,SECTION #d 

#ahhgahhg 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,DAVID ,K5T1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,IT IS EASY TO UND]/& :Y MOD]N HI/ORIANS1 TRA9$ 9 ! ,ROMAN WAY ( ?9K+ & SEEK+ TO ASSOCIATE ALL 9/ITUTIONS ) ,ROME1 F9D IT SO DIFFICULT TO APPRECIATE ! COMMUNALI/ MOVEM5T ?AT EXI/$ 9 ! ELEV5? & TWELF? C5TURIES4 ,?IS MOVEM5T ) ITS VIRILE AFFIRMATION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 & :I* SUCCE$$ 9 CREAT+ A SOCIETY ?R\< ! FREE F$]ATION ( M51 ( VILLAGES & ( T[NS1 WAS ! COMPLETE NEGATION ( ! UNIT>IAN1 C5TRALIZ+ ,ROMAN \TLOOK ) :I* HI/ORY IS EXPLA9$ 9 \R UNIV]SITY CURRICULA4 ,NOR IS IT L9K$ TO ANY HI/ORIC P]SONALITY1 OR TO ANY C5TRAL 9/ITUTION4 

,IT IS A NATURAL DEVELOPM5T1 BELONG+1 JU/ AS DID ! TRIBE & ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 TO A C]TA9 PHASE 9 HUMAN EVOLUTION1 & NOT TO ANY P>TICUL> NATION OR REGION4 ,?IS IS ! REASON :Y ACADEMIC SCI5CE CANNOT BE S5SITIVE TO ITS SPIRIT & :Y ! ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RYS & ! ,SISMONDIS1 HI/ORIANS :O REALLY HAD UND]/OOD ! MOOD ( ! P]IOD1 HAVE NOT HAD FOLL[]S 9 ,FRANCE1 :]E ,LU*AIRE IS /ILL ! ONLY ONE TO HAVE TAK5 UP - MORE OR LESS - ! TRADITION ( ! GREAT HI/ORIAN ( ! ,M]OV+IAN & ,COMMUNALI/ P]IODS4 ,IT FUR!R EXPLA9S :Y1 9 ,5GL& & ,G]MANY1 RESE>* 9TO ?IS P]IOD AS WELL AS AN APPRECIATION ( ITS MOTIVAT+ =CES1 >E ( V]Y REC5T ORIG94 

,! COMMUNE ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 ! FREE CITY1 [ES ITS ORIG9 ON ! ONE H& TO ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 & ON ! O!R1 TO ?OSE ?\S&S ( BRO!RHOODS & GUILDS :I* W]E COM+ TO LIFE 9 ?AT P]IOD 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! T]RITORIAL UNION4 ,AS A F$]ATION BETWE5 !SE TWO K9DS ( UNIONS1 IT WAS ABLE TO ASS]T ITSELF UND] ! PROTECTION ( ITS =TIFI$ RAMP>TS & TURRETS4 

,9 MANY REGIONS IT MANY REGIONS IT WAS A PEACEFUL DEVELOPM5T4 ,ELSE:]E - & ?IS APPLI$ 9 G5]AL TO ,WE/]N ,EUROPE - IT WAS ! RESULT ( A REVOLUTION4 ,AS SOON AS ! 9HABITANTS ( A P>TICUL> BOR\< FELT !MSELVES TO BE SUFFICI5TLY PROTECT$ BY !IR WALLS1 !Y MADE A 'CONJURATION'4 ,!Y MUTUALLY SWORE AN OA? TO DROP ALL P5D+ MATT]S CONC]N+ SL&]1 VIOL5CE OR W\ND+1 & UND]TOOK1 SO F> AS DISPUTES ?AT MI<T >ISE 9 ! FUTURE1 NEV] AGA9 TO HAVE REC\RSE TO ANY JUDGE O!R ?AN ! SYNDICS :I* !Y !MSELVES W\LD NOM9ATE4 ,9 EV]Y GOOD-NEI<BORLY OR >T GUILD1 9 EV]Y SWORN BRO!RHOOD1 IT HAD BE5 NORMAL PRACTICE = A LONG TIME4 ,9 EV]Y VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 SU* AS HAD BE5 ! WAY ( LIFE 9 ! PA/1 BE=E ! BI%OP & ! PETTY K+ HAD MANAG$ TO 9TRODUCE1 & LAT] IMPOSE ON IT1 ITS JUDGE4 

,N[1 ! HAMLETS & P>I%ES :I* MADE UP ! BOR\<1 AS WELL AS ! GUILDS & BRO!RHOODS :I* DEVELOP$ )9 IT1 LOOK$ UPON !MSELVES AS A S+LE AMITAS1 NOM9AT$ !IR JUDGES & SWORE P]MAN5T UNION BETWE5 ALL ?OSE GR\PS4 

,A *>T] WAS SOON DRAWN UP & ACCEPT$4 ,IF NE$ BE1 SOMEONE W\LD BE S5T (F TO COPY ! *>T] ( SOME NEI<BOR+ SMALL COMMUNITY 7WE KN[ ( HUNDR$S ( SU* *>T]S7 & ! COMMUNITY WAS SET UP4 ,! BI%OP OR ! PR9CE1 :O HAD BE5 UNTIL !N ! JUDGE 9 ! COMMUNITY1 & (T5 MORE OR LESS ITS MA/]1 C\LD 9 ! CIRCUM/ANCES ONLY RECOGNIZE ! FAIT ACCOMPLI - OR OPPOSE ! NEW CONJURATION BY =CE ( >MS4 ,(T5 ! K+ - ?AT IS ! PR9CE :O S\<T TO BE A CUT ABOVE ! O!R PR9CES & :OSE C(F]S W]E ALWAYS EMPTY - W\LD 'GRANT' ! *>T] = READY CA%4 ,?US HE REFRA9$ FROM IMPOS+ HIS JUDGE ON ! COMMUNITY1 :ILE AT ! SAME TIME GA9+ PRE/IGE 9 ! EYES ( ! O!R FEUDAL LORDS4 ,BUT ?IS WAS BY NO MEANS ! RULE2 HUNDR$S ( COMMUNES REMA9$ ACTIVE ) NO O!R AU?ORITY ?AN !IR GOODWILL1 !IR RAMP>TS & !IR LANCES4 

,9 ! C\RSE ( A HUNDR$ YE>S1 ?IS MOVEM5T SPREAD 9 AN IMPRESSIVELY H>MONI\S WAY ?R\<\T ,EUROPE - BY IMITATION1 TO BE SURE - COV]+ ,SCOTL&1 ,FRANCE1 ! ,L[ ,C\NTRIES1 ,SC&9AVIA1 ,G]MANY1 ,ITALY1 ,POL& & ,RUSSIA4 ,& :5 WE N[ COMP>E ! ,*>T]S & ! 9T]NAL ORGANIZATION ( ALL !SE COMMUNITIES WE >E /RUCK BY ! VIRTUAL UNI=MITY ( !SE ,*>T]S & ! ORGANIZATION ?AT GREW 9 ! %AD[ ( !SE 'SOCIAL CONTRACTS'4 ,:AT A /RIK+ LESSON = ! ,ROMANI/S & ! ,HEGELIANS = :OM S]VITUDE BE=E ! LAW IS ! ONLY MEANS ( A*IEV+ CON=MITY 9 9/ITUTIONS6 

,FROM ! ,ATLANTIC TO ! MIDDLE C\RSE ( ! ,VOLGA1 & FROM ,NORWAY TO ,SICILY1 ,EUROPE WAS BE+ COV]$ ) SU* COMMUNITIES - SOME BECOM+ POPULAT$ CITIES SU* AS ,FLOR5CE1 ,V5ICE1 ,AMI5S1 ,NUREMB]G OR ,NOVGOROD1 O!RS REMA9+ /RUGGL+ VILLAGES ( A HUNDR$ OR AS FEW AS SOME TW5TY FAMILIES1 BUT NEV]!LESS TREAT$ AS EQUALS BY !IR MORE PROSP]\S SI/]S4 

,AS ORGANISMS BUBBL+ ) LIFE1 COMMUNITIES OBVI\SLY DEVELOP$ 9 DIFF]5T WAYS4 ,GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION1 ! NATURE ( EXT]NAL COMM]CE1 & RESI/ANCE FROM \TSIDE TO OV]COME ALL GAVE EA* COMMUNITY ITS [N HI/ORY4 ,BUT = ALL ( !M ! BASIC PR9CIPLE WAS ! SAME4 ,! SAME FRI5D%IP 7AMITAS7 ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES & ! GUILDS ASSOCIAT$ )9 ! PREC9CTS :E!R IT WAS ,PSKOV 9 ,RUSSIA & ,BRUGES 9 ,FL&]S1 A VILLAGE ( ?REE HUNDR$ 9HABITANTS 9 ,SCOTL& OR PROSP]\S ,V5ICE ) ITS ISL&S1 A VILLAGE 9 ! ,NOR? ( ,FRANCE OR ONE 9 ,POL&1 OR EV5 ,FLOR5CE LA ,BELLE4 ,!Y ALL REPRES5T ! SAME AMITAS2 ! SAME FRI5D%IP ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNES & GUILDS1 UNIT$ BEH9D ! WALL$ PREC9CTS4 ,!IR CON/ITUTION1 9 ITS G5]AL *>ACT]I/ICS1 IS ! SAME4 

,G5]ALLY ! WALLS ( ! T[N GREW LONG] & ?ICK] AS ! POPULATION GREW & W]E FLANK$ BY T[]S :I* GREW TALL] & TALL]1 & W]E EA* RAIS$ BY ?IS OR ?AT DI/RICT1 OR GUILD1 & CONSEQU5TLY DISPLAY$ 9DIVIDUAL *>ACT]I/ICS - ! T[N WAS DIVID$ 9TO F\R1 FIVE OR SIX SECTIONS OR SECTORS1 :I* RADIAT$ FROM ! CITADEL OR ! CA!DRAL T[>DS ! CITY RAMP>TS4 ,EA* ( !SE SECTORS WAS 9HABIT$ MA9LY BY AN '>T' OR TRADE :]EAS ! NEW TRADES - ! 'Y\NG >TS' - OCCUPI$ ! SUBURBS :I* 9 DUE C\RSE W]E 5CLOS$ BY A NEW =TIFI$ WALL4 

,! /REET1 OR ! P>I% REPRES5T$ ! T]RITORIAL UNIT1 CORRESPOND+ TO ! E>LI] VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 ,EA* /REET OR P>I% HAD ITS POPUL> ASSEMBLY1 ITS =UM1 ITS POPUL> TRIBUNAL1 ITS PRIE/1 ITS MILITIA1 ITS BANN] & (T5 ITS SEAL1 ! SYMBOL ( ITS SOV]EIGNTY4 ,?\< F$]AT$ ) O!R /REETS IT NEV]!LESS MA9TA9$ ITS 9DEP5D5CE4 

,! PR(ESSIONAL UNIT :I* (T5 WAS MORE OR LESS ID5TIFI$ ) ! DI/RICT OR ) ! SECTOR1 WAS ! GUILD - ! TRADE UNION4 ,! LATT] ALSO HAD ITS SA9TS1 ITS ASSEMBLY1 ITS =UM & ITS JUDGES4 ,IT HAD ITS FUNDS1 ITS L&$ PROP]TY1 ITS MILITIA & ITS BANN]4 ,IT ALSO HAD ITS SEAL1 SYMBOL ( ITS SOV]EIGNTY4 ,9 ! EV5T ( W>1 ITS MILITIA JO9$1 ASSUM+ IT WAS CONSID]$ EXP$I5T1 ) ! O!R GUILDS & PLANT$ ITS [N BANN] ALONGSIDE ! L>GE BANN] 7C>ROSSE7 ( ! CITY4 

,?US ! CITY WAS ! UNION ( ! DI/RICTS1 /REETS1 P>I%ES & GUILDS1 & HAD ITS PL5>Y ASSEMBLY 9 ! GR& =UM1 ITS L>GE BELFRY1 ITS ELECT$ JUDGES & ITS BANN] TO RALLY ! MILITIAS ( ! GUILDS & DI/RICTS4 ,IT DEALT ) O!R CITIES AS SOV]EIGN1 F$]AT$ ) :OMEV] IT WI%$1 CONCLUD$ ALLIANCES NATIONALLY OR EV5 \TSIDE ! NATIONAL T]RITORY4 ,?US ! ,C9QUE PORTS >\ND ,DOV] W]E F$]AT$ ) ,FR5* & ,DUT* PORTS ACROSS ! ,*ANNEL2 ! ,RUSSIAN ,NOVGOROD WAS ! ALLY ( ! ,G]MANO-,SC&9AVIAN ,HANSA1 & SO ON4 ,9 ITS EXT]NAL RELATIONS EA* CITY POSSESS$ ALL ! ATTRIBUTES ( ! MOD]N ,/ATE4 ,FROM ?AT P]IOD ONW>DS :AT CAME TO BE KN[N LAT] AS ,9T]NATIONAL ,LAW WAS =M$ BY FREE CONTRACTS & SUBJECT TO SANCTION BY PUBLIC OP9ION 9 ALL ! CITIES1 JU/ AS LAT] IT WAS TO BE MORE (T5 VIOLAT$ ?AN RESPECT$ BY ! ,/ATES4 

,ON H[ MANY OCCASIONS W\LD A P>TICUL> CITY1 UNABLE 'TO F9D ! S5T5CE' 9 A P>TICUL>LY COMPLICAT$ CASE1 S5D SOMEONE TO 'SEEK ! S5T5CE' 9 A NEI<BOR+ CITY6 ,H[ (T5 WAS ! PREVAIL+ SPIRIT ( ?AT P]IOD - >BITRATION1 RA!R ?AN ! JUDGE'S AU?ORITY - DEMON/RAT$ ) TWO COMMUNES TAK+ A ?IRD ONE AS >BITRATOR6 

,! TRADES ALSO ACT$ 9 ?IS WAY4 ,!IR COMM]CIAL & CRAFT RELATIONS EXT5D$ BEYOND ! CITY1 & !IR AGREEM5TS W]E MADE )\T TAK+ 9TO ACC\NT NATIONALITY4 ,& :5 9 \R IGNORANCE WE BOA/ ( \R 9T]NATIONAL WORK]S' CONGRESSES1 WE =GET ?AT BY ! FIFTE5? C5TURY 9T]NATIONAL CONGRESSES ( TRADES & EV5 APPR5TICES W]E ALREADY BE+ HELD4 

,LA/LY1 ! CITY EI!R DEF5D$ ITSELF AGA9/ AGGRESSORS & ITSELF WAG$ FI]CE W> AGA9/ ! FEUDAL LORDS 9 ! NEI<BORHOOD1 NAM+ EA* YE> ONE OR TWO MILIT>Y COMM&]S = ITS MILITIAS2 OR IT ACCEPT$ A 'MILIT>Y DEF5D]' - A PR9CE OR A DUKE :I* IT SELECT$ = ONE YE> & DISMISS$ AT WILL4 ,= ! MA9T5ANCE ( HIS SOLDI]S1 HE W\LD BE GIV5 ! RECEIPTS FROM JUDICIAL F9ES2 BUT HE WAS =BIDD5 TO 9T]F]E 9 ! AFFAIRS ( ! CITY4 

,OR IF ! CITY W]E TOO WEAK TO FREE ITSELF FROM ITS NEI<BORS ! FEUDAL VULTURES1 IT KEPT AS ITS MORE OR LESS P]MAN5T MILIT>Y DEF5D]1 ! BI%OP1 OR ! PR9CE ( A P>TICUL> FAMILY - ,GUELF OR ,<IBELL9E 9 ,ITALY1 ! ,RURIK FAMILY 9 ,RUSSIA1 OR ! ,OLG]DS 9 ,LI?UANIA - BUT WAS JEAL\SLY VIGILANT 9 PREV5T+ ! AU?ORITY ( ! BI%OP OR ! PR9CE EXT5D+ BEYOND ! M5 5CAMP$ 9 ! CA/LE4 ,!Y W]E EV5 =BIDD5 TO 5T] ! CITY )\T P]MISSION4 ,TO ?IS DAY ! ,K+ ( ,5GL& CANNOT 5T] ! ,CITY ( ,LONDON )\T ! P]MISSION ( ! ,LORD ,MAYOR4 

,! ECONOMIC LIFE ( ! CITIES 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES W\LD DES]VE TO BE REC\NT$ 9 DETAIL4 ,! 9T]E/$ READ] IS REF]R$ TO :AT ,I HAVE WRITT5 ON ! SUBJECT 9 ,MUTUAL ,AID 9 :I* ,I RELY ON A VA/ BODY ( UP-TO-DATE HI/ORIC RESE>* ON ! SUBJECT4 ,H]E IT MU/ SUFFICE SIMPLY TO NOTE ?AT 9T]NAL COMM]CE WAS DEALT ) 5TIRELY BY ! GUILDS - NOT BY 9DIVIDUAL >TISANS - PRICES BE+ E/ABLI%$ BY MUTUAL AGREEM5T4 ,FUR!RMORE1 AT ! BEG9N+ ( ?AT P]IOD EXT]NAL COMM]CE WAS DEALT ) EXCLUSIVELY BY ! CITY4 ,IT WAS ONLY LAT] ?AT IT BECAME ! MONOPOLY ( ! ,M]*ANTS' ,GUILD1 & LAT] /ILL ( 9DIVIDUAL M]*ANTS4 ,FUR!RMORE1 NOBODY WORK$ ON ,SUNDAYS1 NOR ON ,SATURDAY AFT]NOONS 7BA? DAY74 ,! PROVISION+ ( ! PR9CIPAL CONSUM] GOODS WAS ALWAYS H&L$ BY ! CITY1 & ?IS CU/OM WAS PRES]V$ = CORN 9 SOME ,SWISS T[NS UNTIL ! MIDDLE ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,9 %ORT !RE IS A MASSIVE & V>I$ DOCUM5TATION TO %[ ?AT MANK9D HAS NOT KN[N1 EI!R BE=E OR S9CE1 A P]IOD ( RELATIVE WELL-BE+ ASSUR$ TO EV]YBODY AS EXI/$ 9 ! CITIES ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,! PRES5T POV]TY1 9SECURITY1 & PHYSICAL EXPLOITATION ( LABOR W]E !N UNKN[N4 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #ahhf 3 ,SECTION #d -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #b#b1 #bag 3 ,SECTION #d -- ,ADD$4 

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