLET9 DE ,V,ACADEMIE ,MALGA*E #a3 

#a#h#i-#a#i#h4 

,RAMAMONJISOA1 ,JAN9E 

#aige ',ETUDE DU VILLAGE D'LLAFY4' ,ANNALES DE ,I',UNIV]SITE DE ,MADAGASC>1 ,S]IE ,LETTRES ET ,SCI5CES HUMA9ES1 NO4 #h-#a4 ,P>IS3 ,CUJAS4 

#aihd ',BLANCS ET ,NOIRS1' LES DIM5SIONS DE L'9EGALITE SOCIALE4 ,DOCUM5TS SOCIO-L+UI/IQUES4' ,CAHI]S DES SCI5CES SOCIALES 7,ANTANAN>IVO7 #a3 #c#i-#g#e4 

#aihf ',HAFY3 T]RE ET P>5TE4' ,9 ,MADAGASC>3 ,SOCIETY & ,HI/ORY 7,G4,P4 ,KOTTAK1 ,J4-,A4 ,RAKOTO>ISOA1 ,A4 ,S\?ALL & ,P4 ,V5N1 $S47 ,DURHAM3 ,C>OL9A ,ACADEMIC ,PRESS1 PP4 #b#b#i-#b#d#d4 

,RAOMBANA 

,N4D4 ,ANNALES4 ,MANUSCRIPT PRES]V$ 9 ! >*IVES ( ! ,ACADEMIE ,MALGA*E1 ,ANTANAN>IVO4 

,RAZAF9TSALAMA1 ,ADOLPHE 

#aihc ',LES FUN]AILLES ROYALES 5 ,IS&RA D'APRES LES S\RCES DU ,X,I,XE SIECLE4' ,9 ,LES ,S\V]A9S DE ,MADAGASC> 7,F4 ,RAISON-,J\RDE1 $47 ,P>IS3 ,K>?ALA1 PP4 #a#i#c-#b#a4 

,R5EL1 ,*>LES 

#aia ,CONTES DE ,MADAGASC>4 ,P>IS3 ,E4 ,L]\X4 

#aib ',ANCETRES ET DIEUX4' ,BULLET9 DE ,V,ACADEMIE ,MALGA*E 7N4S47 #e3 #a-#b#f#a4 ,RI*>DSON1 ,JOHN 

#ahhe ,A ,NEW ,MALAGASY-,5GLI% ,DICTION>Y4 ,ANTANAN>IVO3 ,LONDON ,MISSION>Y ,SOCIETY4 ,RUUD1 ,JORG5 

#aif ,TABOO3 ,A ,/UDY ( ,MALAGASY ,BELIEFS & ,CU/OMS4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,HUMANITIES ,PRESS4 ,SC>RY1 ,ELA9E 

#aihe ,! ,BODY 9 ,PA93 ,! ,MAK+ & ,UN-,MAK+ ( ! ,WORLD4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,SEWELL1 ,JOSEPH 

#ahgf ,REM>KS ON ,SLAV]Y 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,LONDON3 ,ELLIOT ,/OCK4 

,%AW1 ,GEORGE 

#ah< ',! ,BETSILEO3 ,RELIGI\S & ,SOCIAL ,CU/OMS4' ,ANTANAN>IVO ,ANNUAL & ,MALAGASY ,MAGAZ9E #d3 #c#a#b-#c#c#d4 

,SIBREE1 ,JAMES 

#ahh ,MADAGASC>3 ! ,GREAT ,AFRICAN ,ISL&4 ,LONDON3 ,TRIIBN] @& ,CO4 

#ahif ,MADAGASC> ,BE=E ! ,CONQUE/' ,! ,ISL&S ! ,C\NTRY1 & ! ,PEOPLE4 ,LONDON3 ,T4 ,FI%] ,UNW94 

,VAN ,G5NEP1 ,>NOLD 

#aid ,TAB\ ET ,TOTEMISME A ,MADAGASC>4 ,P>IS3 ,]NE/ ,L]\X4 

,VIG1 ,L>S 

#aigg ,CROYANCES ET ,MOEURS DES ,MALGA*ES 7#b VOLUMES74 ,ANTANAN>IVO3 ,T,P,F,L,M4 

.<#a.> ,I W\LD LIKE TO ?ANK ,NHU ,LE = FIR/ SUGGE/+ ?IS CONNECTION4 

.<#b.> ,RAOMBANA'S ',ANNALS1' ,A#b1 NO4 #e3 P4 #gd 7#f#i#c-#f#i#f74 ,RAOMBANA WROTE HIS HI/ORY 9 ,5GLI%2 9 P>T TO 5SURE ?AT NO ONE ELSE AT C\RT C\LD READ IT4 

.<#c.> ,MY G5]ALIZATIONS AB\T SLAV]Y >E BAS$ P>TLY ON ,EUROPEAN S\RCES 7E4G41 ,SEWELL #a#h#g#f1 ,C\S9S #a#h#i#f1 ,PIOLET #a#h#i#f7 BUT EV5 MORE ON MY READ+S ( #a#i? C5TURY ,MALAGASY DOCUM5TS PRES]V$ 9 ! ,NATIONAL ,>*IVES1 NOTABLY C\RT CASES & ! ,A,K,T,A S]IES 7ETAT CIVIL74 

.<#d.> ,I NEV] F\ND ANYONE 9 ! PRES5T :O RECALL$ H[ SLAVES W]E BURI$1 ?\< SOME PO9T$ \T ?AT !RE W]E A FEW1 EXCEPTIONALLY G5]\S MA/]S :O SET ASIDE A %ELF )9 !IR [N FAMILY TOMBS = SLAVES2 O!RS BUILT MODE/ SLAVE-TOMBS NE> !IR [N4 

.<#e.> ,MO/ ( ! SLAVES EMANCIPAT$ 9 #ahie AB&ON$ ,IM]9A 5TIRELY4 ,SOME RETURN$ TO !IR =M] HOMES--IF ?OSE PLACES EXI/$ & !Y /ILL HAD ANY MEMORIES ( !M4 ,MANY O!RS MOV$ TO L&S NEWLY OP5$ UP = F>M+ TO ! WE/4 ,EV5 AMONG ?OSE ?AT /AY$1 ONLY A H&FUL REMA9$ 9 !IR =M] VILLAGES4 ,SOME MOV$ TO T[NS LIKE ,>IVONIMAMO1 WORK+ AS PORT]S1 M]*ANTS1 LABOR]S2 O!RS MOV$ (F TO F\ND !IR [N SETTLEM5TS 9 DEPOPULAT$ COM]S ( ,IM]9A2 MANY S\<T WORK 9 ! CAPITAL4 

.<#f.> ,:5 SEV]AL BLACK FAMILIES DID MANAGE TO GET A FOO?OLD 9 SOME VILLAGE1 !IR K9 W\LD USUALLY FOLL[1 & (T5 ?IS W\LD LEAD TO A K9D ( ':ITE' FLI<T3 ! MORE ! *ILDR5 ( ! MA9TY PROSP]$1 ! MORE ! *ILDR5 ( ! FOTSY W\LD MOVE \T1 SO ?AT AFT] A G5]ATION OR TWO NONE ( ! VILLAGES' =M] 9HABITANTS W]E LEFT4 

.<#g.> ,FR5* DOCUM5TS FROM ! SECOND DECADE ( ! TW5TIE? C5TURY SAY ?AT HE WAS ,RABAKOMANGA'S FA!R1 & ?AT %E WAS BOM 9 ,ANT&ROKOMBY 9 ! #a#h#fS4 

.<#h.> ,KALANORO >E DIM9UTIVE1 HUMAN-LOOK+ CREATURES SAID TO LIVE 9 WAT]Y PLACES2 ONE (T5 HE>S ?AT !Y >E LIV+ V]SIONS ( ,VAZIMBA4 

.<#i.> ,>M&'S BRO!R ,G]MA9 HAD GONE MU* FUR!R3 HE HAD TOLD ME %E HADN'T EV] HAD A *ILD & !N HAPP5$ TO PASS BY ! /& ( RE$S :]E ,RA9ITABA WAS1 SAW ! ANIMAL1 & IMM$IATELY AFT]W>DS F\ND %E HAD CONCEIV$ A MALE *ILD4 

.<#a.> ,A K9D ( SILK CLO? FROM ,BETSILEO1 M>K$ BY B&S ( BRI<T COLOR SET BETWE5 BLACK & :ITE /RIPES1 WORN DUR+ ,BETSILEO FUN]ALS1 BUT ALSO ON FE/IVE OCCASIONS4 

.<#a#a.> ,M,V3 ,IZY MANKO EFA HO FATY IZY1 HOY IG@>IZANY ,HAY R5IB5AY1 IIZAHO IZAO EFA HO FATY#c HOY IZY1 TSY MA9TSY TONGA ATY AU>ATANANA IO1 AN-B>AGP IO4 ,DIA IZAHO HOY IZY AZA ALEV9A AMPASANA FA ALEFASAO HAN>AFY AN#cIO R5IRANO IO4 ,DIA HOVIDIANA LAMBA >9-DRANO HOY IZY1 OHATRA AN'ILAY ALEV9A V9ANTO-LAHY IZANY1 DIA HOE 'ANGAMBA TSY RUMDEFANY AN'9Y R5IRANO 9Y1 FA M5ATR'OLONA IZAHAY4 ',A-AN1 TSY M5ATRA IAN>EO HOY IZY IO1 FA HAHITA FAHASOAV9A BE IAN>EO RAHA VITAN>EO IZAY4' ,DIA TSY NANAO IZY'1 FA NALEV9A IHANY DIA IZOY LASA IZOY4  
83 ,RA9ITABA IO8  
 ,M,V3 ,I-E1 LAVAKA KELY OHATRA AN'IZAO NO NILEV5ANY1 TSISY FASANA MIDITRA EO1 AM9#cNY ATSI-NANANA4 ,DIA NANAO AN'ANONA HAMADIKA AN'ILAY OLONA DIA NITADY LAMBA DIA NIJANONA TS>A ,HAY LAMBA4 ,IZY NAKA4  
,RAHA VITAN>EO 9Y ZOVATRA 9Y DIA HO ANY AM9>EO FAHASOAV9A BE4 ,DIA NITONDRAKA NY RANO--MATY IZY4 ',IZAHO TSY TIA LAMBAM5A1 #c HOY IZY1 FA LAMBA >9DRANO1 DIA4444 ,IR5Y ILAY LAMBA JISAONA IR5Y IZANY4  
,FA TSY MANJAIY MAHANTRA NY ZANAK>EO1 OLONA F>ANA M&IMBY SY NY OLONA ANY IVELANY IZY4 ,ZAVATRA EFA VAO TSIRYONY DAHOLO DAHOLO MIHITSY4 ,FA TSY NAHAZO FAHASOAV9A IZAHAY FA TSY NANAO4 ,APETRAKA AM9#cNY AV>ATRA 9DR9DRA AM9#cNY AFOVOANY SY MBOLA TSY QFTNDRA HATRA-M9'IZAO4 ,TALOHA1 T>ANANY BETSAKA IHANY FA EFA VITSY IZY IZAO4 

.<#a#b.> ,:5 %E DI$ 9 #aiac ?IS L& WAS E/IMAT$ TO BE WOR? AB\T #aeb FRANCS2 ACTUALLY SOME:AT ABOVE ! AV]AGE LEGACY = ,BETAFO AS A :OLE4 7,?\< ?IS MI<T SIMPLY BE BECAUSE NONE ( ! L& HAD BE5 P>CEL$ \T 9 ADVANCE AMONG H] SONS47 ,H] HUSB&1 :O HAD DI$ 9 #a#i#a#b1 APPE>S TO HAVE LEFT NO PROP]TY AT ALL TO HIS DESC5DANTS1 :I* IS APP>5TLY ! REASON HE HAS BE5 5TIRELY =GOTT54 

.<#a#c.> ,+AHIVELONA /AY$ 9 ,&RIANONY1 ! MA9TY QU>T] ( ,BETAFO1 MO/ ( HIS LIFE1 AS DID HIS DAU<T] ,RABAKOLAVA1 N[ REMEMB]$ MA9LY BECAUSE ( H] UNUSUAL HEI<T4 ,%E HAD A NUMB] ( *ILDR5 :O EI!R M>RI$ AWAY OR1 REPORT$LY1 MOV$ TO T[N-- ?\< ,I NEV] MANAG$ TO TRACK ANY ( !M D[N4 ,9 H] OLD AGE %E LIV$ BY H]SELF & LIKE MO/ SOLIT>Y OLD WOM5 WAS WIDELY RUMOR$ TO BE A WIT*4 ,H] BRO!R ,PASCAL ONLY DI$ 9 #a#i#h#e1 BUT HIS *ILDR5 TOO HAVE ALSO S9CE DISAPPE>$4 

.<#a#d.> ,! FIR/ SETTL]S ( ,MADAGASC> UND\BT$LY CAME FROM SOME:]E 9 ?IS >EA3 ?IS IS :Y ,MALAGASY IS AN ,AU/RONESIAN LANGUAGE4 ,BUT NO ONE HAS EV] MANAG$ TO COME UP ) ANY EVID5CE 7L+UI/IC1 >*AEOLOGICAL OR O!RWISE7 = SU* A SECOND MIGRATION4 ,DESPITE ?IS IT APPE>S TO REMA9 UN*ALL5G$ 9 ! LIT]ATURE1 IT APP>5TLY NEV] OCCURR+ TO ANYONE ?AT1 IF ! FIR/ 9HABITANTS ( ,MADAGASC> CAME FROM ,9DONESIA1 & PEOPLE HAD BE5 COM+ FROM ,AFRICA EV] S9CE1 ! 9HABITANTS ( ! MO/ ISOLAT$ C5TRAL HI<L&S W\LD BE LIKELY TO LOOK ! MO/ LIKE ! ORIG9AL 9HABITANTS4 

.<#a#e.> ,I AM NOT SUGGE/+ ?AT T]MS LIKE FOTSY & MA9TY1 ':ITE' & 'BLACK1' SURE SIMPLY ! PRODUCTS ( MISSION>Y 9FLU5CE3 !Y GO BACK TO #a#i? C5TURY SOCIAL CLASSIFICATIONS :I*1 H[EV]1 ORIG9ALLY HAD A V]Y DIFF]5T MEAN+4 ,= FUR!R EXPLORATION ( ?IS PO9T1 SEE ,GRAEB]1 #a#i#i#fA4 

.<#a#f.> ,OCCASIONALLY1 PEOPLE ,I ASK$ AB\T ,VAZIMBA W\LD REPLY ) SOME?+ TO ! EFFECT ( 'WELL1 Y\ HAVE TO UND]/& ?AT ! ,VAZIMBA W]E REALLY AN 5TIRELY SEP>ATE RACE' 7ALWAYS US+ ! ,FR5* WORD1 RACE72 & !N GO ON TO CITE ?+S !Y HAD READ 9 BOOKS AB\T ,MALAGASY HI/ORY1 OR HE>D PR(ESSORS DISCUSS+ ON ! RADIO4 ,EV5 ,>M& 7:O HAD BE5 TO COLLEGE7 DID ?IS ! FIR/ TIME ,I ASK$ HIM AB\T ,VAZIMBA2 BUT IT WAS A ONE-TIME ?+1 A K9D ( B[ TO ! AU?ORITY ( S*OL>%IP :I* SEEM$ TO HAVE NO?+ TO DO ) ANY?+ ELSE HE HAD TO SAY ON ! SUBJECT !REAFT]4 

.<#a#g.> ,! WORD RAZANA1 NORMALLY TRANSLAT$ 'ANCE/OR1' ACTUALLY MEANS BO? 'ANCE/OR' & 'CORPSE4' ,VAZIMBA W]E MO/ DEF9ITIVELY NOT RAZANA4 ,:5 PEOPLE *ANC$ UPON =GOTT5 SKELETONS 9 !IR FIELDS OR WILD PLACES1 = EXAMPLE1 !Y (T5 SPECULAT$ ?AT !Y W]E ! REMA9S ( WIT*ES OR LO/ TRAVEL]S2 BUT EV5 IF !Y 5D$ UP PROPITIAT+ ! SPIRIT ( ! DECEAS$1 !Y NEV] REF]R$ TO !M AS ,VAZIMBA2 ,VAZIMBA LACK$ BODIES BY DEF9ITION4 

.<#a#h.> ,G,R3 ,NY ,VAZIMBA ALOHA DIA K>AZANA ZAVATRA TSY HITA4 ,IZY TSY MISEHO VATANA OHATRY NY HOE OLONA SA ,G,B,PANAH>9'ILAY MITSABO OLONA @5ANADRANO IREO4 ,RAHA TO]ANA MISY AZY1 DIA OHATRA HOE MITONDRA H5A KISOA IO1 IZANY HOE DIA N5T9A IZANY TSY MA9TSY ATAO NA4 4 4VAO MATY NY JIRO DIA HITANAO MISY TANANA MANATONA ANAO2 EFA VAO MIREHITRA NYJIRO DIA TSY HITA4 ,IZANY HOE1 IANAO MISASA T>EHY_> TSY FANTATRA NA 9ONA4 ,DIA METY LASA VONTO BE OHATRA AN'IZANY KOA1 DIA TSY QFAKA MIHITSY HONO RAHA TSY EVOAHANY--MISY FANEVOKAN'NY OLONA AZY4 ,ANAT]AN,HLAY OLONA FANAS9A1 IZAY VAO QFAKA4 ,DIA IZAY NO T5A HOE MISY444 TSY FANTATRA MIHITSY NA 9ONA NA 9ONA NO AO ANAT9'NY RANO FA IZAY FOTS9Y4 

.<#a#i.> ,9 ?IS1 ! BASIC UND]LY+ LOGIC WAS NOT ALL ?AT DIFF]5T ?AN ?AT ( FAMADI-HANA1 :I* AS ,I'VE >GU$ ELSE:]E 7,GRAEB] #a#i#i#e7 WAS L>GELY AB\T ! CONTA9M5T ( ANCE/ORS4 

.<#b.> ,! CONNECTION PROBABLY W\LD HAVE MADE P]FECT S5SE TO ,EUROPEANS :O ASSUM$ ?AT ,VAZIMBA W]E !MSELVES ! REMNANTS ( AN ,AFRICAN POPULATION2 SLAVES1 AFT] ALL1 W]E MA9LY DRAWN FROM ! COA/AL POPULATIONS ( ,MADAGASC>1 :O W]E ASSUM$ TO BE EQUALLY ,AFRICAN4 ,BUT CLE>LY1 ?IS HAD NO?+ TO DO ) ,MALAGASY ATTITUDES4 ,I C]TA9LY NEV] HE>D ANYONE REF] TO ,VAZIMBA AS 'BLACK4' 

.<#b#a.> ,?IS 9DE$ IS ! GI/ ( MO/ PREVI\S ANALYZES4 ,G]ALD ,B]G 7#a#i#g#g7 = 9/ANCE NOTES ?AT 9 ,M]9A K+-LI/S1 ! E>LIE/ RUL]S >E REF]R$ TO AS ',VAZIMBA' BECAUSE UNLIKE LAT] K+S !Y W]E NOT BURI$ ON SOLID GR\ND2 !IR BODIES W]E ?R[N 9TO LAKES4 ,LIKEWISE ,BLO* 7#a#i#h#b1 #a#i#h#e1 #a#i#h#f7 DRAWS AN OPPOSITION BETWE5 ANCE/ORS ID5TIFI$ ) ANCE/RAL L& & ,VAZIMBA ID5TIFI$ ) WAT]4 

.<#b#b.> ,H] FAME--OR AT LEA/ H] DOCUM5TATION--IS 9 P>T DUE TO ! FACT ?AT H] GROTTO IS LOCAT$ LESS ?AN AN H\R'S DRIVE FROM ! C5T] ( ! CAPITAL4 

.<#b#c.> ,AN 9T]E/+ P>ALLEL ) ,RA9ITABA4 

.<#b#d.> ,PI] ,L>SON 7P]SONAL COMMUNICATION7 HAS PO9T$ \T TO ME ?AT 9 ! #a#h? C5TURY1 MO/ ,M]9A SLAVES W]E1 9 FACT1 ,BETSILEO4 ,LAT] ?IS WAS NOT ! CASE1 BUT S9CE NO S+LE GR\P EV] GA9$ ! SAME NUM]ICAL DOM9ANCE ,BE/ILEO ONCE HAD1 ! ID5TITY MI<T WELL HAVE L+]$4 

.<#b#e.> ,BETSILEO 9 FACT >E ! ONLY O!R PEOPLE 9 ,MADAGASC> :O REGUL>LY P]=M FAMADIHANA4 

.<#b#f.> ,?AT IS TO SAY1 JU/ BE=E ! N>RATOR'S LIV+ MEMORY4 

.<#b#g.> ,AN OLON-JAVATRA WAS ! T]M HE US$1 :I* MEANS SOMEONE CON/ANTLY ACCOMPANI$ BY AN 9VISIBLE SPIRIT4 

.<#b#h.> ,N,R3 ,FA NY ZAVATRA HITA RAHA TAHAKA NY >MY DIA MPI&RY OMB9'NY ANADAH9-DRM9AY KOSA ATAO HOE3 ,BETSILEO4 ,OLON-JAVATRA HONO IZY IO4 ,IRAY SOA VAH9Y .<,OHATRY NY HOE1 PETRAHAN-JAVA-TRA IZANY.>4 ,IZY NO NI&RY NY OMB9'NY ANADAH9-DR59AY1 T]Y AN-TANANAY AMBONY &REFANA T]Y1 TAM9'NY &4RO TALOHA4 ,DIA4 44 NEFA EFA HO FATY IZY1 EFA ANTITRA BE IZY1 DIA TSY MBA NAVELANY HO FONOSANA LAMBAM5A NA N(ATORANA4 ,FA DIA AMBODY SOBIKA NO N5T9A4 ,DIA TOTORANA4 ,DIA REHEFA AUY EO IZANY A1 DIA NOJ]5A AFAKA TELO &RO1 DIA TSY TOO 9ISONY TOKOA4 ,NY LAVAKA DIA NISOKATRA BE IZAO4 ,FA IZY TSY ,VAZIMBA MIHITSY FA HOE3 OLON-JAVATRA FOTS9Y4 ,IZY EFA ANTITRA BE ,HAY IZY4 

.<#b#i.> ,V3 ,EFA TALOHA ELA BE1 EFA NAH>OAKA OMBY TAMM'IZANY N&RANG>ANGA4 ,DIA NISY MPIK>AMA TAM9-DRY ,RAKOTOMANGA NO NIPETRAKA T]Y ,ANTANETY T5Y--,BETSILEO IO4 ,>Y IZY NIK>AMA NIJ+A V>Y4 ,>Y REHEFA NIK>AMA NIJ9JA V>Y BY1 DIA M>>Y1 DIA MATY T5Y AMPANOAOAN-DRAH>AHA T5Y ,HAY ,RANGAHY4 ,DIA NILEU9A TEO AMBON'NY TANIMB>9'NY TEO ILQY ,BETSILEO4 ,DIA REHEFA NIPETRAKA TEO H]9TAONA IZY DIA NAVOAKA FANANY4 ,NAVOAKA BIBY IZY4 ,>Y REHEFA NAVOAKA BIBY1 MALA TOO IZY1 DIA NIAKATRA TOO AN-TRANONY4 ,DIA HOE3 AHOANA8 ,DIA HOE3 ,IANONA TEO ALOHA AVELA8 ,DIA NANANTOKA NY HHAN'ILAY BIBY4 ,DIA OM5A V>Y4 ,DIA NIH9ANA V>Y EO NY BIBY--NGEZA BE HONO IZY 7IZAHO TSY NAHITA MASO7 DIA REHEFA CAY EO DIA MANAO HOE3 >Y REHEFA IZAO IANAO A1 DIA IANAO M>9A NO TOO1 DIA M5DEHANA M&EHA MODY4 ,MIVOAKA AM9'NY TAN9DRAZANAO4 ,DIA REHEFA VOIKY TEO IKY BIBY1 DIA LASA N&EHA4 ,>Y EFA TONGA TANY IZY1 DIA NAN(Y ILAY ,RANGAHY HOE ,HONGA ATY AM9'NY TAN9DRAZAKO4 ,>Y RY Z>EO IZANY1 REHEFA LASA IZY LASA N&EHA TEO IKY FAT9Y4 ,ILQY OLONA TSY MISY HITA 9TSONY4 

.<#c.> ,9 FACT1 ! WORD = 'HI/ORY1' TANT>A1 C\LD BE US$ TO MEAN 'PRIVILEGE' AS WELL4 

.<#c#a.> ,?\< ALMO/ ALL !SE ANCI5T HAMLETS HAD LONG S9CE BE5 AB&ON$1 ! SLAVES ON LIB]ATION HAV+ MOV$ FUR!R UP ! HILLS4  
 ,! ALMO/ RITUALIZ$ 9VOCATION ( ,BETSILEO ORIG9S MI<T ALSO BE 9T]PRET$ AS S]V+ AS A K9D ( AU?ORIZATION TO SPEAK4 ,9 MANY RURAL COMMUNITIES ,I F\ND ?AT EV5 OLD ,M]9A M5 W\LD PU% ! DESC5DANTS ( ,BETSILEO MIGRANTS =W>D TO TELL ME LOCAL HI/ORIES1 DESPITE ! FACT !Y HAD BE5 BOM ELSE:]E1 JU/ ON ! BASIS ( !IR GREAT] ABILITY TO TALK4 

7,S\RCE3 ,RETRIEV$ ON #b#h? ,NOVEMB] #bba FROM DAVIDGRAEB]4ORG47 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #i1 #bbb 3 ,PA9FUL ,MEMORIES -- ,ADD$4 

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