,*APT] #b 
,! ,IDEA 

#aiiaii 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,DEVYN ,CALDWELL1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,MOD]N ,/ATES -- ,9FLU5CE ( ,5GLI% & ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTIONS ON ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION -- ,CONDITION & AIMS ( MIDDLE CLASSES -- ,C5TRALIZATION ( AU?ORITY -- ,ATTITUDE T[>DS PEASANTS -- ,9FLU5CE ( EI<TE5?-C5TURY PHILOSOPHY 

  

,TO UND]/& FULLY ! IDEA :I* 9SPIR$ ! MIDDLE CLASSES 9 #a<i 
 WE MU/ CONSID] IT 9 ! LI<T ( ITS RESULTS--! MOD]N 
 ,/ATES4 

,! /RUCTURE ( ! LAW-&-ORD] ,/ATES :I* WE SEE 9 ,EUROPE AT 
 PRES5T WAS ONLY \TL9$ AT ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 
 ,! SY/EM ( C5TRALIZ$ AU?ORITY1 N[ 9 FULL WORK+ ORD]1 
 HAD NOT !N ATTA9$ EI!R ! P]FECTION OR UNI=MITY IT 
 POSSESSES TO-DAY4 ,?AT =MIDABLE ME*ANISM1 BY :I* AN ORD] 
 S5T FROM A C]TA9 CAPITAL PUTS 9 MOTION ALL ! M5 ( A 
 NATION1 READY = W>1 & S5DS !M \T TO C>RY DEVA/ATION 
 ?R\< C\NTRIES1 & M\RN+ 9TO FAMILIES2 ?OSE T]RITORIES1 
 OV]SPREAD ) A NETWORK ( (FICIALS :OSE P]SONALITY IS 
 COMPLETELY EFFAC$ BY !IR BUREAUCRATIC APPR5TICE%IP1 & :O 
 OBEY ME*ANICALLY ! ORD]S EMANAT+ FROM A C5TRAL WILL ?AT 
 PASSIVE OB$I5CE ( CITIZ5S TO ! LAW2 ?AT WOR%IP ( LAW1 ( 
 ,P>LIAM5T1 ( JUDGES & !IR ASSI/ANTS1 :I* WE SEE AB\T US 
 TO-DAY2 ?AT MASS ( HI]>*ICALLY ORGANIZ$ & DISCIPL9$ 
 FUNCTION>IES2 ?AT SY/EM ( S*OOLS1 MA9TA9$ OR DIRECT$ BY 
 ! ,/ATE1 :]E WOR%IP ( P[] & PASSIVE OB$I5CE >E 
 TAU<T2 ?AT 9DU/RIAL SY/EM1 :I* CRU%ES UND] ITS :EELS 
 ! WORK] :OM ! ,/ATE DELIV]S OV] TO ITS T5D] M]CIES2 
 ?AT COMM]CE1 :I* ACCUMULATES 9CR$IBLE RI*ES 9 ! H&S 
 ?OSE :O MONOPOLIZE ! L&1 ! M9ES1 ! WAYS ( 
 COMMUNICATION & ! RI*ES ( ,NATURE1 UPON :I*! ,/ATE IS N\RI%$2 & F9ALLY1 ?AT SCI5CE1 
 :I* LIB]ATES ?\<T & IMM5SELY 9CREASES ! PRODUCTIVE 
 P[]S ( M51 BUT :I* AT ! SAME TIME AIMS AT SUBJECT+ !M 
 TO ! AU?ORITY ( ! /RONGE/ & TO ! ,/ATE--ALL ?IS 
 WAS NON-EXI/5T BE=E ! ,REVOLUTION4 
  

,H[EV]1 LONG BE=E ! ,REVOLUTION HAD BY ITS MUTT]+S GIV5 W>N+ 
 ( ITS APPROA*1 ! ,FR5* MIDDLE CLASSES & ! ,?IRD ,E/ATE HAD 
 ALREADY DEVELOP$ A CONCEPTION ( ! POLITICAL $IFICE :I* 
 %\LD BE ]ECT$ ON ! RU9S ( FEUDAL ROYALTY4 ,IT IS HI<LY 
 PROBABLE ?AT ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION HAD HELP$ ! ,FR5* MIDDLE 
 CLASS T[>DS A COMPREH5SION ( ! P>T !Y W\LD BE CALL$ ON 
 TO PLAY 9 ! GOV]NM5T ( SOCIETY4 ,& IT IS C]TA9 ?AT ! 
 REVOLUTION 9 ,AM]ICA /IMULAT$ ! 5]GIES ( ! MIDDLE-CLASS 
 REVOLUTION>IES4 ,?ANKS TO ,HOBBES1 ,HUME1 ,MONTESQUIEU1 ,R\SSEAU1 
 ,VOLTAIRE1 ,MABLY1 D',>G5SON & O!RS1 EV] S9CE ! BEG9N+ 
 ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY ! /UDY ( ,POLITICS & ! 
 CON/ITUTION ( ORGANIZ$ SOCIETIES BAS$ ON ELECTIVE 
 REPRES5TATION HAD BECOME POPUL>1 & TO ?IS ,TURGOT & ,ADAM 
 ,SMI? HAD JU/ ADD$ ! /UDY ( ECONOMIC QUE/IONS & ! 
 PLACE ( PROP]TY 9 ! POLITICAL CON/ITUTION ( A ,/ATE4 

,?AT IS :Y1 LONG BE=E ! ,REVOLUTION BROKE \T1 ! IDEA ( A ,/ATE1 
 C5TRALIZ$ & WELL-ORD]$1 GOV]N$ BY ! CLASSES HOLD+ 
 PROP]TY 9 L&S OR 9 FACTORIES1 OR BY MEMB]S ( ! LE>N$ 
 PR(ESSIONS1 WAS ALREADY =ECA/ & DESCRIB$ 9 A GREAT NUMB] 
 ( BOOKS & PAMPHLETS FROM :I* ! M5 ( ACTION DUR+ ! 
 ,REVOLUTION AFT]W>DS DREW !IR 9SPIRATION & !IR LOGICAL 
 =CE4 

,?US IT CAME TO PASS ?AT ! ,FR5* MIDDLE CLASSES 9 #a#g#h#i1 AT ! 
 MOM5T ( 5T]+ UPON ! REVOLUTION>Y P]IOD1 KNEW QUITE WELL 
 :AT !Y WANT$4 ,!Y W]E C]TA9LY NOT REPUBLICANS,N>E !Y 
 REPUBLICANS EV5 TO-DAY8 ,BUT !Y NO LONG] WANT$ ! ,K+ TO 
 HAVE >BITR>Y P[]S1 !Y REFUS$ TO BE RUL$ BY ! PR9CES OR 
 BY ! ,C\RT1 & !Y DID NOT RECOGNIZE ! RI<T ( ! 
 NOBILITY TO SEIZE ON ALL ! BE/ PLACES 9 ! ,GOV]NM5T1 
 ?\< !Y W]E ONLY CAPABLE ( PLUND]+ ! ,/ATE AS !Y HAD 
 PLUND]$ !IR VA/ PROP]TIES )\R _? ADD+ ANY?+ TO 
 !IR VALUE4 ,! MIDDLE CLASSES W]EP]HAPS 
 REPUBLICAN 9 S5TIM5T1 & DESIR$ REPUBLICAN SIMPLICITY ( 
 MANN]S1 AS 9 ! GR[+ REPUBLIC ( ,AM]ICA2 BUT !Y DESIR$1 
 ABOVE ALL ?+S1 GOV]NM5T BY ! PROP]TI$ CLASSES4 
  

,!Y 9CLUD$ TO FREE ?\<T )\T BE+ ,A!I/S1 BUT !Y BY NO 
 MEANS DISLIK$ ! ,CA?OLIC =M ( RELIGION4 ,:AT !Y DETE/$ 
 MO/ WAS ! ,*UR*1 ) ITS HI]>*Y & ITS BI%OPS1 :O MADE 
 COMMON CAUSE ) ! PR9CES1 & ITS PRIE/S :O HAD BECOME ! 
 OB$I5T TOOLS ( ! NOBILITY4 

,! MIDDLE CLASSES ( #a<i UND]/OOD ?AT ! MOM5T HAD >RIV$ 9 
 ,FRANCE1 AS IT HAD >RIV$ ONE HUNDR$ & =TY YE>S BE=E 9 
 ,5GL&1 :5 ! ,?IRD ,E/ATE WAS TO SEIZE ! P[] FALL+ 
 FROM ! H&S ( ROYALTY1 & !Y KNEW :AT !Y MEANT TO DO 
 ) IT4 

,!IR IDEAL WAS TO GIVE ,FRANCE A CON/ITUTION MODEL$ UPON ! ,5GLI% 
 CON/ITUTION1 & TO R$UCE ! ,K+ TO ! P>T ( A M]E 
 5REGI/]+ SCRIBE1 ) SOMETIMES ! P[] ( A CA/+-VOTE1 
 BUT *IEFLY TO ACT AS ! SYMBOL ( NATIONAL UNITY4 ,AS TO ! 
 REAL AU?ORITY1 ?AT WAS TO BE VE/$ 9 A ,P>LIAM5T1 9 :I* 
 AN $UCAT$ MIDDLE CLASS1 :I* W\LD REPRES5T ! ACTIVE & 
 ?9K+ P>T ( ! NATION1 %\LD PR$OM9ATE4 

,AT ! SAME TIME1 !IR IDEAL WAS TO ABOLI% ALL ! LOCAL P[]S :I* 
 AT ?AT TIME CON/ITUT$ SO MANY AUTONOM\S UNITS ! ,/ATE4 ,!Y 
 MEANT TO CONC5TRATE ALL GOV]NT5TAL P[] 9 ! H&S ( A 
 C5TRAL EXECUTIVE AU?ORITY1 /RICTLY CONTROLL$ BY ! 
 ,P>LIAM5T1 BUT ALSO /RICTLY OBEY$ 9 ! ,/ATE1 & COMB9+ 
 EV]Y DEP>TM5T TAXES1 LAW C\RTS1 POLICE1 >MY1 S*OOLS1 CIVIC 
 CONTROL1 G5]AL DIRECTION ( COMM]CE & 
 9DU/RY--EV]Y?+4 ,BY ! SIDE ( ?IS POLITICAL 
 CONC5TRATION1 !Y 9T5D$ TO PROCLAIM COMPLETE FRE$OM 9 
 COMM]CIAL TRANSACTIONS1 & AT ! SAME TIME TO GIVE FREE RE9 
 TO 9DU/RIAL 5T]PRISE = ! EXPLOITATION ( ALL SORT ( 
 NATURAL WEAL?1 AS WELL AS ( ! WORK]S1 :O H5CE=? W\LD 
 BE DELIV]$ UP DEF5SELESS TO ANY ONE :O MI<T EMPLOY !M4 

,ALL ?IS WAS TO BE KEPT UND] ! /RICT CONTROL ( ! ,/ATE1 :I* 
 W\LD FAVOR ! 5RI*M5T ( ! 9DIVIDUAL & ! 
 ACCUMULATION ( L>GE =TUNES--TWO CONDITIONS TO :I* 
 GREATIMPORTANCE WAS NECESS>ILY ATTA*$ BY ! 
 MIDDLE CLASSES1 SEE+ ?AT ! ,/ATES ,G5]AL ITSELF HAD BE5 
 CONVOK$ TO W>D (F ! F9ANCIAL RU9 ( ! ,/ATE4 
  

,ON ECONOMIC MATT]S1 ! M5 ( ACTION BELONG+ TO ! ,?IRD ,E/ATE 
 HELD IDEAS NO LESS PRECISE4 ,! ,FR5* MIDDLE CLASSES HAD /UDI$ 
 ,TURGOT & ,ADAM ,SMI?1 ! CREATORS ( POLITICAL ECONOMY4 ,!Y 
 KNEW ?AT ! !ORIES ( ?OSE WRIT]S HAD ALREADY BE5 APPLI$ 
 9 ,5GL&1 & !Y 5VI$ !IR MIDDLE-CLASS NEI<BORS ACROSS 
 ! ,*ANNEL !IR P[]FUL ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION1 JU/ AS !Y 
 5VI$ !M !IR POLITICAL P[]4 ,!Y DREAM$ ( AN 
 APPROPRIATION ( ! L& BY ! MIDDLE CLASSES1 BO? UPP] & 
 L[]1 & ( ! REV5UE !Y W\LD DRAW FROM ! SOIL1 :I* 
 HAD HI!RTO LA9 UNPRODUCTIVE 9 ! H&S ( ! NOBILITY & 
 ! CL]GY4 ,9 ?IS !Y W]E SUPPORT$ BY ! L[] MIDDLE CLASS 
 SETTL$ 9 ! C\NTRY1 :O HAD BECOME A P[] 9 ! VILLAGES1 
 EV5 BE=E ! ,REVOLUTION 9CREAS$ !IR NUMB]4 ,!Y =ESAW 
 ! RAPID DEVELOPM5T ( TRADE & ! PRODUCTION ( M]*&ISE 
 ON A L>GE SCALE BY ! HELP ( MA*9]Y2 !Y LOOK$ =W>D TO 
 A =EIGN TRADE ) DI/ANT L&S1 & ! EXPORTATION ( 
 MANUFACTUR$ GOODS ACROSS ! SEAS TO M>KETS ?AT W\LD BE 
 OP5$ 9 ! ,EA/1 TO HUGE 5T]PRISES & COLOSSAL =TUNES4 

,BUT BE=E ALL ?IS C\LD BE REALIZ$ !Y KNEW ! TIES ?AT  ! 
 PEASANT TO HIS VILLAGE MU/ BE BROK54 ,IT WAS NECESS>Y ?AT HE 
 %\LD BE FREE TO LEAVE HIS HUT1 & EV5 ?AT HE %\LD BE 
 =C$ TO LEAVE IT1 SO ?AT HE MI<T BE IMPELL$ T[>DS ! 
 T[NS 9 SE>* ( WORK4 ,!N1 9 *ANG+ MA/]S1 HE W\LD 
 BR+ GOLD TO TRADE1 9/EAD ( PAY+ TO ! L&LORDS ALL SORTS 
 ( R5TS1 TI!S & TAXES1 :I* C]TA9LY PRESS$ V]Y HEAVILY 
 UPON HIM1 BUT :I* AFT] ALL W]E NOT V]Y PR(ITABLE = ! 
 MA/]S4 ,& F9ALLY1 ! F9ANCES ( ! ,/ATE HAD TO HAD PUT 9 
 ORD]2 TAXATION W\LD BE SIMPLIFI$1 &1 AT ! SAME TIME1 A 
 BIGG] REV5UE OBTA9$4 

,9 %ORT1 :AT !Y WANT$ WAS :AT ECONOMI/S HAVE CALL$ FRE$OM ( 
 9DU/RY & COMM]CE1 BUT :I* REALLY MEANT ! RELIEV+ ( 
 9DU/RY FROM ! H>ASS+ & REPRESSIVE SUP]VISION ( ! 
 ,/ATE1 & ! GIV+ TO IT FULL LIB]TY TO EXPLOIT ! WORK]1 
 :O WAS /ILL TO BE DEPRIV$ ( HIS FRE$OM4 ,!REW]E TO BE NO GUILDS1 NO TRADE SOCIETIES2 NEI!R 
 TRADE W>D5S NOR MA/] CRAFTSM52 NO?+ :I* MI<T 9 ANY 
 WAY *ECK ! EXPLOITATION ( ! WAGE-E>N]4 ,!RE WAS NO 
 LONG] TO BE ANY ,/ATE SUP]VISION :I* MI<T HAMP] ! 
 MANUFACTUR]4 ,!RE W]E TO BE NO DUTIES ON HOME 9DU/RIES1 NO 
 PROHIBITIVE LAWS4 ,= ALL ! TRANSACTIONS ( ! EMPLOY]S1 
 !RE WAS TO BE COMPLETE FRE$OM1 & = ! WORK]S A /RICT 
 PROHIBITION AGA9/ COMB9ATIONS ( ANY SORT4 ,LAISS] 
 FAIRE = ! ONE2 COMPLETE D5IAL ( ! RI<T TO COMB9E 
 = ! O!RS4 
  

,SU* WAS ! TWO-FOLD S*EME DEVIS$ BY ! MIDDLE CLASSES4 ,!RE=E 
 :5 ! TIME CAME = ITS REALIZATION1 ! MIDDLE CLASSES1 
 /R5G!N$ BY !IR KN[L$GE1 ! CLE>NESS ( !IR VIEWS & 
 !IR BUS9ESS HABITS1 )\T HESITAT+ OV] !IR S*EME AS A 
 :OLE OR AT ANY DETAIL ( IT1 SET TO WORK TO MAKE IT BECOME LAW4 
 ,& ?IS !Y DID ) A CONSI/5T & 9TELLIG5T 5]GY QUITE 
 IMPOSSIBLE TO ! MASSES ( ! PEOPLE1 BECAUSE BY !M NO IDEAL 
 HAD BE5 PLANN$ & ELABORAT$ :I* C\LD HAVE BE5 OPPOS$ TO 
 ! S*EME ( ! G5TLEM5 ( ! ,?IRD ,E/ATE4 

,IT W\LD C]TA9LY BE UNJU/ TO SAY ?AT ! MIDDLE CLASSES W]E 
 ACTUAT$ ONLY BY PURELY SELFI% MOTIVES4 ,IF ?AT HAD BE5 ! 
 CASE !Y W\LD NEV] HAVE SUCCE$$ 9 !IR TASK4 ,9 GREAT 
 *ANGES A C]TA9 AM\NT ( IDEALISM IS ALWAYS NECESS>Y TO 
 SUCCESS4 

,! BE/ REPRES5TATIVES ( ! ,?IRD ,E/ATE HAD1 9DE$1 DRUNK FROM 
 ?AT SUBLIME F\NT1 ! EI<TE5?-C5TURY PHILOSOPHY1 :I* WAS 
 ! S\RCE ( ALL ! GREAT IDEAS ?AT HAVE >IS5 S9CE4 ,! 
 EM95TLY SCI5TIFIC SPIRIT ( ?IS PHILOSOPHY2 ITS PR(\NDLY 
 MORAL *>ACT]1 MORAL EV5 :5 IT MOCK$ AT CONV5TIONAL 
 MORALITY2 ITS TRU/ 9 ! 9TELLIG5CE1 /R5G? & GREATNESS 
 ( ! FREE MAN :5 HE LIVES AMONG HIS EQUALS2 ITS HATR$ ( 
 DESPOTIC 9/ITUTIONS--W]E ALL ACCEPT$ BY ! 
 REVOLUTIONI/S ( ?AT TIME4 ,:5CE W\LD !Y HAVE DRAWN 
 O!RWISE ! P[]S ( CONVICTION & ! DEVOTION ( :I* !Y 
 GAVE SU* PRO(S 9 ! /RUGGLE8 ,IT MU/ ALSO BE [N$ ?AT EV5 
 AMONG ?OSE :O WORK$ H>DE/ TO REALIZE ! PROGRAM 5RI*+ 
 ! MIDDLE CLASSES1 !RE W]E SOME :O S]I\SLY BELIEV$ ?AT 
 ! 5RI*M5T ( ! 9DIVIDUAL W\LD BE !BE/ MEANS ( 5RI*+ ! NATION AS A :OLE4 ,HAD 
 NOT ! BE/ ECONOMI/S1 ) ,ADAM ,SMI? AT !IR HEAD1 
 P]SUASIVELY PREA*$ ?IS VIEW8 
  

,BUT H[EV] L(TY W]E ! AB/RACT IDEAS ( LIB]TY1 EQUALITY & FREE 
 PROGRESS ?AT 9SPIR$ ! S9C]E M5 AMONG ! MIDDLE CLASSES 
 ( #a#g#h#i-#a#g#i#c IT IS BY !IR PRACTICAL PROGRAM1 BY ! 
 APPLICATION ( !IR !ORIES1 ?AT WE MU/ JUDGE !M4 ,9TO :AT 
 DE$S %ALL ! AB/RACT IDEA BE TRANSLAT$ 9 ACTUAL LIFE8 ,BY 
 ?AT ALONE CAN WE F9D ITS TRUE MEASURE4 

,IF1 !N1 IT IS ONLY FAIR TO ADMIT ?AT ! MIDDLE CLASSES ( #a<i W]E 
 9SPIR$ BY IDEAS ( LIB]TY1 EQUALITY 7BE=E ! LAW71 & 
 POLITICAL & RELIGI\S FRE$OM1 WE MU/ ALSO ADMIT ?AT !SE 
 IDEAS1 A' SOON AS !Y TOOK %APE1 BEGAN TO DEVELOP EXACTLY ON 
 ! TWO L9ES WE HAVE JU/ SKET*$2 LIB]TY TO UTILIZE ! 
 RI*ES ( ,NATURE = P]SONAL AGGR&IZEM5T1 AS WELL AS LIB]TY 
 TO EXPLOIT HUMAN LABOR )\T ANY SAFEGU>D = ! VICTIMS ( 
 SU* EXPLOITATION1 & POLITICAL P[] ORGANIZ$ SO AS TO ASSURE 
 FRE$OM ( EXPLOITATION TO ! MIDDLE CLASSES4 ,& WE %ALL SEE 
 PRES5TLY :AT T]RIBLE /RUGGLES W]E EVOLV$ 9 #agic :5 ONE 
 ( ! REVOLUTION>Y P>TIES WI%$ TO GO FUR!R ?AN ?IS 
 PROGRAM4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aih 3 ,*APT] #b -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#g1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #b -- ,ADD$4 

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