#a#h#d#h1 ! ,YE> ( ,REVOLUTIONS 

#aidh 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,GEORGE ,WOODCOCK 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,B5 ,SU!RL&1,C,C ,B,Y ,LIC5SE  
,ON ,JANU>Y #a#b?1 #a#h#d#h1 ! PEOPLE ( ,PAL]MO CAME \T 9TO ! /REETS 9 REBELLION AGA9/ ! DESPOTIC RULE ( ,F]D9& ( ,NAPLES1 LAT] TO BECOME NOTORI\S AS 0,K+ ,BOMBA0 = HIS BRUTAL BOMB>DM5T ( ! REBEL CITY ( ,MESS9A4 ,?IS RIS+ WAS ! PRELUDE TO A :OLE S]IES ( REVOLUTIONS1 9VOLV+ NOT M]ELY ,ITALY1 BUT ALSO ,FRANCE1 ,G]MANY1 ,AU/RIA1 ,HUNG>Y1 ,BOHEMIA1 ,TRANSYLVANIA1 & ALL ! SMALL ,SLAV PEOPLES :O W]E !N ! 09F]IOR0 RACES ( ! VA/ ,AU/RIAN ,EMPIRE4 ,EV5 9 ,5GL& & ,IREL&1 UND] ! /IMULUS ( CONT95TAL EXAMPLES1 !RE W]E EXT5SIVE RIOTS & ABORTIVE REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS4 

,! EV5TS ( #ahdh REPRES5T 9 REALITY AT LEA/ TWO DIFF]5T MOVEM5TS4 ,9 ,FRANCE1 EV] S9CE ! DEPOSITION ( ! LEGITIMATE ,B\RBON K+1 ,*>LES ,X1 9 #a#h#c1 ! BIG BUS9ESS M5 HAD RUL$ UND] ! PRET5SE ( A CON/ITUTIONAL GOV]NM5T BY ,L\IS ,PHILIPPE1 0! ,CITIZ5 ,K+04 ,! RIS+ 9 ,FRANCE REPRES5T$ AN ATTEMPT BY ! L[] MIDDLE CLASS1 SUPPORT$ BY ! WORK]S1 TO GA9 !IR %>E ( P[]1 &1 9 CONSEQU5CE1 IT HAD PROM95T SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y ELEM5TS4 

,! RIS+S 9 ! RE/ ( ,EUROPE1 ON ! O!R H&1 W]E DIRECT$ L>GELY AGA9/ ! P[] :I* WAS WIELD$ BY ! OLD CONS]VATIVE1 ,METT]NI*1 :O1 S9CE #a#h#a#e1 BY HIS DIRECT DOM9ATION OV] ! :OLE ( ,C5TRAL ,EUROPE & ,ITALY1 & HIS 9FLU5CE ON ! REMA9+ CONT95TAL RUL]S1 HAD CONTRIV$ TO MA9TA91 9 SPIRIT IF NOT 9 NAME1 ! ,HOLY ,ALLIANCE ( REACTION & OBSCURANTISM AS ! MA9 =CE 9 ,EUROPE4 ,ASSI/$ BY ! ,POPE1 ! PR9CEL+S ( ,G]MANY1 & ! RUL]S ( ?OSE P>TS ( ,ITALY :I*1 LIKE ,TUSCANY & ,NAPLES1 W]E NOM9ALLY 9DEP5D5T1 HE HAD MA9TA9$ AS F> AS POSSIBLE AN ALMO/ ABSOLUTE =M ( DYNA/IC GOV]NM5T1 BAS$ ON AN >I/OCRATIC SOCIETY4 ,AU/RIA1 FROM :I* HIS P[] /EMM$1 WAS GOV]N$ 9 ! MO/ DESPOTIC MANN]1 & WAS KN[N AS 0! ,*9A ( ,EUROPE01 S9CE IT WAS ISOLAT$ BY ! MO/ SEV]E ( C5SOR%IPS4 ,NO NEWSPAP]S C\LD BE PUBLI%$1 & BOOKS1 :E!R PR9T$ 9T]NALLY OR IMPORT$ FROM ABROAD1 W]E SUBJECT$ TO ! MO/ RIGOR\S EXAM9ATION BE=E ! CITIZ5S ( ! C\NTRY W]E ALL[$ TO READ !M4 ,EV5 ! MILDE/ RADICAL OR RE=MI/ PROPAG&A WAS =BIDD51 & AN EFFICI5T POLITICAL POLICE SY/EM ASSI/$ ! CONTROL ( ,METT]NI* & ! ,EMP]OR ,F]D9&4 

,! REMA9D] ( ,G]MANY WAS1 9 !ORY1 A F$]ATION ( L>GE & SMALL SOV]EIGN /ATES1 UND] ! SUZ]A9TY ( ! ,EMP]OR4 ,9 FACT1 !SE ,/ATES W]E COMPLETELY UND] ! REACTION>Y DOM9ATION ( ,METT]NI*1 :O QUICKLY CALL$ TO ORD] ANY PR9CE D>+ TO DEF] TO LIB]AL PRET5SIONS4 ,:]E A PR9CIPALITY1 LIKE ,BAD51 BEGAN TO %[ ! LEA/ SIGN ( YIELD+ TO PROGRESSIVE T5D5CIES1 ,METT]NI* WAS QUITE PREP>$ TO 9T]F]E DIRECTLY 9 ITS 9T]NAL AFFAIRS4 ,! ONLY ,/ATE 9 ! ,G]MAN F$]ATION ?AT REALLY *ALL5G$ ! P[] ( ,AU/RIA WAS ,PRUSSIA1 BUT ?IS WAS M]ELY A DYNA/IC /RUGGLE1 & ! ,HOH5ZOLL]NS W]E 9 COMPLETE AGREEM5T ) ,METT]NI* OV] HIS POLICY ( SUPPRESS+ ! DEMOCRATIC MOVEM5TS )9 ,G]MANY4 

,)9 ,AU/RIA W]E 9CLUD$1 NOT ONLY ! SMALL C\NTRY :I* N[ BE>S ?AT NAME1 BUT ALSO T]RITORIES ?AT TODAY =M P>TS ( ,CZE*OSLOVAKIA1 ,POL& & ,JUGOSLAVIA4 ,9 !SE >EAS ALL NATIONALI/ OR DEMOCRATIC MOVEM5TS W]E C>EFULLY SUPPRESS$1 ! NATIVE LANGUAGES W]E1 AS F> AS POSSIBLE1 =BIDD51 & ALL ! KEY PO/S & S]VICES 9 ! PUBLIC ADM9I/RATION W]E 9 ! H&S ( ,G]MANS FROM ,AU/RIA4 

,AMONG ! SUBJECT T]RITORIES WAS ALSO ! NOR!RN P>T ( ,ITALY1 :I*1 AFT] ! FIR/ FALL ( ,NAPOLEON 9 #a#h#a#d1 HAD BE5 OCCUPI$ BY ! ,AU/RIANS1 & RETA9$ AS AN ,AU/RIAN DOM9ION AT ! PEACE ( #a#h#a#e4 ,! POSSESSION ( ?IS >EA GAVE ! ,AU/RIAN GOV]NM5T /RATEGIC CONTROL ( ALL ,ITALY4 ,:ILE ! NATIVE PR9CES HAD RETURN$ TO !IR PROV9CES 9 #a#h#a#d1 & P]HAPS 5JOY$ MORE REAL SOV]EIGNTY ?AN ! ,G]MAN PR9CES1 ! ,IMP]IAL AU?ORITIES W]E C>EFUL TO ALL[ NO DEMOCRATIC EXCESSES EV5 9 P>TS ( ,ITALY \TSIDE !IR NOM9AL CONTROL1 & ! COMP>ATIVE LACK ( DIRECT 9T]F]5CE WAS DUE ONLY TO ! FACT ?AT MO/ ( ! ,ITALIAN PR9CES W]E !MSELVES TOO DESPOTIC TO DO ANY?+ ?AT MI<T DISPLEASE ,METT]NI*4 ,:51 9 #a#h#b#a1 ! PEOPLE ( ,NAPLES ROSE & =C$ A DEMOCRATIC CON/ITUTION ON !IR K+1 ! ,IMP]IAL AU?ORITIES DID NOT SCRUPLE TO VIOLATE ! SOV]EIGNTY ( ,NEAPOLITAN T]RITORY BY S5D+ AN >MY TO SUPPRESS ! LIB]AL MOVEM5T & REE/ABLI% ! OLD AUTOCRACY4 ,! ONLY /ATE 9 ,ITALY ?AT POSSESS$ ANY REAL 9DEP5D5CE & C\LD AF=D EV5 ! MILDE/ LEAN+ T[>DS LIB]ALISM WAS ! K+DOM ( ,PI$MONT1 :I* ALSO 9CLUD$ ,G5OA & ,S>D9IA4 ,?IS WAS DUE 9 P>T1 AT LEA/1 TO ! FACT ?AT ,PI$MONT 5JOY$ A C]TA9 VEIL$ SUPPORT FROM BO? ,FRANCE & ! ,SWISS CANTONS AS A C\NT]BALANCE TO ,AU/RIAN 9FLU5CE 9 ,ITALY4 

,! REMA9+ C\NTRY OV] :I* ! ,EMP]OR RUL$ WAS ,HUNG>Y4 ,?IS C\NTRY WAS NOT P>T ( ! ,EMPIRE1 & WAS NOM9ALLY 9DEP5D5T1 ! ,EMP]OR ( ,AU/RIA RUL+ IT AS K+4 ,BUT1 9 FACT1 S9CE ! DAYS ( ,M>IA ,!RESA1 IT HAD BECOME DOM9AT$ BY ! ,EMP]OR'S ,G]MAN BUREAUCRACY1 & CONT9UAL ATTEMPTS HAD BE5 MADE TO 9T]F]E ) ! RI<TS ( ! ,MAGY>S1 ! RUL+ PEOPLE ( ! C\NTRY4 ,BUT ! ,MAGY>S W]E ONLY ONE RACE 9 ?AT SPRAWL+ L&1 :I* 9CLUD$ ,TRANSYLVANIA1 9HABIT$ L>GELY BY ,ROMANIANS1 & ,CROATIA1 ) ITS ,SLAV POPULATION1 AS WELL AS P>T ( ,S]BIA4 ,! ,MAGY> >I/OCRACY1 :ILE CLAIM+ 9DEP5D5CE FROM ,AU/RIAN DOM9ATION & EQUALITY ) ,G]MANS )9 ! ,HABSBURG DOM9IONS1 !MSELVES REPUDIAT$ & TRI$ TO SUPPRESS ANY ATTEMPT BY EI!R ,ROMANIANS OR ,SLAVS TO CLAIM !IR AUTONOM\S RI<TS1 & ATTEMPT$ TO MA9TA9 !IR CONT9U$ SUPPRESSION UND] ,MAGY> 9/ITUTIONS4 

,FEUDALISM P]SI/$ ?R\<\T ,G]MANY & ! ,AU/RIAN SUBJECT T]RITORIES1 ) ! EXCEPTION ( NOR!RN ,ITALY1 :I* HAD BE5 FRE$ ( ?IS P>TICUL> 9/ITUTION BY ! ,NAPOLEONIC RULE1 & ! PEASANTS W]E SUBJECT$ TO ! TYRANNIES ( ! LOCAL L&[N]S AS WELL AS ?OSE ( ! C5TRALIZ$ BUREAUCRACY4 ,UNLIKE ,FRANCE & ,5GL&1 !SE C\NTRIES HAD AS YET NO L>GE CLASS ( 9DU/RIAL WORK]S1 & ! MIDDLE CLASS WAS ONLY JU/ EM]G+ 9TO A CONDITION ( POLITICAL CONSCI\SNESS1 MU* RET>D$1 9 ! SMALL /ATES AT LEA/1 BY ! G5]AL ECONOMIC DEP5D5CE ON PR9CELY & >I/OCRATIC PATRONAGE4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ! OP5+ ( COMMUNICATIONS & EXT5SION ( COMM]CE ) ! \TSIDE WORLD1 AS WELL AS ! EM]G5CE ( AN 9DU/RIAL REVOLUTION 9 P>TS ( ,G]MANY1 W]E WELD+ ! B\RGEOISIE 9TO A CONSCI\S CLASS1 ( :OM ! MORE PROSP]\S W]E FEEL+ ! MANIFOLD DISADVANTAGES ( ! DIVISION ( ,G]MANY 9TO ?IRTY PR9CIPALITIES1 ) AS MANY FRONTI]S1 CU/OMS B>RI]S & CODES ( LOCAL LAW1 & W]E BEG9N+ TO JO9 ! LIB]ALS 9 !IR DEM&S = A UNIT$ DEMOCRATIC ,G]MANY4 

,! FIR/1 & ALSO ! MO/ BITT]LY F\<T REVOLUTION ( #a#h#d#h1 WAS ?AT :I* BEGAN 9 ,ITALY 9 ,JANU>Y ( ?AT YE>4 ,! ,ITALIAN REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T WAS ESS5TIALLY & PR$OM9ANTLY NATIONALI/4 ,! MIDDLE CLASSES W]E OPPOS$ TO ! SEP>ATI/ IDEAS ( ! V>I\S PR9CES1 :O W]E CONC]N$ MO/LY ) !IR [N IMM$IATE LOCAL OR DYNA/IC 9T]E/S4 ,HAV+ 5JOY$ A TEMPOR>Y UNITY UND] ! ,NAPOLEONIC GOV]NM5T1 ! ,ITALIAN B\RGEOISIE W]E NOT SL[ TO SEE ?AT1 H[EV] IRKSOME ?AT DICTATOR%IP MAY HAVE BE51 IT GAVE !M MORE COMM]CIAL OPPORTUNITIES ?AN ! RETURN TO EI<TE5?-C5TURY CONDITIONS4 ,!Y LOOK$ TO ! UNITY ( ,ITALY 9 A B\RGEOIS DEMOCRACY4 ,SOME1 LIKE ,MAZZ9I & ,MAN91 WANT$ A REPUBLIC1 BUT ! MAJORITY ( ! ,ITALIAN LIB]ALS W\LD HAVE BE5 CONT5T ) A K+DOM1 & !Y LOOK$ T[>DS ,*>LES ,ALB]T ( ,SAVOY1 ! ,K+ ( ,PI$MONT1 AS ! POSSIBLE FUTURE K+ ( A UNIT$ ,ITALY4 ,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 9 ! E>LY P>T ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 !RE WAS A REM>KABLE UNITY AMONG ,ITALIANS ( ALL CLASSES 9 !IR DESIRE TO GET RID ( NATIVE RUL]S AS WELL AS =EIGN OPPRESSORS1 SO HEAVILY DID ! YOKE ( ,AU/RIAN POLICE TYRANNY1 ,PAPAL OBSCURANTISM & ! CRUELTY & CORRUPTION ( ! PETTY K+3 & PR9CES1 WEI< UPON BURGESS1 PEASANT & >TISAN ALIKE4 ,?US ! RIS+S ( T[NS & DI/RICTS (T5 %[$ AN AMAZ+ UNANIMITY1 >I/OCRATS1 TRADESM51 WORK]S1 F>M]S & EV5 PRIE/S & MONKS1 PLAY+ !IR P>T 9 ! MOVEM5T = A REVOLUTION ?AT W\LD FREE !M FROM ! 9TOL]ABLE OPPRESSION & CORRUPTION !Y HAD TO 5DURE4 

,! PRELUDE TO ! RIS+S ( #ahdh CAME :5 ,GREGORY1 ONE ( ! ILLIB]AL ,POPES1 DI$ &1 [+ TO ! DISS5SIONS )9 ! ,COLLEGE ( ,C>D9ALS1 ! TIMID ,PIUS ,I,X1 ,PIO ,NONO1 WAS ELECT$4 ,PIUS WAS NOT :OLLY HO/ILE TO ! LIB]AL CAUSE 9 ,ROME1 & ! MON? AFT] HIS ELECTION HE CONC$$ A P>TIAL POLITICAL AMNE/Y1 & GRANT$ P]MISSION TO =M A CIVIC GU>D 9 ! CITY ( ,ROME4 ,FROM ?AT TIME ONW>DS ,PIO ,NONO BECAME1 LIKE ,*>LES ,ALB]T1 AN UNWILL+ FIGUREHEAD ( ! ,ITALIAN REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T4 ,HE WAS REG>D$ AS A LIB]AL OPPON5T ( ! ,AU/RIANS1 :I* HE C]TA9LY WAS NOT1 & HIS M9OR CONCESSIONS GAVE A GREAT IMPETUS TO ! MOVEM5T = CON/ITUTIONAL GOV]NM5T & ,ITALIAN UNITY1 & HELP$ TO PREP>E ! WAY = ! RIS+S ( #a#h#d#h4 

,SIGNIFICANTLY1 ! FIR/ RIS+S TOOK PLACE 9 ,JANU>Y1 #a#h#d#h1 9 ,MILAN & ,PAL]MO1 ! =M] CITY 9 ! C5T] ( ! PROV9CES SUBJECT$ TO ! HAT$ ,AU/RIAN RULE1 ! LATT] 9 ! MO/ DISAFFECT$ P>T ( ! DOM9IONS ( ! ,K+ ( ,NAPLES4 

,NEI!R ( !SE RIS+S WAS IMM$IATELY SUCCESSFUL1 BUT !Y W]E FOLL[$ BY RIOTS 9 ALL ! PR9CIPAL CITIES1 & DUR+ ,FEBRU>Y ! LEAD+ SOV]EIGN PR9CES ( ,ITALY1 ! ,POPE1 ! ,K+ ( ,NAPLES & ! ,GR& ,DUKE ,( ,TUSCANY1 YIELD$ 9 T]ROR TO ! DEM&S ( !IR PEOPLES1 & PROMIS$ CON/ITUTIONS4 

,! REVOLUTION>Y 9ITIATIVE N[ PASS$ TO ,FRANCE4  ,! POLITICAL TRICK]Y & ATTEMPTS AT ABSOLUTE RULE ( ,L\IS ,PHILIPPE & HIS M9I/] ,GUIZOT1 ! ,FR5* ,METT]NI*1 ! CORRUPTION ?AT P]MEAT$ ! :OLE ADM9I/RATION & MORE OR LESS SOLD ,FRANCE TO ! BIG F9ANCI]S :O SUPPORT$ ! ,ORLEANI/ CAUSE1 ! RE/RICT$ SUFFRAGE :I* GAVE P>TICIPATION 9 ! ,GOV]NM5T TO A V]Y T9Y M9ORITY ( ! POPULATION1 ALL COMB9$1 BY ! 5D ( #a#h#d#g1 TO PRODUCE A WIDESPREAD MOVEM5T = CON/ITUTIONAL RE=M1 & ! OPPOSITION TO ! 9EPT RULE ( ,L\IS ,PHILIPPE SPREAD TO ALL CLASSES1 EV5 9CLUD+ ! BIG F9ANCI]S1 :O W]E BE+ HIT BY ! ECONOMIC CRISIS1 :I* DUR+ #ahdg & ! E>LY P>T ( #a#h#d#h1 CAUS$ V]Y WIDE DI/RESS1 P>TICUL>LY AMONG ! 9DU/RIAL WORK]S1 MANY ?\S&S ( :OM W]E UNEMPLOY$ 9 ALL ! L>GE T[NS4 

,GUIZOT & HIS FELL[ M9I/]S PROMIS$ RE=M & !N W5T BACK ON !IR WORD2 9 ! 5D ! DISGU/ ) !IR MANEUV]S WAS SO GREAT ?AT A G5]AL DEM& >OSE 9 ,P>IS = ! DISSOLUTION ( ! ,GOV]NM5T4 ,! M9I/]IAL MAJORITY 9 ! ,ASSEMBLY DW9DL$ UNTIL IT WAS ONLY PRES]V$ BY ! FACT ?AT MANY SEATS W]E HELD BY GOV]NM5T FUNCTION>IES4 

,! F9AL CLA% CAME OV] AN APP>5TLY M9OR ISSUE1 AS IS (T5 ! CASE 9 REVOLUTION>Y UPHEAVALS4 ,! ,LIB]ALS1 L$ BY ,ODILON ,B>ROT & ,?I]S1 HAD ADOPT$ AS A PROPAG&A DEVICE ! IDEA ( HOLD+ POLITICAL BANQUETS ?R\<\T ! C\NTRY1 AT :I* !Y HOP$1 BY ! NUMB]S ( !IR SUPPORT]S1 TO IMPRESS ! FEW ELECTORS 9TO RETURN+ A VOTE HO/ILE TO ! ,GOV]NM5T4 

,! 9CREAS+LY G5]AL DISCONT5T1 & ! APP>5T SUCCESS ( ! ,LIB]AL CAMPAIGN1 L$ ! ,K+ & HIS ADVIS]S 9TO AN ACT ( PANIC :I* PROVOK$ A :OLLY UNEXPECT$ RESI/ANCE4 ,A GREAT BANQUET 9 ,P>IS WAS ANN\NC$ = ,FEBRU>Y #b#bND1 & ! ,GOV]NM5T DECID$ TO =BID IT4 ,MU* FEEL+ WAS >\S$ OV] ?IS QUE/ION1 & ON ! APPO9T$ DAY ! PEOPLE ( ,P>IS CAME \T 9TO ! /REETS TO DISPLAY !IR SOLID>ITY ) ! CAUSE ( RE=M4 ,! ,LIB]AL LEAD]S DID NOT HOLD !IR BANQUET1 BUT ! B>RICADES BEGAN TO RISE 9 ! WORK+-CLASS /REETS4 ,BE=E ?IS POPUL> 9DIGNATION ! ,K+ AGRE$ TO DISMISS HIS M9I/RY1 & IT IS POSSIBLE ?AT ! :OLE AFFAIR MI<T HAVE 5D$ 9 A *ANGE ( GOV]NM5T & SOME MILD ELECTORAL RE=MS1 IF A P>TY ( REGUL> SOLDI]S HAD NOT FIR$ ON A CR[D ( DEMON/RATORS & KILL$ A NUMB] ( !M4 ,ALL ,P>IS ROSE 9 PROTE/2 B>RICADES W]E ]ECT$ 9 EV]Y QU>T]1 & ! WORK]S1 L$ BY ! MOD]ATE SOCIALI/S LIKE ,L$RU-,ROLL9 & ,L\IS ,BLANC1 AS WELL AS BY SU* EXTREMI/S AS ,BLANQUI & ,B>BES1 JO9$ ! B\RGEOIS ,NATIONAL ,GU>D 9 A G5]AL UPRIS+4 ,! REGUL> SOLDI]S W]E MO/LY SYMPA!TIC T[>DS ! 9SURRECTION1 & MADE NO IMPORTANT RESI/ANCE4 ,)9 TWO DAYS ! ,K+ ABDICAT$ & ! REVOLUTION>IES 9VAD$ ! ,*AMB] ( ,DEPUTIES TO DEM& A ,REPUBLICAN ,PROVISIONAL ,GOV]NM5T4 ,9 ! ,*AMB] ,LAM>T9E1 ONE ( ! ,REPUBLICANS' ANN\NC$ A LI/ ( ,LIB]AL MEMB]S TO =M ! NEW ,ADM9I/RATION1 :ILE AT ! (FICES ( ! REVOLUTION>Y PAP]1 ,LA ,RE=ME1 ANO!R LI/ WAS DRAWN UP1 CONSI/+ ( ,SOCIALI/ POLITICIANS1 & EV5 ONE WORK]1 ,ALB]T1 :ILE ! ,SOCIALI/S SEIZ$ ! ,PREFECTURE ( ,POLICE & ! ,PO/ ,(FICE4 ,EV5TUALLY A COMPROMISE WAS REA*$ BY ! COMB9ATION ( ! TWO LI/S4 ,BUT ! F9AL RESULT WAS A GOV]NM5T ) A RI<T-W+ ,REPUBLICAN MAJORITY1 & ?IS FACT WAS 9 DUE C\RSE TO AFFECT PR(\NDLY ! C\RSE ( EV5TS 9 ! #ahdh REVOLUTION 9 ,FRANCE4 

,AT FIR/ !RE WAS ALMO/ COMPLETE UNITY AMONG ! REVOLUTION>IES1 & 9 ! E>LY DAYS ! WORK]S EX]CIS$ A QUITE CONSID]ABLE 9FLU5CE1 P>TLY ?R\< ! ,SOCIALI/ REPRES5TATIVES 9 ! ,GOV]NM5T1 BUT MORE SIGNIFICANTLY ?R\< ! 9NUM]ABLE REVOLUTION>Y CLUBS :I*1 UND] ! LEAD]%IP ( M5 LIKE ,BLANQUI1 ,B>BES1 ,CABET & ,RASPAIL1 C>RI$ ON ! V>I\S ,SOCIALI/ IDEALS ( ,BABOEUF1 ,SA9T-,SIMON1 ,F\RI] & ,L\IS ,BLANC1 & GAVE FOCUS TO ! REVOLUTION>Y ASPIRATIONS ( ! PEOPLE4 ,MO/ ( ! WORK+-CLASS DEMON/RATIONS DUR+ #ahdh 9 ,P>IS SPRANG AT LEA/ P>TLY FROM ! DISCUSSIONS ( ! CLUBS1 YET IT IS SIGNIFICANT ?AT1 ) ! EXCEPTION ( ,BLANQUI1 MO/ ( ! CLUB LEAD]S LO/ !IR 9FLU5CE 9 ! YE>S FOLL[+ ! FAILURES ( #a#h#d#h1 & MORE 9FLU5CE WAS EV5TUALLY WIELD$ BY A MAN :O HAD NEV] S\<T TO SET HIMSELF UP AS A GR\P LEAD]1 ,P4-,J4 ,PR\DHON1 ! MO/ 5]GETIC & 9DEP5D5T POLITICAL J\RNALI/ ( #a#h#d#h4 

,! ,PROVISIONAL ,GOV]NM5T IMM$IATELY SET \T TO CONCILIATE ! WORK]S BY A NUMB] ( RE=MS4 ,A T5-H\R WORK+ DAY WAS DECRE$1 & A SOME:AT VAGUE 0RECOGNITION ( ! ,RI<T TO ,WORK0 WAS PROP\ND$4 ,UND]CUTT+ ( WAGES RATES BY PRISONS1 CONV5TS & O!R 9/ITUTIONS WAS =BIDD51 & ! COMMUNITY ACCEPT$ RESPONSIBILITY = 9DU/RIAL ACCID5TS1 ! ,TUIL]IES BE+ SET ASIDE AS A HOSPITAL = ?IS PURPOSE4 ,SUB-CONTRACT+ WAS ABOLI%$1 & ! OLD TRADE GUILDS W]E REPLAC$ BY ORGANIZATIONS ( WORK]S & EMPLOY]S = CONCILIATION PURPOSES4 

,BUT !SE MILD RE=MS W]E OV]%AD[$ BY ! 9ITIATIVES ( ! WORK]S !MSELVES4 ,!Y HAD AT FIR/ DEM&$ A ,M9I/RY ( ,LABOR2 ?IS WAS REFUS$ BY ,LAM>T9E & ! O!R ,REPUBLICANS 9 ! ,GOV]NM5T1 BUT1 ?R\< ! 9T]V5TION ( ,BLANC & ,ALB]T1 A 0,COMMISSION = ! ,WORK]S0 WAS SET UP AT ! ,LUXEMB\RG4 ,DELEGATES W]E ELECT$ BY EA* TRADE1 & A K9D ( ,SOVIET ( ?REE OR F\R HUNDR$ MEMB]S ASSEMBL$1 PROVID+1 = A TIME AT LEA/1 A C5T] = WORK+-CLASS 9DU/RIAL ACTIVITY ( A RADICAL NATURE1 AS OPPOS$ TO ! PURELY POLITICAL AIMS & ME?ODS ( MO/ ( ! CLUBS1 ) !IR DOCTR9AIRE LEAD]S & ORATORS4 ,BY 9T]V5+ TO SUPPORT /RIK]S1 ! ,LUXEMB\RG ,COMMISSION MANAG$ TO OBTA9 M9IMUM-WAGE RATES 9 A NUMB] ( 9DU/RIES4 ,IT 5C\RAG$ ! =MATION ( TRADE UNIONS AMONG ! WORK]S1 & ALSO ! V]Y WIDE MOVEM5T ( VOLUNT>Y COOP]ATIVES ( PRODUC]S1 :I* SPRANG UP 9 MANY ,P>IS TRADES4 ,F9ALLY1 IT ISSU$ PROGRAMS CALL+ SOME:AT VAGUELY = ! REPLACEM5T ( CAPITALI/ CONTROL ( 9DU/RY BY A K9D ( MUTUALI/ ,SOCIALISM1 & 5C\RAG$ WORK]S TO (F] !MSELVES AS C&IDATES 9 ! ELECTIONS = ! ,ASSEMBLY4 

,UND\BT$LY ! VIGOR & P[] ( ?IS ORGANIZATION >\S$ MU* DISQUIET & JEAL\SY AMONG ! B\RGEOIS MEMB]S ( ! ,GOV]NM5T4 ,! REACTION>IES BEGAN TO GA!R 9 ORD] TO COMBAT :AT !Y JU/LY REG>D$ AS ?IS NEW ?REAT TO !IR 9T]E/S1 :ILE E>LY 9 ,M>* ! RI<T-W+ MEMB]S ( ! ,GOV]NM5T SET UP A S*EME TO C\NT] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,LUXEMB\RG ,COMMISSION BY REGIM5T+ ! UNEMPLOY$ 9TO ,NATIONAL ,WORK%OPS1 :]E !Y W]E DRILL$ 9TO A =CE :I* ! ,GOV]NM5T HOP$ MI<T BE US$ AGA9/ ! 9DEP5D5T & MORE MILITANT WORK]S GR\P$ >\ND ! ,LUXEMB\RG ,COMMISSION4 ,ONCE1 9DE$1 ! WORK]S ( ! ,ATELI]S ,NATIONAUX HELP$ TO BREAK UP A POPUL> DEMON/RATION ORGANIZ$ BY ! WORK]S ( ! ,LUXEMB\RG1 BUT LAT]1 9 ! ,JUNE DAYS1 !Y W]E TO JO9 V]Y ACTIVELY 9 ! RIS+ AGA9/ ! ,GOV]NM5T4 

,AS AN ADDITIONAL MEANS ( C\NT]+ ! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION>IES1 ,LAM>T9E =M$1 FROM ! Y\?S :O HAD TAK5 A SOME:AT HOOLIGAN P>T 9 ! ,FEBRU>Y ,REVOLUTION1 A K9D ( ,JANISS>Y CORPS1 ! ,G>DE ,MOBILE1 :O W]E PAID1 DRILL$ & DISCIPL9$ TO C\NT] POPUL> DEMON/RATIONS OR RIS+S ( ! TYPE BY :I* HE HIMSELF HAD COME TO P[]4 ,?IS CORPS WAS TO HAVE A SOME:AT S9I/] PLACE 9 ,FR5* SOCIAL HI/ORY1 & EV5 TODAY REMA9S ! MO/ UNPOPUL> BODY 9 A C\NTRY :]E NOBODY LIKES ! POLICE4 ,?US ALREADY1 AFT] ! FIR/ FEW DAYS ( 5?USIA/IC BRO!RHOOD 9 ! ,FEBRU>Y REVOLUTION1 ?AT CLA% ( =CES :I* LAT] BR\<T A SORRY 5D TO ! REVOLUTION WAS ALREADY BECOM+ EVID5T4 

"4"4"4 

,MEAN:ILE1 H[EV]1 ! NEWS ( ! ,P>IS REVOLUTION HAD AN ELECTRIC EFFECT ON ! RADICAL MOVEM5TS 9 ! RE/ ( ,EUROPE4 ,! ,FR5* REVOLUTION>IES MA9TA9$ AN 9T]NATIONALISM1 M]ELY !ORETICAL 9 ! CASE ( ! MIDDLE-CLASS LIB]ALS1 BUT PRACTICAL 9 ! CASE ( ! MORE EXTREME ,JACOB9S & ,SOCIALI/S4 ,LAM>T9E1 AS ,M9I/] ( ,=EIGN ,AFFAIRS1 ISSU$ A MANIFE/O TO ! O!R C\NTRIES ( ,EUROPE1 :I* WAS GU>D$LY 9T]NATIONALI/1 :ILE AT ! SAME TIME %[+ A NATIONALI/ TR5D BY D5\NC+ ! CLAUSES ( ! #ahae TREATY4 ,BUT 9 PRACTICE ! ,PROVISIONAL ,GOV]NM5T TOOK A V]Y CAUTI\S ATTITUDE1 & ,LAM>T9E GAVE NO?+ MORE ?AN FRAT]NAL PHRASES TO ! MANY DEPUTATIONS ( ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTION>IES :O CAME TO PETITION HIM4 ,P>IS WAS FULL ( =EIGN POLITICAL REFUGEES1 & ! REVOLUTION BR\<T O!RS FL[+ 9TO ?IS LEFT-W+ ,MECCA4 ,BUT1 AL?\< SMALL EXP$ITIONS ( REFUGEES W]E ORGANIZ$ 9 ,FRANCE & CROSS$ ! FRONTI]S 9TO ,ITALY1 ,G]MANY & ,BELGIUM1 !Y W]E NOT ASSI/$ 9 ANY MAT]IAL WAY BY ! ,PROVISIONAL ,GOV]NM5T1 & !IR [N PLANS W]E EV5 FRU/RAT$ BY ITS ACTS4 ,ONLY 9 ! CASE ( OCCASIONAL 9DIVIDUAL AGITATORS1 LIKE ,BAKUN91 WAS ANY ASSI/ANCE GIV51 & ?AT WAS USUALLY DONE SECRETLY & 9 ORD] TO GET RID ( AN EMB>RASS+LY SUBV]SIVE P]SON4 

,H[EV]1 AL?\< ! ,FR5* ,REPUBLIC NEV] GAVE ANY MAT]IAL 5C\RAGEM5T TO 9SURRECTIONS ABROAD1 ! EXAMPLE ( ! ,FEBRU>Y RIS+ HAD A REALLY /IMULAT+ EFFECT ?R\<\T ,EUROPE BETWE5 ! ,PYR5EES & ! FRONTI]S ( ,RUSSIA4 ,9 ,G]MANY ! DISCONT5T ( ! MIDDLE CLASS BEGAN TO MANIFE/ ITSELF 9 ACTION4 ,9 ,ITALY ! EXI/+ REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS W]E IMPELL$ TO REALLY DESP]ATE ACTIVITY4 

,! PREVI\S YE> HAD ALREADY SE5 A /IRR+ ( ORGANIZ$ OPPOSITION TO ! V>I\S ,G]MAN GOV]NM5TS4 ,9 ! ,RH9EL& !RE W]E SMALL GR\PS ( ,SOCIALI/S & ,COMMUNI/S1 AMONG :OM ,M>X WAS ALREADY PROM95T AS ! $ITOR ( ! ,NEUE ,RHE9IS*E ,ZEITUNG4 ,BUT ,M>X & HIS ASSOCIATES PLAY$ A V]Y M9OR P>T 9 ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS ( #a#h#d#h1 :I* W]E ESS5TIALLY LIB]AL & ,PAN-,G]MAN 9 *>ACT]4 ,! ,G]MAN REVOLUTION>IES W]E DIVID$ 9TO ,MOD]ATE & ,REPUBLICAN CAMPS4 ,! ,MOD]ATES1 L$ BY VON ,GAG]N & ,MA?Y1 AIM$ M]ELY AT A F$]ATION ( ! ,G]MAN ,/ATES :I* W\LD NOT 9T]F]E ) ! SOV]EIGNTY ( ! EXI/+ DYNA/IES1 & SOME K9D ( DEMOCRATIZATION ( !IR 9DIVIDUAL GOV]NM5TS4 ,! ,REPUBLICANS1 L$ BY ,HECK] & ,/RUVE1 :O HAD HELD A CONF]5CE AT ,(F5BURG 9 ,NOVEMB]1 #a#h#d#g1 PUT =W>D A MORE RADICAL BUT ESS5TIALLY SIMIL> PROGRAM4 ,!Y ASK$ = A ,G]MAN P>LIAM5T ELECT$ BY UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 = FRE$OM ( ,PRESS & CONSCI5CE1 = TRIAL BY JURY & A GRADUAT$ 9COME TAX1 = ! RESPONSIBILITY ( M9I/]S & ! ABOLITION ( ,PRIVILEGES4 ,TO !SE DEM&S !Y ADD$ A NUMB] ( ASPIRATIONS SO IMPRECISE AS TO BE VIRTUALLY MEAN+LESS1 SU* AS 0,COM=T1 $UCATION & 9/RUCTION = ALL01 0,PROTECTION ( LABOR & ! RI<T TO WORK01 & 0,ADJU/M5T ( ! RELATIONS BETWE5 CAPITAL & LABOR04 ,!IR *IEF *>ACT]I/IC WAS A C]TA9 SWA%BUCKL+ WORD9ESS1 BUT = ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES !IR PROGRAM WAS ESS5TIALLY A LIB]AL ONE ( ! MO/ CAUTI\S K9D4 

,!SE GR\PS HAD SUCCE$$ 9 ORGANIZ+ V]Y LITTLE REALLY EFFECTIVE RESI/ANCE1 & IT MAY BE D\BT$ :E!R1 )\T ! IMPETUS ( ! ,P>IS REBELLION1 !Y W\LD HAVE GONE F> BEYOND VAGUE DISCUSSION & FRUITLESS RESOLUTIONS4 

,BUT ! NEWS FROM ,P>IS /IRR$ !M 9TO ACTION4 ,ON ,FEBRU>Y #b#g?1 VON ,GAG]N1 LEAD] ( ! ,MOD]ATES1 BR\<T =W>D A RESOLUTION 9 ! ,D>M/ADT ,*AMB] = A ,G]MAN ,NATIONAL ,P>LIAM5T4 ,MA?Y P]SUAD$ ! ,GR& ,DUKE ( ,BAD5 TO GRANT A DEMOCRATIC CON/ITUTION1 & ! RE/ ( ! SMALL] PR9CES FOLL[$ SUIT4 ,! MOOD ( ! ,G]MAN PEOPLE WAS /ILL SO CAUTI\S ?AT !SE MOVES EFFECTIVELY =E/ALL$ ! ,REPUBLICANS4 

,BUT ! REALLY GREAT EV5TS 9 ! ,G]MAN REVOLUTION W]E TO COME LAT] 9 ! MON?4 ,ON ,M>* #a#c? 9 ,VI5NA1 ! V]Y /RON<OLD ( ! ,EMPIRE1 ! PEOPLE--BURGESSES1 /UD5TS & WORK]S TOGE!R--ROSE & OV]TURN$ ! SEEM+LY UNDEFEATABLE REGIME ( ,METT]NI*4 ,?AT /ATESMAN W5T 9TO EXILE = EV]1 REM>K+ TO HIS WIFE1 0,YES1 MY DE>1 WE >E DEAD40 ,! ,EMP]OR CONC$$ ! PEOPLE'S DEM&S = CON/ITUTIONAL GOV]NM5T4 ,A ,NATIONAL ,GU>D WAS =M$1 & ON ! DAY AFT] ! REVOLUTION ! GREAT C5SOR%IP MA*9E ( ! ,EMPIRE WAS DE/ROY$1 :ILE ! ,DIET WAS SUMMON$ TO MEET %ORTLY4 

,FROM ,VI5NA ! REVOLT SPREAD TO ! O!R GREAT /RON<OLD ( ,G]MAN REACTION1 & ON ,M>* #a#h? ! B>RICADES W5T UP 9 ,B]L91 ! TROOPS RETIR$ FROM ! CITY1 & ! ,K+ MADE HA/E TO SUBMIT TO ! DEM&S ( ! REVOLUTION>IES4 ,! ,PR9CE ( ,PRUSSIA1 :O WAS REG>D$ ) HATR$ BY ! POPULATION1 FL$ TO JO9 ,L\IS ,PHILIPPE & ,METT]NI* 9 COMP>ATIVELY UNTR\BL$ ,5GL&1 & ! ,K+ GRANT$ ! USUAL CON/ITUTIONAL DEM&S & A POLITICAL AMNE/Y1 :ILE A ,LIB]AL M9I/RY WAS 9/ALL$ UND] ,CAMPHAUS54 ,ON ,M>* #b? ! ,K+ ( ,BAV>IA ABDICAT$ & ,LOLA ,MONTEZ FL$ FROM ,G]MANY2 ! FIR/ /AGE ( ! ,G]MAN REVOLUTION1 SO F> AS IT W5T1 WAS COMPLETE4 ,! CU/OM>Y DEMOCRATIC FRE$OMS & SAFEGU>DS HAD BE5 GRANT$1 ! BURD5 ( FEUDALISM WAS REMOV$ FROM ! PEASANTS1 & ,G]MAN UNITY SEEM$ TO BE C>RI$ A /EP NE>] BY ! MEET+ ON ,M>* #c#a/ ( ! ,VORP>LAM5T FROM ! ,E/ATES ( ! V>I\S PR9CIPALITIES4 ,?IS BODY DECID$ TO CONVOKE A ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY1 BAS$ ON UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 :I* IT WAS EXPECT$ W\LD BECOME ! F$]AL ORGAN ( ! ,G]MAN NATION1 ) ! P[] TO OV]-RIDE ! WILL ( PR9CES1 :E!R L>GE OR SMALL4 

,9 ,ITALY ! ,P>IS REVOLUTION GAVE ! IMPETUS TO A NEW WAVE ( RESI/ANCE4 ,ON ,M>* #a?1 AFT] WILD DEMON/RATIONS 9 ! /REETS ( ,ROME1 ! ,POPE GRANT$ A CON/ITUTION & CALL$ 9 A GOV]NM5T :]E *UR*M5 W]E NO LONG] PREPOND]ANT4 ,A FEW DAYS LAT]1 :5 ! NEWS ( ! ,VI5NA REVOLUTION REA*$ ,ITALY1 ! PEOPLE ( ,MILAN ROSE 9 >MS1 &1 AFT] FIVE DAYS ( V]Y BITT] FI<T+1 DROVE ! ,AU/RIANS BACK TO ,V]ONA4 ,V5ICE ROSE ON ,M>* #b#cRD1 DECL>+ A REPUBLIC & TAK+ POSSESSION ( ! ,AU/RIAN >S5AL & NAVY 9 !IR CITY4 ,WILL+ TO GA9 :AT HE C\LD FROM A UNIFICATION ( ,ITALY1 FE>FUL ( 9SURRECTION AMONG HIS [N SUBJECTS1 & ANXI\S TO AVOID TR\BLE ) ! NEI<BOR+ REVOLUTION>IES 9 ,FRANCE1 ,*>LES ,ALB]T ( ,PI$MONT DECL>$ W> ON ,AU/RIA & S5T HIS >MY 9TO ,LOMB>DY4 ,=C$ ON BY ! DEM&S ( !IR SUBJECTS1 EV5 ! ,POPE & ! ,K+ ( ,NAPLES S5T EXP$ITIONS TO HELP ! ,PI$MONTESE1 ?\< BO? ( !M LAT] W5T BACK ON !IR WORD1 AS SOON AS IT SEEM$ CONV5I5T TO ACCEPT ,AU/RIAN 9FLU5CE 9 PREF]5CE TO ! REVOLUTION>Y T5D5CIES AMONG !IR [N PEOPLE4 

,MEAN:ILE1 EV5 ,5GL& HAD ITS REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T1 ?\< IT ASSUM$ A SOME:AT F>CICAL *>ACT]4 ,*>TISM HAD BE5 MORIBUND = SIX YE>S1 S9CE ! FAILURE ( ! ,PETITION ( #a#h#d#b1 BUT ! NEWS ( ! RIS+ 9 ,P>IS /IRR$ UP ! REMA9+ ,*>TI/S TO NEW ACTIVITY1 & ! EXI/5CE ( A C]TA9 AM\NT ( ECONOMIC DI/RESS L$ ! PEOPLE 9 MANY P>TS ( ! C\NTRY TO EXPRESS !IR DISCONT5T 9 RIOTS & DEMON/RATIONS1 :I* REA*$ V]Y =MIDABLE PROPORTIONS 9 ,GLASG[ & ,$9BUR<4 ,A NEW ,CONV5TION WAS CALL$1 9 ORD] TO PRES5T A FUR!R PETITION1 & ! CREATION ( A REVOLUTION>Y ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY WAS EV5 PROPOS$4 ,BUT POPUL> SUPPORT = ! ,*>TI/S HAD %RUNK MORE ?AN EI!R !IR LEAD]S OR ! ,GOV]NM5T IMAG9$4 

,A GREAT DEMON/RATION TO PRES5T ! PETITION WAS PLANN$ = ,APRIL #a?1 & ! AU?ORITIES1 ) !IR M9DS FULL ( ! EXAMPLES ( ,P>IS1 ,VI5NA1 ,B]L9 & ,ROME1 MADE ELABORATE & FRI<T5$ PRECAUTIONS1 CALL+ MANY TROOPS 9TO ,LONDON & RECRUIT+ FROM AMONG ! WEAL?I] CLASSES A GREAT MASS ( SPECIAL CON/ABLES = DUTY ON ! DAY ( ! DEMON/RATION1 AMONG :OM WAS ,PR9CE ,L\IS ,NAPOLEON1 V]Y SOON TO BECOME ! F9AL DE/ROY] ( ! A*IEVEM5TS ( #ahdh 9 ,FRANCE4 

,! DEMON/RATION1 H[EV]1 PROV$ A COMPLETE FIASCO4 ,A SMALL CR[D GA!R$ TO HE> ! SPEE*ES1 & ! PROCESSION ALL[$ ITSELF TO BE HALT$ BY ! CORDONS ( POLICE & TROOPS AT ! ,?AMES BRIDGES4 ,! DAY REA*$ A SILLY CONCLUSION1 :5 ! PETITION WAS DELIV]$ TO ! ,H\SES ( ,P>LIAM5T 9 ?REE HANSOM CABS & WAS F\ND ON EXAM9ATION TO CONTA9 LESS ?AN TWO MILLION NAMES 9/EAD ( ! FIVE OR SIX MILLIONS BOA/$ BY ! ,*>TI/ LEAD]S4 ,MOREOV]1 MANY ( ! SIGNATURES W]E CLE>LY BOGUS1 S9CE1 IT APPE>$1 ,QUE5 ,VICTORIA & ! ,DUKE ( ,WELL+TON W]E BO? SIGNATORIES1 ! LATT] NO LESS ?AN SEV5TE5 TIMES6 

,?US ! ,5GLI% REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T 5D$ 9 AN IGNOM9I\S ATMOSPH]E ( BA?OS & HOAX1 & ! ,GOV]NM5T HAD NO DIFFICULTY AT ALL 9 SUPPRESS+ ! FEW PHYSICAL-=CE ,*>TI/S :O /ILL TRI$ TO >M & DRILL !MSELVES = AN 9SURRECTION4 

,SIMIL>LY1 ! ,Y\NG ,IREL& MOVEM5T RECEIV$ AN ILLUSORY IMPETUS FROM ! ,FEBRU>Y RIS+1 ) ALMO/ AS POOR A CONCLUSION AS ?AT ( ! ,*>TI/ MOVEM5T4 ,!RE WAS A GREAT DEAL ( REVOLUTION>Y TALK1 & ! V>I\S ,NATIONALI/ NEWSPAP]S PUBLI%$ 9FLAMMATORY >TICLES CALL+ = >M$ REBELLION AGA9/ ! ALI5 MA/]S1 & GIV+ DETAIL$ 9/RUCTIONS 9 ! TE*NIQUE ( 9SURRECTION & ! MANUFACTURE ( WEAPONS & EXPLOSIVES4 ,BUT ! ,IRI% POPULATION WAS AS YET UNPREP>$ TO GIVE ADEQUATE SUPPORT TO A REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T4 ,9 ,JUNE ! MO/ ACTIVE ( ! REVOLUTION>Y LEAD]S1 ,MIT*EL1 WAS >RE/$1 & ! MOVEM5T SOON COLLAPS$1 ! REMA9+ REBELS ( ANY IMPORTANCE BE+ PICK$ (F BY ! AU?ORITIES & TRANSPORT$4 ,A FEW ISOLAT$ RIOTS & >M$ CLA%ES TOOK PLACE1 BUT !SE W]E COMPLETELY FRU/RAT$ BY ! WEAKNESS ( ! LEAD]S1 :O PREA*$ FI]Y REVOLUTION BUT W]E1 9 G5]AL1 TOO SC>$ TO C>RY IT \T OR 5C\RAGE IT 9 O!RS4 

"4"4"4 

,! REVOLUTION>Y IMPETUS 9 ,EUROPE WAS ( NO LONG DURATION1 & )9 TWO MON?S IT BECAME EVID5T ?AT ! UPP] MIDDLE CLASS1 HAV+ 9/ALL$ !MSELVES 9 P[]1 W]E UNWILL+ ?AT ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS %\LD GO ANY FUR!R1 & W]E NOT AV]SE1 9 ORD] TO GA9 ?IS 5D1 FROM ALLY+ !MSELVES ) ?OSE REMA9+ REACTION>IES :O W]E NOT YET COMPLETELY DISCR$IT$4 

,ALREADY1 9 ,FRANCE1 A DEMON/RATION ( ! LEFT1 L$ BY ,BLANQUI & O!R CLUB ORATORS1 WAS DISP]S$ BECAUSE ,L\IS ,BLANC1 ! VET]AN ,SOCIALI/1 9T]V5$ ON ! SIDE ( 0ORD]0 & P]SUAD$ ! MAJORITY ( ! DEMON/RATORS TO GO HOME 9 PEACE4 ,BLANC'S RI<T-W+ ASSOCIATES REG>D$ ?IS AS A TRIUMPH = !IR 5DS1 & A =TNI<T LAT] !Y ISSU$ A DOCUM5T1 ! ,PIECE ,TAS*]AU1 :I* PURPORT$ TO %[ ?AT ,BLANQUI HAD GIV5 9=MATION ON SUBV]SIVE MOVEM5TS TO ! ,ORLEANI/ POLICE4 ,IF ONE CONSID]S ,BLANQUI'S 9FLEXIBLE *>ACT]1 AS DEMON/RAT$ 9 HIS S+LE-M9D$ & ALMO/ RELIGI\SLY FANATICAL C>E] ( CONSPIRACY & REPEAT$ IMPRISONM5TS1 IT IS DIFFICULT TO BELIEVE ?AT ?IS PAP] WAS ANY?+ O!R- ?AN A =G]Y1 P>TICUL>LY AS NO EVID5CE HAS BE5 PRODUC$ 9 CORROBORATION4 ,BUT IT HAD ! DESIR$ EFFECT ( ALI5AT+ MANY REVOLUTION>IES FROM ! 9DIVIDUAL :OM ! ,LIB]ALS FE>$ MO/1 & ?IS EFFECT WAS ASSI/$ BY ! P]SONAL ANIMOSITY :I* EXI/$ )9 ! REVOLUTION>Y RANKS BETWE5 ,BLANQUI & ! EQUALLY 9FLU5TIAL ,B>BES1 HIS =M] FRI5D4 

,! E>LY P>T ( ,APRIL WAS DEVOT$ TO A SY/EMATIC PROPAG&A AGA9/ ! REVOLUTION>Y ,LEFT4 ,! MIDDLE-CLASS ELEM5TS W]E CONSOLIDAT$1 ! WORK+-CLASS 0FIF? COLUMN0 WAS FO/]$ 9 ! ,NATIONAL ,WORK%OPS & ! ,G>DE ,MOBILE4 ,BY ! MIDDLE ( ,APRIL ! REVOLUTION>Y TIDE 9 ,FRANCE HAD DEF9ITELY TURN$4 ,ON ! #a#f? ( ?AT MON? ! WORK]S' DELEGATES ( ! ,LUXEMB\RG ORGANIZ$ A L>GE BUT V]Y PEACEFUL DEMON/RATION TO ! ,HOTEL DE ,VILLE4 ,! AU?ORITIES CALL$ ON ! ,NATIONAL ,GU>D & ! M5 FROM ! ,NATIONAL ,WORK%OPS1 :O APPE>$ 9 L>GE NUMB]S & BROKE UP ! DEMON/RATION %\T+ SLOGANS AGA9/ ! 0,COMMUNI/S04 ,ANO!R VET]AN ,SOCIALI/ LEAD]1 ,L$RU-,ROLL91 TOLD ! DEPUTATION :I* WAIT$ ON HIM TO GO HOME & CAUSE NO MORE TR\BLE1 & ?US1 LIKE HIS ASSOCIATE ,L\IS ,BLANC1 PLAY$ HIS P>T 9 FRU/RAT+ ! MOVEM5T :I* HE HIMSELF CLAIM$ TO LEAD4 

,A FEW DAYS LAT] ! ELECTIONS TOOK PLACE1 & ! ,RI<T SECUR$ A L>GE MAJORITY ( ! SEATS1 P>TICUL>LY 9 ! PEASANT DI/RICTS4 ,! ,P>TY ( ,ORD]1 A HET]OG5E\S COMB9ATION ( ROYALI/S & CONS]VATIVE REPUBLICANS1 GA9$ ! ASC5DANCY1 & !Y W]E NOT SL[ TO PURSUE !IR ADVANTAGE4 ,:5 ! WORK]S ( ,R\5 HELD A DEMON/RATION F\R DAYS LAT] TO COMPLA9 ( ! MANIPULATION ( ! POLLS1 ! ,NATIONAL ,GU>DS %OT !M D[N4 ,! ,P>ISIAN REVOLUTION>IES W]E 9C5S$ BY ?IS ACT1 BUT ! NEW ,ASSEMBLY W5T SO F> AS TO ELECT AS ITS [N VISE-PRESID5T ! (FIC] RESPONSIBLE = ! MASSACRE4 ,IT WAS1 FUR!RMORE1 DECRE$ ?AT NO MORE PETITIONS %\LD BE PRES5T$4 

,! ,P>ISIAN WORK]S W]E DISGU/$ AT ! TR5D :I* EV5TS W]E TAK+1 &1 AFT] ! ,LUXEMB\RG ,COMMISSION HAD HELD ITS LA/ MEET+ ON ,MAY #a#c?1 !Y BEGAN TO ?9K ( OP5 DEMON/RATIONS ( !IR DISCONT5T4 ,TWO DAYS LAT]1 ! CLUBS ORGANIZ$ A DEMON/RATION1 O/5SIBLY TO PRES5T A PETITION = AID TO ,POL&1 BUT REALLY TO MAKE A %[ ( /R5G? 9 ! ,P>IS /REETS 9 DEFIANCE ( ! ,ASSEMBLY'S BAN4 ,AFT] 9VAD+ ! ,*AMB] & PROCLAIM+ ITS DISSOLUTION1 ! DEMON/RATORS W5T BACK TO ! ,HOTEL DE ,VILLE1 :]E !Y ELECT$ A NEW ,PROVISIONAL ,GOV]NM5T4 ,! V>I\S V]SIONS ( ! LI/ 9CLUD$ ! NAMES ( ALL ! LEAD+ FIGURES :O /OOD 9 OPPOSITION TO ! ,ASSEMBLY1 SU* AS ,BLANQUI1 ,B>BES1 ,CAUSSIDI]E1 ,FLOCON1 ,L$RU-,ROLL91 ,PR\DHON1 ,CABET1 ,RASPAIL & ,L\IS ,BLANC1 BUT IT IS UNLIKELY ?AT ALL ( !SE WILL+LY ALL[$ !IR NAMES TO BE US$1 P>TICUL>LY AS ,L\IS ,BLANC & ,L$RU-,ROLL9 /ILL TRI$ !IR BE/ TO COMPROMISE ) ! ,RI<T1 :ILE ,PR\DHON ALWAYS HELD HIMSELF ALO( FROM ! LEAD]S ( ! CLUBS1 :OSE NAMES MADE UP ! LI/4 ,! ,PROVISIONAL ,GOV]NM5T WAS %ORT-LIV$1 = ,LAM>-T9E & HIS ASSOCIATES CALL$ \T ! B\RGEOIS ,NATIONAL ,GU>D1 :O DISP]S$ ! UN>M$ DEMON/RATORS & >RE/$ !IR LEAD]S4 ,CAUSSIDI]E1 HEAD ( ! ,P>IS POLICE1 & ,C\RTOIS1 G5]AL ( ! ,NATIONAL ,GU>D1 W]E DISMISS$ BECAUSE !Y DID NOT ATTACK ! DEMON/RATORS4 

,! CONFLICT BETWE5 ! TWO SECTIONS 9TO :I* ! MOVEM5T ( ,FEBRU>Y HAD SPLIT N[ BECAME MORE 9T5SE ?AN EV]4 ,! ,ASSEMBLY1 ?9K+ ?AT IT HAD COMPLETELY CONSOLIDAT$ ITS GR\ND &1 BY >RE/+ ! CLUB LEAD]S1 ELIM9AT$ ! POSSIBILITY ( ANY FUR!R RIS+1 PROCE$$ TO ATTACK ! ,NATIONAL ,WORK%OPS1 :I* IT WAS FELT HAD S]V$ ! PURPOSE 9T5D$ BY ,LAM>T9E & HIS ASSOCIATES & C\LD N[ BE REG>D$ AS A M]E WA/E ( MONEY4 ,ON ,MAY #b#d?1 ,TRELAT DREW UP 9/RUCTIONS ?AT ALL WORK]S :O REFUS$ TO JO9 ! >M$ =CES OR TO TAKE WORK ) AN \TSIDE EMPLOY] %\LD BE DISMISS$ FROM ! WORK%OPS4 ,EMILE ,?OMAS1 ! DIRECTOR ( ! WORK%OPS & HIMSELF AN 5EMY ( ! ,SOCIALI/S1 PROTE/$ AGA9/ ! FOLLY ( SU* A DECREE1 BUT HE WAS SIL5C$ BY ! SIMPLE DEVICE ( KIDNAPP+ & TRANSPORT+ HIM SECRETLY TO ,BORDEAUX4 ,AFT] A MON?'S DELAY ! DECREE WAS F9ALLY ISSU$1 ) ADDITIONAL PROVISIONS ABOLI%+ ! BUREAU = GIV+ ASSI/ANCE TO ! NE$Y & ! M$ICAL S]VICE = WORK]S4 

,NATURALLY1 ! WORK]S :O HAD F\<T = ! REVOLUTION 9 ,FEBRU>Y W]E NOT LIKELY TO ACCEPT SU* AN ATTACK ON !IR LIVELIHOOD )\T ANY PROTE/1 & ON ,JUNE #b#bND A DEPUTATION ( !M WAIT$ ON ! ,GOV]NM5T4 ,!Y RECEIV$ ?REATS 9 ANSW]1 & RETURN$ TO ! WORK+-CLASS >EAS TO PREP>E = 9SURRECTION4 ,BY NEXT MORN+ ! B>RICADES HAD RIS5 ALL OV] ! EA/]N P>T ( ,P>IS1 & ! WORK]S1 )\T ANY LEAD]1 HAD BEGUN ! FI]CE/ /RUGGLE UP TO ?AT TIME 9 ! REVOLUTION>Y HI/ORY ( ,FRANCE4 

,CAVAIGNAC1 ! COMM&] ( ! ,GOV]NM5T =CES1 HAD )DRAWN HIS TROOPS FROM ! DISAFFECT$ QU>T]S1 ) ! DELIB]ATE 9T5TION ( ALL[+ ! 9SURRECTION TO GR[ TO ITS GREATE/ PROPORTIONS 9 ORD] TO CRU% COMPLETELY & F9ALLY ! REVOLUTION>Y ,LEFT4 ,HE !N M\NT$ AN IRRESI/IBLE ATTACK ) L>GE CONT+5TS ( ! ,>MY1 AS WELL AS ! ,NATIONAL ,GU>D & ! ,G>DE ,MOBILE4 ,! /RUGGLE LA/$ F\R DAYS1 & ! WORK]S F\<T BY !MSELVES1 ) NO ALLIES AMONG ! MIDDLE CLASSES OR EV5 AMONG ! ,SOCIALI/ LEAD]S1 MO/ ( :OM W]E 9 PRISON OR1 LIKE ,L\IS ,BLANC1 HAD NO GREAT DESIRE TO BECOME TOO ACTIVELY 9VOLV$ 9 REAL REVOLUTION>Y /RUGGLE4 ,A HO/ILE ,FR5* HI/ORIAN1 DE LA ,GORCE1 HAS SAID ( ! 9SURRECTION>IES3 

0,TO :ATEV] SIDE WE TURN WE F9D NO G5]AL DIRECTION4 ,! 5G9E]S ( ,LA ,*APELLE1 :O W]E HIDD5 9 ! ,CLOS ,/4 ,LAZ>E1 ! BRIGADI]S ( ! ,NATIONAL ,WORK%OPS1 :O C\LD BE SE5 BEH9D ! B>RICADES 9 ! ,FAUB\RG ,/4 ,ANTO9E ) !IR C>DS 9 !IR HATS & !IR RIBBONS 9 !IR BUTTONHOLES1 ! OLD ,MONTAGN>DS1 ASSEMBL$ 9 ! ,FAUB\RG DU ,TEMPLE OR ! ,FAUB\RG ,SA9T-,JACQUES1 A FEW DELUD$ OLD SOLDI]S :O LOAD$ ! WEAPONS ( ! LEA/ EXP]I5C$ 9SURG5TS & COMM&$ ! FIR+ ON ! TROOPS--!SE W]E ! LEAD]S ( S$ITION1 SUBORD9ATE & UNKN[N LEAD]S1 SELECT$ = ! MO/ P>T BY *ANCE--YET NOT !RE=E CONTEMPTIBLE1 S9CE1 UNLIKE MORE FAM\S DEMAGOGUES1 !Y HAD ! M]IT ( KN[+ H[ TO DIE40 

,! SLAU<T] WAS 5ORM\S1 & ! BRUTALITY ) :I* ! VICTORS ACT$ WAS EXTREMELY SAVAGE1 PRISON]S BE+ %OT 9 BAT*ES )\T TRIAL OR EXAM9ATION4 ,! ,SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION WAS DEFEAT$1 & IT W\LD BE MANY YE>S BE=E ! WORK+ CLASS AGA9 PLAY$ ANY SIGNIFICANT P>T 9 ,FR5* AFFAIRS4 ,! ,ASSEMBLY C\LD RETURN 9 PEACE TO ITS WORK ( UNDO+ ! A*IEVEM5TS ( ,FEBRU>Y4 

"4"4"4 

,! ,JUNE DAYS REPRES5T$ A MAJOR SETBACK TO REVOLUTION>Y AIMS ?R\<\T ,EUROPE4 ,EV]Y:]E ! MORE CONS]VATIVE ELEM5TS BEGAN TO TAKE ! LEAD4 ,9 ,G]MANY ! PR9CES & !IR M9I/]S GA9$ CONFID5CE1 9 ,ITALY SU* REACTION>IES AS ! ,K+ ( ,NAPLES BEGAN TO RESUME !IR DESPOTIC P[] & TO REVOKE ! CON/ITUTIONS !Y HAD GRANT$ :5 ! POPUL> UPRIS+S FIR/ MADE !M RETREAT 9 PANIC4 ,! MO/ SIGNIFICANT EFFECT WAS ?AT1 AFT] ,JUNE1 ! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTION BEGAN TO LOSE ITS SOCIAL *>ACT] & TO BECOME MORE NATIONALI/4 ,! NATIONALI/ REVOLUTIONS 9 ,HUNG>Y & ,ITALY SURVIV$ = MORE ?AN A YE> AFT] ! ,P>IS REVOLUTION1 ) ITS SOCIAL BASIS1 HAD VIRTUALLY 5D$4 

,FROM ,JUNE ONW>DS ! 9T]E/ %IFTS ALMO/ :OLLY TO ! ,AU/RIAN ,EMPIRE & ITS SPH]ES ( 9FLU5CE1 ,G]MANY1 ,ITALY & ,HUNG>Y1 & BECOMES 9CREAS+LY C5T]$ ON ! ATTEMPT BY ! ,EMP]OR & ! PETTY DESPOTS ( ,G]MANY & ,ITALY TO REGA9 ! P[] :I* !Y HAD LO/ 9 ! FALL ( ,METT]NI*4 

,! RADICAL MOVEM5T 9 ,G]MANY BEGAN TO DECL9E AS SOON AS ! 9SPIRATION ( ,P>IS WAS REMOV$4 ,9 ,APRIL ,HECK] HAD MADE ANO!R RIS+ 9 ,BAD51 BUT WAS AGA9 DEFEAT$1 & 9 ,MAY !RE HAD BE5 DEMON/RATIONS 9 ,VI5NA :I* =C$ ! ,EMP]OR TO PROMISE A CON/ITUTION & DEP>T TO ! SAFETY ( ,9NSBRUCK4 ,BUT :5 ! ,FRANKFURT ,ASSEMBLY F9ALLY MET ON ,MAY #a#h?1 ITS CONS]VATIVE *>ACT] SOON BECAME EVID5T1 & ?IS WAS CONFIRM$ :5 ! ,>*DUKE ,JOHN ( ,AU/RIA WAS ELECT$ ,REG5T ( ! ,G]MAN EMPIRE4 ,V]Y SOON ! ,FRANKFURT ,ASSEMBLY WAS 5C\RAG+ NATIONALI/ AGGRESSIONS AGA9/ ! ,DANES1 & SUPPORT+ ! ,EMP]OR 9 HIS CAMPAIGNS AGA9/ ! ,ITALIANS1 ! ,HUNG>IANS & ! ,SLAVS4 ,DUR+ ITS :OLE LIFE1 ?IS ,ASSEMBLY DEVOT$ ITSELF TO WORDY DISCUSSION & A*IEV$ ALMO/ NO?+2 :5 AT LA/1 9 ,M>*1 #a#h#d#i1 IT AWOKE & ANN\NC$ ITS CON/ITUTION TO BE ! LAW ( ,G]MANY1 ! GE/URE WAS MANY MON?S TOO LATE1 & ITS ,RUMP1 DEPRIV$ ( ! CONS]VATIVE MAJORITY1 DI$ USELESSLY ON ITS IGNOM9I\S EXPULSION FROM ,WURTEMB]G 9 ,JUNE1 #a#h#d#i4 ,NEV]!LESS1 :ILE 9 ITSELF ! ,ASSEMBLY WAS ALMO/ COMPLETELY USELESS1 IT HAS SOME HI/ORICAL SIGNIFICANCE AS A PRECURSOR ( ! LAT] MOVEM5TS = A UNIT$ ,G]MANY :I* 5D$ 9 ! HEGEMONY ( ,PRUSSIA--AN EV5T ANTICIPAT$ BY ! ,ASSEMBLY :5 IT (F]$ ! CR[N ( ,G]MANY TO ! ,HOH5ZOLL]NS4 

,! V>I\S SUBJECT RACES ( ! ,AU/RIAN EMPIRE W]E LATE 9 JO9+ ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T1 & !IR ROLE WAS = ! MO/ P>T REACTION>Y 9 ITS EFFECT4 ,9 ,HUNG>Y1 AS WE HAVE SAID1 ! REVOLUTION REMA9$ 9 ! H&S ( ! L&[N]S & ! UPP] MIDDLE CLASS1 & IT WAS TO A ,DIET ( NOBLEM5 ?AT ! ,EMP]OR GRANT$ A CON/ITUTION AFT] ! ,M>* RIS+ 9 ,VI5NA HAD MADE HIM FEEL 9SECURE 5\< TO WI% TO PLACATE ANY POT5TIAL ALLY4 ,&1 = ! TIME BE+ AT LEA/1 ?IS ACT /OOD HIM 9 GOOD /EAD1 S9CE DUR+ ITS E>LY DAYS ! ,HUNG>IAN MOVEM5T REMA9$ MON>*ICAL & ! ,REPUBLICAN AGITATION ( M5 LIKE ,P]CZEL HAD LITTLE EFFECT4 ,9DE$1 SO LOYAL W]E ! ,HUNG>IANS TO ! ,EMP]OR1 & SO LITTLE W]E !Y WILL+ TO UND]/& O!R PEOPLES :O F\<T = NATIONAL FRE$OM1 ?AT 9 ,JUNE1 #a#h#d#h1 !Y ACTUALLY S5T AN >MY TO ASSI/ 9 SUBJUGAT+ ,LOMB>DY & ,V5ETIA4 

,! ACQUISITION ( P>TIAL AUTONOMY ONLY 9CREAS$ ! NATIONALI/ T5D5CIES ( ! ,MAGY>S1 & MADE !IR RULE MORE 9TOL]ABLE TO ! ,S]BS1 ,CROATS & ,ROMANIANS 9CLUD$ )9 !IR T]RITORIES4 ,9 ,MAY1 #a#h#d#h1 !RE WAS A G5]AL RIS+ ( !SE PEOPLES1 ( A RACIAL RA!R ?AN A SOCIAL *>ACT]1 & = ! RE/ ( ITS EXI/5CE 9DEP5D5T ,HUNG>Y WAS BESET BY REVOLUTIONS AMONG ITS SUBJECT PEOPLES :I* MI<T HAVE BE5 PLACAT$ BY A LESS HAU<TY TREATM5T ON ! P>T ( ! RUL+ RACE4 ,BUT1 AS IT WAS1 ! ,SLAVS & ,ROMANIANS1 9C5S$ BY ! TREATM5T !Y RECEIV$1 ALL[$ !MSELVES TO BE US$ AS TOOLS BY ! ,AU/RIAN ,GOV]NM5T1 :I* MA9TA9$ A PRET5SE ( IMP>TIALITY T[>DS ! DIFF]5CES BETWE5 ! ,HUNG>IANS & !IR SUBJECTS1 BUT :I* 9 FACT SECRETLY 5C\RAG$ ALL !SE RACES1 & P>TICUL>LY ! ,CROATS1 9 !IR REBELLION4 

,! ,SLAVS1 9 FACT1 PLAY AN UNHAPPY P>T 9 ! HI/ORY ( ! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTION4 ,!RE WAS1 9DE$1 ONE G5U9E ,SLAV MOVEM5T ( REVOLT AGA9/ ! ,AU/RIAN ,GOV]NM5T1 :51 ON ,JUNE #a#e?1 ! MORR[ ( A ,PAN-,SLAV CONF]5CE1 ! PEOPLE ( ,PRAGUE1 SUPPORT$ BY A NUMB] ( ,POLI% & ,RUSSIAN REVOLUTION>IES1 9CLUD+ ,BAKUN91 :O HAPP5$ TO HAVE REA*$ ?AT CITY DUR+ HIS TRAVELS1 ROSE & DROVE \T ! ,AU/RIAN TROOPS4 ,BUT ! REVOLT WAS SOON CRU%$1 & FROM ?AT TIME ! ,SLAV MOVEM5TS FELL 9TO ! H&S ( B\RGEOIS ,NATIONALI/S :O W]E WILL+ TO PLAY ! ,EMP]OR'S GAME ( DIVIDE-&-RULE1 9 ! HOPE ( GA9+ SOME K9D ( AUTONOMY1 :I*1 9 FACT1 !Y NEV] A*IEV$4 

,DUR+ ! LATE SUMM] ( #ahdh ! ,EMP]OR BEGAN TO FEEL SUFFICI5TLY CONFID5T TO RETURN TO AUTOCRATIC ME?ODS1 SO MU* DID EV5TS APPE> TO HAVE TURN$ TO HIS ADVANTAGE4 ,ON ,AUGU/ #e? ,MILAN HAD FALL5 & ,*>LES ,ALB]T HAD )DRAWN HIS =CES TO ,PI$MONT1 LEAV+ ! ,V5ETIAN ,REPUBLIC AS ! ONLY UNCONQU]$ P>T ( ,NOR!RN ,ITALY4 ,LESS ?AN ?REE WEEKS LAT] A CLA% BETWE5 ! ,NATIONAL ,GU>D & ! UNEMPLOY$ WORK]S 9 ,VI5NA HAD %[N ?AT ! ,AU/RIAN REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T WAS SUFF]+ FROM A SIMIL> DIVISION TO ?AT :I* HAD DE/ROY$ ! REVOLUTION 9 ,P>IS4 ,9 ,SEPTEMB]1 ! ,CROATS1 ) ! TACIT APPROVAL ( ! ,EMP]OR1 BEGAN TO ADVANCE 9TO ,HUNG>Y1 & ON ,OCTOB] #cRD ,F]D9& ANN\NC$ ! ANNULM5T ( ! ,HUNG>IAN CON/ITUTION & APPO9T$ ,JELLA*I*1 ,BAN ( ,CROATIA1 ! MILIT>Y RUL] ( ,HUNG>Y1 A CALCULAT$ 9SULT TO ! PRIDE ( ! ,MAGY> >I/OCRACY1 :O HAD ALWAYS REG>D$ ! ,CROATS AS AN 9F]IOR RACE4 ,AU/RIAN TROOPS BEGAN TO ASSEMBLE = ! EXP$ITION AGA9/ ,HUNG>Y4 

,BUT ,F]D9& HAD CALCULAT$ )\T ONE FACTOR1 ! CITIZ5S ( ,VI5NA1 :O /& \T 9 ! HI/ORY ( #ahdh AS ! ONLY PEOPLE :O W]E WILL+ TO SACRIFICE !MSELVES = ! FRE$OM ( ANO!R REVOLUTION4 ,ON ,OCTOB] #f? ! WORK]S & /UD5TS ROSE1 ! ,M9I/] ( ,W> WAS HANG$ FROM A LAMP-PO/1 & ! ,EMP]OR FL$ 9 T]ROR4 ,BUT ! NEXT DAY ,W9DIS*GRATZ BEGAN TO COLLECT AN >MY ( ,SLAVS1 & BY ,OCTOB] #b#cRD HE HAD SURR\ND$ ! CITY4 ,! ,HUNG>IANS MADE A HALFHE>T$ ATTEMPT TO RELIEVE ! ,VI5NESE1 BUT W]E DEFEAT$ \TSIDE ! WALLS1 & !RE FOLL[$ A G5]AL ASSAULT ON ! REBEL G>RISON1 :I* T]M9AT$ BY ! FALL ( ,VI5NA ON ,NOVEMB] #a/ & ! 5D ( ! ,AU/RIAN REVOLUTION4 ,AU/RIA RETURN$ TO ITS AUTOCRATIC GOV]NM5T1 &1 AFT] ,F]D9&'S ABDICATION 9 ,DECEMB] & ! ACCESSION ( ,FRANCIS ,JOSEPH TO ! IMP]IAL ?RONE1 ! ,DIET1 :I* HAD MA9TA9$ A NOM9AL EXI/5CE = SOME MON?S1 WAS DISSOLV$ 9 ,M>*1 #a#h#d#i1 & ,AU/RIA RETIR$ TEMPOR>ILY FROM ,G]MAN AFFAIRS4 

,NEV]!LESS1 ! REVOLUTION HAD NOT BE5 :OLLY FRUITLESS1 =1 UNLIKE ! ,G]MAN ,/ATES1 ! ,AU/RIAN AU?ORITIES MADE NO ATTEMPT TO RE-IMPOSE FEUDALISM ON ! PEASANTS4 

,AT ! SAME TIME1 ! CURR5T ( EV5TS L$ ! ,K+ ( ,PRUSSIA TO ADOPT A *ANG$ ATTITUDE T[>DS ! ,ASSEMBLY TO :I* HE HAD PREVI\SLY DEF]R$1 &1 SUPPORT$ BY ! ,LIB]ALS :O HAD CLIMB$ TO (FICE 9 ! REVOLUTION E>LI] 9 ! YE>1 HE DECID$ TO DISSOLVE ?IS 9/ITUTION4 

,! MEMB]S ( ! ,ASSEMBLY MADE A %[ ( RESI/ANCE1 BUT1 :5 ,WRANGEL'S TROOPS APPE>$ BE=E ,B]L91 !Y W]E ALL[$ TO 5T] ! CITY )\T H9DRANCE1 & ! ,ASSEMBLY WAS F9ALLY DISP]S$1 ITS MEMB]S RECOMM5D+ A CAMPAIGN ( NONPAYM5T ( TAXES :I* MET LITTLE RESPONSE4 

,! REVOLUTION WAS 9 FULL RETREAT1 = ! FOLL[+ MON? ,L\IS ,NAPOLEON1 AFT] A DEMAGOGIC CAMPAIGN AID$ BY ! EXCESSES ( ! ,ROYALI/S & ! RI<T-W+ CONS]VATIVES1 BECAME ,PRESID5T ( ,FRANCE1 SUPPORT$ L>GELY BY ! VOTES ( ,FR5* WORK]S :O HAD LO/ TRU/ 9 ,SOCIALI/S LIKE ,L$RU-,ROLL9 & :O MI/AK5LY ?\<T ?AT BY VOT+ = ,NAPOLEON !Y W]E AV5G+ !MSELVES ON ,CAVAIGNAC & ! ,RI<T4 ,9 ?IS1 AS 9 MANY O!R PO9TS1 ! C>E] ( ,NAPOLEON RESEMBL$ ?OSE ( ! MOD]N DICTATORS4 

,! E>LY P>T ( #ahdi SAW A NEW REV]SAL ( =TUNES = ! ,AU/RIAN ,EMPIRE4 ,FROM ,JANU>Y TO ,M>* ! ,IMP]IAL >MIES FI<T+ 9 ,HUNG>Y MET ) CONT9UAL DEFEATS1 :ILE NEW 9SURRECTIONS BROKE \T 9 ,ITALY4 ,ON ,FEBRU>Y #f? ! PEOPLE ( ,TUSCANY ROSE1 &1 AFT] ! FLI<T ( ! ,GR& ,DUKE1 PROCLAIM$ A REPUBLIC4 ,?REE DAYS LAT] !RE WAS A REBELLION 9 ,ROME1 ! ,POPE FL$ TO ,NEAPOLITAN T]RITORY1 & ! ,REPUBLIC WAS F\ND$4 

,! ,ROMAN RIS+ WAS SOME:AT DIFF]5T FROM ! PREVI\S 9SURRECTIONS1 S9CE IT WAS 9SPIR$ BY ,MAZZ9I1 ! GREAT IDEALI/ ( ! ,ITALIAN REVOLUTION1 :O HAD NEV] BE=E 5JOY$ ! *ANCE ( PUTT+ HIS IDEAS 9TO PRACTICE4 ,MAZZ9I WAS NOT A SOCIALI/1 BUT HE /RONGLY OPPOS$ L>GE-SCALE CAPITALISM & L&LORDISM1 & HIS MOVEM5T HAD SU* DEEP ROOTS 9 ! WORK+ CLASS ?AT 9 LAT] YE>S HE WAS A S]I\S RIVAL ( ,M>X & ,BAKUN9 = 9FLU5CE 9 ! ,9T]NATIONAL4 ,DUR+ ! SIX MON?S ( ! ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC1 ,MAZZ9I'S DIS9T]E/$ ADM9I/RATION & ,G>IBALDI'S DA%+ DEF5SIVE TACTICS BR\<T AB\T A UNITY AMONG ! ,ROMAN PEOPLE :I* WAS ONLY EQUAL$ BY ?AT ( ! SI/] REPUBLIC ( ,V5ICE4 

,! EV5TS 9 ,TUSCANY & ,ROME L$ ,*>LES ,ALB]T ( ,PI$MONT TO DECIDE ?AT IF HE WI%$ TO RETA9 ANY 9FLU5CE 9 ,ITALY HE MU/ ACT QUICKLY1 & ON ,M>* #a#b? HE AGA9 DECL>$ W> ON ,AU/RIA & ADVANC$ 9TO ,LOMB>DY4 

,! NEW 9SURRECTIONS 9 ,ITALY & ! SUCCESSES ( ! ,MAGY> >MIES 9 ,HUNG>Y & ,TRANSYLVANIA L$ ! ,EMP]OR ( ,AU/RIA TO ! DESP]ATE MEASURE ( CALL+ 9 ! ASSI/ANCE ( HIS FELL[ AUTOCRAT1 ! ,CZ> ( ,RUSSIA1 TO REE/ABLI% ! 9TEGRITY ( HIS ,EMPIRE4 ,?IS SIGNALIZ$ ! BEG9N+ ( A REALLY CONC]T$ ATTACK BY ! NEW ALLIANCE ( AUTOCRATS & ! UPP] B\RGEOISIE ON ! REMNANTS ( ! REVOLUTION>Y A*IEVEM5TS 9 ,EUROPE4 ,! ,AU/RIANS1 ASSI/$ BY ! ,RUSSIANS 9 ,HUNG>Y1 W]E 5ABL$ TO DEFEAT ! ,PI$MONTESE AT ,NOV>A & ?US SUPPRESS ONCE AGA9 ! REVOLUTION 9 ,LOMB>DY4 ,MEAN:ILE1 ! ,FR5* S5T AN EXP$ITION TO ,ITALY4 ,NOM9ALLY1 ?IS WAS TO ASSI/ ! ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC & HALT ! S\?W>D M>* ( ! ,AU/RIAN TROOPS1 BUT 9 FACT IT REPRES5T$ A MOVE AGA9/ ! ,REPUBLIC1 & ?IS WAS MADE CLE> BY ,G5]AL ,\D9OT'S AGGRESSIVE ACTIONS4 ,DE ,LESSEPS WAS S5T TO 9QUIRE 9TO COMPLA9TS CONC]N+ ,\D9OT'S CONDUCT1 BUT1 :5 AN EV5 MORE REACTION>Y ,ASSEMBLY WAS ELECT$ ON ,MAY #b#i?1 DE ,LESSEPS WAS RECALL$ & ,\D9OT'S ROLE 9 ,ITALY BECAME CLE>4 ,AFT] DESP]ATE FI<T+ 9 ! \TSKIRTS ( ,ROME1 ! ,FR5* >MY 5T]$ ! CITY ON ,JULY #cRD1 & ON ! #a#e? ( ?AT MON? ! ,PAPAL ,GOV]NM5T RETURN$ TO ,ROME4 ,! ,FR5* ,REPUBLIC HAD DE/ROY$ ! ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC & 9/ALL$ AN AUTOCRAT 9 ITS PLACE4 

,5C\RAG$ BY ! G5]AL T5D5CY1 ! PR9CES ( ,G]MANY BEGAN TO ATTACK :AT REMA9$ ( ! REVOLUTION 9 !IR T]RITORIES4 ,ON ,APRIL #a#b?1 AS ,I HAVE ALREADY M5TION$1 ! ,FRANKFURT ,ASSEMBLY P]=M$ ITS ONE ACT ( REAL DEFIANCE BY DECL>+ ITS CON/ITUTION TO BE ! LAW ( ,G]MANY4 ,! ,*AMB]S ( ,PRUSSIA1 ,HANOV] & ,SAXONY DECID$ TO UPHOLD ?IS DECISION1 & W]E IMM$IATELY DISSOLV$ BY !IR RESPECTIVE RUL]S1 ! ,K+ ( ,PRUSSIA CALL+ ON ALL ! ,/ATES TO REVISE 9 AN AUTOCRATIC DIRECTION ! CON/ITUTIONS :I* HAD BE5 GRANT$ DUR+ ! RIS+S 9 ! PREVI\S YE>4 ,! ,G]MAN UPP] B\RGEOISIE HAD ALREADY CONSOLIDAT$ !IR POSITION AS ALLIES ( ! OLD >I/OCRACY1 & IT WAS LEFT = ! PETTY B\RGEOISIE TO MAKE :AT RESI/ANCE !Y C\LD4 ,9 ,APRIL !RE W]E RIS+S 9 ! ,RH9EL& & ,SAXONY1 BO? ( :I* W]E CRU%$ BY ,PRUSSIAN TROOPS4 ,DRESD5 PUT UP A /UBBORN DEF5SE1 AMONG ! FI<T]S BE+ ,RI*>D ,WAGN] &1 ONCE AGA91 ,BAKUN91 :O WAS >RE/$ H]E & BEGAN HIS DECADE ( RIGOR\S IMPRISONM5T 9 ! DUNGEONS ( ,SAXONY1 ,AU/RIA & ,RUSSIA4 ,DRESD5 FELL ON ,MAY #i?1 & ! NEXT DAY !RE BEGAN A REVOLT 9 ,BAD5 & ! ,PALAT9ATE4 ,A ,REPUBLIC WAS DECL>$ 9 !SE PROV9CES1 & = MORE ?AN TWO MON?S ! REBELS RESI/$2 IT WAS ! FIR/ TIME ?AT ANY REALLY EFFECTIVE RESI/ANCE HAD BE5 MADE TO REACTION 9 ,G]MANY1 BUT IT ALSO FAIL$ :5 ! LA/ CITADEL ( ,RA/ATT FELL ON ,JULY #b#cRD1 & ! ,G]MAN REVOLUTION WAS AT AN 5D4 

,! MON?S ( ,AUGU/ & ,SEPTEMB] SAW ! TWO DESP]ATE LA/ /&S ( ! #ahdh ?R\< #ahdi REVOLUTION>IES4 ,! FIR/ WAS 9 ,ITALY4 ,AFT] ! REVOLUTIONS 9 EV]Y O!R P>T ( ?AT C\NTRY HAD BE5 CRU%$1 ! ,REPUBLIC ( ,V5ICE CONT9U$ TO FI<T ON1 MA9TA9+1 UND] ! LEAD]%IP ( A ,JEWI% LAWY]1 ,DANIELE ,MAN91 A GREAT UNITY ( CLASSES 9 ! /RUGGLE TO RETA9 ITS ANCI5T 9DEP5D5CE4 ,CUT (F FROM ! RE/ ( ,ITALY & FROM ANY HOPE ( ASSI/ANCE FROM \TSIDE1 ! ,V5ETIANS RESI/$ ,UNTIL IT WAS NO LONG] PHYSICALLY POSSIBLE1 UNTIL ! LA/ DAY'S FOOD HAD BE5 EAT51 ! LA/ AMMUNITION HAD BE5 CONSUM$1 & *OL]A HAD REA*$ EPIDEMIC PROPORTIONS4 ,NO CITY %[$ SU* A UNANIM\S DESIRE TO MA9TA9 ITS ESS5TIAL LIB]TIES AS DID ,V5ICE ?R\<\T ! :OLE P]IOD ( ! #ahdh ?R\< #ahdi REVOLUTION2 IT SEEM$ AS IF ! SPIRIT ( ! M$IEVAL FREE CITIES HAD BE5 H]E RE-BORN & BR\<T TO A LATE FL[]+4 

,IF ,V5ICE REPRES5T$ ! LA/ /& ( ! DEMOCRATS 9 #a#h#d#h1 9 .-,HUNG>Y ! NATIONALI/ >I/OCRACY C>RI$ ON = A MON? LONG]4 ,9 ,APRIL #a#h#d#i1 ! ,HUNG>IANS HAD F9ALLY DECL>$ !IR 9DEP5D5CE ( ! ,AU/RIAN ,EMP]OR1 & =M$ !MSELVES 9TO A ,REPUBLIC UND] ! LEAD]%IP ( ,L\IS ,KOSSU?4 ,! CIRCUM/ANCE ?AT L$ A REVOLUTION ( L&[N]S TO AB&ON !IR DYNA/IC LOYALTIES HAD BE5 :AT SEEM$ TO !M ! F9AL TREA*]Y BY :I* !IR ,K+ HAD CALL$ 9 A =EIGN AUTOCRAT TO HELP 9 !IR SUPPRESSION4 ,= SOME MON?S !Y C>RI$ ON A GREAT CAMPAIGN ( CAVALRY W>F>E1 BUT 9 ! 5D !Y W]E NO MAT* = ! ALLIANCE ( ,AU/RIANS1 ,RUSSIANS1 ,ROMANIANS1 ,CROATS & ,S]BS4 ,MOREOV]1 !Y W]E SPLIT BY 9T]NAL DISS5SIONS1 S9CE MANY ( !IR LEAD]S1 9CLUD+ ! COMM&+ G5]AL1 ,GORGEI1 F\ND IT H>D TO GIVE UP !IR MON>*ICAL IDEAS1 & SEEM TO HAVE F\<T HALF-HE>T$LY AFT] ,HUNG>Y BECAME A REPUBLIC4 ,ON ,AUGU/ #a#a? ! ,PROVISIONAL ,GOV]NM5T ABDICAT$1 & ,KOSSU? FL$ ! C\NTRY1 TO 5T] ON A LIFE ( PICTURESQUE EXILE 9 ,5GL&4 ,TWO DAYS LAT] ! MA9 >MY1 UND] ,GORGEI1 SURR5D]$ AT ,VILLAGOS1 & ! ,AU/RIAN ,G5]AL ,HAYNAU1 :O HAD ALREADY MADE HIMSELF NOTORI\S = HIS B>B>ITIES 9 ,LOMB>DY1 9/ITUT$ A RIGOR\S PROCESS ( %OOT+ & HANG+4 ,ISOLAT$ B&S ( ,HUNG>IANS CONT9U$ TO C>RY ON A HOPELESS /RUGGLE AGA9/ !IR 5EMIES1 & IT WAS NOT UNTIL ,SEPTEMB] #b#f?1 SIX WEEKS AFT] ! COLLAPSE ( ! MA9 =CES1 A MON? AFT] ! CAPITULATION ( ,V5ICE1 ?AT ! LA/ /RON<OLD ( ! REVOLUTIONS ( #ahdh ?R\< #a#h#d#i1 ! ,HUNG>IAN =TRESS ( ,KOMORN1 FELL TO ! ,IMP]IAL >MIES4 

"4"4"4 

,! P]IOD ( REVOLUTION WAS 5D$1 & A NEW P]IOD ( REACTION BEGAN 9 ,EUROPE1 ) ,NAPOLEON ,I,I,I & ,BISM>CK TAK+ ! PLACES ( ,GUIZOT & ,METT]NI*4 ,SOME ( ! POLITICAL MOVEM5TS ( #ahdh W]E TO A*IEVE A P>TIAL ?\< TWI/$ FULFILLM5T AT ! H&S ( !SE NEW AUTOCRATS4 ,G]MAN UNITY WAS A*IEV$ 9 A SUBORD9ATION ( ! REMA9+ PROV9CES TO ,PRUSSIAN HEGEMONY1 AN 5D H>DLY DESIR$ BY ! ORIG9AL ,PAN-,G]MANS4 ,SLAV UNITY WAS TO BECOME A POLITICAL WEAPON 9 ! H&S ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,CZ>S1 & 9 \R [N DAY HAS BE5 A*IEV$ AS MU* BY =CE AS BY P]SUASION4 ,ITALIAN NATIONALISM RESULT$ 9 A UNIFICATION ( ,ITALY UND] ! ,PI$MONTESE ROYAL H\SE :I* DID NOT ACCORD ) ! ORIG9AL AMBITIONS ( ,MAZZ9I & ,G>IBALDI4 ,MO/ ( ! DEM&S ( ! ,*>TI/S W]E GA9$ 9 ! 5SU+ C5TURY1 BUT !IR ATTA9M5T HAS NOT ELIM9AT$ ! NE$ = RADICAL /RUGGLES 9 O!R FIELDS4 

,BUT ! ACTUAL 9SURRECTIONS ( #ahdh DO NOT LOOM SO L>GE 9 \R VISION TODAY AS ! POLITICAL & SOCIAL T5D5CIES :I* ! REVOLUTION 9ITIAT$4 ,! MOVEM5TS ( #a#h#d#h1 FRU/RAT$ AS !Y MAY HAVE BE5 9 !IR A*IEVEM5TS1 W]E ACCOMPANI$ BY A CRY/ALLIZATION ( ! POLITICAL IDEAS :I* W]E LAT] TO BECOME F\NDATIONS = IMPORTANT SOCIAL MOVEM5TS4 ,H]E IT IS SUFFICI5T TO SKET* !M BRIEFLY4 

,! APPE>ANCE ( ,M>XI/ ,COMMUNISM1 AS A CLE>LY DEF9$ POLITICAL CRE$ & ! BASIS ( A SOCIAL MOVEM5T1 DATES FROM #a#h#d#h1 = ,M>X'S ,COMMUNI/ ,MANIFE/O1 AL?\< IT MAY HAVE BE5 WRITT5 LATE 9 #ahdg & PUBLI%$ A MON? BE=E ! \TBREAK ( ! ,P>IS RIS+1 WAS ESS5TIALLY MOTIVAT$ BY ! SAME SPIRIT ( REVOLT AS PROVOK$ ! V>I\S ,EUROPEAN UPRIS+S4 ,NEI!R ,M>X P]SONALLY NOR ! ,COMMUNI/ ,MANIFE/O HAD ANY GREAT 9FLU5CE ON ! EV5TS ( #a#h#d#h2 !IR TIME WAS TO COME 9 ! FOLL[+ YE>S :5 ! WORK]S HAD L>GELY TURN$ AWAY FROM ,JACOB9ISM T[>DS A MORE SPECIFICALLY WORK+-CLASS CRE$4 ,M>X'S 9FLU5CE WAS AT FIR/ /RONGE/ AMONG ! ,G]MAN WORK]S1 BUT EV5 !RE IT WAS %>$ BY ANO!R ,SOCIALI/1 :O GAVE ACTIVE SYMPA?Y TO ! RIS+S ( #a#h#d#h1 ,F]D9& ,LASSALLE1 ! F\ND] ( ! ,SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC MOVEM5T 9 ,G]MANY4 

,9 ! ,LAT9 & ,SLAV C\NTRIES ! 9FLU5CE ( ,M>X WAS LATE 9 BECOM+ EVID5T1 & H]E ! *>ACT]I/IC MOVEM5TS ( ! LATT] HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY /EMM$ FROM ! IDEAS ( O!R P>TICIPANTS 9 ! #ahdh RIS+S4 ,9 ,FRANCE ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T SUBSEQU5T TO #ahdi WAS DIVID$ MO/LY BETWE5 ! SUPPORT]S ( ,BLANQUI1 ! F\ND] ( A SPECIES ( EXTREME ,BABOEUVISM & ADVOCATE ( REVOLUTION>Y DICTATOR%IP 7HE 9ITIAT$ ! IDEA ( ! DICTATOR%IP ( ! PROLET>IAT 07 & ?OSE ( ,PR\DHON1 :O1 AS AN 9DEP5D5T J\RNALI/1 HAD SUBJECT$ ! EV5TS ( #ahdh TO AN ACUTE CRITICISM 9 HIS SUCCESSIVE NEWSPAP]S1 ALL 9 !IR TURN SUPPRESS$ BY ! AU?ORITIES4 ,PR\DHON D5\NC$ GOV]NM5TAL 9/ITUTIONS1 & DEM&$ ! ELIM9ATION ( ACCUMULAT$ PROP]TY4 ,UND] HIS 9FLU5CE A L>GE MASS ( ! ,FR5* WORK]S TURN$ ASIDE FROM POLITICAL CONSPIRACY 9TO 9DU/RIAL ORGANIZATION1 & ,SYNDICALISM [$ MU* TO HIS TEA*+4 ,DUR+ ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( #ahga ! REBELS W]E MO/LY DIVID$ BETWE5 ! FOLL[]S ( ,BLANQUI & ?OSE ( ,PR\DHON1 :ILE 9 ITS E>LY DAYS ! ,PR\DHONIANS W]E AS 9FLU5TIAL 9 ! ,FIR/ ,9T]NATIONAL AS ! ,M>XI/S4 

,PR\DHON WAS ! FIR/ CONT95TAL AN>*I/1 BUT ! CREATION ( AN ORGANIZ$ AN>*I/ MOVEM5T1 :I* LAT] PLAY$ A V]Y GREAT P>T 9 SOCIAL UNRE/ 9 ,LAT9 ,EUROPE1 ,RUSSIA1 ,BULG>IA & ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 WAS UND]TAK5 BY ANO!R ACTIVE P>TICIPANT 9 ! #ahdh REVOLUTIONS1 ,MI*AEL ,BAKUN94 ,AL?\< ,BAKUN9 HAD ALREADY ABSORB$ ,PR\DHON'S IDEAS DUR+ #a#h#d#h1 HIS MA9 PREOCCUPATION 9 !SE DAYS WAS A K9D ( REVOLUTION>Y PAN-,SLAVISM4 ,:51 H[EV]1 HE ESCAP$ TO ,EUROPE AFT] HIS DECADE ( IMPRISONM5T1 ) HIS IDEALS ( #ahdh /ILL UNH>M$1 HE 5T]$ ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T ( ! #a#h#fS AS A DECL>$ AN>*I/1 & L$ ! /RONGE/ OPPOSITION TO ,M>X 9 ! ,9T]NATIONAL4 ,?IS ORGANIZATION EV5TUALLY SPLIT 9TO ,M>XI/ & ,AN>*I/ W+S1 & ! AN>*I/S REMA9$ ! MO/ IMPORTANT GR\P 9 ,SPA91 AS WELL AS = MANY YE>S PLAY+ AN 9FLU5TIAL P>T 9 ! ,FR5*1 ,ITALIAN1 ,RUSSIAN & ,AM]ICAN WORK+-CLASS MOVEM5TS4 

,ANO!R ,RUSSIAN :OM #ahdh SET IRREVOCABLY ON A REVOLUTION>Y C\RSE WAS ,ALEX&] ,H]Z54 ,A CONFIRM$ SKEPTIC1 & A V]Y IRONIC OBS]V] ( ! %ORTCOM+S ( ! #ahdh REVOLUTION>IES1 ,H]Z5 ALMO/ UNWILL+LY RETA9$ HIS IDEALS1 & 9 ! FOLL[+ DECADE F\ND$ A ,RUSSIAN EMIGRE PAP]1 ,! ,BELL1 ?R\< :I* HE WIELD$ A GREAT] 9FLU5CE ?AN ANY O!R S+LE P]SON ON ! DEVELOPM5T ( A ,RUSSIAN LIB]AL & REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T AGA9/ ! ,CZ>I/ AUTOCRACY4 

,9 ,ITALY ! 9FLU5CE ( ,MAZZ9I WAS = SOME YE>S V]Y GREAT 9 ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T1 BUT AFT] ! UNIFICATION IT GAVE PLACE TO ! MORE DEF9ITE SOCIAL IDEAS ( ! SOCIALI/S & AN>*I/S4 

,9 ,IREL& ! F>CICAL FAILURE ( #ahdh PREP>$ ! WAY = A /RONG] NATIONALI/ MOVEM5T1 :I*1 UND] ! ,F5IANS1 BR\<T A REALLY EFFECTIVE OPPOSITION TO ! ,BRITI% RULE4 ,9 ,5GL&1 ) ! DISCR$IT+ ( ,*>TISM1 ! WORK]S TURN$ BACK TO ! ,TRADE ,UNION IDEAS :I* HAD BE5 SO 9FLU5TIAL 9 ! #a#h#cS & = A LONG P]IOD1 EXCEPT = ! COMP>ATIVELY SLI<T ACTIVITIES ( ! ,*RI/IAN ,SOCIALI/S1 ! DISCONT5T ( ! WORK+ CLASS WAS DIRECT$ 9TO *ANNELS ( 9DU/RIAL ORGANIZATION4 

,BUT1 IF ! 9FLU5CES ( #ahdh >E TO BE F\ND 9 ALL ! LEFT-W+ MOVEM5TS ( TODAY1 9 ,SOCIALISM1 ,COMMUNISM1 ,AN>*ISM1 ,TRADE ,UNIONISM1 !Y >E ALSO PRES5T AMONG ! ,RI<T4 ,NAPOLEONIC ,CES>ISM SPRANG FROM #a#h#d#h1 & ,L\IS ,NAPOLEON BECAME ! FIR/ ( ! MOD]N DICTATORS1 BY ! USE ( ME?ODS :I* CLOSELY ANTICIPAT$ ?OSE ( ,HITL] & ,MUSSOL9I4 ,! NATIONALI/ MOVEM5TS ( #ahdh F\ND !IR P]V]T$ CONCLUSION 9 ,NAZISM & ,FASCISM1 ! PAN-,G]MANS1 9 P>TICUL>1 BE+ ALMO/ AS VIOL5T AS ! ,NAZIS 9 !IR D5UNCIATION ( ! 9F]IOR RACES & !IR DESIRE TO MA9TA9 ! ,G]MAN HEGEMONY OV] A :OLE RANGE ( SUBJECT PEOPLES4 

,A C5TURY ( CR[D$ POLITICAL EV5TS HAS PASS$ S9CE 0! YE> ( REVOLUTIONS04 ,YET WE /ILL LIVE UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! HAPP5+S ( ?AT TIME1 & /ILL1 9 \R [N DAY1 >E WITNESS+ ! FULFILLM5T1 USUALLY 9 AN IRONICALLY P]V]T$ =M1 ( ! IDEALS = :I* ! M5 ( #ahdh F\<T1 (T5 FUTILELY1 & NEV] MORE ?AN HALF-REALIZ+ ! SIGNIFICANCE ( !IR ACTS4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aidg 3 #a#h#d#h1 ! ,YE> ( ,REVOLUTIONS -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JULY #b#c1 #bai 3 #a#h#d#h1 ! ,YE> ( ,REVOLUTIONS -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #c1 #bbb 3 #a#h#d#h1 ! ,YE> ( ,REVOLUTIONS -- ,UPDAT$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/