,AFRICAN ,AN>*ISM 
,! ,HI/ORY ( ,A ,MOVEM5T 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,SAM ,MBAH 

,TEXT 3 

,=EWORD 

,?IS FIR/-(-ITS-K9D BOOK %\LD BE ( USE TO EV]YONE ) AN 9T]E/ 9 EI!R ,AFRICA OR AN>*ISM4 ,AU?ORS ,SAM ,MBAH & ,I4,E4 ,IG>IWEY BEG9 BY LUCIDLY EXPLA9+ ! BASIC PR9CIPLES & PRACTICES ( AN>*ISM4 ,AFT] \TL9+ :AT AN>*ISM IS & IS NOT1 !Y GO ON TO COMP>E AN>*ISM'S PR9CIPLES & PRACTICES TO ?OSE ( O!R SOCIAL-*ANGE IDEOLOGIES1 SPECIFICALLY TO M>XI/ SOCIALISM4 

,! AU?ORS !N MOVE ON TO ,AFRICA1 EXPLOR+ AT L5G? ! 0AN>*I/IC ELEM5TS0 9 MANY TRADITIONAL 7PRE-COLONIAL7 ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES4 ,NEXT !Y EXAM9E ! DEVA/AT+ EFFECTS ( COLONIALISM ON ,AFRICA'S TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES & ON ,AFRICA'S ECONOMIC & POLITICAL /RUCTURES1 AS WELL AS ! HORR5D\S PROBLEMS LEFT 9 ! WAKE ( COLONIALISM3 UND]DEVELOP$1 DEBT-RIDD5 DEP5D5T ECONOMIES ) HUGE DISP>ITIES BETWE5 RI* & POOR2 VIOL5T E?NIC ANTAGONISMS CAUS$ BY ! DELIB]ATE SETT+ ( E?NIC GR\P AGA9/ E?NIC GR\P1 & BY ! CREATION ( >TIFICIAL NATIONAL B\ND>IES2 & ,EUROPEAN-/YLE GOV]NM5TS1 LEGAL & $UCATIONAL SY/EMS1 & MILIT>Y =CES1 ALL QUITE UNSUIT$ TO ,AFRICAN CONDITIONS4 

,FOLL[+ ?IS1 ! AU?ORS GO ON TO EXAM9E ! FAIL$ ATTEMPTS AT SOCIAL *ANGE BY 0,AFRICAN SOCIALI/0 GOV]NM5TS 9 ! PO/-COLONIAL P]IOD1 ) SPECIAL ATT5TION TO ,JULIUS ,NY]]E'S ,TANZANIA1 ,SEK\ ,T\RE'S ,GU9EA1 & ,KWAME ,NKRUMAH'S ,<ANA4 ,! UN=TUNATE CONCLUSION !Y >RIVE AT IS ?AT A HUMANE1 FUNDAM5TAL RECON/RUCTION ( SOCIETY IS IMPOSSIBLE 9 ,AFRICA1 AS ELSE:]E1 VIA GOV]NM5T4 

,?IS IS NOT A HOPELESS CONCLUSION1 H[EV]1 AS ! AU?ORS /ATE ?AT !RE IS A WAY \T = ,AFRICA -- AN AN>*I/ RECON/RUCTION ( ITS ECONOMIC & SOCIAL /RUCTURES4 ,!Y ALSO PO9T \T ?AT BECAUSE ( ! MANY SIMIL>ITIES BETWE5 AN>*I/ BELIEFS & PRACTICES & ?OSE ( TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES 7:I* /ILL SURVIVE TO SOME EXT5T71 ,AFRICA SEEMS ! MO/ LIKELY ( ALL ! CONT95TS TO WITNESS A TRUE SOCIAL REVOLUTION -- A REVOLUTION 9 AN 9DU/RIAL AGE BAS$ ON ! 0AN>*I/ ELEM5TS0 9 TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES4 

,ON A MORE P]SONAL NOTE1 ,I %\LD APOLOGIZE TO ANY READ]S :O F9D A FEW M9OR LOOSE 5DS 9 ?IS BOOK4 ,!RE IS A REASON = ?IS3 ! AU?ORS LIVE 9 ,5UGU1 ,NIG]IA1 & COMMUNICATION ) !M HAS BE5 DIFFICULT TO SAY ! LEA/4 7,:E!R ?IS HAS BE5 DUE TO 9EFFICI5CIES 9 ! ,NIG]IAN PO/AL & TELEPHONE S]VICES1 OR DUE TO DELIB]ATE 9T]F]5CE BY ! ,NIG]IAN GOV]NM5T1 ,I CAN'T SAY47 ,AS A RESULT ( ?IS PROBLEM1 IT HAS BE5 IMPOSSIBLE TO *ECK ON A NUMB] ( M9OR DETAILS1 SU* AS FIR/ NAMES ( A FEW P]SONS M5TION$ 9 ! TEXT4 ,ULTIMATELY1 ,I DECID$ IT WAS BETT] TO PUBLI% ! BOOK ) A FEW M9OR LOOSE 5DS RA!R ?AN WAIT MON?S IF NOT YE>S TO CONTACT ! AU?ORS AB\T !SE MATT]S4 

,AS A F9AL NOTE1 ,I %\LD ALSO APOLOGIZE TO ANY READ]S :O MI<T F9D ! TITLE ( ?IS BOOK 9APPROPRIATE4 ,:5 ,I ACCEPT$ ?IS BOOK = PUBLICATION1 ,I ACCEPT$ IT ON ! BASIS ( A GOOD TOPIC1 GOOD COV] LETT]1 & GOOD PROPOSAL4 ,! DEADL9E TO ANN\NCE ! COM+ SEASON'S TITLES WAS FA/ APPROA*+1 SO ,I ASSIGN$ ! BOOK AN ,I,S,B,N 7,9T]NATIONAL ,/&>D ,BOOK ,NUMB]71 ANN\NC$ IT1 & COMMISSION$ ,CLIFF ,H>P] TO DO ! COV]4 ,AT ?AT PO9T1 = ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES1 ! BOOK'S TITLE WAS SET 9 /ONE4 ,:5 ! MANUSCRIPT >RIV$1 ,I DISCOV]$ ?AT IT WAS NOT 9 FACT A HI/ORY1 BUT SOME?+ MORE VALUABLE -- A =W>D-LOOK+ BOOK CONC]N$ ) A*IEV+ POSITIVE SOCIAL *ANGE4 ,A MORE FITT+ TITLE = ?IS VALUABLE BOOK W\LD BE ,AFRICAN ,AN>*ISM3 ,PROSPECTS = ! ,FUTURE4 

-- ,*AZ ,BUFE 

,PUBLI%]1 ,SEE ,%>P ,PRESS 

,AU?OR ,PREFACE 

,?\< NOT ABUNDANT ANY:]E1 AN>*I/ LIT]ATURE IS ESPECIALLY SC>CE 9 ,AFRICA4 ,?IS FACT1 9 P>T1 EXPLA9S :Y AN>*I/ IDEAS >E NOT SPREAD+ AS FA/ AS !Y %\LD 9 ,AFRICA & ELSE:]E1 9 SPITE ( ! CRISIS ( /ATE SOCIALISM4 

,AN>*I/ DEVELOPM5T HAS ALSO BE5 RET>D$ = DECADES = O!R REASONS1 9CLUD+ ! !ORETICAL WEAKNESS ( AN>*ISM4 ,H[EV] HI/ORICALLY CORRECT AN>*I/ POSITIONS MI<T BE1 )\T A RIGOR\S !ORETICAL F\NDATION1 MO/ WORK]S1 PEASANTS & O!R POT5TIAL AN>*I/S WILL REMA9 9DIFF]5T TO ! PHILOSOPHY4 

,IT'S TRUE ?AT AN>*I/S W]E AMONG ! FIR/ TO PUT =W>D ACCURATE CRITIQUES ( CAPITALISM & ( M>XI/ SOCIALISM1 W>N+ AB\T :]E ! /ATI/ PA? W\LD ULTIMATELY LEAD4 ,& AN>*I/S ALSO DEVELOP$ SUP]IOR ME?ODS ( ORGANIZATION BAS$ ON G5U9E MASS DEMOCRACY4 ,! PO9T1 H[EV]1 IS ?AT 9 !IR CRITIQUE ( M>XISM1 AN>*I/S HAVE FAIL$ TO EXPLA9 9 SUFFICI5T DEP? ! AU?ORIT>IAN SIDE ( M>XISM1 & :Y ?AT AU?ORIT>IAN SIDE IS A FATAL FLAW4 

,IT IS AGA9/ ?IS BACKGR\ND ?AT WE1 MEMB]S ( ! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE1 HAVE ELECT$ TO TRACE ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 ,AFRICA & AN>*ISM4 ,9 DO+ SO1 WE >E IMPELL$ BY A TWO-FOLD S5SE ( HI/ORICAL RESPONSIBILITY3 TO 5RI* AN>*ISM & AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES ) AN ,AFRICAN P]SPECTIVE1 & TO C>VE \T A PLACE = ,AFRICA )9 ! FRAMEWORK ( ! WORLDWIDE AN>*I/ MOVEM5T4 ,!RE CAN BE LITTLE D\BT -- GIV5 ! COLLAPSE ( ! AU?ORIT>IAN LEFT -- ?AT ! TIME IS RIPE = ?IS PROJECT4 ,BUT 9 A WORLD SUFFUS$ ) CAPITALI/ &1 TO A LESS] DEGREE1 M>XI/ 9FLU5CES -- FROM PATT]NS ( *ILDHOOD SOCIALIZATION TO ! MASS M$IA'S /RANGLEHOLD ON PUBLIC OP9ION -- ! AN>*I/ PROJECT FACES AN UPHILL CLIMB4 ,?IS BOOK IS \R CONTRIBUTION TO ?IS DAUNT+ TASK4 

,?IS WORK HI<LI<TS ! OPPORTUNITIES ?AT EXI/ = AN>*ISM1 ANALYZ+ ! CONCRETE *ALL5GES ?AT LIE AHEAD4 ,*APT]S ONE & TWO DEAL ) ! HI/ORY1 GR[? & DEVELOPM5T ( AN>*ISM1 FROM ! FI]CE /RUGGLE BETWE5 ,K>L ,M>X & ,MIKHAIL ,BAKUN9 & !IR FOLL[]S )9 ! ,FIR/ ,9T]NATIONAL TO ! ,SPANI% ,REVOLUTION4 ,*APT] ?REE UNRAVELS ! ORIG9S ( AN>*ISM ON ! ,AFRICAN CONT95T1 ID5TIFY+ C]TA9 0AN>*IC ELEM5TS0 9 ,AFRICAN COMMUNALISM & ANALYZ+ ! SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ( /ATELESS SOCIETIES 9 ,AFRICA4 ,IT TRACES 9CORPORATION ( ,AFRICAN ECONOMIES 9TO ! WORLD CAPITALI/ SY/EM & POSES ! QUE/ION1 0,IS !RE AN ,AFRICAN AN>*ISM80 ,*APT] F\R EXAM9ES ! DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIALISM 9 ,AFRICA4 ,*APT] FIVE DEALS ) ! FAILURE ( SOCIALISM & ITS IMPLICATIONS = AN>*ISM 9 ,AFRICA4 ,*APT] SIX ANALYZES 9 DETAIL CURR5T DRAWBACKS TO ! REALIZATION ( AN>*I/ IDEALS 9 ,AFRICA4 ,& *APT] SEV5 DETAILS ! WAYS 9 :I* AN>*ISM REPRES5TS ! BE/1 & 9DE$ ! ONLY1 WAY =W>D = ,AFRICA4 

,?IS WORK W\LD NOT HAVE BE5 POSSIBLE BUT = ! 5C\RAGEM5T1 SOLID>ITY1 SUPPORT & ASSI/ANCE -- MAT]IAL & MORAL -- ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,WORK]S ,ASSOCIATION 7,I,W,A7 & ITS AFFILIATES 9 ,EUROPE & ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4 ,SPECIAL M5TION MU/1 H[EV]1 BE MADE ( ,JOSE 0,PEPE0 ,JIM9EZ1 G5]AL SECRET>Y ( ! ,I,W,A1 ,MIT* ,MILL] ( ! ,WORK]S ,SOLID>ITY ,ALLIANCE 7,U4,S4 ,I,W,A AFFILIATE71 ,BOB ,MC,GLYNN ( ,NEI!R ,EA/ ,NOR ,WE/ 7,U,S,A71 ,MONIKA ,GROS*E ( ,F,A,U 7,G]MAN ,I,W,A AFFILIATE71 ,L\RDES ,R$ONDO ,RAMAJO 7,ASOCIACION ,9T]NACIONAL DE LOS ,TRABAJADORES -- ,SPA971 MEMB]S ( ! ,WORK]S ,SOLID>ITY ,MOVEM5T 7,IREL&71 ! ,FR5* SECTION ( ! ,I,W,A1 & O!RS TOO NUM]\S TO M5TION BY NAME4 ,WE >E SIMIL>LY 9DEBT$ TO ALL MEMB]S ( ! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE 9 ,NIG]IA1 :O CONTRIBUT$ DIRECTLY & 9DIRECTLY TO MAK+ ?IS WORK A REALITY4 ,F9ALLY1 ,LYNEA ,SE>* ALSO DES]VES ?ANKS = DO+ A F9E $IT+ JOB4 

-- ,SAM ,MBAH @& ,I4,E4 ,IG>IWEY 

,*APT] #a3 ,:AT ,IS ,AN>*ISM8 

,AN>*ISM AS A SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY1 !ORY ( SOCIAL ORGANIZATION1 & SOCIAL MOVEM5T IS REMOTE TO ,AFRICA -- 9DE$1 ALMO/ UNKN[N4 ,IT IS UND]DEVELOP$ 9 ,AFRICA AS A SY/EMATIC BODY ( ?\<T1 & L>GELY UNKN[N AS A REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T4 ,BE ?AT AS IT MAY1 AN>*ISM AS A WAY ( LIFE IS NOT AT ALL NEW TO ,AFRICA1 AS WE %ALL SEE4 ,! CONT95T'S E>LIE/ CONTACT ) ,EUROPEAN AN>*I/ ?\<T PROBABLY DID NOT TAKE PLACE BE=E ! SECOND HALF ( ! #b? C5TURY1 ) ! S+LE EXCEPTION ( ,S\? ,AFRICA4 ,IT IS1 !RE=E1 TO ,WE/]N ?9K]S ?AT WE MU/ TURN = AN ELUCIDATION ( AN>*ISM4 

,AN>*ISM D]IVES NOT SO MU* FROM AB/RACT REFLECTIONS ( 9TELLECTUALS OR PHILOSOPH]S AS FROM ! OBJECTIVE CONDITIONS 9 :I* WORK]S & PRODUC]S F9D !MSELVES4 ,?\< ONE CAN F9D TRACES ( IT E>LI]1 AN>*ISM AS A REVOLUTION>Y PHILOSOPHY >OSE AS P>T ( ! WORLDWIDE SOCIALI/ MOVEM5T 9 ! #a#i? C5TURY4 ,! DEHUMANIZ+ NATURE ( CAPITALISM & ! /ATE SY/EM /IMULAT$ ! DESIRE TO BUILD A BETT] WORLD -- A WORLD ROOT$ 9 TRUE EQUALITY1 LIB]TY1 FRE$OM & SOLID>ITY4 ,! TYRANNICAL PROP5SITIES ( ! /ATE -- ANY /ATE -- UND]P9N$ BY PRIVATE CAPITAL1 HAVE PROPELL$ AN>*I/S TO 9SI/ ON ! COMPLETE ABOLITION ( ! /ATE SY/EM4 

,! ,NEW ,5CYCLOPA$IA ,BRITANNICA.<#a.> 7#a#e? ,$ITION7 *>ACT]IZES AN>*ISM AS A SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY 0:OSE C5TRAL T5ET IS ?AT HUMAN BE+S CAN LIVE JU/LY & H>MONI\SLY )\T GOV]NM5T & ?AT ! IMPOSITION ( GOV]NM5T UPON HUMAN BE+S IS 9 FACT H>MFUL & EVIL40 ,SIMIL>LY1 ,! ,5CYCLOP$IA ,AM]ICANA.<#b.> 7,9T]NATIONAL ,$ITION7 DESCRIBES AN>*ISM AS A !ORY ( SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 0?AT LOOKS UPON ALL LAW & GOV]NM5T AS 9VASIVE1 ! TW9 S\RCES ( NE>LY ALL SOCIAL EVILS4 ,IT !RE=E ADVOCATES ! ABOLITION ( ALL GOV]NM5T AS ! T]M IS UND]/OOD TODAY1 EXCEPT ?AT ORIG9AT+ 9 VOLUNT>Y COOP]ATION40 ,AN>*I/S1 IT GOES ON TO SAY1 DO NOT CONCEIVE ( A SOCIETY )\T ORD]1 0BUT ! ORD] !Y VISUALIZE >ISES \T ( VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION1 PREF]ABLY ?R\< SELF-GOV]N+ GR\PS40 

,= ITS P>T ,COLLI]'S ,5CYCLOP$IA.<#c.> CONCEIVES AN>*ISM AS A #a#i?-C5TURY MOVEM5T 0HOLD+ ! BELIEF ?AT SOCIETY %\LD BE CONTROLL$ 5TIRELY BY VOLUNT>ILY ORGANIZ$ GR\PS & NOT BY ! POLITICAL /ATE40 ,CO]CION1 ACCORD+ TO ?IS L9E ( REASON+1 IS TO BE DISP5S$ ) 9 ORD] ?AT 0EA* 9DIVIDUAL MAY ATTA9 HIS MO/ COMPLETE DEVELOPM5T40 ,AS F> AS DEF9ITIONS GO1 !SE L5D SOME USEFUL1 IF SUP]FICIAL1 9SI<TS 9TO AN>*I/ DOCTR9E4 ,BUT !IR USEFULNESS 9 ! ELUCIDATION ( ! RI* & EXPANSIVE BODY ( ?\<T KN[N AS AN>*ISM IS PAT5TLY LIMIT$4 ,! WIDE GAMUT ( AN>*I/ !ORY IS REVEAL$ ONLY 9 ! WRIT+S ( AN>*I/S !MSELVES1 AS WELL AS 9 ! WRIT+S ( A FEW NONAN>*I/S4 

,ACCORD+ TO ,B]TR& ,RUSSELL1 AN>*ISM 0IS ! !ORY :I* IS OPPOS$ TO EV]Y K9D ( =CIBLE GOV]NM5T4 ,IT IS OPPOS$ TO ! /ATE AS ! EMBODIM5T ( ! =CE EMPLOY$ 9 ! GOV]NM5T ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,SU* GOV]NM5T AS AN>*ISM CAN TOL]ATE MU/ BE FREE GOV]NM5T1 NOT M]ELY 9 ! S5SE ?AT IT IS ?AT ( A MAJORITY1 BUT 9 ! S5SE ?AT IT IS ASS5T$ TO BY ALL4 ,AN>*I/S OBJECT TO SU* 9/ITUTIONS AS ! POLICE & ! CRIM9AL LAW1 BY MEANS ( :I* ! WILL ( ONE P>T ( ! COMMUNITY IS =C$ UPON ANO!R P>T4444 ,LIB]TY IS ! SUPREME GOOD 9 ! AN>*I/ CRE$1 & LIB]TY IS S\<T BY ! DIRECT ROAD ( ABOLI%+ ALL =CIBLE CONTROL OV] ! 9DIVIDUAL BY ! COMMUNITY40.<#d.> 

,RUSSELL JU/IFIES ! AN>*I/ DEM& = ! ABOLITION ( GOV]NM5T1 9CLUD+ GOV]NM5T BY MAJORITY RULE1 WRIT+1 0IT IS UND5IABLE1 ?AT ! RULE ( A MAJORITY MAY BE ALMO/ AS HO/ILE TO FRE$OM AS ! RULE ( A M9ORITY3 ! DIV9E RI<T ( MAJORITIES IS A DOGMA AS LITTLE POSSESS$ ( ABSOLUTE TRU? AS ANY O!R40.<#e.> 

,LIKEWISE1 AN>*ISM IS IRRECONCILABLY OPPOS$ TO CAPITALISM AS WELL AS TO GOV]NM5T4 ,IT ADVOCATES DIRECT ACTION BY ! WORK+ CLASS TO ABOLI% ! CAPITALI/ ORD]1 9CLUD+ ALL /ATE 9/ITUTIONS4 ,9 PLACE ( /ATE_/CAPITALI/ 9/ITUTIONS & VALUE SY/EMS1 AN>*I/S WORK TO E/ABLI% A SOCIAL ORD] BAS$ ON 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM1 VOLUNT>Y COOP]ATION1 & SELF-MANAG$ PRODUCTIVE COMMUNITIES4 

,T[>D ?IS 5D1 AN>*ISM POSITS ?AT EV]Y ACTIVITY CURR5TLY P]=M$ BY ! /ATE & ITS 9/ITUTIONS C\LD BE BETT] H&L$ BY VOLUNT>Y OR ASSOCIATIVE EF=T1 & ?AT NO RE/RA9T UPON CONDUCT IS REQUIR$ BECAUSE ( ! NATURAL T5D5CY ( PEOPLE 9 A /ATE ( FRE$OM TO RESPECT EA* O!R'S RI<TS4 

,AN>*I/S >E SO IMPLACABLY OPPOS$ TO ! /ATE SY/EM & ITS MANIFE/ATIONS ?AT ONE ( ! F\ND+ FA!RS ( AN>*ISM1 ,PI]RE-,JOSEPH ,PR\DHON1 PROCLAIM$3 0,GOV]NM5TS >E ! SC\RGE ( ,GOD40 ,MIKHAIL ,BAKUN9 ELABORAT$ ON ,PR\DHON'S PROPOSITIONS1 EXPLA9+ ! GOAL ( AN>*ISM AS ! FULL DEVELOPM5T ( ALL HUMAN BE+S 9 CONDITIONS ( LIB]TY & EQUALITY3 

,IT IS ! TRIUMPH ( HUMANITY1 IT IS ! CONQUE/ & ACCOMPLI%M5T ( ! FULL FRE$OM & FULL DEVELOPM5T1 MAT]IAL1 9TELLECTUAL & MORAL1 ( EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL1 BY ! ABSOLUTELY FREE & SPONTANE\S ORGANIZATION ( ECONOMIC & SOCIAL SOLID>ITY AS COMPLETELY AS POSSIBLE BETWE5 ALL HUMAN BE+S LIV+ ON ! E>?4.<#f.> 

,BAKUN9 GOES ON TO SAY ?AT 0WE UND]/& BY LIB]TY1 ON ! ONE H&1 ! DEVELOPM5T1 AS COMPLETE AS POSSIBLE1 ( ALL ! NATURAL FACULTIES ( EA* 9DIVIDUAL &1 ON ! O!R H&1 HIS 9DEP5D5CE1 NOT AS REG>DS NATURAL & SOCIAL LAWS BUT AS REG>DS ALL ! LAWS IMPOS$ BY O!R HUMAN WILLS1 :E!R COLLECTIVE OR SEP>ATE4444 ,:AT WE WANT IS ! ABOLITION ( >TIFICIAL PRIVILEGE1 LEGAL1 (FICIAL 9FLU5CES40.<#g.> 

,SU* PRIVILEGES >E NECESS>ILY ! PR]OGATIVE ( ! /ATE4 ,& ?US ,BAKUN9 *>ACT]IZES ! /ATE AS NO?+ BUT DOM9ATION1 OPPRESSION1 & EXPLOITATION1 0REGUL>IZ$0 & 0SY/EMATIZ$03 

,! /ATE IS GOV]NM5T FROM ABOVE D[NW>DS ( AN IMM5SE NUMB] ( M51 V]Y DIFF]5T FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( ! DEGREE ( !IR CULTURE1 ! NATURE ( ! C\NTRIES OR LOCALITIES ?AT !Y 9HABIT1 ! OCCUPATION !Y FOLL[1 ! 9T]E/S & ! ASPIRATIONS DIRECT+ !M -- ! /ATE IS ! GOV]NM5T ( ALL ?OSE BY SOME OR O!R M9ORITY2 ?IS M9ORITY1 EV5 IF IT W]E A ?\S& TIMES ELECT$ BY UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE & CONTROLL$ 9 ITS ACTS BY POPUL> 9/ITUTIONS1 UNLESS IT W]E 5D[$ ) ! OMNISCI5CE1 OMNIPRES5CE & OMNIPOT5CE :I* ! !OLOGIANS ATTRIBUTE TO ,GOD1 IT IS IMPOSSIBLE ?AT IT C\LD KN[ & =ESEE ! NE$S OR SATISFY ) AN EV5 JU/ICE ! MO/ LEGITIMATE & PRESS+ 9T]E/S 9 ! WORLD4 ,!RE WILL ALWAYS BE DISCONT5T$ PEOPLE BECAUSE !RE WILL ALWAYS BE SOME :O >E SACRIFIC$4.<#h.> 

,AS ,BAKUN9 FUR!R OBS]VES1 ! /ATE WAS AN HI/ORICALLY NECESS>Y EVIL1 BUT ITS COMPLETE EXT9CTION WILL BE1 SOON] OR LAT]1 EQUALLY NECESS>Y4 ,HE REPUDIATES ALL LAWS1 9CLUD+ ?OSE MADE UND] UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 >GU+ ?AT FRE$OM DOES NOT MEAN EQUAL ACCESS TO CO]CIVE P[] 7I4E41 GOV]NM5T VIA 0FREE0 ELECTIONS71 BUT RA!R ?AT IT MEANS FRE$OM FROM CO]CIVE P[] -- 9 O!R WORDS1 ONE BECOMES REALLY FREE ONLY :51 & 9 PROPORTION AS1 ALL O!RS >E FREE4 

,IT IS ,PET] ,KROPOTK91 H[EV]1 :O PROVIDES BO? SY/EMATIC & P5ETRAT+ 9SI<T 9TO AN>*ISM AS A PRACTICAL POLITICAL & SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY4 ,9 TWO SEM9AL ESSAYS1 ,AN>*ISM & ,AN>*I/ ,COMMUNISM1 HE DECL>ES ?AT ! PRIVATE [N]%IP ( L&1 CAPITAL & MA*9]Y HAS HAD ITS TIME & %ALL COME TO AN 5D1 ) ! TRANS=MATION ( ALL FACTORS ( PRODUCTION 9TO COMMON SOCIAL PROP]TY1 TO BE MANAG$ 9 COMMON BY ! PRODUC]S ( WEAL?4 ,UND] ?IS DISP5SATION1 ! 9DIVIDUAL RECLAIMS HIS_/H] FULL LIB]TY ( 9ITIATIVE & ACTION ?R\< P>TICIPATION 9 FREELY CON/ITUT$ GR\PS & F$]ATIONS1 ?AT WILL COME TO SATISFY ALL ! V>I$ NE$S ( HUMAN BE+S4 0,! ULTIMATE AIM ( SOCIETY IS ! R$UCTION ( ! FUNCTIONS ( GOV]NM5T TO NIL -- .<?AT.> IS1 TO A SOCIETY )\T GOV]NM5T1 TO ,AN>*Y40.<#i.> 

,HE ELABORATES3 

,Y\ CANNOT MODIFY ! EXI/+ CONDITIONS ( PROP]TY )\T DEEPLY MODIFY+ AT ! SAME TIME ! POLITICAL ORGANIZATION4 ,Y\ MU/ LIMIT ! P[]S ( GOV]NM5T & R5\NCE P>LIAM5T>Y RULE4 ,TO EA* NEW ECONOMICAL PHASE ( LIFE CORRESPONDS A NEW POLITICAL PHASE4 ,ABSOLUTE MON>*Y -- ?AT IS1 C\RT-RULE -- CORRESPOND$ TO ! SY/EM ( S]FDOM4 ,REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T CORRESPONDS TO CAPITAL-RULE4 ,BO?1 H[EV]1 >E CLASS-RULE4 

,BUT 9 A SOCIETY :]E ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 CAPITALI/ & LABOR] HAS DISAPPE>$1 !RE IS NO NE$ ( SU* A GOV]NM5T2 IT W\LD BE AN ANA*RONISM1 A NUISANCE4 ,FREE WORK]S W\LD REQUIRE A FREE ORGANIZATION1 & ?IS CANNOT HAVE ANO!R BASIS ?AN FREE AGREEM5T & FREE COOP]ATION1 )\T SACRIFIC+ ! AUTONOMY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL TO ! ALL-P]VAD+ 9T]F]5CE ( ! /ATE4 ,! NO-CAPITALI/ SY/EM IMPLIES ! NO-GOV]NM5T SY/EM4 ,MEAN+ ?US ! EMANCIPATION ( MAN FROM ! OPPRESSIVE P[] ( CAPITALI/ & GOV]NM5T AS WELL1 ! SY/EM ( ,AN>*Y BECOMES A SYN!SIS ( ! TWO P[]FUL CURR5TS ( ?\<T :I* *>ACT]IZE \R C5TURY4.<#a.> 

,KROPOTK9 POSITS ?AT REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T 7DEMOCRACY7 HAS ACCOMPLI%$ ITS HI/ORICAL MISSION TO ! EXT5T ?AT IT DELIV]$ A MORTAL BL[ TO C\RT-RULE 7ABSOLUTE MON>*Y74 ,& S9CE EA* ECONOMIC PHASE 9 HI/ORY NECESS>ILY 9VOLVES ITS [N POLITICAL PHASE1 IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO ELIM9ATE ! BASIS ( PRES5T ECONOMIC LIFE1 NAMELY PRIVATE PROP]TY1 )\T A CORRESPOND+ *ANGE 9 POLITICAL ORGANIZATION4.<#a#a.> ,CONCEIV$ ?US1 AN>*ISM BECOMES ! SYN!SIS ( ! TWO *IEF DESIRES ( HUMANITY S9CE ! DAWN ( HI/ORY3 ECONOMIC FRE$OM & POLITICAL FRE$OM4 

,AN EXCURSION 9TO HI/ORY REVEALS ?AT ! /ATE HAS ALWAYS BE5 ! PROP]TY ( ONE PRIVILEG$ CLASS OR ANO!R3 A PRIE/LY CLASS1 AN >I/OCRATIC CLASS1 A CAPITALI/ CLASS1 &1 F9ALLY1 A BUREAUCRATIC 7OR 0NEW07 CLASS1 AS 9 ! ,SOVIET ,UNION & ,*9A4 ,! EXI/5CE ( A PRIVILEG$ CLASS IS ABSOLUTELY NECESS>Y = ! PRES]VATION ( ! /ATE4 0,EV]Y LOGICAL & S9C]E !ORY ( ! /ATE10 ,BAKUN9 ASS]TS1 0IS ESS5TIALLY F\ND$ ON ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY -- ?AT IS TO SAY1 ON ! EM95TLY !OLOGICAL1 METAPHYSICAL & POLITICAL IDEA ?AT ! MASSES1 ALWAYS 9CAPABLE ( GOV]N+ !MSELVES1 MU/ SUBMIT AT ALL TIMES TO ! B5EVOL5T YOKE444 :I* 9 ONE WAY OR ANO!R1 IS IMPOS$ ON !M FROM ABOVE40.<#a#b.> 

,?IS PH5OM5ON IS ! VIRTUAL EQUIVAL5T ( SLAV]Y -- A PRACTICE ) DEEP /ATI/ ROOTS4 ,?IS IS ILLU/RAT$ BY ! FOLL[+ PASSAGE FROM ,KROPOTK93 

,WE CRY \T AGA9/ ! FEUDAL B>ONS :O DID NOT P]MIT ANYONE TO SETTLE ON ! L& O!RWISE ?AN ON PAYM5T ( ONE QU>T] ( ! CROPS TO ! LORD ( ! MANOR2 BUT WE CONT9UE TO DO AS !Y DID -- WE EXT5D !IR SY/EM4 ,! =MS HAVE *ANG$1 BUT ! ESS5CE HAS REMA9$ ! SAME40.<#a#c.> 

,BAKUN9 EXPRESSES ?IS ?\<T EV5 MORE POIGNANTLY3 

,SLAV]Y CAN *ANGE ITS =M & ITS NAME -- ITS BASIS REMA9S ! SAME4 ,?IS BASIS IS EXPRESS$ BY ! WORDS3 BE+ A SLAVE IS BE+ =C$ TO WORK = O!R PEOPLE -- AS BE+ A MA/] IS TO LIVE ON ! LABOR ( O!R PEOPLE4 ,9 ANCI5T TIMES AS TODAY 9 ,ASIA & ,AFRICA1 SLAVES W]E SIMPLY CALL$ SLAVES4 ,9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 !Y TOOK ! NAME ( 0S]FS10 TODAY !Y >E CALL$ 0WAGE-E>N]S40 ,! POSITION ( ! LATT] IS MU* MORE HONORABLE & LESS H>D ?AN ?AT ( SLAVES1 BUT !Y >E NONE!LESS =C$ BY HUNG]1 AS WELL AS BY ! POLITICAL & SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1 TO MA9TA9 BY V]Y H>D WORK ! ABSOLUTE OR RELATIVE IDL5ESS ( O!RS4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 !Y >E SLAVES4 ,&1 9 G5]AL1 NO /ATE1 EI!R ANCI5T OR MOD]N1 HAS EV] BE5 ABLE1 OR EV] WILL BE ABLE1 TO DO )\T ! =C$ LABOR ( ! MASSES1 :E!R WAGE-E>N]S OR SLAVES40.<#a#d.> 

,! PRIM>Y DI/+UI%+ FACTOR BETWE5 ! WAGE WORK] & ! SLAVE IS1 P]HAPS1 ?AT ! WAGE WORK] HAS SOME CAPACITY TO )DRAW HIS OR H] LABOR :ILE ! SLAVE CANNOT4 

,G4 ,P4 ,MAXIM(F DOES NOT SEE ?+S ANY DIFF]5TLY4 ,TO HIM1 ! ESS5CE ( AN>*ISM CONSI/S ( ! ABOLITION ( PRIVATE PROP]TY RELATIONS & ! /ATE SY/EM1 ! PR9CIPAL AG5T ( CAPITAL4 ,HE /ATES ?AT 0CAPITALISM 9 ITS PRES5T /AGE HAS REA*$ ! FULL MATURITY ( IMP]IALISM444 BEYOND ?IS PO9T1 ! ROAD ( CAPITALISM IS ! ROAD ( DET]IORATION40.<#a#e.> 

,BUT CAPITALISM IS NOT ALONE H]E4 ,M>XI/ /ATE SOCIALISM AS EXPRESS$ 9 ! =M] ,SOVIET ,UNION1 FROM ITS V]Y 9CEPTION1 PROVID$ AMPLE EVID5CE = ! AN>*I/ >GUM5T4 ,SAYS ,MAXIM(F3 

,! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION444 REVEAL$ ! NATURE ( /ATE SOCIALISM & ITS ME*ANISM1 DEMON/RAT+ ?AT !RE IS NO GREAT DIFF]5CE 9 PR9CIPLE BETWE5 A /ATE SOCIALI/ & A B\RGEOIS SOCIETY444 BETWE5 !SE SOCIETIES1 SEEM+LY SO IRRECONCILABLE & SO ANTAGONI/IC TO EA* O!R1 !RE IS REALLY ONLY A QUANTITATIVE1 NOT A QUALITATIVE1 DIFF]5CE4 ,& ! ATTEMPT TO SOLVE ! SOCIAL PROBLEM BY UTILIZ+ ! ME?ODS 9H]5T 9 RIGID1 LOGICALLY CONSI/5T P[] COMMUNISM1 AS 9 ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION1 DEMON/RATES ?AT EV5 QUANTITY IS NOT ALWAYS ON ! SIDE ( AU?ORIT>IAN COMMUNISM & ?AT1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 :5 LOGICALLY PURSU$ TO ! 5D1 IT RESEMBLES DESPOTISM 9 MANY WAYS4.<#a#f.> 

,?US1 SAYS ,MAXIM(F1 AN>*ISM IS ! ONLY SOCIAL =CE CAPABLE ( DE/ROY+ PRIVATE PROP]TY & ITS MA9/AY1 ! /ATE2 ( E/ABLI%+ PUBLIC [N]%IP & A /ATELESS1 F$]ALI/ ORGANIZATION ( SOCIETY ON ! BASIS ( ! FREE ASSOCIATION ( PRODUCTIVE UNITS BO? 9 FACTORIES & T[NS4 ,AN>*ISM ALONE 0CAN ASSURE LIB]TY1 I4E41 ! WELL-BE+ & ! FREE DEVELOPM5T ( ! 9DIVIDUAL 9 SOCIETY1 & ( SOCIETY ITSELF4 ,IT ALONE WILL /OP ! DIVISION ( SOCIETY 9TO CLASSES & WILL ABOLI% EV]Y POSSIBILITY ( ! EXPLOITATION OR RULE ( MAN BY MAN40.<#a#g.> 

,! ,9T]NATIONAL ,WORK]S ,ASSOCIATION.<#a#h.> 7,I,W,A7 IS A F$]ATION ( AN>*I/ LABOR GR\PS 9 DOZ5S ( C\NTRIES >\ND ! WORLD4 ,:ILE IT T]MS ITS GOALS 0REVOLUTION>Y SYNDICALI/10 !Y >E 9 FACT VIRTUALLY ID5TICAL ) AN>*I/ GOALS4 ,! ,I,W,A'S /ATUTES /ATE 9 P>T3 

,REVOLUTION>Y SYNDICALISM IS ! PRON\NC$ 5EMY ( ALL ECONOMIC & SOCIAL MONOPOLY4 ,IT AIMS AT ! ABOLITION ( PRIVILEGE BY ! E/ABLI%+ ( ECONOMIC COMMUNES & ADM9I/RATIVE ORGANS RUN BY ! WORK]S 9 ! FIELDS & FACTORIES1 =M+ A SY/EM ( FREE C\NCILS )\T SUBORD9ATION TO ANY P[] OR POLITICAL P>TY4 ,REVOLUTION>Y ,SYNDICALISM POSES AS AN ALT]NATIVE TO ! POLITICS ( /ATES & P>TIES1 ! ECONOMIC REORGANIZATION ( PRODUCTION4 ,IT IS OPPOS$ TO ! GOV]N+ ( PEOPLE BY O!RS & POSES SELF-MANAGEM5T AS AN ALT]NATIVE4 

,CONSEQU5TLY1 ! GOAL ( REVOLUTION>Y SYNDICALISM IS NOT ! CONQUE/ ( POLITICAL P[]1 BUT ! ABOLITION ( ALL /ATE FUNCTIONS 9 ! LIFE ( SOCIETY4 ,REVOLUTION>Y ,SYNDICALISM CONSID]S ?AT ! DISAPPE>ANCE ( ! MONOPOLY ( PROP]TY MU/ ALSO BE ACCOMPANI$ BY ! DISAPPE>ANCE ( ALL =MS ( DOM9ATION4 ,/ATISM1 H[EV] CAM\FLAG$1 CAN NEV] BE AN 9/RUM5T = HUMAN LIB]ATION &1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 WILL ALWAYS BE ! CREATOR ( NEW MONOPOLIES & PRIVILEGES4 

,BAS$ ON ! =EGO+1 WE MAY SUMM>IZE ! !ORETICAL ASPECTS ( AN>*ISM3 AN>*ISM SEEKS ! ABOLITION ( CAPITALISM & ! CAPITALI/ MODE ( PRODUCTION -- ?IS 9CLUDES ! SOCIAL RELATIONS IT 5G5D]S1 ITS M>KET PROCESSES1 & ! COMMODITY & WAGE SY/EMS4 ,?IS IS NOT POSSIBLE TO ACCOMPLI%1 H[EV]1 )\T ! SIMULTANE\S ABOLITION ( ! /ATE SY/EM TOGE!R ) ITS VALUE SY/EMS & 9/ITUTIONS1 9CLUD+ ! LEGAL & S*OOL SY/EMS1 MASS M$IA1 BUREAUCRACY1 POLICE1 PATRI>*AL FAMILY1 ORGANIZ$ RELIGION1 ETC4 

,! /ATE SY/EM IS1 ( C\RSE1 NEI!R PECULI> TO NOR EXCLUSIVE TO CAPITALISM2 IT IS ALSO A C>D9AL FEATURE ( /ATE SOCIALISM1 ?AT IS1 M>XI/ SOCIALISM AS REPRES5T$ BY BO? ! ,SOVIET & ,*9ESE SY/EMS4 ,& ! /ATE SY/EM EV]Y:]E DISPLAYS ! SAME AU?ORIT>IAN & HI]>*ICAL FEATURES ?AT S]VE TO CIRCUMSCRIBE ! FRE$OM ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 & ?US ?AT ( SOCIETY AT L>GE4 

,AN>*ISM D]IVES FROM ! CLASS /RUGGLE 5G5D]$ BY ! 5SLAVEM5T ( WORK]S & FROM !IR HI/ORICAL ASPIRATIONS T[>D FRE$OM4 ,CLASS 9 ?IS S5SE IS NOT JU/ AN ECONOMIC CONCEPT1 NOR DOES IT RELATE M]ELY TO ! [N]%IP ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION3 IT 9 FACT REPRES5TS ! UN:OLESOME AM\NT ( P[] :I* A T9Y GR\P WIELDS & EX]CISES OV] ! RE/ ( SOCIETY4 

,! 9/RUM5T ( ?IS T9Y ELITE1 ! /ATE1 IS SIMULTANE\SLY ! ORGANIZ$ VIOL5CE ( ! [N+ CLASS & ! SY/EM ( ITS EXECUTIVE WILL4 ,AS ! ,DIELO ,TR\DA GR\P FUR!R PUTS IT1 AU?ORITY IS ALWAYS DEP5D5T ON ! EXPLOITATION & 5SLAVEM5T ( ! MAJORITY ( ! PEOPLE4 ,& AU?ORITY )\T HI]>*Y1 )\T EXPLOITATION & LOSS ( FRE$OM1 LOSES ITS REASON = BE+4 0,! /ATE & AU?ORITY TAKE FROM ! MASSES ALL 9ITIATIVE1 KILL ! SPIRIT ( CREATION & FREE ACTIVITY1 CULTIVATE 9 !M ! S]VILE PSY*OLOGY ( SUBMISSION40.<#a#i.> 

,! /R5G? ( AN>*ISM IS PR$ICAT$ ON ! FACT ?AT HUMANS ?R\<\T HI/ORY HAVE BE5 PROPELL$ BY ! QUE/ = EQUALITY & LIB]TY1 LIB]TY BE+ 9DIVISIBLE FROM EQUALITY1 & VICE V]SA4 ,?IS DESIRE SEEMS TO /EM FROM ! FACT ?AT HUMAN BE+S >E BASICALLY COOP]ATIVE RA!R ?AN COMPETITIVE4 

,9 PLACE ( A SOCIETY ORGANIZ$ ALONG CLASS L9ES1 M>K$ BY HI]>*Y & AU?ORITY1 AN>*ISM ADVOCATES A SELF-MANAG$1 SELF-RELIANT SOCIETY BAS$ ON COOP]ATIVE1 VOLUNT>Y MUTUAL AID & ASSOCIATION1 & DEVOID ( GOV]NM5T 7I4E41 CO]CION74 ,9 SU* A SOCIETY ! [N]%IP ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION IS NOT ! EXCLUSIVE PRES]VE ( ANY 9DIVIDUAL OR GR\P1 & WAGE LABOR IS NONEXI/5T1 ALL[+ ! 9DIVIDUAL AMPLE FRE$OM & 9ITIATIVE = FULL DEVELOPM5T4 0,!RE WILL BE NO DEMI-GODS1 BUT !RE WILL ALSO BE NO SLAVES4 ,DEMI-GODS & SLAVES WILL BO? BECOME M52 ! =M] WILL HAVE TO /EP D[N FROM !IR ,OLYMPIAN HEI<TS1 ! LATT] WILL HAVE TO MOVE UP CONSID]ABLY40.<#b.> ,9 ! BROAD SWEEP ( HI/ORY1 AN>*ISM WILL TAKE ITS PLACE AS A SOCIAL ORD] F\ND$ ON & GE>$ T[>D A PO/-CAPITALI/1 PO/-GOV]NM5T SOCIETY4 

,IMPORTANTLY1 AN>*ISM DOES NOT IMPLY ! ABS5CE ( ORGANIZATION4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO ! IRRATIONAL1 HI]>*ICAL1 C5TRALIZ$ AU?ORITY ( GOV]NM5T & CORPORATIONS1 AN>*I/S ACCEPT & 9DE$ RESPECT ! RATIONAL AU?ORITY ( ! EXP]T -- AN AU?ORITY ( A DIFF]5T TYPE3 ONE BAS$ UPON EXP]TISE & EXP]I5CE1 NOT CO]CIVE P[]4 

,AN>*I/S HAVE ALWAYS RECOGNIZ$ ! NE$ = ORGANIZATION4 ,= !M1 H[EV]1 ! QUE/ION IS :AT TYPE ( ORGANIZATION4 ,AN>*I/S >GUE = HORIZONTAL ORGANIZATION BAS$ ON DEC5TRALIZATION1 9DIVIDUAL & LOCAL AUTONOMY1 SOCIAL EQUALITY1 & DEMOCRATIC DECISION MAK+4 

,ULTIMATELY1 AN>*ISM REJECTS ALL /RUGGLE = /ATE 7POLITICAL7 P[]1 HOLD+ \T AS ITS WEAPON & ME?OD ! SOCIAL /RUGGLE ( WORK]S & PEASANTS BAS$ 9 SOLID>ITY & 9T]NATIONALISM4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 ! TASK ( EMANCIPAT+ WORK+ PEOPLE MU/ BE ! WORK ( WORK+ PEOPLE !MSELVES4 ,?IS EMANCIPATION CONSI/S ( ! R$UCTION ( ! FUNCTIONS ( GOV]NM5T TO Z]O1 5SUR+ ?AT1 AT ALL TIMES1 CONTROL OV] ALL NECESS>Y =MS ( SOCIAL ORGANIZATION IS FROM BEL[4 

,:AT ,AN>*ISM IS NOT 

,UN=TUNATELY1 9 ADDITION TO SAY+ :AT AN>*ISM IS1 IT'S ALSO NECESS>Y TO SAY :AT IT IS NOT4 ,IT'S NECESS>Y TO ADDRESS ! VULG> MISCONCEPTIONS & DELIB]ATE1 \TRI<T DI/ORTIONS ?AT M>XI/S & CAPITALI/ APOLOGI/S PROPAGATE AB\T AN>*ISM4 

,BY F> ! GREATE/ MISCONCEPTION IS ?AT AN>*ISM IS SYNONYM\S ) REJECTION ( ORD] OR ) A /ATE ( DISORD]1 9VOLV+ *AOS1 DE/RUCTION1 & VIOL5CE4 ,NO?+ C\LD BE FUR!R FROM ! TRU?4 ,KEV9 ,DOYLE1 ( ,WORK]S ,SOLID>ITY MAGAZ9E WRITES1 0,AN>*ISM HAS BE5 DELIB]ATELY SL&]$ & MISREPRES5T$1 NOT ONLY BY ?OSE RUNN+ .<?IS.> SOCIETY1 BUT ALSO BY MO/ ON ! LEFT4 ,DELIB]ATELY1 = ! REASON ?AT ITS UNCOMPROMIS+ & RADICAL CRITIQUE ( SOCIETY & H[ TO *ANGE IT POSES A *ALL5GE ?AT CANNOT BE MET EXCEPT BY SL&]4 ,ITS ROOTS & ASSOCIATION ) ! WORK+ CLASS ( ALL C\NTRIES TELLS ! REAL TRU?40.<#b#a.> 

,AN>*ISM IS BASICALLY OPPOS$ TO VIOL5CE1 & TO DISORD]1 *AOS & T]RORISM AS WELL4 ,AN>*I/S ! WORLD OV] UPHOLD PEACE AS AN OV]RID+ VALUE &1 CONSEQU5TLY1 REJECT W>1 >MIES1 MILIT>ISM1 & ! DEVELOPM5T & ACQUISITION ( TE*NOLOGIES ?AT PROMOTE W>4 ,AN>*I/S ADVOCATE VIOL5CE ONLY AS A =M ( SELF-DEF5SE4 

,! /ATUTES ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,WORK]S ,ASSOCIATION PUT ! ISSUE 9 %>P P]SPECTIVE3 0,:ILE REVOLUTION>Y SYNDICALISM IS OPPOS$ TO ALL ORGANIZ$ VIOL5CE ( ! /ATE1 IT REALIZES ?AT !RE WILL BE EXTREMELY VIOL5T CLA%ES DUR+ ! DECISIVE /RUGGLES BETWE5 ! CAPITALISM ( TODAY & ! FREE COMMUNISM ( TOMORR[4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 IT RECOGNIZES AS VALID ?AT VIOL5CE :I* CAN BE US$ AS A MEANS ( DEF5SE AGA9/ ! VIOL5T ME?ODS US$ BY ! RUL+ CLASSES DUR+ ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION40.<#b#b.> 

,REJECTION ( AGGRESSIVE VIOL5CE & T]RORISM DOES NOT1 H[EV]1 MAKE AN>*I/S PACIFI/S4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 A SUCCESSFUL AN>*I/ MOVEM5T WILL FACE /ATE VIOL5CE4 ,! WAY TO COMBAT ?IS REPRESSIVE VIOL5CE IS NOT ?R\< T]RORISM OR ?R\< ! CREATION ( HI]>*ICAL MILIT>Y ORGANIZATIONS1 BUT ?R\< ! CREATION ( COMMUNITY-BAS$ DEF5SE & $UCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ?AT >E WILL+ TO DEF5D !IR [N SOCIAL /RUCTURES4 

,AN>*I/ ADVOCACY ( DEF5SIVE ORGANIZATIONS WAS BORN \T ( A HI/ORICAL RECOGNITION ( ! /ATE AS ! MO/ BRUTAL & RU?LESS AG5T ( T]ROR1 & ! RECOGNITION ?AT ITS USE ( VIOL5CE DEP5DS ALMO/ 5TIRELY ON ! DEGREE TO :I* IT FEELS *ALL5G$4 ,AN>*I/S RECOGNIZE ?AT ! /ATE WILL DO ANY?+1 NO MATT] H[ VILE1 TO MA9TA9 ITS [N P[]4 

,AS = AN>*ISM & T]RORISM1 ONLY A T9Y M9ORITY ( AN>*I/S HAVE TAK5 P>T 9 T]RORI/ ACTIVITIES4 ,?IS IS BECAUSE AN>*I/S RECOGNIZE ?AT MEANS DET]M9E 5DS1 & BECAUSE !Y SEEK TO ABOLI% ! /ATE SY/EM1 NOT TO E/ABLI% A VANGU>D ?AT W\LD ASPIRE TO /ATE P[]4 ,AS ! ANONYM\S AU?ORS ( ,Y\ ,CAN'T ,BL[ ,UP A ,SOCIAL ,RELATION%IP3 ,! ,AN>*I/ ,CASE ,AGA9/ ,T]RORISM PUT IT3 

,Y\ CAN'T BL[ UP A SOCIAL RELATION%IP4 ,! TOTAL COLLAPSE ( ?IS SOCIETY W\LD PROVIDE NO GU>ANTEE AB\T :AT REPLAC$ IT4 ,UNLESS A MAJORITY ( PEOPLE HAD ! IDEAS & ORGANIZATION SUFFICI5T = ! CREATION ( AN ALT]NATIVE SOCIETY1 WE W\LD SEE ! OLD WORLD REASS]T ITSELF BECAUSE IT IS :AT PEOPLE W\LD BE US$ TO1 :AT !Y BELIEV$ 91 :AT EXI/$ UN*ALL5G$ 9 !IR [N P]SONALITIES4 

,PROPON5TS ( T]RORISM & GU]RILLAISM >E TO BE OPPOS$ BECAUSE !IR ACTIONS >E VANGU>DI/ & AU?ORIT>IAN1 BECAUSE !IR IDEAS1 TO ! EXT5T ?AT !Y >E SUB/ANTIAL1 >E WRONG OR UNRELAT$ TO ! RESULTS ( !IR ACTIONS 7ESPECIALLY :5 !Y CALL !MSELVES LIB]T>IANS OR AN>*I/S71 BECAUSE !IR KILL+ CANNOT BE JU/IFI$1 & F9ALLY BECAUSE !IR ACTIONS PRODUCE EI!R REPRESSION ) NO?+ 9 RETURN1 OR AN AU?ORIT>IAN REGIME4.<#b#c.> 

,B]TR& ,RUSSELL ADDS3 

,9 ITS G5]AL DOCTR9ES1 !RE IS NO?+ .<9 AN>*ISM.> ESS5TIALLY 9VOLV+ VIOL5T ME?ODS OR A VIRUL5T HATR$ ( ! RI*444 ,! REVOLT AGA9/ LAW NATURALLY LEADS1 EXCEPT 9 ?OSE :O >E CONTROLL$ BY A REAL PASSION = HUMANITY1 TO A RELAXATION ( ALL ! USUALLY ACCEPT$ MORAL VALUES4 ,IT W\LD BE :OLLY UNFAIR TO JUDGE AN>*I/ DOCTR9E1 OR ! VIEWS ( ITS LEAD+ EXPON5TS1 BY SU* PH5OM5A4444 ,?IS MU/ BE REMEMB]$ 9 EXCULPATION ( ! AU?ORITIES & ! ?\<TLESS PUBLIC1 :O (T5 CONF\ND 9 A COMMON DETE/ATION ! P>ASITES ( ! MOVEM5T & ! TRULY H]OIC & HI<-M9D$ M5 :O HAVE ELABORAT$ ITS !ORIES & SACRIFIC$ COM=T & SUCCESS TO !IR PROPAGATION4.<#b#d.> 

,L4,S4 ,BEV+TON SUMS IT ALL UP3 

,( C\RSE WE KN[ ?AT AMONG ?OSE :O CALL !MSELVES AN>*I/S1 !RE >E A M9ORITY ( UNBALANC$ 5?USIA/S :O LOOK UPON EV]Y ILLEGAL & S5SATIONAL ACT ( VIOL5CE AS A MATT] = HY/]ICAL JUBILATION4 ,V]Y USEFUL TO ! POLICE & ! PRESS1 UN/EADY 9 9TELLECT & ( WEAK MORAL PR9CIPLE1 !Y HAVE REPEAT$LY %[N !MSELVES ACCESSIBLE TO V5AL CONSID]ATIONS4 ,!Y1 & !IR VIOL5CE1 & !IR PR(ESS$ AN>*ISM >E PUR*ASABLE1 & 9 ! LA/ RESORT !Y >E WELCOME & EFFICI5T P>TISANS ( ! .<RUL+ CLASS.>444 ,LET US LEAVE 9DISCRIM9ATE KILL+ & 9JUR+ TO ! GOV]NM5T -- TO ITS /ATESM51 ITS /OCKBROK]S1 ITS (FIC]S1 & ITS LAW4.<#b#e.> 

,AN>*ISM 9 ITS PRES5T MANIFE/ATIONS AS REVOLUTION>Y SYNDICALISM1 AN>*O-SYNDICALISM1 & AN>*O-COMMUNISM1 ADVOCATES DIRECT ACTION1 BUT NOT T]RORISM OR VIOL5T ACTS4 

,SIMIL>LY1 AN>*ISM DOES NOT IMPLY ! ABS5CE ( ORGANIZATION4 ,AS M5TION$ PREVI\SLY1 AN>*I/S REJECT ! HI]>*ICAL & AU?ORIT>IAN MODEL ( ORGANIZATION ?AT ]ODES FRE$OM & EQUALITY2 BUT !Y DO NOT REJECT ! HORIZONTAL MODEL ( ORGANIZATION BAS$ ON DEMOCRATIC DECISION-MAK+1 DEC5TRALIZATION1 VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION1 & VOLUNT>Y COOP]ATION4 ,9DE$1 ?IS =M ( ORGANIZATION IS C5TRAL TO ! AN>*I/ VISION4 

,CONC]N+ RELIGION1 ,BAKUN9'S ,GOD & ! ,/ATE EXPOS$ ! 9TEGRAL RELATION%IP BETWE5 ! *UR* & ! /ATE SY/EM4 ,IT /ATES1 0,GOD MOV+ 9 ! WORLD HAS MADE ! /ATE POSSIBLE10.<#b#f.> 9 TRAC+ ?IS CONNECTION3 0,IT IS NECESS>Y TO ?9K ( IT .<! /ATE.> NOT M]ELY AS A GIV5 /ATE OR A P>TICUL> 9/ITUTION1 BUT ( ITS ESS5CE OR IDEA AS A REAL MANIFE/ATION ( ,GOD4 ,EV]Y /ATE1 ( :ATEV] K9D IT MAY BE1 P>TAKES ( ?IS DIV9E ESS5CE40 

,ORGANIZ$ RELIGION IS 9DE$ ONE ( ! PILL>S ( CAPITALI/ SOCIAL RELATION%IPS4 ,IT EMBODIES SIMIL> HI]>*ICAL & AU?ORIT>IAN FEATURES AS ! /ATE & ! CORPORATION1 & ITS IDEOLOGY & 9/ITUTIONS >E JU/ AS ANTI!TICAL TO ! 9DIVIDUAL'S QUE/ = FRE$OM & EQUALITY4 

,IT %\LD BE UND]/OOD1 ?\<1 ?AT SOME PEOPLE :O PR(ESS AN>*I/ BELIEFS NONE!LESS /ILL HOLD SOME TYPE ( RELIGI\S BELIEF4 ,?IS MAY SEEM CONTRADICTORY TO NONRELIGI\S AN>*I/S1 BUT ! S9C]ITY ( MANY ( !SE PEOPLE IS UNQUE/IONABLE4 

,SO1 :AT IS WRONG ) RELIGION FROM ! AN>*I/ PO9T ( VIEW8 ,9 ADDITION TO !IR HI]>*ICAL & AU?ORIT>IAN FEATURES1 PATRI>*AL RELIGIONS DOM9ATE ?R\< ! 9DUCTION ( FE> & IRRATIONALITY1 & ?US ROB PEOPLE ( SELF-DET]M9ATION & ! ABILITY TO ?9K CLE>LY4 ,AS WELL1 !Y HAVE V]Y PRON\NC$ 9TRUSIVE T5D5CIES4 ,MANY ( ! WOR/ 9TRUSIVE EXCESSES ( GOV]NM5TS1 BO? ANCI5T & MOD]N1 HAVE BE5 ! DIRECT RESULT ( ATTEMPTS BY RELIGI\S P>TISANS TO LEGISLATE 0MORALITY0 -- & TO 5=CE ?AT 0MORALITY0 AT ! PO9T ( A SWORD OR GUN4 

,/ILL1 MO/ AN>*I/S W\LD AGREE ) ! /ATEM5T ( ! ,G5EVA SECTION TO ! ,BRUSSELS ,CONGRESS ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,WORK+M5'S ,ASSOCIATION1 :I* SAYS ?AT 0RELIGI\S ?\<T1 AS A PRODUCT ( ! 9DIVIDUAL M9D1 IS UNT\*ABLE AS LONG AS IT DOES NOT BECOME A PUBLIC ACTIVITY40.<#b#g.> ,UN=TUNATELY1 BECAUSE ( ! 9TRUSIVE1 AU?ORIT>IAN NATURE ( ALMO/ ALL ORGANIZ$ RELIGIONS1 IT'S R>E ?AT RELIGI\S BELIEFS REMA9 A PRIVATE MATT]4 ,?US1 MO/ AN>*I/S OPPOSE RELIGION4 

,ORIG9S ( ,AN>*O-,SYNDICALISM 

,! WORD AN>*ISM IS D]IV$ FROM TWO ,GREEK WORDS1 0AN0 & 0>*OS10 MEAN+ 0)\T RULE0 OR 0CONTR>Y TO AU?ORITY40 

,! TRUE ORIG9S ( AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES DATE F> BACK 9 TIME4 ,CONCEIV$ AS A WAY ( LIFE OR A PHILOSOPHY :I* IS OPPOS$ TO EV]Y =M ( GOV]NM5T OR =CIBLE /ATE CONTROL OV] ! 9DIVIDUAL1 AN>*ISM HAS BE5 A FAMILI> !ME = HUMANK9D FROM ! DAWN ( HI/ORY4 

,9 ANCI5T ,GREECE1 ,Z5O 7#c#d#b -- #b#f#g8 ,B4,C4,E471 ! LEAD+ LI<T ( ,/OIC PHILOSOPHY1 VEHEM5TLY OPPOS$ ! IDEA ( ! /ATE'S OMNIPOT5CE1 ITS 9T]V5TION 9 ! LIFE ( & ITS REGIM5TATION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL 9 SOCIETY4 ,HE CONSEQU5TLY PROCLAIM$ ! MORAL LAW ( ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,ACCORD+ TO HIM1 AL?\< HUMANITY'S SELF-PRES]VATION 9/9CTS CAN LEAD TO EGOTISM1 NATURE HAS SUPPLI$ A CORRECTIVE TO IT BY 9/ILL+ ! 9/9CT ( SOCIABILITY3 0,:5 M5 >E REASONABLE 5\< TO FOLL[ !IR NATURAL 9/9CTS1 !Y WILL UNITE ACROSS ! FRONTI]S & CON/ITUTE ! ,COSMOS4 ,!Y WILL HAVE NO NE$ ( LAW-C\RTS OR POLICE1 !Y WILL HAVE NO TEMPLES & NO PUBLIC WOR%IP1 & USE NO MONEY -- FREE GIFTS TAK+ ! PLACE ( EX*ANGES40.<#b#h.> 

,SIMIL> IDEAS LIE BURI$ 9 ! WRIT+S & ?\<TS ( SEV]AL SUBSEQU5T PHILOSOPH]S & ?9K]S UP TO M$IEVAL TIMES4 ,IT IS HI<LY PROBABLE ?AT AN>*I/ IDEAS HAVE BE5 EQUALLY P]VASIVE 9 ,AFRICA4 

,9 HIS SEM9AL WORK1 ,AN ,5QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE1 ,WILLIAM ,GODW9 9 #agic ANTICIPAT$ LAT] AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES1 AL?\< HE DID NOT EMPLOY ! T]M AN>*ISM4 ,HIS PIONE]+ WORK YIELD$ AN \TL9E ( A DEC5TRALIZ$ & NONHI]>*ICAL SOCIETY2 HE ADVOCAT$ ! ABOLITION ( EV]Y =M ( GOV]NM5T4 ,HE FUR!R CALL$ = 0! PROGRESSIVE BREAK+ D[N ( ALL 9/ITUTIONS ?AT CONTRIBUTE TO CO]CION & 9EQUALITY4444 ,FUTURE ORGANIZATIONS W\LD BE LOOSE & VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATIONS40 ,A SOCIETY C\LD P]FECTLY WELL EXI/ )\T ANY GOV]NM5T1 HE CONCLUD$2 SU* COMMUNITIES W\LD BE SMALL & P]FECTLY AUTONOM\S4 ,) REG>D TO PROP]TY1 HE DECL>$ ?AT ! RI<T ( EV]YONE 0TO EV]Y SUB/ANCE CAPABLE ( CONTRIBUT+ TO ! B5EFIT ( A HUMAN BE+ MU/ BE REGULAT$ ONLY BY JU/ICE2 ! SUB/ANCE MU/ GO TO HIM :O MO/ WANTS IT40.<#b#i.> 

,GODW9 REJECT$ LAWS1 ALL LAWS1 BECAUSE ! REM$Y !Y (F] IS WORSE ?AN ! EVILS !Y PRET5D TO CURE4 

,IT WAS NOT1 H[EV]1 UNTIL ! PUBLICATION 9 #ahd ( ,FR5* WRIT] ,PI]RE-,JOSEPH ,PR\DHON'S ,:AT ,IS ,PROP]TY8 ?AT MOD]N AN>*ISM EM]G$ AS A =CE 9 SOCIAL ?\<T4 ,PR\DHON REJECT$ LAW & AU?ORITY 9 ALL !IR RAMIFICATIONS1 & = ! FIR/ TIME ADOPT$ ! WORD AN>*ISM AS A POSITIVE T]M4 ,HE ADVOCAT$ A SOCIETY )\T GOV]NM5T1 & US$ ! WORD 0AN>*Y0 TO DESCRIBE IT4 

,9 A SUBSEQU5T BOOK1 ,! ,F$]ATION ,PR9CIPLE1 PUBLI%$ 9 #a#h#f#c1 ,PR\DHON ELABORAT$ SLI<TLY UPON HIS E>LI] !ORY ( GOV]NM5T1 FAVOR+ ! =MATION ( SELF-GOV]N+ COMMUNITIES4 ,HE F\ND 9 COMMUNISM NO R$EEM+ FEATURE1 PREF]R+ 9/EAD 0AN>*I/ 9DIVIDUALISM40 ,HE ADVOCAT$ AN ECONOMIC SY/EM ( 0MUTUALISM10 :I* SEEKS TO ROB CAPITAL ( ITS CAPACITY TO E>N 9T]E/4 ,IT IS BAS$ ON 0! RECIPROCAL CONFID5CE ( ALL ?OSE 5GAG$ 9 PRODUCTION1 :O AGREE TO EX*ANGE AMONG !MSELVES PRODUCE AT CO/ VALUE40.<#c.> ,O!R ADVOCATES ( MUTUALISM 9CLUDE ,JOSIAH ,W>R5 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES & ,WILLIAM ,?OMPSON 9 ,5GL&4 

,AN>*ISM AS A SOCIAL MOVEM5T DIDN'T REALLY EM]GE1 H[EV]1 UNTIL ! APPE>ANCE ( ,MIKHAIL ,BAKUN94 ,BORN ON ,MAY #c1 #ahad ( ,RUSSIAN NOBILITY1 ,BAKUN9 E>LY 9 LIFE AB&ON$ HIS MILIT>Y COMMISSION & DELV$ 9/EAD 9TO PHILOSOPHY1 A PREOCCUPATION ?AT BR\<T HIM 9TO CONTACT ) ,K>L ,M>X1 ,>NOLD ,RUGE1 ,WILHELM ,WEITL+1 ,PI]RE-,JOSEPH ,PR\DHON1 ,GEORGE ,S&1 & ,FRI$RI* ,5GELS4 ,HIS ACTIVITIES BR\<T HIM REPEAT$LY 9TO CONFLICT ) ! ,CZ>I/ GOV]NM5T4 ,WEITL+'S IDEAS ( A SOCIETY ADM9I/]$ )\T GOV]NM5T1 ) OBLIGATIONS BUT )\T LAWS1 & ) CORRECTIONS 9/EAD ( PUNI%M5TS1 HAD A LA/+ 9FLU5CE ON ,BAKUN91 AS DID ! IDEAS ( ,PR\DHON4 ,AS = ,K>L ,M>X1 ,BAKUN9 ATTE/$ TO ! ,G]MAN ?9K]'S REAL G5IUS1 S*OL>%IP1 & REVOLUTION>Y ZEAL1 BUT WAS REPELL$ BY HIS >ROGANCE & EGOTISM4.<#c#a.> 

,9 ,ITALY 9 #ahfd ,BAKUN9 F\ND$ ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,FRAT]NITY OR ,ALLIANCE ( ,SOCIALI/ ,REVOLUTION>IES4 ,BY #a#h#f#g1 HE HAD MOV$ TO ,SWITZ]L& :]E HE PLAY$ AN IMPORTANT ROLE 9 ! F\ND+ ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,ALLIANCE ( ,SOCIALI/ ,DEMOCRACY4 ,! ,ALLIANCE'S PROGRAM PROVIDES AN 9SI<T 9TO ,BAKUN9'S 9ITIAL IDEAS4 ,IT READS 9 P>T3 

,! ,ALLIANCE DECL>ES ITSELF A!I/2 IT DESIRES ! DEF9ITIVE & 5TIRE ABOLITION ( CLASSES1 & .<FAVORS.> ! POLITICAL EQUALITY & SOCIAL EQUALIZATION ( 9DIVIDUALS ( BO? SEXES4 ,IT DESIRES ?AT ! E>?1 ! 9/RUM5TS ( LABOR1 LIKE O!R CAPITAL1 BECOME ! COLLECTIVE PROP]TY ( SOCIETY AS A :OLE1 %ALL NO LONG] BE UTILIZ$ EXCEPT BY ! WORK]S1 ?AT IS TO SAY1 BY AGRICULTURAL & 9DU/RIAL ASSOCIATIONS4 ,IT RECOGNIZES ?AT ALL ACTUALLY EXI/+ POLITICAL & AU?ORIT>IAN /ATES1 R$UC+ !MSELVES MORE & MORE TO ! M]E ADM9I/RATIVE FUNCTIONS ( ! PUBLIC S]VICES 9 !IR RESPECTIVE C\NTRIES1 MU/ DISAPPE> 9 ! UNIV]SAL UNION ( FREE ASSOCIATIONS1 BO? AGRICULTURAL & 9DU/RIAL4.<#c#b.> 

,UNLIKE ,M>X1 ,BAKUN9 DID NOT CLE>LY SET =? HIS VISION ( AN IDEAL SOCIETY4 ,HIS BE/ KN[N WORK1 ,GOD & ! ,/ATE1 IS A BIT+1 9SI<TFUL ATTACK ON GOV]NM5T & RELIGION2 9 IT1 HE /ATES ?AT 0BELIEF 9 ,GOD & BELIEF 9 ! /ATE .<>E.> ! TWO GREAT OB/ACLES TO HUMAN LIB]TY40 ,BUT HE DOES NOT PRES5T A SY/EMATIC EXPOSITION ( AN ALT]NATIVE TO CAPITALI/_//ATI/ SOCIETY4 

,:ILE ,BAKUN9 REMA9S P]HAPS ! MO/ REV]$ FIGURE 9 AN>*ISM1 IT FELL TO ?OSE :O FOLL[$ HIM1 NOTABLY ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 ,RUDOLF ,ROCK]1 & ,MURRAY ,BOOK*91 TO ESP\SE CLE>LY1 SY/EMATICALLY1 & PR(\NDLY ! ESS5TIAL IDEAS ON ! =M1 /RUCTURE & CONT5T ( AN AN>*I/ SOCIETY4 ,AMONG ,KROPOTK9'S MANY WORKS1 ,FIELDS1 ,FACTORIES & ,WORK%OPS ,TOMORR[1 ,! ,CONQUE/ ( ,BREAD1 ,AN>*ISM1 & ,AN>*I/ ,COMMUNISM /& \T4 

,9 ! ! FIR/ TWO WORKS1 ,KROPOTK9 DEMON/RAT$ ?AT A SCI5TIFIC & EFFICI5T PRODUCTION PROCESS W\LD R5D] LONG WORK+ H\RS UNNECESS>Y4 0,IF CIVILIZATION & PROGRESS >E TO BE COMPATIBLE ) EQUALITY1 IT IS NECESS>Y ?AT EQUALITY %\LD NOT 9VOLVE LONG H\RS ( PA9FUL TOIL = LITTLE MORE ?AN ! NECESS>IES ( LIFE1 S9CE :]E !RE IS NO LEISURE1 >T & SCI5CE WILL DIE & ALL PROGRESS WILL BECOME IMPOSSIBLE40 

,! TWO MAJOR PLANKS ( ,KROPOTK9'S >GUM5T REG>D+ WORK W]E ?AT IMPROVEM5T 9 ME?ODS ( PRODUCTION W\LD MAKE WORK MORE PLEASANT1 & ?AT ! WAGE SY/EM %\LD BE ABOLI%$4 ,TO ?IS 5D1 HE REJECT$ ANY =M ( CO]CION OR COMPULSION 9 HUMAN AFFAIRS1 PREF]R+ 9/EAD CONS5SUS4 

,9 ,AN>*ISM & ,AN>*I/ ,COMMUNISM1 ,KROPOTK9 SKET*$ AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES ) P5ETRAT+ CL>ITY3 

,! AN>*I/S CONSID]1 !RE=E1 ?AT TO H& OV] TO ! /ATE ALL ! MA9 S\RCES ( ECONOMICAL LIFE -- ! L&1 ! M9ES1 ! RAILWAYS1 BANK+1 9SURANCE1 & SO ON -- AS ALSO ! MANAGEM5T ( ALL ! MA9 BRAN*ES ( 9DU/RY1 9 ADDITION TO ALL ! FUNCTIONS ALREADY ACCUMULAT$ 9 ITS H&S 7$UCATION1 /ATE-SUPPORT$ RELIGIONS1 DEF5SE ( ! T]RITORY1 ETC47 W\LD MEAN TO CREATE A NEW 9/RUM5T ( TYRANNY4 ,/ATE CAPITALISM W\LD ONLY 9CREASE ! P[]S ( BUREAUCRACY & CAPITALISM4 ,TRUE PROGRESS LIES 9 ! DIRECTION ( DEC5TRALIZATION1 BO? T]RITORIAL & FUNCTIONAL1 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! SPIRIT ( LOCAL & P]SONAL 9ITIATIVE1 & ( FREE F$]ATION FROM ! SIMPLE TO ! COMP\ND1 9 LIEU ( ! PRES5T HI]>*Y FROM ! C5T] TO ! P]IPH]Y4.<#c#c.> 

,HE WAS CONTEMPTU\S ( ! /ATE SY/EM & RECOMM5D$ ITS COMPREH5SIVE ABOLITION4 

,= ,KROPOTK91 ! IDEAL SOCIETY WAS ONE 9 :I* ! FUNCTIONS ( GOV]NM5T >E R$UC$ TO ! B>E/ M9IMUM1 :]E 0! 9DIVIDUAL RECOV]S HIS FULL LIB]TY ( 9ITIATIVE & ACTION = SATISFY+1 BY MEANS ( FREE GR\PS & F$]ATIONS -- FREELY CON/ITUT$ -- ALL ! 9F9ITELY V>I$ NE$S ( ! HUMAN BE+40.<#c#d.> 

,S9CE ,KROPOTK9'S TIME1 MANY O!R WRIT]S HAVE MADE SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO AN>*I/ !ORY1 ESPECIALLY TO ! IMPORTANT TASK ( \TL9+ ! POSSIBLE =MS ?AT AN AN>*I/ SOCIETY MI<T TAKE4 ,ONE ( ! MO/ IMPORTANT ( !SE WRIT]S WAS ,RUDOLF ,ROCK]1 :OSE MO/ IMPORTANT WORKS >E ,AN>*ISM & ,AN>*O-,SYNDICALISM & ,NATIONALISM & ,CULTURE4 ,CONTEMPOR>ILY1 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 HAS PRODUC$ MANY VALUABLE WORKS1 SU* AS ,PO/-,SC>CITY ,AN>*ISM & ,T[>D AN ,ECOLOGICAL ,SOCIETY1 & ,GRAHAM ,PUR*ASE'S REC5T ,AN>*ISM & ,5VIRONM5TAL ,SURVIVAL IS ALSO WOR?Y ( NOTE4 ,IT IS BEYOND ! SCOPE ( ?IS *APT]1 H[EV]1 TO CONSID] 9 DEP? ! MANY POSSIBLE =MS AN AN>*I/ SOCIETY MI<T TAKE4 

,= \R PURPOSES1 SUFFICE IT TO SAY ?AT ! F\NDATION ( AN>*I/ !ORY LIES 9 ! REJECTION ( CO]CION4 ,! FLIP SIDE -- LET US SAY ! POSITIVE SIDE -- ( ?IS REJECTION IS ! BELIEF 9 HUMAN FRE$OM & EQUALITY AS ! HI<E/ GOOD4 ,FROM !SE PREMISES1 AN>*I/S NECESS>ILY REJECT GOV]NM5T 7ORGANIZ$ CO]CION & VIOL5CE7 & CAPITALISM 7ORGANIZ$ ECONOMIC DOM9ATION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL71 & 9/EAD EMBRACE VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION1 VOLUNT>Y COOP]ATION1 P]SUASION1 $UCATION1 & MUTUAL AID4 

,AN>*I/S RECOGNIZE ?AT MEANS DET]M9E 5DS1 & ?US ! MEANS ?AT AN>*I/S EMBRACE 7VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION1 COOP]ATION1 MUTUAL AID1 ETC47 MU/ NECESS>ILY BE CONGRU5T ) !IR 5DS4 ,9 ! LONG RUN1 ?IS /RATEGY WILL BE> GOOD FRUIT -- A FREE & EQUAL SOCIETY2 BUT 9 ! %ORT T]M ?IS MEANS ?AT QUICK FIXES >E UNLIKELY4 

,LIKE SIMIL> RADICAL DOCTR9ES1 AN>*ISM D]IVES 9 ! MA9 FROM HUMANK9D'S REL5TLESS -- IF SL[ & TORTUR$ -- QUE/ = FRE$OM1 AS WELL AS FROM ! DESIRE = COMPLETE DEVELOPM5T ( 9DIVIDUALS ?R\< ! RELEASE ( !IR [N 9ITIATIVES & CREATIVE 5]GIES4 ,?IS QUE/1 EV]-RECURR+ 9 HUMAN SOCIETY1 IS NO?+ NEW4 

,:AT DI/+UI%ES AN>*ISM1 AS ,B]TR& ,RUSSELL PO9T$ \T1 IS ?AT ! CLOSE RELATION ( ! AN>*I/ IDEAL TO HUMAN SUFF]+ HAS L$ TO ! BIR? ( P[]FUL SOCIAL MOVEM5TS4 ,IT IS ?IS ?AT MAKES AN>*ISM 0DANG]\S TO ?OSE :O BATT51 CONSCI\SLY OR UNCONSCI\SLY1 UPON ! EVILS ( \R PRES5T ORD] ( SOCIETY40 

,! SIMIL>ITIES & DIFF]5CES BETWE5 AN>*ISM & RELAT$ IDEOLOGICAL S*OOLS SU* AS M>XI/ SOCIALISM1 SYNDICALISM1 & GUILD SOCIALISM >E \TL9$ 9 ! NEXT *APT]4 

,*APT] #b3 ,AN>*ISM ,9 ,HI/ORY 

,! RELATION%IP BETWE5 AN>*ISM & RELAT$ SOCIAL MOVEM5TS -- NOTABLY SYNDICALISM1 GUILD SOCIALISM1 & M>XI/ SOCIALISM 79 ITS #eg V>IETIES3 L59ISM1 /AL9ISM1 MAOISM1 TROTSKYISM1 SOCIAL DEMOCRACY1 ETC41 ETC47 -- REMA9S AS CONT5TI\S TODAY AS IT EV] WAS1 EV5 ?\< !Y ALL %>E ! COMMON GOAL ( ! ABOLITION ( CAPITALISM & ! RADICAL RECON/RUCTION ( SOCIETY4 

,M>XI/ SOCIALISM1 ( C\RSE1 D]IVES FROM ! REVOLUTION>Y WRIT+S ( ,K>L ,M>X1 :O WAS 9SPIR$ BY ! DEPRESS+ SPECTACLE ( WORK+-CLASS MIS]Y 9 #a#i?-C5TURY 9DU/RIAL ,5GL&4 ,MANY1 9CLUD+ ,B]TR& ,RUSSELL1 CR$IT ,M>X ) PRODUC+ ! FIR/ COH]5T BODY ( SOCIALI/ DOCTR9E4.<#c#e.> ,IT HAD ?REE MA9 PLANKS3 FIR/1 ! MAT]IALI/ CONCEPT ( HI/ORY2 SECOND1 ! !ORY ( ! CONC5TRATION ( CAPITAL2 & ?IRD1 CLASS W>4 

,ACCORD+ TO ,M>X'S MAT]IALI/IC 9T]PRETATION ( HI/ORY1 ! SUB/RUCTURE1 ?AT IS1 ! SOCIOECONOMIC =MATION1 PROVIDES ! AXIS >\ND :I* O!R ASPECTS ( SOCIETY REVOLVE4 ,! SUB/RUCTURE 9V>IABLY DET]M9ES ! SUP]/RUCTURE1 NAMELY SOCIAL & POLITICAL SY/EMS1 & LAWS & VALUES4 ,H[EV]1 ! ECONOMIC /RUCTURE IS NOT :OLLY DET]M9+2 ! ECONOMIC1 SOCIAL1 & IDEOLOGICAL /RUCTURES >E 9T]DEP5D5T & 9T]ACT ) ONE ANO!R 9 V>I\S WAYS1 & MUTUALLY 9FLU5CE EA* O!R4 

,! !ORY ( CONC5TRATION ( CAPITAL CORRECTLY ANTICIPAT$ ! WORLDWIDE EM]G5CE ( MONOPOLIES & OLIGOPOLIES1 SPURR$ BY ! PR(IT MOTIVE & 9CLUD+ ! EXPORT ( CAPITAL1 & CULM9AT+ 9 ! DIVISION ( ! WORLD 9TO A H&FUL ( USUR] /ATES & A MULTITUDE ( DEBTOR /ATES4 

,BAS$ ON ! =EGO+1 ,M>X CONCEIV$ CAPITALI/S 70! B\RGEOISIE07 & WAGE E>N]S 70! PROLET>IAT07 AS BE+ 9 P]PETUAL CONFLICT DUE TO IRRECONCILABLY OPPOS$ ECONOMIC 9T]E/S4 0,! TWO CLASSES1 S9CE !Y HAVE ANTAGONI/IC 9T]E/S1 >E =C$ 9TO A CLASS-W> :I* G5]ATES )9 ! CAPITALI/ REGIME 9T]NAL =CES ( DISRUPTION40.<#c#f.> 

,AS ,! ,COMMUNI/ ,MANIFE/O.<#c#g.> PROCLAIMS3 0,! HI/ORY ( ALL HI!RTO EXI/+ SOCIETY IS ! HI/ORY ( CLASS /RUGGLES40 ,A RESOLUTION ( ! CLASS W> IS POSSIBLE ONLY ) ! ABOLITION ( PRIVATE [N]%IP ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 IT SAYS4 ,M>X WAS TO ELABORATE ON !SE DOCTR9ES 9 DETAIL 9 ,DAS ,CAPITAL1 AN IMM5SELY RIGOR\S & TE*NICAL CRITIQUE ( CAPITALISM1 AS WELL AS 9 A SUCCESSION ( BRUTALLY PROVOCATIVE WORKS ON CAPITALI/ PRODUCTION1 DI/RIBUTION & EX*ANGE1 & SOCIAL RELATIONS4 

,AN>*ISM IS1 ESS5TIALLY1 AN \TGR[? ( ! SOCIALI/ MOVEM5T4 ,WE BELIEVE ?AT ! HI/ORICAL CONNECTION BETWE5 ! WORLD VIEWS ( M>XISM & AN>*ISM IS AS IMPORTANT AS !IR M>K$ DIFF]5CES4 ,IT IS IMPORTANT1 !RE=E1 TO RETURN TO ! UNEASY RELATION%IP ?AT EXI/$ BETWE5 ,M>X & ,BAKUN91 & ULTIMATELY ! CONVULSIONS )9 ! FIR/ ,9T]NATIONAL ,WORK+M5'S ,ASSOCIATION4 

,M>X & ,BAKUN91 BY ALL ACC\NTS1 DID NOT GET ALONG WELL4 ,BAKUN9 ACKN[L$G$ ,M>X'S G5IUS & REVOLUTION>Y ZEAL2.<#c#h.> BUT AT ! SAME TIME HE WAS QUICK TO PO9T \T ,M>X'S >ROGANCE1 EGOTISM1 & 7,G]MAN7 NATIONALISM4 ,! FOLL[+ ACC\NT IS PROVID$ BY ,BAKUN9 HIMSELF3 0,I RESPECT$ HIM MU* = HIS LE>N+ & HIS PASSIONATE & S]I\S DEVOTION 7ALWAYS MIX$1 H[EV]1 ) P]SONAL VANITY7 TO ! CAUSE ( ! PROLET>IAT1 & ,I S\<T EAG]LY HIS CONV]SATION1 :I* WAS ALWAYS 9/RUCTIVE & CLEV]1 :5 IT WAS NOT 9SPIR$ BY PALTRY HATE1 :I*1 ALAS6 HAPP5$ ONLY TOO (T54 ,BUT !RE WAS NEV] ANY FRANK 9TIMACY BETWE5 US4 ,\R TEMP]AM5TS W\LD NOT SUFF] IT4 ,HE CALL$ ME A S5TIM5TAL IDEALI/1 & HE WAS RI<T2 ,I CALL$ HIM A VA9 MAN1 P]FIDI\S & CRAFTY1 & ,I ALSO WAS RI<T40.<#c#i.> 

,?IS AIR ( MUTUAL ANTAGONISM P]SI/$ & P]MEAT$ ALL FACETS ( !IR RELATION%IP4 ,IT WAS PR(\NDLY EVID5T 9 !IR 9VOLVEM5T 9 ! ACTIVITIES ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,WORK+M5'S ,ASSOCIATION AFT] ITS F\ND+ 9 ,LONDON 9 #a#h#f#d4 ,! ,FIR/ ,9T]NATIONAL HAD BE5 F\ND$ L>GELY BY ,M>X AS A PLAT=M = ALL WORK]S & ACTIVI/S ( SOCIALI/ P]SUASION4 ,! IDEAS ( ! ,FIR/ ,9T]NATIONAL 0SPREAD ) REM>KABLE RAPIDITY 9 MANY C\NTRIES & SOON BECAME A GREAT P[] = ! PROPAGATION ( SOCIALI/ IDEAS40.<#d.> 

,BAKUN9 WAS NOT 9ITIALLY 5?USIA/IC AB\T ! ,9T]NATIONAL1 BUT ?AT SOON *ANG$4 ,:ILE LIV+ 9 ,ITALY 9 #a#h#f#d1 HE F\ND$ ! ,ALLIANCE ( ,SOCIALI/ ,REVOLUTION>IES2 & 9 #a#h#f#i1 9 ,SWITZ]L&1 HE CO-F\ND$ ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,ALLIANCE ( ,SOCIALI/ ,DEMOCRACY4 ,! LATT] GR\P APPLI$ TO JO9 ! ,9T]NATIONAL1 BUT ITS APPLICATION WAS TURN$ D[N BECAUSE 0BRAN*ES MU/ BE LOCAL1 & C\LD NOT BE 9T]NATIONAL40.<#d#a.> ,MEMB]S ( ! ,ALLIANCE W]E SUBSEQU5TLY ADMITT$ 9 SECTIONS AFT] IT HAD DISB&$ AS A SEP>ATE BODY 9 ,JULY #a#h#f#i4 

,AT ! ,F\R? ,CONGRESS ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL 9 ,BASEL 9 ,SEPTEMB] #a#h#f#i1 A MAJOR RIFT EM]G$ BETWE5 ,M>X & HIS FOLL[]S ON ! ONE H&1 & ,BAKUN9 & HIS FOLL[]S ON ! O!R4 ,BAKUN9 /ATES ?AT1 0,IT WAS FUNDAM5TALLY A DIFF]5CE ON ! QUE/ION AS TO ! ROLE ( ! /ATE 9 ! SOCIALI/ PROGRAMME4 ,! ,M>XIAN VIEW WAS ESS5TIALLY ?AT ! /ATE MU/ BE US$ TO BR+ AB\T & CONSOLIDATE SOCIALISM2 ! VIEWS ( ! ,BAKUN9I/S 7AT ?IS P]IOD BEG9N+ TO BE CALL$ AN>*I/S7 WAS ?AT ! /ATE MU/ BE ABOLI%$1 & ?AT IT C\LD NEV] UND] ANY CIRCUM/ANCES BE US$ TO ATTA9 EI!R SOCIALISM OR ANY =M ( SOCIAL JU/ICE = ! WORK]S40.<#d#b.> 

,! ,BASEL ,CONGRESS1 ,B]TR& ,RUSSELL /AT$ 9 A RELAT$ ACC\NT1 GAVE BIR? TO TWO /RONG CURR5TS )9 ! ,9T]NATIONAL4 0,! ,G]MANS & ,5GLI% FOLL[$ ,M>X 9 HIS BELIEF 9 ! /ATE AS IT WAS TO BECOME AFT] ! ABOLITION ( PRIVATE PROP]TY2 !Y FOLL[$ HIM ALSO 9 HIS DESIRE TO F\ND LAB\R P>TIES 9 ! V>I\S C\NTRIES1 & TO UTILISE ! MA*9]Y ( DEMOCRACY = ! ELECTION ( REPRES5TATIVES ( LAB\R TO P>LIAM5TS4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! ,LAT9 NATIONS 9 ! MA9 FOLL[$ ,BAKUN9 9 OPPOS+ ! /ATE & DISBELIEV+ 9 ! MA*9]Y ( REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T40.<#d#c.> 

,DISS5SION BETWE5 !SE TWO CAMPS DEEP5$ 9 9T5SITY & SCOPE BO? )9 ! ,9T]NATIONAL & \TSIDE IT4 ,?IS CULM9AT$ 9 ! EXPULSION ( ,BAKUN9 FROM ! ,9T]NATIONAL AT ITS ,G5]AL ,CONGRESS 9 ,AM/]DAM 9 #a#h#g#b4 ,!RE ,BAKUN9 HAD MADE A CASE = ! ,9T]NATIONAL TO BE MADE A LOOSE ASSOCIATION ( FULLY AUTONOM\S1 NATIONAL GR\PS DEVOT$ ONLY TO ! ECONOMIC /RUGGLE AS OPPOS$ TO ,M>X'S WELL KN[N PREF]5CE = A C5TRALIZ$ POLITICAL MOVEM5T & ALL ?AT GOES ) SU* A MOVEM5T4 

,9 ! 5D1 ! ,9T]NATIONAL BROKE UP1 LEAV+ 9 ITS WAKE TWO FEUD+ FACTIONS EMBODY+ ! FUNDAM5TAL DIFF]5CES BETWE5 AN>*ISM & M>XI/ SOCIALISM -- NAMELY1 TOTAL REJECTION ( ! /ATE SY/EM BY ! =M]1 & ITS EMBRACE BY ! LATT]4 

,5GELS HAD1 9 FACT1 ADVOCAT$ 0A V]Y /RONG GOV]NM5T0 )9 ! OV]ALL FRAMEWORK ( PROLET>IAN DICTATOR%IP TO REPLACE ! CAPITALI/ /ATE4 ,LUCRAFT1 A MEMB] ( ! ,G5]AL ,C\NCIL ( ! ,BASEL ,CONGRESS1 HAD ADVANC$ ! IDEA ?AT ALL L& 9 A C\NTRY %\LD BECOME ! PROP]TY ( ! /ATE1 & ?AT ! CULTIVATION ( ! L& %\LD BE DIRECT$ & ADM9I/]$ BY /ATE (FICIALS1 0:I* WILL ONLY BE POSSIBLE 9 A DEMOCRATIC & SOCIALI/ /ATE1 :I* ! PEOPLE WILL HAVE TO WAT* C>EFULLY OV] ! GOOD ADM9I/RATION ( ! NATIONAL L& BY ! /ATE40.<#d#d.> ,SIMIL>LY1 ! ,G]MAN ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRATIC ,LABOR ,P>TY1 F\ND$ UND] ! AUSPICES ( ,M>X1 ,BEBEL & ,LIEBKNE*T1 /AT$ 9 ITS BLUEPR9T ?AT ! ACQUISITION ( POLITICAL P[] WAS ! PRELIM9>Y CONDITION = ! ECONOMIC EMANCIPATION ( ! PROLET>IAT4 ,! /ATE SY/EM WAS 9 ?IS S5SE TRANSITIONAL1 P5D+ ITS WI!R+ AWAY 9 ! LONG T]M ) ! FULL ACCOMPLI%M5T ( ! SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION4 ,AT ?AT PO9T1 ALL CLASS DIFF]5CES & ANTAGONISMS W\LD BE ELIM9AT$1 RESULT+ 91 AS ,5GELS PUT IT1 ! 0ABOLITION ( ! /ATE AS A /ATE40 ,= M>XI/ SOCIALISM1 !RE=E1 ! WI!R+ AWAY ( ! /ATE CON/ITUTES AN 5D 9 ITSELF4 ,ASSUM+ ?AT ?IS W]E LOGICAL & FEASIBLE1 IT W\LD /ILL AM\NT1 9 ! TRANSITIONAL P]IOD1 TO FI<T+ OLD TYRANNIES ) NEW ONES4 

,AS ,BAKUN9 PUT IT1 0,! ,M>XIANS ?9K ?AT1 JU/ AS 9 ! #a#h? C5TURY1 ! B\RGEOISIE DE?RON$ ! NOBILITY TO TAKE ITS PLACE & TO ABSORB IT SL[LY 9TO ITS [N BODY1 %>+ ) IT ! DOM9ATION & EXPLOITATION ( ! TOIL]S 9 T[NS AS WELL AS 9 ! C\NTRY1 SO ?AT ! PROLET>IAT ( ! T[NS IS CALL$ ON TODAY TO DE?RONE ! B\RGEOISIE1 TO ABSORB IT1 & TO %>E ) IT ! DOM9ATION & EXPLOITATION ( ! PROLET>IAT ( ! C\NTRYSIDE24440.<#d#e.> ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! M>XI/S ADVOCAT$ NOT ! ABOLITION ( CO]CIVE /ATE P[]1 BUT M]ELY ! SUB/ITUTION ( A NEW DOM9ATOR CLASS = ! OLD ONE AT ! HELM ( ! /ATE4 

,?IS MI/AKE LEADS TO O!RS1 SU* AS ADVOCACY ( POLITICAL P>TIES &1 9 SOME V>IETIES ( M>XISM1 P>TICIPATION 9 ELECTORAL POLITICS AS ! PRIM>Y MEANS ( ATTA9+ SOCIALISM4 ,9 HIS ADDRESS TO ! ,G5]AL ,CONGRESS ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL 9 ,AM/]DAM 9 #a#h#g#b1 ,M>X /AT$3 0,WE KN[ ?AT ! 9/ITUTIONS1 CU/OMS & TRADITIONS ( SEP>ATE C\NTRIES HAVE TO BE TAK5 9TO ACC\NT2 & WE DO NOT D5Y ?AT !RE >E C\NTRIES LIKE ,AM]ICA & ,BRITA9444 9 :I* WORK]S CAN A*IEVE !IR GOAL BY PEACEFUL MEANS40.<#d#f.> ,BY 0PEACEFUL MEANS10 ( C\RSE1 ,M>X MEANT ELECTORALISM & P>LIAM5T>Y ACTION -- SIMPLY PUT1 POLITICAL /RUGGLE :I* PRECLUDES TAMP]+ ) ! /ATE SY/EM4 

,EV5 ?\< BO? AN>*ISM & M>XI/ SOCIALISM HAVE ADVOCAT$ ! 9T]NATIONAL SOLID>ITY ( WORK]S 9 ALL TRADES & 9 ALL C\NTRIES 9 !IR ECONOMIC /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! P[]S ( CAPITAL1 ! ISSUE ( ! /ATE HAS CON/ITUT$ A MAJOR W$GE BETWE5 !M4 

,SAYS ,BAKUN93 

,IT IS 9 ! REAL ORGANIZATION ( ?IS SOLID>ITY1 BY ! SPONTANE\S ORGANIZATION ( ! WORK+ MASSES & BY ! ABSOLUTELY FREE F$]ATION1 P[]FUL 9 PROPORTION AS IT WILL BE FREE1 ( ! WORK+ MASSES ( ALL LANGUAGES & NATIONS1 & NOT 9 !IR UNIFICATION BY DECREES & UND] ! ROD ( ANY GOV]NM5T :ATEV]1 ?AT !RE RESIDES ! REAL & LIV+ UNITY ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL4444 ,WE DO NOT UND]/& ?AT ANYONE C\LD SPEAK ( 9T]NATIONAL SOLID>ITY :5 !Y WANT TO KEEP /ATES444 ! /ATE BY ITS V]Y NATURE BE+ A RUPTURE ( ?IS SOLID>ITY444 ,/ATE MEANS DOM9ATION & ALL DOM9ATION PRESUPPOSES ! SUBJECTION ( ! MASSES1 & CONSEQU5TLY !IR EXPLOITATION TO ! PR(IT ( SOME M9ORITY OR O!R4.<#d#g.> 

,HE ADDS 9 ANO!R PASSAGE3 

,! ,M>XI/S444 CONSOLE !MSELVES ) ! IDEA ?AT .<!IR.> RULE WILL BE TEMPOR>Y4 ,!Y SAY ?AT ! ONLY C>E & OBJECTIVE WILL BE TO $UCATE & ELEVATE ! PEOPLE ECONOMICALLY & POLITICALLY TO SU* A DEGREE ?AT SU* A GOV]NM5T WILL SOON BECOME UNNECESS>Y1 & ! ,/ATE1 AFT] LOS+ ITS POLITICAL OR CO]CIVE *>ACT]1 WILL AUTOMATICALLY DEVELOP 9TO A COMPLETELY FREE ORGANIZATION ( ECONOMIC 9T]E/S & COMMUNITIES4 

,!RE IS A FLAGRANT CONTRADICTION 9 ?IS !ORY4 ,IF !IR /ATE W\LD REALLY BE ( ! PEOPLE1 :Y ELIM9ATE IT8444 ,EV]Y /ATE1 NOT EXCEPT+ !IR ,PEOPLE'S ,/ATE1 IS A YOKE1 ON ! ONE H& GIV+ RISE TO DESPOTISM & ON ! O!R TO SLAV]Y4 ,!Y SAY ?AT SU* A YOKE-DICTATOR%IP IS A TRANSITIONAL /EP T[>DS A*IEV+ FULL FRE$OM = ! PEOPLE3 AN>*ISM OR FRE$OM IS ! AIM1 :ILE /ATE & DICTATOR%IP IS ! MEANS1 & SO1 9 ORD] TO FREE ! MASSES ( ! PEOPLE1 !Y HAVE FIR/ TO BE 5SLAV$6 

,UPON ?IS CONTRADICTION \R POLEMIC HAS COME TO A HALT4 ,!Y 9SI/ ?AT ONLY DICTATOR%IP 7( C\RSE !IR [N7 CAN CREATE FRE$OM = ! PEOPLE4 ,WE REPLY ?AT ALL DICTATOR%IP HAS NO OBJECTIVE O!R ?AN SELF-P]PETUATION1 & ?AT SLAV]Y IS ALL IT CAN G5]ATE & 9/ILL 9 ! PEOPLE :O SUFF] IT4 ,FRE$OM CAN BE CREAT$ ONLY BY FRE$OM4.<#d#h.> 

,AS ,BAKUN9 =ESAW1 RET5TION ( ! /ATE SY/EM UND] SOCIALISM W\LD LEAD TO A B>RACK REGIME4 ,H]E ! WORK]S1 PEASANTS & ! PEOPLE AS A :OLE 0W\LD WAKE1 SLEEP1 WORK & LIVE TO ! BEAT ( ! DRUM2 = ! CLEV] & ! LE>N$ A PRIVILEGE ( GOV]N+40.<#d#i.> ,EV5 IF SU* A REGIME W]E DEMOCRATICALLY ELECT$1 IT C\LD /ILL EASILY BE A DESPOTISM4 ,B]TR& ,RUSSELL EXPLA9S3 0,IT IS UND5IABLE ?AT ! RULE ( A MAJORITY MAY BE ALMO/ AS HO/ILE TO FRE$OM AS ! RULE ( A M9ORITY3 ! DIV9E RI<T ( MAJORITIES IS A DOGMA AS LITTLE POSSESS$ ( ABSOLUTE TRU? AS ANY O!R4 ,A /RONG DEMOCRATIC /ATE MAY EASILY BE L$ 9TO OPPRESSION ( ITS BE/ CITIZ5S1 NAMELY ?OSE :OSE 9DEP5D5CE ( M9D W\LD MAKE !M A =CE = PROGRESS40.<#e.> 

,UN=TUNATELY1 ,BAKUN9'S PR$ICTIONS AB\T M>XI/ SOCIALISM HAVE PROV5 TO BE UNCANNILY ACCURATE4 ,EV5 SOME M>XI/S HAVE ACKN[L$G$ ?IS4 ,ONE SU* ACKN[L$GEM5T CAME FROM ,BURTON ,HALL 9 ! ,W9T] #aifh ISSUE ( ,NEW ,POLITICS3 

444 IT IS MO/ UNCOM=TABLE = A DEV\T SOCIALI/ TO LOOK OV] ! >GUM5T EX*ANG$ BETWE5 ,M>X & ,BAKUN9 & REFLECT ?AT MAYBE IT WAS ,BAKUN9 :O WAS RI<T ALL ! TIME444 NOT ONLY BECAUSE ( ! ACCURACY ( HIS PR$ICTIONS AS TO :AT SOCIALISM W\LD LOOK LIKE1 IF IT W]E EV] TO COME 9TO EXI/5CE1 BUT EV5 MORE TO ! PO9T1 BECAUSE ! REASON+ ON :I* HE BAS$ !SE PR$ICTIONS1 RE9=C$ BY ! HI/ORICAL EVID5CE ( ! PA/ HALF-C5TURY1 SEEMS ALMO/ UNANSW]ABLY P]SUASIVE4.<#e#a.> 

,BUT HAV+ SAID ?AT1 IT'S /ILL WOR?:ILE TO ELUCIDATE ! P>ALLELS BETWE5 AN>*ISM & M>XISM4 ,CONOR ,MC,L\<L9 \TL9ES SOME ( !M3 0,BO? SY/EMS W]E F\ND$ ON ! IDEA ( HI/ORICAL MAT]IALISM1 BO? ACCEPT$ ! CLASS /RUGGLE1 BO? W]E SOCIALI/ 9 ! S5SE ( BE+ OPPOS$ TO PRIVATE PROP]TY 9 ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION4 ,!Y DIFF]$ 9 ?AT ,BAKUN9ISM REFUS$ TO ACCEPT ! /ATE UND] ANY CIRCUM/ANCES :ATEV]1 ?AT IT REJECT$ POLITICS OR P>LIAM5T>Y ACTION1 & ?AT IT WAS F\ND$ ON ! PR9CIPLE ( LIB]TY AS AGA9/ ?AT ( AU?ORITY40.<#e#b.> ,MC,L\<L9 CONCLUDES3 0,ONE CAN ACCEPT A MAT]IALI/ ME?OD ( ANALYSIS & ,M>X'S CRITIQUE ( CAPITALISM )\T ACCEPT+ ! POLITICS ( ,M>X & ,5GELS4 

,AS WELL1 M>XISM DOES NOT REJECT ! AN>*I/ PROGRAM COMPLETELY4 ,BO? AN>*ISM & M>XISM *AMPION ! ASPIRATIONS ( ! WAGE E>N] & SEEK ! ABOLITION ( ! WAGE SY/EM4 ,M>XISM1 H[EV]1 QU>RELS ) ! SEEM+ IMPATI5CE ( AN>*ISM AS WELL AS ITS WILL+NESS TO IGNORE ! 0SCI5TIFIC0 LAW ( EVOLUTION :I* SUPPOS$LY DET]M9ES ! ORD]LY M>* ( HI/ORY4 ,BO? SY/EMS >E NEV]!LESS IMPELL$ BY A COMMON & G5U9E DESIRE TO EXT+UI% ! EVILS ( CAPITALISM ?R\< ! ABOLITION ( WAGE LABOR1 ! WAYS & MEANS ( COMMODITY EX*ANGE1 &1 MO/ ( ALL1 ! NE$LESS MIS]Y1 9EQUALITY1 & EXPLOITATION *>ACT]IZ+ ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 ! HAVE-NOTS & ! [N]S ( CAPITAL4 

,!RE >E SIMIL> /RIK+ P>ALLELS BETWE5 AN>*ISM1 GUILD SOCIALISM1 & SYNDICALISM4 ,AN \TL9+ ( ! LATT] TWO !ORIES IS ?US NECESS>Y AT ?IS JUNCTURE4 

,GUILD SOCIALISM1 MADE POPUL> ?R\< ! WRIT+S ( ,S4,G4 ,HOBSON & ,G4,D4,H4 ,COLE1 /RIVES T[>D AUTONOMY 9 9DU/RY & A DRA/IC CURTAILM5T 9 ! P[]S ( ! /ATE1 BUT NOT ITS ABOLITION4 ,PUT DIFF]5TLY1 = ! WORK]S' GUILD1 ! GOAL IS NOT M]ELY TO SECURE BETT] WORK CONDITIONS1 BUT TO A*IEVE SOCIALISM ?R\< ! CONTROL ( 9DU/RY4 ,EA* FACTORY IS TO BE FREE TO MANAGE ITS [N AFFAIRS1 9CLUD+ CONTROL ( PRODUCTION ?R\< ! SUP]VISION ( MANAG]S ELECT$ DIRECTLY BY ! WORK]S4 0,! /ATE W\LD [N ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION AS A TRU/EE = ! COMMUNITY3 ! ,GUILDS W\LD MANAGE !M1 ALSO AS TRU/EES = ! COMMUNITY1 & W\LD PAY TO ! /ATE A S+LE TAX OR R5T4 ,ANY ,GUILD ?AT *OSE TO SET ITS [N 9T]E/S ABOVE ?OSE ( ! COMMUNITY W\LD BE VIOLAT+ ITS TRU/1 & W\LD HAVE TO B[ TO ! JUDGEM5T ( A TRIBUNAL EQUALLY REPRES5T+ ! :OLE BODY ( PRODUC]S & ! :OLE BODY ( CONSUM]S40.<#e#c.> 

,?IS TRIBUNAL1 KN[N AS ! ,JO9T ,COMMITTEE ( ,P>LIAM5T & ! ,GUILD ,CONGRESS1 W\LD ADJUDICATE ON MATT]S 9VOLV+ ! 9T]E/S ( CONSUM]S & PRODUC]S ALIKE4 ,BEL[ ! JO9T COMMITTEE LIE TWO P>ALLEL BODIES ) EQUAL P[]S3 ! P>LIAM5T 7/ATE7 REPRES5T+ ! COMMUNITY 9 !IR CAPACITY AS CONSUM]S1 & ! GUILD CONGRESS1 REPRES5T+ ! COMMUNITY 9 !IR CAPACITY AS PRODUC]S4 ,GUILD SOCIALISM PO/ULATES ?AT ALL SOCIAL SY/EMS TO DATE HAVE P]CEIV$ SOCIETY FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( EI!R PRODUC]S OR CONSUM]S1 BUT NEV] FROM BO? PO9TS ( VIEW4 ,IT ?US 9SI/S ON FUNCTIONAL REPRES5TATION AS A BASIS = ! ORGANIZATION ( SOCIETY1 :I* NECESS>ILY 9VOLVES ! ABOLITION ( ! WAGE SY/EM4 ,ITS !ORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS >E SUMM>IZ$ 9 ! FOLL[+4 

,CAPITALISM HAS MADE ( WORK A PURELY COMM]CIAL ACTIVITY1 A S\LLESS & A JOYLESS ?+4 ,BUT SUB/ITUTE ! NATIONAL S]VICE ( ! ,GUILDS = ! PR(ITE]+ ( ! FEW2 SUB/ITUTE RESPONSIBLE LAB\R = A SALEABLE COMMODITY2 SUB/ITUTE SELF-GOV]NM5T & DEC5TRALIZATION = ! BUREAUCRACY & DEMORALIS+ HUG5ESS ( ! MOD]N /ATE & ! MOD]N JO9T /OCK COMPANY2 & !N IT MAY BE JU/ ONCE MORE TO SPEAK ( A 0JOY 9 LAB\R0 & ONCE MORE TO HOPE ?AT M5 MAY BE PR\D ( QUALITY & NOT ONLY ( QUANTITY 9 !IR WORK4.<#e#d.> 

,SYNDICALISM1 ON ! O!R H&1 IS A SOCIAL !ORY 0:I* REG>DS ! TRADE UNION ORGANISATIONS AS AT ONCE ! F\NDATION ( ! NEW SOCIETY & ! 9/RUM5T :]EBY IT IS TO BE BR\<T 9TO BE+40.<#e#e.> 7,! WORD 0SYNDICALISM0 D]IVES FROM ! ,FR5* WORDS 0SYNDICAT0 & 0SYNDICALISME10 :I* MEAN 0TRADE UNION0 & 0TRADE UNIONISM0 RESPECTIVELY47 ,SYNDICALISM ADVOCATES DIRECT ACTION BY ! WORK+ CLASS TO ABOLI% ! CAPITALI/ ORD]1 9CLUD+ ! /ATE1 & TO E/ABLI% 9 ITS PLACE A SOCIAL ORD] BAS$ ON WORK]S ORGANIZ$ 9 PRODUCTION UNITS4 ,! SYNDICALI/ MOVEM5T1 9 CONCRETE T]MS1 GREW \T ( A /RONG AN>*I/ & ANTI-P>LIAM5T>Y TRADITION AMONG ! ,FR5* WORK+ CLASS1 :O W]E GREATLY 9FLU5C$ BY ! TEA*+S ( ! AN>*I/ ,P4,J4 ,PR\DHON & ! SOCIALI/ ,AUGU/E ,BLANQUI4 

,ACCORD+ TO ,B]TR& ,RUSSELL1 0,SYNDICALISM /&S ESS5TIALLY = ! PO9T ( VIEW ( ! PRODUC] AS OPPOS$ TO ?AT ( ! CONSUM]1 AS IT IS CONC]N$ ) RE=M+ ACTUAL WORK & ! ORGANISATION ( 9DU/RY1 NOT M]ELY ) SECUR+ GREAT] REW>DS = WORK40.<#e#f.> ,9 ,APPADORI'S WORDS1 0,! SYNDICALI/S ACCEPT ! G5]AL SOCIALI/ POSITION ?AT SOCIETY IS DIVID$ 9TO TWO CLASSES1 ! CAPITALI/ & ! PROLET>IAT1 :OSE CLAIMS >E IRRECONCILABLE2 ?AT ! MOD]N /ATE IS A CLASS /ATE DOM9AT$ BY ! FEW CAPITALI/S2 ?AT ! 9/ITUTION ( PRIVATE CAPITAL IS ! ROOT ( ALL SOCIAL EVILS & ?AT ! ONLY REM$Y = !M IS TO SUB/ITUTE COLLECTIVE CAPITAL 9 PLACE ( PRIVATE CAPITAL40.<#e#g.> 

,! SYNDICALI/ CURR5T MANIFE/$ ITSELF )9 TWO ,FR5* LABOR UNIONS 9 ! #a#h#iS1 ! ,CONF$]ATION ,G5]AL DU ,TRAVAIL 7,C,G,T -- :I* DECL>$ REVOLUTION>Y SYNDICALISM ITS CRE$71 & ! ,F$]ATION DES ,B\RSES DU ,TRAVAIL 7,F,B,T71 :I* L$ TO !IR JO9+ =CES 9 #a#i#b4 ,! SECRET>Y G5]AL ( ! ,F,B,T1 ,F]N& ,PELL\TI]1 HIMSELF ESS5TIALLY AN AN>*I/1 WAS 9FLU5TIAL 9 ! =MULATION ( SYNDICALI/ PR9CIPLES4 0,! TASK ( ! REVOLUTION IS TO FREE MANK9D1 NOT ONLY FROM ALL AU?ORITY1 BUT ALSO FROM EV]Y 9/ITUTION :I* HAS NOT = ITS ESS5TIAL PURPOSE ! DEVELOPM5T ( PRODUCTION10.<#e#h.> HE /AT$4 

,CLASS W> CONDUCT$ BY DIRECT 9DU/RIAL ME?ODS AT ! PO9T ( PRODUCTION1 9CLUD+ ! G5]AL /RIKE1 ! BOYCOTT1 & SABOTAGE 7AS OPPOS$ TO ELECTORAL POLITICAL ME?ODS7 IS HELD \T AS ! PR9CIPAL SYNDICALI/ WEAPON4 ,BE+ FUNDAM5TALLY OPPOS$ TO CAPITALISM1 SYNDICALISM ADVOCATES ! ABOLITION ( ! /ATE3 0,! /ATE WAS BY NATURE A TOOL ( CAPITALI/ OPPRESSION &1 9 ANY EV5T1 WAS 9EVITABLY R5D]$ 9EFFICI5T & DESPOTIC BY ITS BUREAUCRATIC /RUCTURE40.<#e#i.> 

,PROCE$+ FROM ?IS /&PO9T1 SYNDICALI/S AIM AT US+ ! /RIKE AS A MEANS ( UND]M9+ & EV5TUALLY OV]?R[+ CAPITALISM1 NOT SIMPLY AS A MEANS ( SECUR+ BETT] WORK+ CONDITIONS & WAGES4 ,! ULTIMATE EXPRESSION ( ! /RIKE AS A WEAPON IS ! G5]AL /RIKE 7A TOTAL WORK /OPPAGE 9 ALL S]VICES & 9DU/RIES71 ! AIM ( :I* IS TO P>ALYZE ! CAPITALI/ SY/EM4 

,SYNDICALI/S >E NO LESS CONTEMPTU\S ( /ATE SOCIALISM ?AN AN>*I/S1 CONV9C$ ?AT IT IS EQUIVAL5T TO /ATE CAPITALISM1 ) ! /ATE BE+ ! SOLE EMPLOY] 7) ! POLICE & >MY TO BACK UP ITS DICTATES72 BECAUSE ( ?IS1 !Y >E ALSO CONV9C$ ?AT ! LOT ( ! WORK+ CLASS WILL BE 7& HAS BE57 EV5 WORSE UND] /ATE SOCIALISM ?AN UND] CORPORATE CAPITALISM4 

,*APT] #c3 ,AN>*I/IC ,PREC$5TS 9 ,AFRICA 

,CONT95TAL ,AFRICA COV]S AB\T #a#a1#e1 SQU>E MILES1 RUNN+ FROM ! ,M$IT]RANEAN ,SEA TO ! ,CAPE ( ,GOOD ,HOPE1 & FROM ! ,WE/]N ,BULGE 7,S5EGAL7 TO ! ,EA/]N ,HORN 7,SOMALIA71 TOGE!R ) ! (F%ORE ISL&S ( ,CAPE ,V]DE1 ,F]N&O ,PO1 ,MADAGASC>1 ,MAURITIUS1 ,ZANZIB>1 ! ,COMOROS1 & O!RS4 

,! T]RITORY ?AT LIES BETWE5 ! ,SAH>A ,DES]T & ! TROPICAL RA9 =E/ IS ! HOME ( A V>IETY ( PEOPLES4 ,BETWE5 ,S5EGAL & ,GAMBIA LIVE ! ,WOLOR & ,TUKULOR1 :ILE BETWE5 ,GAMBIA & ! ,RIV] ,NIG] ,VALLEY LIVE ! ,SON9KE1 ,M&IGO1 ,KHRAN1 ,TU>EG1 ,A%ANTI1 ,BANB>A1 & ,DJULA4 ,! ,SON<AI DOM9ATE ! MIDDLE ,NIG] >EA1 & ! ,MASAI 9HABIT ! ,UPP] ,VOLTA BAS94 ,ACROSS ! RIV] 9 :AT IS PRES5TLY NOR?WE/]N & NOR?-C5TRAL ,NIG]IA LIVE ! ,HAUSA-,FULANI1 :ILE ! ,KANURI LIVE 9 ! NOR!A/4 ,FUR!R S\? & SPREAD+ T[>D ! EA/ ONE F9DS ! ,IGBO1 ,YORUBA1 ,GIKUYU1 ,LUO1 ,%ONA1 ,NDEBELE1 ,XHOSA1 ,BANTU1 ,ZULU1 ETC4 ,TO ! NOR? ( ! ,SAH>A LIES ,EGYPT & ! ,MA<R$B REGION1 :I* >E PEOPL$ BY ,AFRICAN ,>ABS & ,B]B]S4 

,TO A GREAT] OR LESS] EXT5T1 ALL ( !SE TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES MANIFE/$ 0AN>*IC ELEM5TS0 :I*1 UPON CLOSE EXAM9ATION1 L5D CR$5CE TO ! HI/ORICAL TRUISM ?AT GOV]NM5TS HAVE NOT ALWAYS EXI/$4 ,!Y >E BUT A REC5T PH5OM5ON & >E1 !RE=E1 NOT 9EVITABLE 9 HUMAN SOCIETY4 ,:ILE SOME 0AN>*IC0 FEATURES ( TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES EXI/$ L>GELY 9 PA/ /AGES ( DEVELOPM5T1 SOME ( !M P]SI/ & REMA9 PRON\NC$ TO ?IS DAY4 

,:AT ?IS MEANS IS ?AT ! IDEALS UND]LY+ AN>*ISM MAY NOT BE SO NEW 9 ! ,AFRICAN CONTEXT4 ,:AT IS NEW IS ! CONCEPT ( AN>*ISM AS A SOCIAL MOVEM5T OR IDEOLOGY4 ,AN>*Y AS AN AB/RACTION MAY 9DE$ BE REMOTE TO ,AFRICANS1 BUT IT IS NOT AT ALL UNKN[N AS A WAY ( LIFE4 ,?IS IS NOT FULLY APPRECIAT$ BECAUSE !RE IS NOT AS YET A SY/EMATIC BODY ( AN>*I/ ?\<T ?AT IS PECULI>LY ,AFRICAN 9 ORIG94 ,IT IS \R 9T5TION 9 ?IS *APT] TO UNRAVEL ! MANN] & EXT5T TO :I* 0AN>*IC ELEM5TS0 >E 9DIG5\S TO ,AFRICA & ,AFRICANS4 

,AFRICAN ,COMMUNALISM 

,TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES W]E1 = ! MO/ P>T1 F\ND$ ON COMMUNALISM4 ,! T]M IS US$ H]E 9 TWO S5SES4 ,FIR/1 IT D5OTES A DEF9ITE MODE ( PRODUCTION OR SOCIAL =MATION ?AT COMES G5]ALLY1 ?\< NOT 9EVITABLY1 AFT] HUNT]-GA!R] SOCIETIES1 & 9 TURN PREC$ES FEUDALISM4 ,IF ONE ACCEPTS CULTURAL EVOLUTION1 ONE SEES ?AT MO/ ,EUROPEAN & ,ASIAN SOCIETIES PASS$ ?R\< !SE /AGES ( DEVELOPM5T4 

,COMMUNALISM IS ALSO US$ 9 A SECOND1 RELAT$ S5SE TO D5OTE A WAY ( LIFE ?AT IS DI/9CTLY ,AFRICAN4 ,?IS WAY ( LIFE CAN BE GLIMPS$ 9 ! COLLECTIVI/ /RUCTURE ( ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES 9 :I*3 #a7 DIFF]5T COMMUNITIES 5JOY 7NE>7 UNFETT]$ 9DEP5D5CE FROM ONE ANO!R2 #b7 COMMUNITIES MANAGE !IR [N AFFAIRS & >E = ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES SELF-ACC\NT+ & SELF-GOV]N+2 & #c7 EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL )\T EXCEPTION TAKES P>T1 EI!R DIRECTLY OR 9DIRECTLY1 9 ! RUNN+ ( COMMUNITY AFFAIRS AT ALL LEVELS4 

,9 CONTRA/ TO ,EUROPE & ,ASIA1 MO/ ( ,AFRICA NEV] DEVELOP$ PA/ ! /AGE ( COMMUNALISM4 ,DESPITE ! 9DIG5\S DEVELOPM5T ( FEUDALISM & ! LAT] IMPOSITION ( CAPITALISM1 COMMUNAL FEATURES P]SI/ TO ?IS DAY -- SOMETIMES P]VASIVELY -- 9 ! MAJORITY ( ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES ?AT LIE \TSIDE ! BIG CITIES & T[N%IPS4 ,ESS5TIALLY1 MU* ( ,AFRICA IS COMMUNAL 9 BO? ! CULTURAL 7PRODUCTION_/SOCIAL =MATION7 & DESCRIPTIVE 7/RUCTURAL7 S5SES4 

,AMONG ! MO/ IMPORTANT FEATURES ( ,AFRICAN COMMUNALISM >E ! ABS5CE ( CLASSES1 ?AT IS1 SOCIAL /RATIFICATION2 ! ABS5CE ( EXPLOITATIVE OR ANTAGONI/IC SOCIAL RELATIONS2 ! EXI/5CE ( EQUAL ACCESS TO L& & O!R ELEM5TS ( PRODUCTION2 EQUALITY AT ! LEVEL ( DI/RIBUTION ( SOCIAL PRODUCE2 & ! FACT ?AT /RONG FAMILY & K9%IP TIES =M7$7 ! BASIS ( SOCIAL LIFE 9 ,AFRICAN COMMUNAL SOCIETIES4 ,)9 ?IS FRAMEWORK1 EA* H\SEHOLD WAS ABLE TO MEET ITS [N BASIC NE$S4 ,UND] COMMUNALISM1 BY VIRTUE ( BE+ A MEMB] ( A FAMILY OR COMMUNITY1 EV]Y ,AFRICAN WAS 7IS7 ASSUR$ ( SUFFICI5T L& TO MEET HIS OR H] [N NE$S4 

,BECAUSE 9 TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES ! ECONOMY WAS L>GELY HORTICULTURAL & SUBSI/5CE BAS$1 AS ,HORTON NOTES1 0(T5 SMALL VILLAGES F>M$1 HUNT$1 FI%$1 ETC41 & LOOK$ AFT] !MSELVES 9DEP5D5TLY ) LITTLE REF]5CE TO ! RE/ ( ! CONT95T40 ,V>I\S COMMUNITIES PRODUC$ SURPLUSES ( GIV5 COMMODITIES :I* !Y EX*ANG$1 ?R\< B>T]1 = ?OSE ITEMS ?AT !Y LACK$4 ,! SITUATION WAS SU* ?AT NO ONE />V$ :ILE O!RS /UFF$ !MSELVES & ?REW AWAY ! EXCESS4 

,ACCORD+ TO ,WALT] ,RODNEY1 09 ?AT WAY1 ! SALT 9DU/RY ( ONE LOCALITY W\LD BE /IMULAT$1 :ILE ! IRON 9DU/RY W\LD BE 5C\RAG$ 9 ANO!R4 ,9 A COA/AL1 LAKE OR RIV]9E >EA1 DRI$ FI% C\LD BECOME PR(ITABLE1 :ILE YAMS & MILLET W\LD BE GR[N 9 ABUNDANCE ELSE:]E TO PROVIDE A BASIS ( EX*ANGE44440 ,?US1 9 MANY P>TS ( ,AFRICA A SYMBIOSIS >OSE BETWE5 GR\PS E>N+ !IR LIV+ 9 DIFF]5T MANN]S -- !Y EX*ANG$ GOODS & COEXI/$ TO !IR MUTUAL ADVANTAGE4 

,POLITICAL ORGANIZATION UND] COMMUNALISM WAS HORIZONTAL 9 /RUCTURE1 *>ACT]IZ$ BY A HI< LEVEL ( DIFFUSION ( FUNCTIONS & P[]4 ,POLITICAL LEAD]%IP1 NOT AU?ORITY1 PREVAIL$1 & LEAD]%IP WAS NOT F\ND$ ON IMPOSITION1 CO]CION1 OR C5TRALIZATION2 IT >OSE \T ( A COMMON CONS5SUS OR A MUTUALLY FELT NE$4 

,LEAD]%IP DEVELOP$ ON ! BASIS ( FAMILY & K9%IP TIES WOV5 >\ND ! ELD]S2 IT WAS CONF]R$ ONLY BY AGE1 A FACTOR :I*1 AS WE %ALL SEE1 RUNS DEEP 9 COMMUNALISM4 ,9 ,AFRICA1 OLD AGE WAS -- & /ILL (T5 IS -- EQUAT$ ) POSSESSION ( WISDOM & RATIONAL JUDGM5T4 ,ELD]S PRESID$ AT MEET+S & AT ! SETTLEM5T ( DISPUTES1 BUT H>DLY 9 ! S5SE ( SUP]IORS2 !IR POSITION DID NOT CONF] ! F>-REA*+ SOCIOPOLITICAL AU?ORITY ASSOCIAT$ ) ! MOD]N /ATE SY/EM1 OR ) FEUDAL /ATES4 

,!RE WAS A PRON\NC$ S5SE ( EQUALITY AMONG ALL MEMB]S ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,LEAD]%IP FOCUS$ ON ! 9T]E/S ( ! GR\P RA!R ?AN ON AU?ORITY OV] ITS MEMB]S4 ,9V>IABLY1 ! ELD]S %>$ WORK ) ! RE/ ( ! COMMUNITY & RECEIV$ MORE OR LESS ! SAME %>E OR VALUE ( TOTAL SOCIAL PRODUCE AS EV]YONE ELSE1 (T5 ?R\< TRIBUTE_/R$I/RIBUTIVE ME*ANISMS4 

,! RELATION%IP BETWE5 ! COORD9AT+ SEGM5TS ( ! COMMUNITY WAS *>ACT]IZ$ BY EQUIVAL5CE & OPPOSITION1 & ?IS T5D$ TO H9D] ! EM]G5CE ( ROLE SPECIALIZATION1 & ?US ! DIVISION ( LABOR AMONG 9DIVIDUALS4 ,G5]ALLY1 ELD]S PRESID$ OV] ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE1 ! SETTLEM5T ( DISPUTES1 & ! ORGANIZATION ( COMMUNAL ACTIVITIES1 FUNCTIONS !Y NECESS>ILY %>$ ) SELECT$ REPRES5TATIVES ( !IR COMMUNITIES1 DEP5D+ ON ! SPECIFIC NATURE ( ! DISPUTE OR ISSUE 9VOLV$4 

,SU* MEET+S & GA!R+S W]E NOT GUID$ BY ANY KN[N WRITT5 LAWS1 = !RE W]E NONE4 ,9/EAD1 !Y W]E BAS$ ON TRADITIONAL BELIEF SY/EMS1 MUTUAL RESPECT1 & 9DIG5\S PR9CIPLES ( NATURAL LAW & JU/ICE4 ,SOCIAL SANCTIONS EXI/$ = V>I\S K9DS ( TRANSGRESSIONS -- !FT1 WIT*CRAFT1 ADULT]Y1 HOMICIDE1 RAPE1 ETC4 ,:5 AN 9DIVIDUAL COMMITT$ AN (F5SE1 (T5 HIS 5TIRE H\SEHOLD1 HIS K9SM51 & HIS EXT5D$ FAMILY SUFF]$ ) HIM1 & SOMETIMES = HIM4 ,?IS WAS BECAUSE SU* (F5SES W]E BELIEV$ TO BR+ %AME NOT ONLY UPON ! 9DIVIDUAL1 BUT EV5 MORE SO UPON HIS RELATIVES4 

,9 TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES1 ,AFRICANS REA*$ MAJOR DECISIONS ?R\< CONS5SUS1 NOT BY VOT+4 ,:AT ,NNAMDI ,AZIKIWE SAYS ( JURISPRUD5CE 9 COMMUNAL ,NIG]IA IS NO LESS TRUE ( ! RE/ ( ,AFRICA3 

,IT IS BAS$ ON ! CONCEPT ( SETTLEM5T ( DISPUTES BY CONCILIATION4 ,IT EMPHASISES ! NE$ = AMICABLE SETTLEM5T ( DISPUTES BY MUTUAL COMPROMISE4444 ,9 ITS OP]ATION1 ! MA*9]Y ( ,NIG]IAN JU/ICE %UNS TE*NICALITIES BUT PLACES MORE EMPHASIS ON R$RESS1 IMP>TIALITY1 REASONABL5ESS & FAIR PLAY444 ! POSITIVE LEGAL SY/EM ( ,NIG]IA SEEKS TO PREV5T ! P]PETUATION ( 9JU/ICE & TO 5?RONE EQUITY1 ON ! UND]/&+ ?AT NO P]SON %\LD BE UNJU/LY 5RI*$ OR D5I$ ! ELEM5T>Y PR9CIPLES ( NATURAL JU/ICE4 

,LIKEWISE1 RELIGION HELD A COHESIVE ROLE 9 ,AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY4 ,9DIVIDUALS SAW !MSELVES AS LIV+ 9 A WORLD CONTROLL$ BY AN 9VISIBLE ORD] ( P]SONAL BE+S ( :OM !Y HAD TO TAKE ACC\NT AT EV]Y TURN4 0,9 SU* A WORLD1 ! LIFE ( SOCIAL GR\PS1 LIKE O!R ?+S1 IS ?\<T ( AS UND]P9N$ BY SPIRITUAL =CES40 

,RELIGION1 9 ?IS S5SE1 WAS PRIM>ILY 0A !ORETICAL 9T]PRETATION ( ! WORLD1 & AN ATTEMPT TO APPLY ?IS 9T]PRETATION TO ! PR$ICTION & CONTROL ( WORLDLY EV5TS4 ,?US1 !RE WAS ALWAYS A CON/ANT DIALECTIC BETWE5 RELIGI\S IDEAS & PR9CIPLES ( SOCIAL ORGANISATION & SOCIAL =M1 & !SE1 9 TURN1 MUTUALLY RE9=C$ & 9FLU5C$ EA* O!R40 

,! IDEA ( 0SPIRITUAL =CES0 TRANSLAT$ 9TO A NOTION ( GODS1 AN E>? SPIRIT OR A P[]FUL GU>DIAN SPIRIT ?AT WAS P]SONAL TO 9DIVIDUAL MEMB]S ( ! COMMUNITY4 0,A MAN'S SOCIAL FIELD 9CLUDES NOT ONLY RELATIONS ) O!R M51 BUT ALSO RELATIONS ) GODS1 & ?AT ! TWO K9DS ( RELATIONS HAVE SIGNIFICANT EFFECTS ON ONE ANO!R4444 ,9 %ORT1 ! GODS >E NOT ONLY !ORETICAL 5TITIES1 !Y >E PEOPLE40 ,!SE IDEAS UND]P9N$ ! EXI/5CE ( SECRET CULTS OR SECRET SOCIETIES 9 COMMUNAL SOCIETIES4 ,AS P>T ( ! POLITICAL ORGANIZATION ( COMMUNITIES1 ! ROLES ( ELD]S1 AGE GRADES1 & SECRET CULTS W]E NOT VIEW$ AS DIV9E 9 ?IS S5SE4 

,AMONG ! SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS ?AT B\ND COMMUNITIES TOGE!R W]E ! AGE GRADES OR AGE-SET SY/EM4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,AZIKIWE1 0,USUALLY1 AGE GRAD+ DIVIDES ADULT MALES 9TO ELD]S & Y\NG ADULTS -- OR MORE R>ELY 9TO ELD]S1 MIDDLE-AG$1 & Y\NG ADULTS4 ,! AGE-GRADE SY/EM IS USUALLY F$ BY A SY/EM ( AGE SETS1 :OSE MEMB]S MOVE FROM ONE GRADE TO ! NEXT40 ,! RISE ( AGE GRADES WAS 9 ITSELF A RESPONSE TO ! NE$ = GREAT] COMMUNAL SOLID>ITY1 S9CE AGE GRADES CUT ACROSS FAMILIES & L9EAGES4 

,AGE GRADES CONSI/$ ( COHORTS ( MALES :O CAME TOGE!R TO P]=M C]TA9 FUNCTIONS & DUTIES4 ,!SE 9CLUD$ F>M WORK = !IR MEMB]S 7OR O!R MEMB]S ( SOCIETY :O ASK$ = !IR S]VICES71 ROAD BUILD+1 5VIRONM5TAL SANITATION1 BURIALS1 & H>VE/ ( F>M PRODUCE4 ,A FEMALE EQUIVAL5T ( ! AGE SETS EXI/$1 AL?\<1 AS WE %ALL SEE1 !IR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE V>I$ FROM SOCIETY TO SOCIETY4 

,SECRET SOCIETIES -- SO CALL$ BECAUSE !IR DELIB]ATIONS W]E KEPT SECRET FROM ! PUBLIC -- P]=M$ C]EMONIAL & RELIGI\S FUNCTIONS1 CLAIM+ TO HAVE L9KS ) ! GU>DIAN SPIRIT ( ! SOCIETY4 ,SECRET SOCIETIES ALSO P]=M$ JUDICIAL FUNCTIONS1 DECID+ ! MORE 9TRACTABLE 9TRA-VILLAGE DISPUTES4 ,MORE IMPORTANTLY1 IT WAS ! PR]OGATIVE ( SECRET SOCIETIES TO EXECUTE A COMMUNITY'S DECISIONS & RESOLUTIONS4 ,ADMISSION 9TO A SECRET SOCIETY WAS OP5 TO ADOLESC5T MALES REG>DLESS ( L9EAGE4 

,ROB]T ,HORTON UNRAVELS ! MY/IQUE ( SECRECY ?AT ATT5DS SECRET SOCIETIES' DELIB]ATIONS & ACTIVITIES1 :I* CONTRA/S %>PLY ) ! 0OP5 FREE-=-ALL0 ( ! AGE-GRADE SY/EM3 

,?IS SECRECY C\NT]S ! 9FLU5CE ( L9EAGE RIVALRIES 9 TWO WAYS4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 IT PROTECTS ?OSE 5GAG$ 9 ! DELIB]ATIONS AGA9/ PRESSURE FROM !IR V>I\S L9EAGES4 ,?IS MAKES IT EASI] = !M TO CONSID] ANY SITUATION ON ITS M]ITS & TO AVOID TAK+ UP POSITIONS 9SPIR$ BY PURELY SECTIONAL 9T]E/S4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 IT 5ABLES ! SOCIETY TO ANN\NCE ITS DECISIONS TO ! PUBLIC AS ?+S COLLECTIVE & UNANIM\S4 

,MEMB]S ( SECRET SOCIETIES WORE MASKS :ILE EXECUT+ ! COMMUNITY'S DECISIONS1 :I* (T5 9VOLV$ IMPOS+ SANCTIONS ON (F5D]S4 ,HORTON FUR!R EXPLA9S3 

,?IS 7WE>+ ( MASKS7 MAKES IMM$IATE S5SE :5 CONSID]$ AS A DEVICE TO 5SURE ACCEPTANCE ( ! H>%] SANCTIONS APPLI$ BY ! SOCIETY TO (F5D]S4444 ,:]E ! EXECUTIVES >E MASK$1 IT IS POSSIBLE = ! PUBLIC TO ACCEPT !IR ACTIONS1 H[EV] H>%1 AS IMP]SONAL MANIFE/ATIONS ( ! COLLECTIVE WILL4 ,IF !Y W]E UNMASK$ & ID5TIFIABLE1 !IR ACTIONS MI<T CAUSE DANG]\S RES5TM5T ?R\< SUSPICION ( SECTIONAL 9T]E/4 

,COLLECTIVE ACTION WAS ! UND]LY+ SOCIAL PR9CIPLE1 & (T5 !RE WAS COLLECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY & COLLECTIVE PUNI%M5T ( (F5D]S4 

,BO? ! AGE GRADES & ! SECRET SOCIETIES P]=M$ QUASI-MILIT>Y & POLICE FUNCTIONS 9 ! ABS5CE ( A =MAL MILIT>Y 9/ITUTION1 >MY1 OR POLICE =CE4 ,EV]Y ADULT MEMB] ( ! COMMUNITY TOOK AN ACTIVE P>T 9 ! DIS*>GE ( !SE FUNCTIONS = ! GOOD ( ! COMMUNITY1 AS A COLLECTIVITY4 ,?US1 = EXAMPLE1 EV]Y ADULT MALE MEMB] ( ! COMMUNITY W\LD BE EXPECT$ TO P>TICIPATE 9 ! SE>* = A REPORT$ /OL5 OR MISS+ OX51 %EEP1 GOAT1 OR C[4 

,9CREAS$ PRODUCTION WAS A*IEV$ 9 COMMUNAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES ) ! 9TRODUCTION ( IRON TOOLS1 NOTABLY ! AXE & HOE4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,RODNEY1 0,IT WAS ON ! BASIS ( ! IRON TOOLS ?AT NEW SKILLS W]E ELABORAT$ 9 AGRICULTURE AS WELL AS 9 O!R SPH]ES ( ECONOMIC ACTIVITY40 

,NO LESS 9/RUM5TAL TO ! A*IEVEM5T ( 9CREAS$ PRODUCTION 9 ! COMMUNAL ECONOMY WAS ! AGE GRADE SY/EM ITSELF2 MEMB]S CON/ITUT$ A /&+ POOL ( LABOR 9 ! S]VICE ( ! 5TIRE COMMUNITY4 

,SEV]AL SOCIOPOLITICAL *ANGES 9 ! COMMUNAL ECONOMY ACCOMPANI$ ! PRODUCTIVE 9CREASES4 ,! EM]G5CE ( SKILL$ IRON WORK]S CREAT$ 9CREAS+ SPECIALIZATION & DIVISION ( LABOR1 :ILE 9CREASES 9 PRODUCTION OP5$ UP OPPORTUNITIES = TRADE1 PR(ITE]+1 & ! ACCUMULATION ( DISPROPORTIONATE WEAL? 9 A FEW H&S4 ,) EXP&$ TRAD+ ACTIVITIES1 B>T] BEGAN TO GIVE WAY TO ! USE ( METALLIC OBJECTS AS /&>DS = VALU+ O!R GOODS4 

,AN IMM$IATE FALL\T ( !SE *ANGES WAS ! GRADUAL BREAKD[N ( C]TA9 FEATURES ( COMMUNALISM & ! RISE ( SOCIAL /RATIFICATION1 ALBEIT AT A V]Y L[ LEVEL4 ,BY ! TURN ( ! #a#e? C5TURY1 SEV]AL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES W]E UND]GO+ A TRANSITION FROM COMMUNALISM TO A CLASS SY/EM4 ,SOCIAL /RATIFICATION =M$ ! BASIS = ! EV5TUAL RISE ( CLASSES & ! DEVELOPM5T ( ANTAGONI/IC SOCIAL RELATION%IPS1 CULM9AT+ 9 ! E/ABLI%M5T ( EMPIRE /ATES ) C5TRALIZ$ =MS ( GOV]NM5T 9 SOME P>TS ( ,AFRICA4 

,IT MU/ BE EMPHASIZ$ ?AT1 ON ! :OLE1 AL?\< SLAV]Y EXI/$ 9 DIFF]5T P>TS ( ,AFRICA1 ESPECIALLY 9 >EAS ) ! GREATE/ ]OSION ( COMMUNAL EQUALITY1 ,AFRICAN SOCIETY NEV] REALLY WITNESS$ AN EPO* ( SLAV]Y AS A MODE ( PRODUCTION4 ,FEUDALISM DID EXI/ 9 SOME PLACES1 BUT AS ,RODNEY HAS DEMON/RAT$1 09 ,AFRICA1 !RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ! SOCIETIES :I* EV5TUALLY REA*$ FEUDALISM W]E EXTREMELY FEW40 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 SOME FEATURES ( COMMUNALISM CONT9U$ TO HOLD CONSID]ABLE SWAY 9 MO/ ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES1 AS !Y DO TO ?IS DAY UND] MOD]N CAPITALI/ /ATES4 ,?IS DEMON/RATES ! ANCI5T & T5ACI\S ROOTS ( ! COMMUNAL WAY ( LIFE 9 ,AFRICA4 ,AT ! LEA/1 ,ROB]T ,HORTON OBS]VES1 A SOCIETY ?AT HAS ONCE KN[N & 5JOY$ ! CONV5I5CES ( G5EALOGICAL RECKON+ DOES NOT LI<TLY DROP !M4 

,! MANIFE/ATIONS ( 0AN>*IC ELEM5TS0 9 ,AFRICAN COMMUNALISM1 AS WE HAVE SE5 ABOVE1 W]E 7& TO SOME DEGREE /ILL >E7 P]VASIVE4 ,!SE 9CLUDE ! PALPABLE ABS5CE ( HI]>*ICAL /RUCTURES1 GOV]NM5TAL APP>ATUSES1 & ! COMMODIFICATION ( LABOR4 ,TO PUT ?IS 9 POSITIVE T]MS1 COMMUNAL SOCIETIES W]E 7& >E7 L>GELY SELF-MANAG+1 EQUALIT>IAN & REPUBLICAN 9 NATURE4 

,DESPITE ! M>K$ EQUALITY & EGALIT>IANISM G5]ALLY ASSOCIAT$ ) ,AFRICAN COMMUNALISM1 !RE EXI/$ A DEGREE ( PRIVILEGE & 9T]NAL DIFF]5TIATION 9 SOME COMMUNITIES1 MADE WORSE SOMETIMES BY ! TRADITIONAL CA/E SY/EM4 ,9 ADDITION1 ! HI< DEGREE ( EGALIT>IANISM & FRE$OM A*IEV$ UND] COMMUNALISM WAS MADE POSSIBLE 9 NO SMALL MEASURE BY L[ LEVELS ( PRODUCTION4 

,SO1 COMMUNALISM WAS NOT AN AN>*I/ UTOPIA4 ,NO:]E IS ?IS MORE EVID5T ?AN 9 ! G5]ALLY L[ /ATUS ( WOM5 9 SOME =MS ( COMMUNALISM4 ,?IS WAS MADE WORSE1 AT LEA/ ON ! SURFACE1 BY ! PRACTICE ( POLYGYNY 7ONE MAN M>RI$ TO SEV]AL WOM51 (T5 SI/]S74 ,9 MANY ,AFRICAN COMMUNITIES1 H[EV]1 TRADITION & CU/OM ACCORD$ C]TA9 PROTECTIONS TO FEMALES2 MO/ 9JURIES TO !M -- ) ! IMPORTANT EXCEPTIONS ( CLITORIDECTOMY & 9FIBULATION 9 SOME SOCIETIES -- W]E SEV]ELY PUNI%$4 ,& !RE W]E SOME MATRIFOCAL COMMUNAL SOCIETIES1 FAM\S = !IR TRADITION ( WOM5 LEAD]S4 

,ACCORD+ TO ,SAMIR ,AM91 PRIOR TO ! EM]G5CE ( EMPIRE /ATES 9 ,AFRICA !RE EXI/$ A 0VILLAGE MODE ( PRODUCTION0 :I* IS COMP>ABLE TO ,M>X'S CATEGORY ( PRIMITIVE COMMUNISM4 ,?IS VILLAGE MODE ( PRODUCTION1 HE SAYS1 WAS *>ACT]IZ$ BY A LIMIT$ GEO-GRAPHICAL >EA & WAS C>RI$ ON )\T A C5TRAL EXPROPRIAT+ BODY1 NAMELY ! /ATE4 ,?US1 !RE WAS NO EXT]NAL AG5CY REGULAT+ ! PRODUCTIVE PROCESSES4 

,SIMIL>LY1 [N]%IP ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION WAS COLLECTIVE1 JU/ AS SOCIAL PRODUCE WAS UNIV]SALLY CONSUM$4 ,SOCIAL SURPLUS WAS L[1 &1 AS ,B$E ,ONIMODE EXPLA9S1 :AT SURPLUS !RE WAS GOT US$ UP 9 ! RECIPROCITY ( GIFT-GIV+1 :I* CONTRIBUT$ TO SOCIAL COHESION4 ,AS ! MA9 PRODUCTIVE UNIT ( SOCIETY1 EA* FAMILY CONTROLL$ ! USE ( ITS [N SURPLUS PRODUCE4 ,! BREAKD[N ( COMMUNALISM 9 ITS PURE1 UNDILUT$ =M1 & ! TRANSITION TO SEMI-FEUDALISM 9 C]TA9 P>TS ( ,AFRICA1 DID NOT SUB/ANTIALLY ALT] !SE FACTS4 

,/ATELESS ,SOCIETIES 9 ,AFRICA 

,SOME HI/ORIANS & S*OL>S HAVE DI/+UI%$ BETWE5 TWO BROAD GR\PS 9 PRE-COLONIAL ,AFRICA3 COMMUNITIES ?AT E/ABLI%$ EMPIRE /ATES & ?OSE ?AT DID NOT4 ,AN?ROPOLOGI/ ,PAUL ,BOHANNAN REF]S TO ,AFRICA'S /ATELESS SOCIETIES AS 0TRIBES )\T RUL]S10 A =M ( 0ORD]$ AN>*Y40 

,ELSE:]E1 ,RODNEY DESCRIBES /ATELESS COMMUNITIES AS3 

,?OSE PEOPLES :O HAD NO MA*9]Y ( GOV]NM5T CO]CION & NO CONCEPT ( A POLITICAL UNIT WID] ?AN ! FAMILY OR ! VILLAGE4 ,AFT] ALL1 IF !RE IS NO CLASS /RATIFICATION 9 A SOCIETY1 IT FOLL[S ?AT !RE IS NO /ATE BECAUSE ! /ATE >OSE AS AN 9/RUM5T TO BE US$ BY A P>TICUL> CLASS TO CONTROL ! RE/ ( SOCIETY 9 ITS [N 9T]E/S444 ,ONE CAN CONSID] ! /ATELESS SOCIETIES AS AMONG ! OLD] =MS ( SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATION 9 ,AFRICA1 :ILE ! L>GE /ATES REPRES5T$ AN EVOLUTION AWAY FROM COMMUNALISM -- SOMETIMES TO ! PO9T ( FEUDALISM4 

,! T]M 0/ATELESS SOCIETIES0 HAS BE5 US$ 9 A PEJORATIVE S5SE BY C]TA9 ,EUROPEAN S*OL>S TO D5OTE BACKW>DNESS >IS+ FROM ! 9ABILITY ( ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES TO E/ABLI% !IR [N /ATES4 ,/ATE =MATION 9 ,AFRICA1 SAYS ! 0,HAMITIC !ORY10 WAS ATTRIBUTABLE TO =EIGN 9FLU5CE1 ! BELIEF BE+ ?AT ,AFRICANS LEFT ON !IR [N W\LD NEV] HAVE BE5 ABLE TO PRODUCE ANY?+ MORE ?AN A 0L[0 LEVEL ( POLITICAL ORGANIZATION4 ,AMONG ! /ATELESS SOCIETIES ?AT EXI/$ ON ! CONT95T W]E ! ,IGBO1 ! ,BIROM1 ,ANGAS1 ,IDOMA1 ,EKOI1 ,NBEMBE1 ! ,NIG] ,DELTA PEOPLES1 ! ,TIV 7,NIG]IA71 ! ,%ONA 7,ZIMBABWE71 ,LODOGEA1 ! ,L[IHI1 ! ,BOBO1 ! ,DOGON1 ! ,KONKOMBA1 ! ,BIRI= 7,BURK9A ,FASO1 ,NIG]71 ! ,BATE1 ! ,KISSI1 ! ,DAN1 ! ,LOGOLI1 ! ,GAGU & ,KRU PEOPLES1 ! ,MANO1 ,BASSA ,GREBO & ,KWANKO 7,IVORY ,COA/1 ,GU9EA1 ,TOGO71 ! ,TALL5SI1 ,MAMPRUSI1 ,KUSAASI 7,<ANA71 ! ,NU] 7,S\!RN ,SUDAN71 ETC4 -- NUMB]+ TODAY NE>LY TWO HUNDR$ MILLION 9DIVIDUALS 9 ALL4 

,= ! PURPOSES ( A CLE> & RETROSPECTIVE UND]/&+ ( /ATELESS SOCIETIES1 WE %ALL PRES5T CASE /UDIES ( ?REE ( !M3 ! ,IGBO1 ! ,NIG] ,DELTA PEOPLE 79 PRES5T-DAY ,NIG]IA71 & ! ,TALL5SI 7,<ANA74 ,/ATELESS SOCIETIES T5D$ G5]ALLY TO BE AGRICULTURAL1 S$5T>Y1 & HOMOG5\S 9 *>ACT]4 

,! ,IGBO 

,ORAL TRADITION HAS IT ?AT ! ANCE/ORS ( ,IGBOS 7ALSO REF]R$ TO AS ! ,IBO7 ORIG9AT$ FROM SOME:]E 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,EA/4 ,! E>LIE/ SETTLEM5TS ( ! ,IGBOS W]E AT ,AWKA & ,ORLU1 FROM :I* !Y SPREAD S\?1 PU%+ ! ,IBIBIOS TO ! COA/AL FR+ES ( ! ,NIG] ,DELTA4 ,! ,IGBO G5]ALLY FOLL[$ A SEGM5T>Y PATT]N ( POLITICAL & SOCIAL ORGANIZATION4 ,AS AGA9/ L>GE1 C5TRALIZ$ POLITICAL UNITS1 ,IGBO SOCIETY CON/RUCT$ SMALL UNITS1 (T5 REF]R$ TO AS 0VILLAGE0 POLITICAL UNITS )\T K+S OR *IEFS RUL+ OV] !M OR ADM9I/]+ !IR AFFAIRS4 0,9 ,IGBO1 EA* P]SON HAILS444 FROM ! P>TICUL> DI/RICT :]E HE WAS BORN1 BUT :5 AWAY FROM HOME ALL >E ,IGBOS40 ,AMONG ! ,IGBO1 !RE IS A POPUL> SAY+1 0,IGBO 5WE< ,EZE10 MEAN+ ,IGBO HAVE NO K+S4 

,! SMALLE/ UNIT 9 ! SEGM5T>Y POLITICAL SY/EM WAS ! EXT5D$ FAMILY ) A COMMON L9EAGE2 SEV]AL EXT5D$ FAMILIES CON/ITUT$ A W>D2 & MANY W>DS =M$ A VILLAGE4 ,! AFFAIRS ( A VILLAGE COMMUNITY W]E CONTROLL$ BY F\R MAJOR 9/ITUTIONS3 ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY ( ALL CITIZ5S1 ! C\NCIL ( ELD]S1 ! AGE GRADES1 & ! SECRET SOCIETIES1 ?AT ACT$ AS 9/RUM5TS ( SOCIAL CONTROL4 

,!RE WAS ALSO ! ,UMUADA1 A P>ALLEL BODY ( WOM5 EI!R M>RI$ 9TO ! VILLAGE OR BORN !RE4 ,! ,UMUADA PLAY$ A KEY ROLE 9 DECISION MAK+ & IMPLEM5TATION PROCESSES1 AS WELL AS 9 MA9TA9+ ! SOCIAL VALUES ( ! SOCIETY4 ,IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE1 = 9/ANCE1 TO MAKE A DECISION ON AN ISSUE ?AT DIRECTLY AFFECT$ WOM5 OR *ILDR5 )\T ! CONS5T ( ! ,UMUADA4 

,MEMB]S ( ! C\NCIL ( ELD]S W]E USUALLY HEADS ( EXT5D$ FAMILIES & W]E SOMETIMES REQUIR$ TO P]=M PRIE/LY FUNCTIONS4 ,TO ?IS DAY1 G5]AL ASSEMBLIES ( ALL CITIZ5S >E A COMMON FEATURE ( ,IGBO SOCIETY4 ,IT IS ! DUTY ( ! T[N CRI]1 WIELD+ HIS GONG1 TO GO >\ND ! VILLAGE 9 ! EV5+ AFT] VILLAG]S HAVE RETURN$ FROM !IR F>MS TO SUMMON EV]YONE TO ! VILLAGE SQU>E AT A SPECIFI$ TIME4 ,! PURPOSE ( ! ASSEMBLY IS (T5 T]SELY /AT$4 ,AT ! VILLAGE SQU>E1 ELD]S \TL9E AN ISSUE 9 DETAIL & ! PEOPLE >E EXPECT$ TO AIR !IR VIEWS AS =?RI<TLY AS POSSIBLE1 UNTIL A CONS5SUS IS A*IEV$4 ,NEI!R ! ELD]S1 ! SECRET SOCIETIES1 NOR ! AGE GRADES C\LD DRAG ! VILLAGE 9TO A W> OR >M$ CONFLICT )\T FIR/ CONSULT+ A G5]AL ASSEMBLY = A DECISION4 ,! SMALL SCALE ( ,IGBO SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS MADE TRUE DEMOCRACY POSSIBLE4 ,ACCORD+ TO HI/ORIAN ,ISI*EI1 0ONE ( ! ?+S ?AT /RUCK ! FIR/ ,WE/]N VISITORS TO ,IBGOL& WAS ! EXT5T TO :I* DEMOCRACY WAS TRULY PRACTIC$4 ,AN E>LY VISITOR TO A ,NIG] ,IGBO T[N SAID ?AT HE FELT HE WAS 9 A FREE L&1 AMONG A FREE PEOPLE40 ,ANO!R VISITOR1 A ,FR5*MAN1 SAID ?AT TRUE LIB]TY EXI/$ 9 ,IGBOL&1 ?\< ITS NAME WAS NOT 9SCRIB$ ON ANY MONUM5T4 

,DESPITE ! SEGM5T>Y L9EAGE SY/EM ( ! ,IGBO1 !RE EXI/$ L9KS :I* BR\<T SEV]AL GR\PS TOGE!R AS ONE PEOPLE4 ,*IEF AMONG !SE L9KS W]E M>RIAGE & TRADE4 .<,WE/ ,AFRICA 9 G5]AL IS KN[N = ITS TRADITION ( WOM5 TRAD]S -- ,$4.> ,IGBO CU/OM & TRADITION 5C\RAG$ 9T]VILLAGE M>RIAGE4 ,( ! GREATE/ IMPORTANCE 9 =G+ BONDS ( UNITY AMONG ! ,IGBO W]E ! ORACLES1 :O S]V$ TO BR+ !M TOGE!R TO COMMON %R9ES4 

,BE+ =E/-DWELL+ PEOPLE1 ,IGBOS GREW 5\< FOOD TO FE$ !MSELVES1 US+ COMMUNAL LABOR PROVID$ BY BO? ! AGE GRADE & EXT5D$ FAMILY SY/EMS4 ,IGBO SOCIAL ORGANIZATION1 LIKE ?AT ( ! ,NIG] ,DELTA PEOPLE1 ,TIV1 & ,TALL5SI1 MANIFE/$ A DEF9ITE 9CL9ATION T[>D LEAD]%IP AS OPPOS$ TO AU?ORITY4 ,YET !RE W]E A FEW EXCEPTIONS 9 ,IGBOL&1 LIKE ! ,ONIT%A & ,NRI COMMUNITIES1 ?AT HAD !IR [N *IEFS4 

,! ,NIG] ,DELTA ,PEOPLES 

,! PEOPLES ( ! ,NIG] ,DELTA CAN BE DIVID$ 9TO ,IBIBIOS1 ,IJAWS1 ,URHOBOS1 ETC4 ,SLAVE TRADE WAS RIFE 9 ?IS >EA 9 ! #a#g? & #a#h? C5TURIES4 ,! PEOPLE W]E MO/LY TRAD]S & F>M]S4 ,! BASIS ( POLITICAL CUM SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 9 ?IS >EA WAS V]Y SMALL UNITS1 REF]R$ TO AS ! 0H\SE0 SY/EM1 COMPLETE ) EXT5D$ FAMILIES1 AGE GRADES & SECRET SOCIETIES4 ,! LATT] PLAY$ AN IMPORTANT ROLE AMONG ! ,IBIBIOS P>TICUL>LY1 :]E CONTROL ( POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS WAS 9 ! H&S ( MEMB]S ( ! SECRET SOCIETIES RA!R ?AN L9EAGE GR\PS1 AS WAS ! CASE 9 ,IGBOL&4 

,A 0H\SE0 CONSI/$ ( A F>M] OR TRAD]1 HIS SLAVES1 HIS [N DESC5DANTS1 & ?OSE ( HIS SLAVES4 ,A NUMB] ( 0H\SES0 COMPRIS$ A CITY-/ATE4 ,9T]-H\SE DISPUTES W]E SETTL$ BY A CITY ASSEMBLY MADE UP ( H\SE *IEFS & PRESID$ OV] BY AN ELECT$ *IEF4 

,! ,IJAWS W]E DIVID$ 9TO F\R MA9 CLANS OR CITY-/ATES3 ,NEMBE1 ,KALAB>I1 ,BRASS1 & ,W>RI4 ,! T[N ASSEMBLY WAS RESPONSIBLE = COMMUNAL POLICY MAK+4 ,! 0,SAKAPU0 SECRET SOCIETY EX]CIS$ BO? ADM9I/RATIVE & JUDICIAL FUNCTIONS4 ,! MODE ( ORGANIZATION ( ! ,URHOBOS WAS SIMIL> TO ?AT ( ! ,IJAWS 9 ALL RESPECTS4 ,H[EV]1 ONE GR\P 9 ! ,NIG] ,DELTA1 ! ,ITSEKIRI1 HAD A C5TRALIZ$ K9%IP PATT]N ( GOV]NM5T1 SIMIL> TO ?OSE ( ! ,B9I & ! ,YORUBA4 

,AS TIME W5T ON1 9 C]TA9 >EAS ! H\SE SY/EM *ANG$4 ,) 9CREAS$ 9VOLVEM5T 9 ! BOOM+ OV]SEAS SLAVE TRADE & LAT] 9 LEGITIMATE TRADE1 ! H\SE SY/EM1 PREVI\SLY ORGANIZ$ ON ! BASIS ( L9EAGE GR\PS1 WAS REPLAC$ BY :AT WAS KN[N AS ! 0CANOE H\SE SY/EM40 ,UND] ?IS SY/EM1 PEOPLE FROM DIFF]5T L9EAGE GR\PS COMB9$ TO =M A CORPORATION = ! PURPOSE ( TRADE4 

,! ,TALL5SI 

,! ,TALL5SI OCCUPY ! NOR!RN T]RITORIES ( ! OLD ,GOLD ,COA/ 7N[ ,<ANA74 ,TODAY1 !Y >E PEASANT F>M]S1 5GAG$ MA9LY 9 ! CULTIVATION ( C]EAL CROPS4 ,! ESS5TIAL FEATURE ( !IR TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURE IS MIX$ F>M+1 9VOLV+ P]MAN5T & /ABLE SETTLEM5TS1 :I* PR(\NDLY 9FLU5C$ ! SOCIAL ORGANIZATION :I* WAS BAS$ ON ! CLAN SY/EM4 

,CLU/]S ( HOME/EADS W]E KN[N AS 0SUMAN40 ,A RESID5TIAL AGGREGATE CON/ITUT$ A CLAN1 OR A GR\P ( CLANS1 MEMB]S ( :I* W]E K9FOLK BY CONSANGU9ITY4 ,RI<TS & DUTIES1 PRIVILEGES & OBLIGATIONS W]E VE/$ 9 CORPORATE UNITS1 & ANY AU?ORIZ$ MEMB] C\LD ACT ON BEHALF ( ! UNIT OR CLAN4 ,EA* L9EAGE WAS HEAD$ BY A S5IOR MALE MEMB]1 :O TOGE!R ) O!R CLAN ELD]S CON/ITUT$ A REPOSITORY ( SOCIAL & RITUAL RESPONSIBILITIES4 ,BO? ! AGE GRADE SY/EM & ! PRACTICE ( CONV5+ MASS ASSEMBLIES TO MAKE CRUCIAL DECISIONS W]E PREVAL5T AMONG ! ,TALL5SI4 ,GR\PS & NOT 9DIVIDUALS CON/ITUT$ ! S\RCE ( POLITICAL AU?ORITY4 

,! V>I\S CLANS DEP5D$1 = ! MO/ P>T1 ON COMMUNAL LABOR4 ,IT WAS POSSIBLE = L>GE L9EAGES )9 CLANS TO ACCUMULATE WEAL? BAS$ ON !IR SIZE2 H[EV]1 NO SOCIAL PRIVILEGES ATTA*$ TO WEAL?4 ,SOCIALLY & POLITICALLY1 !RE=E1 ! ,TALL5SI W]E A HOMOG5\S1 S$5T>Y & EGALIT>IAN SOCIETY4 

"9 "9 "9 

,:AT IS IMM$IATELY PROM95T 9 \R CONSID]ATION ( /ATELESS SOCIETIES IS ! ABS5CE ( C5TRALIZATION & CONC5TRATION ( AU?ORITY4 ,= ! MO/ P>T IT IS DIFFICULT TO PO9T TO ANY 9DIVIDUAL AS ! OV]ALL HEAD OR RUL] ( DIFF]5T COMMUNITIES4 ,! EX]CISE ( LEAD]%IP 9 ! S5SE ( FULL-TIME AU?ORITY WAS SIMIL>LY UNKN[N4 ,:ATEV] AU?ORITY ?AT EXI/$ (T5 AFFECT$ V]Y LIMIT$ ASPECTS ( ! LIVES ( 9DIVIDUALS4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 CLASSES H>DLY EXI/$ 9 !SE TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES4 ,IT IS 9DE$ D\BTFUL :E!R AN EQUIVAL5T = ! WORD 0CLASS0 EXI/S 9 ANY 9DIG5\S ,AFRICAN LANGUAGE -- & LANGUAGE REFLECTS ! ?\<TS & VALUES ( ?OSE :O SPEAK IT4 

,9CREAS$ PRODUCTIVITY & SPECIALIZATION 9 ! USE ( TOOLS1 TOGE!R ) 9CREAS$ TRAD+ ACTIVITIES BETWE5 V>I\S COMMUNITIES ON ! ONE H&1 & ) \TSID]S ON ! O!R1 GAVE RISE TO A /EADY GR[? ( PRIVATE PROP]TY1 9T]NAL DIFF]5TIATION_//RATIFICATION1 & SEMI-FEUDALISM4 ,W>F>E1 CONQUE/1 & VOLUNT>Y BORR[+ W]E SOME ( ! O!R FACTORS AT WORK DUR+ ! P]IOD ( COLONIAL TRANSITION4 

,E>LY AU?ORITY PATT]NS W]E COMMONLY CODIFI$ 9 RITUALIZ$ =MS ( LEAD]%IP4 ,EV5 :]E SY/EMS ( SOCIAL CONTROL 9CREAS$ 9 SCOPE1 RITUAL LEAD]S 9 MANY CASES CONT9U$ TO EX]T A MOD]AT+ 9FLU5CE OV] SECUL> LEAD]S4 ,EMPIRE /ATES W]E E/ABLI%$ AT ,KANEM-,BORNU1 ,SON<AI1 ,MALI1 ,OYO1 ,SOKOTO1 ,B591 ,ZULU1 ,NGWATO1 ,MEMBA1 ,BAYANKOLE1 ,K$E1 ,SOMUKE1 ,HAUSA-,FULANI1 ETC4 

,COLONIALISM & ! ,9CORPORATION ( ,AFRICA 9TO ! ,WORLD ,CAPITALI/ ,ECONOMY 

,AFRICA'S 9CORPORATION 9TO ! WORLD CAPITALI/ ECONOMY WAS PREC$$ BY ! SY/EMATIC P5ETRATION ( CAPITALI/ 9FLU5CES 9TO ! CONT95T PRIOR TO COLONIALISM4 ,BUT COLONIALISM ACCEL]AT$ & SOLIDIFI$ ! 9CORPORATION PROCESS4 

,CAPITALI/ 9FLU5CES FIR/ MADE !MSELVES FELT 9 ,AFRICA DUR+ ! QUE/ = ECONOMIC EXPANSION ?AT ACCOMPANI$ & FOLL[$ ! 9DU/RIAL REVOLUTION 9 ,EUROPE4 ,ONE ( ! FIR/ & MO/ IMPORTANT ( !SE 9FLU5CES WAS ! SLAVE TRADE4 ,CAPITALI/ P5ETRATION FUR!R 9CREAS$ ?R\< M]CANTILI/ ACTIVITIES & ! OP]ATIONS ( =EIGN BUS9ESSES 9 ,AFRICAN COA/AL >EAS T[>D ! 5D ( ! #a#i? C5TURY4 

,IT %\LD BE EMPHASIZ$ ?AT ! PROCESS ( P5ETRATION & ! SUBSEQU5T 9CORPORATION ( ! DIFF]5T ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES 9TO ! WORLD CAPITALI/ ECONOMY WAS NOT AN EV5 ONE1 & DID NOT TAKE PLACE SIMULTANE\SLY ALL OV] ! CONT95T4 ,9 ! ,MUSLIM SOCIETIES1 ,ISLAM WAS AN IMPORTANT FEATURE ( ! 9CORPORATION PROCESS1 AS WELL AS A S\RCE ( RESI/ANCE TO IT4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 ,ISLAM PROVID$ A S\RCE ( 9SPIRATION = RESI/ANCE1 :ILE ON ! O!R IT PROVID$ A BASIS = CLASS COLLABORATION BETWE5 ,MUSLIM >I/OCRATS & COLONIAL ADM9I/RATORS4 

,ALL OV] ,AFRICA1 ! NEW GOSPEL ( FREE TRADE PROVID$ ! IDEOLOGICAL BASIS = ! EXPANSION ( ,BRITI%1 ,G]MAN1 & ,FR5* TRAD+ 9 ! COA/AL >EAS4 ,FOLL[+ ! ,B]L9 ,CONF]5CE ( #a#h#h#d-#a#h#h#e1 A VIOL5T SCRAMBLE = ! P>TITION ( ,AFRICA 5SU$ AMONG ! MAJOR ,EUROPEAN P[]S1 M>K+ ! BEG9N+ ( TRUE COLONIAL DOM9ATION & ! 5?RONEM5T ( IMP]IAL 9T]E/S OV] ?OSE ( TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES4 ,! IMPOSITION ( COLONIAL GOV]NM5TS WAS AN EXPRESSION ( ?IS DOM9ATION1 & ECONOMIC MOTIVES1 PRIM>ILY ! QUE/ = M>KETS & RAW MAT]IALS1 CON/ITUT$ ITS RAISON D'ETRE4 

,!RE W]E TWO /AGES 9 ! PROCESS ( 9CORPORATION1 9 :I* ! /ATE S]V$ AS A VEHICLE = CAPITALI/ P5ETRATION & ULTIMATE 5GULFM5T ( PRODUCTION & DI/RIBUTION 9 ! COLONIES4 ,! FIR/ /AGE WAS VIOL5T CONQUE/1 & ! NEXT WAS ECONOMIC DOM9ATION & 5SLAVEM5T ( ! NATIVE PEOPLES4 ,=C$ LABOR WAS PROM95T AMONG ! ME*ANISMS ADOPT$ BY ! COLONIAL P[]S TO ELIM9ATE TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION4 

,9 ADDITION TO MILIT>Y ACTIONS1 CONQUE/ 9VOLV$ ! =CEFUL EJECTION ( NATIVES FROM !IR L&S1 :I* W]E !N SEIZ$ BY ! COLONIALI/S4 ,& ?IS SEIZURE WAS PROTECT$ ?R\< ! VIOL5T SUPPRESSION ( ALL =MS ( DISS5T BY ! CO]CIVE APP>ATUS ( ! COLONIAL /ATE4 

,! P]IOD ( CONQUE/ WAS FOLL[$ BY ! 9TRODUCTION ( NEW PRODUCTION PROCESSES4 ,! FUNDAM5TAL OBJECTIVE ( ?IS RE/RUCTUR+ WAS TO B9D ! 9CORPORAT$ ECONOMIES 9TO ! WORLD ECONOMY4 ,! CRITICAL WEAPONS H]E W]E MONET>IZATION 7! 9TRODUCTION ( MONEY71 TRADE1 WAGE LABOR1 TAXATION1 & 9VE/M5T1 C\PL$ ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( APPROPRIATE SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS & 9FRA/RUCTURE4 ,?IS ALWAYS 9VOLV$ ! 9TRODUCTION ( 9C5TIVES AIM$ AT DISSUAD+ ! LOCAL POPULACE FROM 9VE/+ 9 >EAS ( LOCAL NE$1 & 9/EAD TO TURN TO PRODUCTION ( CA% CROPS & RELAT$ GOODS & S]VICES4 

,IT WAS PRIM>ILY TO ?IS 5D ?AT A MONET>Y SY/EM WAS 9TRODUC$4 ,BY A MONET>Y SY/EM1 WE REF] TO ! USE ( MONEY 7?AT IS1 9H]5TLY NONVALUABLE OBJECTS OR TOK5S7 NOT ONLY AS A M$IUM ( EX*ANGE1 BUT1 MORE IMPORTANTLY1 TO ! ELEVATION ( MONEY & ITS ACC\TREM5TS TO A LEVEL ( CULTURAL PREPOND]ANCE )9 BO? ! ECONOMY & SOCIETY AS A :OLE4 ,MONEY IS1 AFT] ALL1 ! BASIC PR]EQUISITE ( A M>KET ECONOMY1 )\T :I* EX*ANGE & ECONOMIC GR[? >E IMPOSSIBLE4 ,! PROCESS ( MONET>IZATION ?US W5T H& 9 H& ) ! SPREAD ( CAPITALI/ RELATIONS ( PRODUCTION4 

,AS NOT$ E>LI]1 A CAPITALI/ ECONOMY REQUIRES ! E/ABLI%M5T ( SOCIAL & POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS ?AT REPRODUCE & REGULATE CLASS RELATIONS4 ,! COLONIAL $UCATION SY/EM S]V$ SU* A PURPOSE4 ,TOGE!R ) ! *UR*1 ANO!R AG5T ( SOCIALIZATION1 IT PROVID$ IDEOLOGICAL JU/IFICATION = ! EM]G5T CAPITALI/ MODE ( PRODUCTION 9 ,AFRICA4 ,AS WELL1 IT'S WOR? NOT+ ?AT !RE WAS NO CLE> CUT DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! /ATE & ! *UR* ON ! ONE H&1 & ! *UR* & ! S*OOL ON ! O!R -- !Y =M$ AN 9TEGRAT$ SY/EM ( IDEOLOGICAL SUPPORT = COLONIALISM_/CAPITALISM4 ,9DE$1 COLONIAL $UCATION WAS A COMMON BASIS = CLASS ALLIANCE BETWE5 COLONIALI/S & LOCAL BUREAUCRATS4 ,POLITICAL P>LIAM5T>IANISM WAS ! 9EVITABLE RESULT ( SU* $UCATION4 

,OV]ALL1 ! PROCESS ( ,AFRICA'S 9CORPORATION 9TO ! WORLD CAPITALI/ NETWORK />T$ DUR+ ! LATT] /AGES ( COMMUNALISM1 LA/$ ?R\< FEUDALISM1 & CONT9UES TO ! PRES5T DAY 9 ! =M ( NEOCOLONIALISM4 

,! ,IMPACT ( ,9CORPORATION 

,! ULTIMATE RESULT ( ,AFRICA'S 9CORPORATION 9TO ! WORLD CAPITALI/ ECONOMY WAS ! DE/RUCTION ( ! TRADITIONAL PRE-COLONIAL COMMUNAL MODE ( PRODUCTION4 ,AS ! CAPITALI/ MODE DEVELOP$1 IT CONFRONT$ ! NONCAPITALI/ MODE1 VIOL5TLY TRANS=M+ V>I\S COMMUNITIES1 TURN+ !IR L&S1 RES\RCES1 & PRODUCTS 9TO COMMODITIES4 ,C\NTLESS ?\S&S ( ABLE-BODI$ Y\NG M5 W]E UPROOT$ FROM !IR HOMES TO WORK 9 CAPITALI/ 5T]PRISES1 & ! REMA9+ POPULATION WAS COMPELL$ TO GR[ ONLY ?OSE CROPS ?AT POSSESS$ EX*ANGE VALUE-CA% CROPS4 

,! CRITICAL PO9T H]E IS ?AT ! DE/RUCTION ( ! TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC SY/EM DID NOT GIVE RISE TO A FULLY CAPITALI/ ECONOMY2 ! 5D PRODUCT WAS1 RA!R1 A DI/ORT$1 UNBALANC$ CAPITALI/ /RUCTURE4 ,?IS OCCURR$ BECAUSE ,AFRICA'S 9CORPORATION 9TO ! GLOBAL SY/EM WAS P]IPH]AL4 ,COMPLEM5T>ITY & RECIPROCITY BETWE5 ! V>I\S SECTORS ( ! ECONOMY W]E ABS5T4 ,MIS>TICULATION WAS FUR!R *>ACT]IZ$ BY A LACK ( VITAL L9KAGES )9 ! PRODUCTION PROCESS4 ,?AT IS1 CAPITALI/ DEVELOPM5T 9 ,AFRICA WAS *>ACT]IZ$ BY LACK ( 9TEGRATION4 ,UND] COLONIALISM1 BUS9ESSES OP]AT$ TO S]VE EXT]NAL M>KETS1 & USUALLY HAD LITTLE CONNECTION ) EA* O!R2 & BUS9ESSES ?AT W\LD HAVE S]V$ 9T]NAL NE$S W]E (T5 SY/EMATICALLY DISC\RAG$ 9 ORD] TO 5SURE M>KETS = GOODS PRODUC$ 9 ! IMP]IAL C\NTRIES4 ,AFRICA IS /ILL SUFF]+ ! EFFECTS ( ?AT DI/ORT$ DEVELOPM5T PATT]N4 

,SO1 CAPITALI/ P5ETRATION & SUBSEQU5T 9TEGRATION ( ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES 9TO ! GLOBAL SY/EM HAS G5]AT$ A CULTURE ( DEP5D5CE -- A DEP5D5CE ( ! P]IPH]Y 7,AFRICA7 ON ! C5T] 7! ADVANC$ CAPITALI/ C\NTRIES74 ,PR(ITS & SURPLUS VALUE >E CON/ANTLY BE+ TRANSF]R$ FROM ! P]IPH]Y TO ! C5T]4 ,CONV]SELY1 ECONOMIC & SOCIAL CRISES 9 ! GLOBAL CAPITALI/ *A9 >E READILY TRANSMITT$ TO ITS WEAKE/ L9KS -- ! HI<LY SUSCEPTIBLE P]IPH]Y4 ,AS = ! 0DEVELOPM5T0 ( ,AFRICA BY ! ,WE/1 ,LEON>D ,GON*>OV NOTES3 0,CAPITAL IS BE+ EXPORT$ FROM ! HI<LY DEVELOP$ CAPITALI/ C\NTRIES TO ! DEVELOP+ C\NTRIES1 NOT ACTUALLY ) ! AIM ( PROVID+ AID TO ! LATT]1 BUT ) ! EXPRESS PURPOSE ( D]IV+ ! HI<E/ POSSIBLE PR(IT40 

,F9ALLY1 ,AFRICA'S P>TICIPATION 9 ! GLOBAL CAPITALI/ ECONOMY HAS L$ TO ! CREATION ( A LOCAL PRIVILEG$ CLASS ?AT APPROPRIATES SURPLUS SOCIAL PRODUCE1 BECAUSE CAPITALISM CANNOT FUNCTION )\T ! EXI/5CE ( AN EXPLOITATIVE1 NAY P>ASITIC1 LOCAL CLASS4 ,H[EV]1 S9CE ! 9DIG5\S PRIVILEG$ PLAY$ ONLY A M9OR ROLE 9 LAY+ ! BASIC F\NDATIONS ( ! PO/-COLONIAL /ATE1 ITS 9T]E/S >E SUBORD9AT$ TO ?OSE ( ! =EIGN CAPITALI/S1 PRIM>ILY MULT9ATIONAL CORPORATIONS4 ,AS A RESULT1 A CLASS ALLIANCE DEVELOP$ BETWE5 ! TWO1 ) ! 9DIG5\S CLASS ASSUM+ ! ROLE ( AG5TS = 9T]NATIONAL CAPITAL4 ,ITS MEMB]S LIVE ON ! COMMISSIONS !Y RECEIVE AS MIDDLEM54 ,! DOM9ANCE ( ?IS SOCIAL CLASS1 C\PL$ ) ! ABS5CE ( AUTONOMY 9 ,AFRICA'S ROLE 9 ! WORLD ECONOMY1 HAS ESS5TIALLY TRANS=M$ ,AFRICAN /ATES 9TO FIEFDOMS4 

,CLASS ,=MATION 9 ,PO/-,COLONIAL ,AFRICA 

,TO UND]/& ! DYNAMICS ( CLASS =MATION 9 PO/-COLONIAL ,AFRICA1 WE NE$ FIR/ TO EXAM9E ! *>ACT] ( ! PREC$+ COLONIAL /ATE4 ,COLONIALISM LEFT 9DEP5D5T ,AFRICAN /ATES ) A NEO-COLONIAL ECONOMY1 ) ! CAPITALI/ MODE ( PRODUCTION REPLAC+ ! PRE-CAPITALI/ MODES2 ?IS 5TAIL$ ! SUBJUGATION ( LOCAL LABOR & RES\RCES TO ! NE$S ( CAPITALISM4 

,! CLASSES ?AT DEVELOP$ AFT] ?IS 9TEGRATION DO NOT REFLECT AN AUTONOM\S ECONOMY1 BUT A DEP5D5T ECONOMY -- !Y %[ AN >TIFICIAL & TRUNCAT$ V]SION ( ! CLASS /RUCTURE ( ! DEVELOP$ ,WE/]N ECONOMIES4 ,?IS CLASS /RUCTURE IS NOT ! CLASSICAL DIVISION 9TO CAPITALI/ CLASS1 PETIT B\RGEOISIE1 WORK+ CLASS &_/OR PEASANTRY1 BUT RA!R A SIMPLIFI$ DIVISION 9TO AN ADM9I/RATIVE CLASS & WORK+ CLASS_/PEASANTRY4 ,?AT IS1 CLASSES 9 ! =M] COLONIES >E COMPOS$ SIMPLY ( ?OSE :O B5EFIT FROM NEO-COLONIALISM & ?OSE :O SUFF] FROM IT4 

,! LOCAL BUS9ESS CLASS EFFECTIVELY BECAME A COMPRADOR CLASS ( AG5TS1 MIDDLEM51 & FRONT M5 = =EIGN 9T]E/S4 ,AS ,FRANZ ,FANON PUT IT1 ! NATIONAL B\RGEOISIE ( UND]DEVELOP$ SOCIETIES IS NOT 5GAG$ 9 PRODUCTION OR ANY CREATIVE 5T]PRISE1 BUT 9 9T]M$I>Y ACTIVITIES4 ,! ROLES ( ! LOCAL & =EIGN BUS9ESS CLASSES 9 PO/-COLONIAL ,AFRICA >E COMPLEM5T>Y1 BUT ! LATT] DET]M9E ! ACTIVITIES ( ! =M]4 

,! QUE/ TO CREATE 9DIG5\S 9DU/RY BY ,AFRICAN CAPITALI/S GIVES !M A NATIONALI/ IMAGE1 BUT !Y /OP %ORT AT ! DEM& = EXPROPRIATION ( =EIGN CAPITAL1 UPON :I* !Y REMA9 DEP5D5T4 ,! NATIONALISM ( ?IS 9DIG5\S CAPITALI/ CLASS IS ! \TCOME ( ITS DESIRE TO APPROPRIATE RES\RCES 7AT LEA/ = ITSELF7 BACK FROM ! =EIGN EXPROPRIATOR2 & AT ! SAME TIME ITS COMMITM5T TO FRE$OM = =EIGN CAPITAL IS NECESSITAT$1 9DE$ DICTAT$1 BY ITS DEP5D5CE ON NEO-COLONIAL ECONOMIC /RUCTURES4 ,9 ANY EV5T1 ! CONFLICTS ( 9T]E/ BETWE5 9DIG5\S CAPITALI/S & =EIGN CAPITALI/S (T5 RESOLVE !MSELVES 9 ACCOMMODATIONS ?AT BORD] ON DEL9EATION ( SPH]ES ( 9FLU5CE4 

,CONTR>Y TO ! LOCAL CAPITALI/S' PRET5SIONS TO AUTONOMY1 =EIGN CAPITAL /ILL HOLDS ! KEY TO LOCAL ECONOMIES ?R\< CONTROL ( TE*NOLOGY1 F9ANCES1 LOCATION ( RESE>* & DEVELOPM5T FACILITIES1 APPO9TM5T ( TE*NICAL DIRECTORS1 &1 9 G5]AL1 CONTROL ( DECISION MAK+4 

,= EXAMPLE1 A TYPICAL 9DU/RIAL 9VE/M5T 9 ,AFRICA DEP5DS ON CAPITAL-9T5SIVE TE*NOLOGY DEVELOP$ TO MEET ! NE$S ( ADVANC$ CAPITALI/ ECONOMIES4 ,?IS FACILITATES ! \TFL[ ( RES\RCES AS PR(ITS & PAYM5TS = IMPORTS & S]VICES1 & TIES ! 9VE/M5T TO ! PRODUC]S ( ITS TE*NOLOGY4 ,?IS1 ( C\RSE1 PLACES A CONSID]ABLE DRA9 ON SC>CE =EIGN EX*ANGE RES\RCES4 

,?IS PATT]N ( 9VE/M5T G5]ATES & DEP5DS UPON AN 9EGALIT>IAN PATT]N ( 9COME DI/RIBUTION4 ,9 TURN1 9EGALIT>IAN 9COME DI/RIBUTION CREATES F> MORE B5EFITS = ADVANC$ CAPITALI/ ECONOMIES ?AN = NEO-COLONIES4 

,! DEP5D5T *>ACT] ( ! LOCAL B\RGEOISIE RE/RICTS ITS MEMB]S TO S]VIC+ =EIGN CAPITAL OR TO COMPET+ AMONG !MSELVES = ! LIMIT$ RES\RCES AVAILABLE 9 ! NEO-COLONIAL SETT+4 ,?IS COMPETITION T5DS TO TAKE ! =M ( A Z]O-SUM GAME1 MODIFI$ BY AN >RANGEM5T 9 :I* ! COMPETITORS DEF9E !MSELVES 9 E?NIC & RELIGI\S T]MS -- EA* SEEK+ TO PROTECT HIS [N 9T]E/S4 

,! CRUX ( \R ANALYSIS IS ?AT ! PROCESS ( CLASS =MATION 9 PO/-COLONIAL ,AFRICA LOOKS HAPHAZ>D & 9COMPLETE3 IT TOOK PLACE ONLY 9 ! COMM]CIAL & DI/RIBUTIVE SECTORS ( ! V>I\S ECONOMIES1 :ILE ! AGRICULTURAL & 9DU/RIAL SECTORS W]E LEFT \T4 ,?IS %\LD1 H[EV]1 BE UND]/OOD )9 ! FOLL[+ CONTEXT3 :ILE ! COMPRADOR CLASS IS ! =EMO/ B5EFICI>Y ( ,AFRICA'S NEO-COLONIAL POLITICAL ECONOMY1 V>I\S O!R SEGM5TS ( ! LOCAL CAPITALI/ CLASS ALSO B5EFIT ?R\< BUREAUCRATIC /RUCTURES :I* 5TITLE !M TO PRIVILEGES4 

,AFRICAN ,SOCIALISM 

,! GLOBAL SOCIALI/ CURR5T DID NOT PASS ,AFRICA BY4 ,= ! MO/ P>T1 SOCIALI/ IDEAS 9SPIR$ NATIONAL LIB]ATION /RUGGLES & P]MEAT$ ! RANKS ( ! ANTI-COLONIAL /RUGGLE -- NOT LEA/ ( ALL 9 ! ,AFRICAN TRADE UNION MOVEM5T1 DAT+ BACK TO ! #a#i#dS4 ,! MA9 ATTRACTION ( SOCIALISM AT ?AT PO9T WAS ITS SLOGANE]+ APPEAL4 ,! PRIME MOV]S ( ! ANTI-COLONIAL /RUGGLE HAD NEI!R A FIRM GRASP ( ! SOCIALI/ WORLD VIEW1 NOR ! FOGGIE/ M5TAL CON/RUCT ( :AT A SOCIALI/ SOCIETY W\LD LOOK LIKE 9 ! AFT]MA? ( ! ABOLITION OR OV]?R[ ( CAPITALISM4 ,?IS %ALL[1 CONFUS$ CONCEPT ( SOCIALISM -- & ! CIRCUM/ANCES UND] :I* SOCIALI/ IDEAS FIR/ CAME TO ,AFRICA -- W\LD LAT] HAVE A DECID$LY NEGATIVE IMPACT ON ! GR[? & DEVELOPM5T ( ! SOCIALI/ MOVEM5T 9 ,AFRICA4 

,! DAWN ( POLITICAL 9DEP5D5CE 9 ! DIFF]5T ,AFRICAN /ATES =C$ ! 9DIG5\S1 NOM9ALLY SOCIALI/ POLITICAL CLASS TO COME TO T]MS ) ! DAUNT+ TASK ( TRY+ TO CON/RUCT SOCIALISM ON ! CONT95T4 ,! LEAD+ LI<TS ( ! MOVEM5T 9 ?IS P]IOD W]E ,KWAME ,NKRUMAH 7,<ANA71 ,SEK\ ,T\RE 7,GU9EA71 ,PATRICE ,LUMUMBA 7,CONGO71 ,TOM ,MBOYA & ,JOMO ,K5YATTA 7,K5YA71 ,S$> ,S5<OR 7,S5EGAL71 ,MODIBO ,KEITA 7,MALI71 & ,JULIUS ,NY]]E 7,TANZANIA74 

,?IS CROP ( LEAD]S W\LD LAT] BE JO9$ 9 !IR ROMANTIC SOCIALISM BY A SECOND G5]ATION ( POLITICAL ACTORS1 9CLUD+ ,MUAMM> ,GADHAFI 7,LIBYA71 ,GAMEL ,ABDEL ,NASS] 7,EGYPT71 ,AUGU/9O ,NETO 7,ANGOLA71 & O!RS1 :O1 LIKE ! FIR/ G5]ATION LEAD]S1 ALMO/ 9V>IABLY PROCLAIM$ !IR RESPECTIVE C\NTRIES SOCIALI/ & PROCE$ TO 9/ITUTE 0SOCIALISM0 AS A MATT] ( /ATE POLICY4 

,COMMON TO ALL !SE FIGURES WAS ! NOTION ( AN 0,AFRICAN SOCIALISM10 A UNIQUE BR& ( SOCIALISM PECULI>LY SUIT$ TO ! ,AFRICAN 9 HIS [N 5VIRONM5T4 ,IT RANG$ FROM ,NKRUMAH'S POSITIVE SOCIALISM TO ,S5<OR'S EXI/5TIAL & 0NEGRITUDE0 SOCIALISM1 TO ,NASS]'S DEMOCRATIC SOCIALISM1 TO ,NY]]E'S ,UJAMAA SOCIALISM4 

,NKRUMAH PROCLAIM$ ! GOALS ( POSITIVE SOCIALISM AS FULL EMPLOYM5T1 GOOD H\S+1 EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES = $UCATION1 & ! CULTURAL ADVANCEM5T ( ALL PEOPLE4 ,9 HIS !ORY ( CONSCI5CISM1 ,NKRUMAH /ATES3 0,REVOLUTIONS >E BR\<T AB\T BY M5444 :O ?9K AS M5 ( ACTION & ACT AS M5 ( ?\<T40 

,S5<OR SAW SOCIALISM AS ESS5TIALLY A NEW VISION ( ! WORLD3 

,SU* IS ! ,AFRICAN WAY1 AT LEA/1 ! ,S5EGALESE WAY TO SOCIALISM4 ,IT 9T5DS TO BE A H>MONIC DEMOCRACY1 9 BO? ! POLITICAL & ECONOMICO-SOCIAL FIELDS4 ,F> FROM REJECT+ !M1 IT 9TEGRATES ,EUROPEAN CONTRIBUTIONS4 ,BUT IT IS QUITE A DIFF]5T MATT] FROM M]E REPETITION1 FROM A POLICY ( BL9D IMITATION4 ,!SE CONTRIBUTIONS SELECT$ ) C>E1 %ALL BE 9TEGRAT$ 9TO & IMPREGNAT$ BY ! VALUES ( NEGRITUDE4 ,= NEGRITUDE IS NO?+ ELSE BUT ! :OLE ( ! LIV+ VALUES ( BLACK ,AFRICA4 

,= HIS P>T1 ,NASS] *>ACT]IZ$ SOCIALISM AS 0! ASS]TION ( ! SOV]EIGNTY ( ! PEOPLE & ! PLAC+ ( ALL AU?ORITY 9 !IR H&S & ! CONSECRATION ( ALL P[]S TO S]VE !IR 5DS -- ! SETT+ UP ( A SOCIETY ON A BASIS ( SUFFICI5CY & JU/ICE1 ( WORK & EQUAL OPPORTUNITY = ALL1 & ( PRODUCTION & S]VICES40 ,HE ADVOCAT$ A TWO-/AGE REVOLUTION3 A POLITICAL REVOLUTION ?AT 5ABLES ! PEOPLE TO RECOV] !IR RI<T TO SELF-GOV]NM5T1 & A SOCIAL REVOLUTION -- A CLASS CONFLICT ?AT T]M9ATES ULTIMATELY 9 ! REALIZATION ( SOCIAL JU/ICE = ALL4 

,AFRICAN SOCIALISM1 = :AT IT'S WOR?1 HAS BE5 V>I\SLY CRITICIZ$ = LACK+ !ORETICAL COH]5CE & CL>ITY1 &1 WORSE /ILL1 = ! QUE/IONABLE MANN] 9 :I* IT SEEKS TO ISOLATE WORLD SOCIALISM FROM ?AT PRACTIC$ 9 ,AFRICA4 ,CRITICS ( ,AFRICAN SOCIALISM HAVE PO9T$ \T ?AT EXPLOITATION & OPPRESSION >E UNIV]SAL EVILS1 & ?AT SOCIALISM IS UNIV]SAL 9 SCOPE & APPLICATION 7?\< IT CAN BE ADAPT$ TO SUIT 9DIVIDUAL CULTURES74 ,IT'S ALSO WOR? NOT+ ?AT ALL ( ! V>IETIES ( ,AFRICAN ,SOCIALISM W]E /ATE-SOCIALI/ V>IETIES1 & !Y ?US SUFF]$ ! TYPICAL DEFECTS ( /ATE SOCIALISM :]EV] IT APPE>S2 H[EV]1 L>GELY BECAUSE ( LACK ( A FULLY DEVELOP$ P>TY_/CO]CIVE APP>ATUS1 AT LEA/ A FEW ,AFRICAN 0SOCIALI/0 C\NTRIES W]E SP>$ ! WOR/ EXCESSES ( /ATE SOCIALISM4 

,! BALANCE %EETS ( ! DIFF]5T SOCIALI/ /ATES & ! V>I\S REGIMES ?AT CAME TO P[] BESPEAK LACK ( A*IEVEM5T1 & ! SAME1 SOMETIMES EV5 WORSE1 AU?ORIT>IAN 9CL9ATIONS ?AT *>ACT]IZ$ ! ]/:ILE COLONIAL /ATES & COLONIAL MA/]S4 ,ALL ( ! REACTION>Y G]MS ( M>XI/ /ATE SOCIALISM PRES5T 9 ! ,SOVIET ,UNION1 ,EA/]N ,EUROPE1 ,NOR? ,KOREA1 ,*9A & ,CUBA W]E PRES5T 9 ,AFRICAN /ATE SOCIALISM1 EV5 9 ITS MO/ PRIMITIVE /AGES4 ,&1 UNIQUELY1 ,AFRICAN /ATE SOCIALISM ELEVAT$ E?NIC 7TRIBAL7 & RELIGI\S S5TIM5TS TO ! LEVEL ( /ATE IDEOLOGY4 

,DESPITE SOCIALI/ RHETORIC1 CAPITALI/ RELATIONS ( PRODUCTION REMA9$ DOM9ANT = ! MO/ P>T 9 0,AFRICAN SOCIALI/0 SOCIETIES4 ,CORRUPTION & PRIMITIVE ACCUMULATION ?R\< USE ( /ATE P[]S & RES\RCES *>ACT]IZ$ ! DOM9ANT POLITICAL CLASS4 ,LABOR REPRESSION WAS PRON\NC$2 9 FACT1 ! E>LI] LOT ( ! WORK] UND] COLONIAL & PO/-COLONIAL CAPITALISM (T5 WAS BETT] ?AN UND] ! V]Y UND]DEVELOP$ /ATE SOCIALI/ /RUCTURES SPAWN$ BY SELF-S]V+ 0SOCIALI/S0 &1 SOMETIMES1 GUN-TOT+ SOLDI]S & MILIT>Y (FIC]S AS WELL4 

,SOCIALISM 9 ,AFRICA1 = ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES1 WAS BAS$ ON ! ,SOVIET_/,EA/]N ,EUROPEAN MODEL1 & IT DISPLAY$ ALL ! ESS5TIAL FEATURES & *>ACT]I/ICS ( ?AT MODEL4 ,! ,AFRICAN EXP]I5CE WAS1 P]HAPS1 PECULI> 9 ! S5SE ?AT ! /ATE 9H]IT$ AT POLITICAL 9DEP5D5CE WAS NEO-COLONIAL4 ,EXPECTATIONS ?AT SOCIALISM W\LD ALT] ?IS W]E NEV] REALIZ$2 IF ANY?+1 SOCIALISM TRUNCAT$ DEVELOPM5T & RE9=C$ NEO-COLONIALISM4 ,! PAUP]IZATION ( C\NTRIES LIKE ,GU9EA UND] ,SEK\ ,T\RE1 ,B59 UND] ,MA!W ,K]EK\1 ,E?IOPIA UND] ,M5<I/U ,M>IAM1 ETC41 W5T H& 9 H& ) MASSIVE REPRESSION & AU?ORIT>IAN SELF-RI<TE\SNESS4 ,SOME ( ! MO/ BACKW>D1 MO/ REACTION>Y REGIMES ?AT EV] SET FOOT ON ,AFRICAN SOIL W]E SOCIALI/ ONES1 SOME L$ BY MILIT>Y (FIC]S :O %OT !IR WAY TO P[]4 

,!RE >E MANY EXAMPLES ( FAIL$ SOCIALI/ /ATES 9 ,AFRICA1 ! WOR/ PROBABLY BE+ ,M5<I/U'S ,E?IOPIA2 O!RS 9CLUDE ,GADHAFI'S ,LIBYA1 ,K]EK\'S ,B591 & ,SEK\ ,T\RE'S ,GU9EA4 ,NKRUMAH 9 ,<ANA & ,B\RM$9E 9 ,ALG]IA MADE ! MO/ ?OR\<1 F>-REA*+ ATTEMPTS TO 9/ALL SOCIALISM 9 ,AFRICA2 & BO? FAIL$4 ,! SOLE SEEM+ EXCEPTION TO ?IS /R+ ( FAILURES IS ! G5U9E & CR$IBLE ATTEMPT MADE 9 ,TANZANIA UND] ,NY]]E TO BUILD SOCIALISM US+ ! ,UJAMAA VILLAGE S*EME AS A SPR+BO>D4 7,IT FAIL$ ALL ! SAME1 AS WE %ALL SEE47 

,WE CAN SAFELY SAY ?AT LONG BE=E COMMUNISM COLLAPS$ 9 ! ,SOVIET ,UNION & ,EA/]N ,EUROPE1 SOCIALISM HAD FAIL$ 9 ,AFRICA1 PROVOK+ 9 ITS WAKE 9T]M9ABLE CRISES & TURMOIL4 ,! OV]?R[ ( ,NKRUMAH 9 ,<ANA & ! EXIT ( ,NASS] 9 ,EGYPT1 C\PL$ ) ! FAILURE ( ! ,UJAMAA PROGRAM 9 ,TANZANIA1 & ! POPUL> UPRIS+ AGA9/ ,ALG]IAN /ATE SOCIALISM >E SYMPTOMATIC ( ?IS FAILURE4 

,IS ,!RE AN ,AFRICAN ,AN>*ISM8 

,IS !RE A DEVELOP$1 SY/EMATIC BODY ( ?\<T ON AN>*ISM ?AT IS ( ,AFRICAN ORIG98 ,BECAUSE AN>*ISM AS A WAY ( LIFE IS 9 L>GE MEASURE 9DIG5\S 9 ,AFRICA1 IT SEEMS ALMO/ C]TA9 ?AT ,AFRICANS HAD1 AT ONE TIME OR ANO!R1 =MULAT$ CREATIVE IDEAS ON ?IS WAY ( ORGANIZ+ SOCIETY4 ,BUT ANY SU* IDEAS W]E ALMO/ C]TA9LY NEV] RECORD$ 9 WRITT5 =M4 ,IT IS NOT SURPRIS+ !N1 ?AT MANY IDEAS W]E NOT PRES]V$4 ,MU* ( ! EXI/+ LIT]ATURE ON ,AFRICAN COMMUNALISM & TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES IS BAS$ ON ! LATT] DAY WORKS & WRIT+S ( ,EUROPEAN AN?ROPOLOGI/S1 HI/ORIANS1 >*AEOLOGI/S1 SOCIOLOGI/S &1 MORE REC5TLY1 !IR ,AFRICAN C\NT]P>TS4 ,NONE!LESS1 !SE WORKS & ! IDEAS 9 !M >E FRAGM5T$ & DISJO9T$ ) REG>D TO AN>*I/ CONCEPTS & PR9CIPLES4 

,! DIFF]5T /R&S ( ADVANC$1 NONACADEMIC ,AFRICAN ?\<T -- FROM ! TIME ( COLONIAL RULE TO ! PO/-9DEP5D5CE P]IOD -- ON ! MATT]S ( SOCIALISM1 REVOLUTION1 & COLONIALISM1 >E NOT SO FRAGM5T$4 ,= 9/ANCE1 9 ! EUPHORIA ?AT ATT5D$ ,NIG]IA'S 9DEP5D5CE 9 #a#i#f1 BO? ! ,EA/]N & ,WE/]N REGIONAL GOV]NM5TS 5UNCIAT$ A PROGRAM ( F>M SETTLEM5TS DESIGN$1 AMONG O!R ?+S1 TO3 A7 EXT5D ! FRONTI]S ( FRE$OM & 9ITIATIVE :I* ! AV]AGE F>M] BR\<T TO BE> ON HIS WORK2 B7 FREE F>M+ & AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION FROM DRUDG]Y2 & C7 LAY ! F\NDATION = ! EM]G5CE ( AGRO-ALLI$1 M$IUM-SCALE 9DU/RIES4 

,! PROGRAM1 A PET IDEA ( ! RADICAL1 LEFT-LEAN+ FACTION ( ,NIG]IA'S EM]G5T LOCAL RUL+ CLASS -- = :OM 9DEP5D5CE MEANT MORE ?AN AN OPPORTUNITY = SELF-GOV]NM5T -- WAS MODEL$ ON ! POPUL> ,ISRAELI ,KIBBUTZ SY/EM & WAS 9T5D$ TO RECREATE ! TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN COMMUNAL WAY ( LIV+1 COMPLETE ) ITS FEATURES ( EQUALITY & FRE$OM4 ,UND] ! >RANGEM5T1 F>M]S LIV$ ) !IR FAMILIES 9 COLLECTIVES & %>$ 9 COMMON ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 9CLUD+ F>M+ TOOLS & IMPLEM5TS1 AS WELL AS UTILITIES & 9FRA/RUCTURE4 ,SOCIAL PRODUCE WAS DI/RIBUT$ EQUALLY AMONG ! F>M]S & !IR FAMILIES1 & ! SURPLUS WAS EX*ANG$ ?R\< ! F>M]S' COOP]ATIVES4 

,! SETTLEM5TS W]E 9T5D$ TO BE SELF-MANAG+ & SELF-ACC\NT+4 ,LOCAL COMMUNITIES PROVID$ L&1 :ILE ! GOV]NM5T GRANT$ ! F>M]S CR$IT1 & ALLOCAT$ ! L& TO 9DIVIDUAL F>M]S OR GR\PS ( F>M]S4 ,! ULTIMATE DECISION REG>D+ :AT TO PLANT LAY ) ! F>M] OR GR\P4 

,SCATT]$ 9 SELECT$ VILLAGES & COMMUNITIES1 ! SETTLEM5TS W]E EFFICI5T & MADE TREM5D\S 9CREASES 9 PRODUCTION1 :ILE !Y LA/$4 ,SOON1 H[EV]1 ! EGALIT>IAN PR9CIPLES ?AT 9=M$ ! ORIG9AL PROGRAM W]E ]OD$ ?R\< BUREAUCRATIC BOTTL5ECKS & CORRUPTION2 & ! \TBREAK ( ! ,NIG]IAN CIVIL W> 9 #aifg F9ALLY SPELL$ ! COLLAPSE ( ! EXP]IM5T4 

,SIMIL> AN>*IC ELEM5TS >E DISC]NIBLE TO A LESS] DEGREE 9 ,MUAMM> ,GADHAFI'S FAM\S 0,GRE5 ,BOOK10 :I* CONTA9S ! SO-CALL$ ,?IRD ,UNIV]SAL ,!ORY4 ,! CONCEPT ( JAM>RHIRIYAH -- PEOPLE'S COLLECTIVES ROOT$ 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 MAK+ DECISIONS 9 ALL MATT]S CONC]N+ !MSELVES -- SEEMS QUITE FASC9AT+ ON PAP]4 ,9 PRACTICE1 ! PROPOSALS ?AT ,<ADAFI SET \T W]E G5]ALLY FOLL[$ MORE 9 ! BREA* ?AN 9 PRACTICE4 

,FRANZ ,FANON'S UNPREC$5T$LY BRUTAL CRITIQUE ( COLONIALISM 9 ,AFRICA ALSO CONTA9S GRA9S ( AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES :I* >E1 UN=TUNATELY1 SOMETIMES OBSCUR$ BY ANTI-COLONIAL RHETORIC & RAGE4 ,! FULL EXT5T ( ,FANON'S ANG] COMES \T :5 HE DWELLS ON ! RACIAL ASPECTS ( COLONIALISM4 ,FANON'S PILLORY ( COLONIALISM IS AT ! SAME TIME A REJECTION ( CORPORATE CAPITALISM4 ,HE ADVOCATES REVOLUTION>Y CLASS W>1 :I* IS IMPLICIT 9 HIS TWO-P>T !ORY ( VIOL5CE & SPONTANEITY4 ,FANON REPUDIATES ?OSE :O D5Y ?AT COLONIAL P[]S D]IVE MAT]IAL B5EFITS FROM COLONIALISM4 ,HIS >GUM5T ANTICIPATES ! BASIC !SIS ( CONTEMPOR>Y UND]DEVELOPM5T !ORI/S ?AT1 LIKE CAPITALISM1 COLONIALISM WAS RAPACI\S1 EXPLOITATIVE1 & ABOVE ALL HAD PRECLUD$ COLONIZ$ SOCIETIES' AUTONOM\S DEVELOPM5T4 

,FANON'S ANALYSIS M>K$ SOME?+ ( A BREAK ) CLASSICAL M>XI/ !ORY4 ,AL?\< ,M>X & ,5GELS 9DICT$ ! MORAL BASIS ( COLONIALISM & REG>D$ IT AS 0ACTIVAT$ BY VILE/ 9T]E/S10 !Y NEV]!LESS SAW R$EEM+ FEATURES 9 COLONIAL RULE AS ! UNCONSCI\S TOOL ( HI/ORY 9 BR++ AB\T REVOLUTION4 

,IF1 AS ,M>X & ,5GELS SEEM TO BE >GU+1 COLONIALISM PROVID$ MAT]IAL B5EFITS TO ! COLONIZ$1 ,FANON W\LD C\NT] ?AT SU* B5EFITS W]E 9CONSEQU5TIAL COMP>$ TO ! ABJECT POV]TY & WEAK MAT]IAL POSITION ( COLONIZ$ SOCIETIES4 ,COLONIALISM PROV$ 9CAPABLE ( RELEAS+ & G5]AT+ PRODUCTIVE =CES ?AT ,M>X & ,5GELS HAD HOP$ W\LD DE/ROY ! 0,ASIATIC MODE ( PRODUCTION40 ,FANON >GUES ?AT COLONIALISM1 LIKE CAPITALISM1 WAS PREC$$1 9AUGURAT$1 & MA9TA9$ BY VIOL5CE1 & C\LD ONLY BE OV]-?R[N ?R\< ! SPONTANE\S ACTION ( REVOLUTION>Y >M$ /RUGGLE4 

,FANON PLAC$ RESPONSIBILITY = WAG+ >M$ /RUGGLE NOT ON POLITICAL P>TIES1 TRADE UNIONS1 & URBAN WORK+ CLASSES1 BUT ON ! MASSES ( ALL ! PEOPLE1 FROM ! PEASANTRY 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE TO ! 0LUMP5 PROLET>IAT10 :O1 9 HIS WORDS1 =M$ ! POLITICAL CLASS (T5 DISMISS$ BY M>XI/S AS 0ADV5TUR]S & AN>*I/S40 

,HIS T]SELY >TICULAT$ VISION ( ! PO/-COLONIAL P]IOD RUNS ?US3 

,:5 ! PEOPLE HAVE TAK5 VIOL5T P>T 9 ! NATIONAL LIB]ATION1 !Y WILL ALL[ NO ONE TO SET !MSELVES UP AS 0LIB]ATORS40 ,!Y %[ !MSELVES TO BE JEAL\S ( ! RESULTS ( !IR ACTION1 & TAKE GOOD C>E NOT TO PLACE !IR FUTURE1 !IR DE/9Y OR ! FATE ( !IR C\NTRY 9 ! H&S ( A LIV+ GOD444 ,ILLUM9AT$ BY VIOL5CE1 ! CONSCI\SNESS ( ! PEOPLE REBELS AGA9/ ANY PACIFICATION4 ,FROM N[ ON1 ! DEMAGOGU]Y ( ! OPPORTUNI/S & ! MAGICIANS HAS A DIFFICULT TASK4 ,! ACTION :I* HAS ?R[N !M 9TO A H&-TO-H& /RUGGLE CONF]S UPON ! MASSES A VORACI\S TA/E = ! CONCRETE4 ,! ATTEMPT AT MY/IFICATION BECOMES1 9 ! LONG RUN1 PRACTICALLY IMPOSSIBLE4 

"9 "9 "9 

,IT IS ULTIMATELY 9 ! SEM9AL ?\<TS ( ,JULIUS ,NY]]E ?AT WE GLEAN AN ORGANIZ$1 SY/EMATIC BODY ( DOCTR9E ON SOCIALISM ?AT IS 9DISPUTABLY AN>*I/IC 9 ITS LOGIC & CONT5T4 ,NY]]E'S NOTION ( SOCIALISM REVOLVES >\ND ! CONCEPT ( ,UJAMAA1 HIS PET PROGRAM ( 0VILLAGIZATION0 -- :]E ! VILLAGE IS BILL$ AS AN 9CUBATOR1 A NURS]Y ( ! SOCIALISM ( ! FUTURE4 ,UJAMAA1 :I* SIMPLY TRANSLATES AS 0FAMILYHOOD10 REPRES5TS RURAL ECONOMIC & SOCIAL COMMUNITIES :]E PEOPLE LIVE & WORK TOGE!R = ! GOOD ( ALL2 !IR GOV]NM5TS >E *OS5 & L$ BY ! PEASANTS & WORK]S !MSELVES4 

,NY]]E'S CONCEPT ( ,UJAMAA WAS PR$ICAT$ ON ! SIMPLICITY1 EGALIT>IANISM & FRE$OM ?AT W]E ! HALLM>KS ( TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES4 ,= 9/ANCE1 ! ORGANIZATION ( COMMUNAL SOCIETIES1 ESPECIALLY ! PRODUCTION & DI/RIBUTION ( SOCIAL PRODUCE1 WAS SU* ?AT !RE WAS H>DLY ANY ROOM = P>ASITISM3 

,9 TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETY1 EV]YBODY WAS A WORK]4 ,!RE WAS NO O!R WAY ( E>N+ A LIV+ = ! COMMUNITY4 ,EV5 ! ELD]1 :O APPE>$ TO BE 5JOY+ HIMSELF )\T DO+ ANY WORK444 HAD1 9 FACT1 WORK$ H>D ALL HIS Y\NG] DAYS4444 ,9 \R TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETY1 WE W]E 9DIVIDUALS )9 A COMMUNITY4 ,WE TOOK C>E ( ! COMMUNITY & ! COMMUNITY TOOK C>E ( US4 ,WE NEI!R NE$$ NOR WI%$ TO EXPLOIT \R FELL[ M5444 EV]Y MEMB] ( ! FAMILY HAD TO HAVE 5\< TO EAT1 SOME SIMPLE COV]+1 & A PLACE TO SLEEP1 BE=E ANY ( !M 7EV5 ! HEAD ( ! FAMILY7 HAD ANY?+ EXTRA4 

,HE EXPLA9S ! CONCEPT ( ,AFRICAN L& T5URE ?USLY3 

,TO US 9 ,AFRICA1 L& WAS ALWAYS RECOGNIZ$ AS BELONG+ TO ! COMMUNITY4 ,EA* 9DIVIDUAL )9 \R SOCIETY HAD A RI<T TO ! USE ( L&1 BECAUSE O!RWISE HE C\LD NOT E>N HIS LIV+1 & ONE CANNOT HAVE ! RI<T TO LIFE )\T ALSO HAV+ ! RI<T TO SOME MEANS ( MA9TA9+ LIFE4 ,BUT ! ,AFRICAN'S RI<T TO L& WAS SIMPLY ! RI<T TO USE IT3 HE HAD NO O!R RI<T TO IT1 NOR DID IT OCCUR TO HIM TO TRY & CLAIM ONE4 

,NY]]E CONTRA/S ! =EGO+ ) CAPITALI/ SOCIETY1 :I* FAILS TO GIVE ITS CITIZ5S ! MEANS TO WORK1 OR HAV+ GIV5 !M ! MEANS TO WORK1 PREV5TS !M FROM GETT+ A FAIR %>E ( ! PRODUCTS ( !IR TOIL4 0,UJAMAA444 IS OPPOS$ TO CAPITALISM1 :I* SEEKS TO BUILD A HAPPY SOCIETY ON ! BASIS ( ! EXPLOITATION ( MAN BY MAN2 & IT IS EQUALLY OPPOS$ TO DOCTR9AIRE SOCIALISM40 ,UND] ,UJAMAA BASIC GOODS W]E TO BE HELD 9 COMMON & %>$ AMONG ALL MEMB]S ( ! UNIT4 

,!RE WAS AN ACCEPTANCE ?AT :ATEV] ONE P]SON HAD 9 ! WAY ( BASIC NECESS>IES1 !Y ALL HAD2 NO ONE C\LD GO HUNGRY :ILE O!RS HO>D$ FOOD & NO ONE C\LD BE D5I$ %ELT] IF O!RS HAD SPACE TO SP>E444 A SOCIETY 9 :I* ALL MEMB]S HAVE EQUAL RI<TS & EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES2 9 :I* ALL CAN LIVE AT PEACE ) !IR NEI<BORS )\T SUFF]+ OR IMPOS+ 9JU/ICE1 BE+ EXPLOIT$ OR EXPLOIT+2 & 9 :I* ALL HAVE A GRADUALLY 9CREAS+ BASIC LEVEL ( MAT]IAL WELF>E BE=E ANY 9DIVIDUAL LIVES 9 LUXURY4 

,HE CONT9UES3 

,9 A SOCIALI/ ,TANZANIA1 !N1 \R AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION W\LD BE PR$OM9ANTLY ?AT ( COOP]ATIVE LIV+ & WORK+ = ! GOOD ( ALL4 ,?IS MEANS ?AT MO/ ( \R F>M+ WILL BE DONE BY GR\PS ( PEOPLE :O LIVE AS A COMMUNITY & WORK AS A COMMUNITY4 ,!Y W\LD LIVE TOGE!R 9 A VILLAGE2 !Y W\LD F>M TOGE!R2 & UND]TAKE ! PROVISION ( LOCAL S]VICES & SMALL LOCAL REQUIREM5TS AS A COMMUNITY4 ,!IR COMMUNITY W\LD BE ! TRADITIONAL FAMILY GR\P1 OR ANY O!R GR\P ( PEOPLE LIV+ ACCORD+ TO ,UJAMAA PR9CIPLES1 L>GE 5\< TO TAKE ACC\NT ( MOD]N ME?ODS & ! TW5TIE?-C5TURY NE$S ( MAN4 

,! L& ?IS COMMUNITY F>M$ W\LD BE CALL$ 0\R L&0 BY ALL ! MEMB]S2 ! CROPS !Y PRODUC$ ON ?AT L& W\LD BE 0\R CROPS02 IT W\LD BE 0\R %OP0 :I* PROVID$ 9DIVIDUAL MEMB]S ) ! DAY-TO-DAY NECESSITIES FROM \TSIDE2 0\R WORK-%OP0 :I* MADE ! BRICKS FROM :I* ! H\SES & O!R BUILD+S W]E CON/RUCT$1 & SO ON444 

,= ! ESS5TIAL ELEM5T 9 !M 7,UJAMAA COMMUNITIES7 W\LD BE ! QUALITY ( ALL MEMB]S ( ! COMMUNITY1 & ! MEMB]S' SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ALL MATT]S :I* CONC]N$ ONLY !IR [N AFFAIRS4 ,= A REALLY SOCIALI/ VILLAGE W\LD ELECT ITS [N (FICIALS & !Y W\LD REMA9 EQUAL MEMB]S ) ! O!RS1 SUBJECT ALWAYS TO ! WI%ES ( ! PEOPLE4 

,NY]]E WAS NOT OBLIVI\S TO ! FACT ?AT ! SOCIETY HE HAD 9 M9D C\LD NOT BE E/ABLI%$ BY %E] =CE4 0,VIABLE SOCIALI/ COMMUNITIES CAN ONLY BE E/ABLI%$ ) WILL+ MEMB]S10 HE SAYS4 ,HE RECOGNIZ$1 ?\<1 ! IMPORTANCE ( ACTION & EXAMPLE2 MORAL P]SUASION WAS NOT 5\<3 

,IT W\LD ALSO BE UNWISE TO EXPECT ?AT E/ABLI%$ F>M]S WILL BE CONV9C$ BY WORDS -- H[EV] P]SUASIVE4 ,! F>M]S WILL HAVE TO SEE = !MSELVES ! ADVANTAGE ( WORK+ TOGE!R & LIV+ TOGE!R BE=E !Y TRU/ !IR 5TIRE FUTURE TO ?IS ORGANIZATION ( LIFE4 ,9 P>TICUL>1 BE=E GIV+ UP !IR 9DIVIDUAL PLOTS ( L&1 !Y WILL WI% TO SEE ?AT ! SY/EM ( WORK+ TOGE!R REALLY B5EFITS EV]YONE4 

,LA/LY1 0H[ TO %>E \T AS WELL AS H[ MU* TO GR[1 ! >RANGEM5TS = ! *ILDR51 ! CRIPPL$ & OLD -- MU/ BE MADE BY ! AGREEM5T ( ALL ! P>TICIPANTS4 ,VILLAGE DEMOCRACY MU/ BE OP5 FROM ! BEG9N+3 !RE IS NO ALT]NATIVE IF ?IS SY/EM IS TO SUCCE$40 

,! FACT ?AT ,UJAMAA ITSELF ULTIMATELY FAIL$ %\LD NOT DETRACT FROM ,NY]]E'S >GUM5T4 ,HIS ?\<TS RUN DEEP1 TRANSC5D+ ! DRUDG]Y ( M>XI/ /ATE SOCIALISM4 7,SEE ,*APT] FIVE = AN EXPLANATION ( ,UJAMAA'S FAILURE47 

"9 "9 "9 

,AS = \TRI<T AN>*I/ MOVEM5TS1 !RE HAVE EXI/$ & /ILL EXI/ AN>*I/ GR\PS 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA -- NOTABLY ! ,AN>*I/ ,REVOLUTION>Y ,MOVEM5T 9 ,JOHANNESBURG1 & ! ,DURBAN-BAS$ ,ANGRY ,BRIGADE4 ,S\? ,AFRICA'S PIONE] AN>*O-SYNDICALI/ ORGANIZATION1 H[EV] -- KN[N AS ! ,9DU/RIAL ,WORK]S ( ,AFRICA -- LA/$ ONLY FROM #aiae TO #a#i#b#b4 ,IT WAS MODEL$ ALONG ! L9ES ( ! ,I,W,W 7,9DU/RIAL ,WORK]S ( ! ,WORLD71 & IT OP]AT$ MA9LY AMONG BLACK WORK]S4 ,IT IS 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA ?AT AN>*I/ CURR5TS REMA9 /RONGE/ 9 ,AFRICA4 

,!RE IS ALSO ORGANIZ$ AN>*I/ ACTIVITY 9 ,NIG]IA4 ,! ,AXE1 9 ! #a#i#hS1 ?\< BASICALLY /ILLBORN1 WAS A LEFTI/ COALITION ) AN>*I/ T5D5CIES4 ,IT PR$AT$ ,! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE1 :I* HAS EXI/$ S9CE #aii AS A SOCIAL LIB]T>IAN & AN>*I/ MOVEM5T4 ,AN>*I/ CURR5TS ALSO EXI/ 9 P>TS ( ,ZIMBABWE1 ,EGYPT1 ,<ANA1 & ELSE:]E4 

,*APT] #d3 ,! ,DEVELOPM5T ( ,SOCIALISM 9 ,AFRICA 

,WE T\*$ BRIEFLY ON ! ATYPICAL DEVELOPM5T ( CLASSES 9 A FEW SOCIETIES 9 PRE-COLONIAL ,AFRICA4 ,H[EV]1 AFT] ,EUROPEAN CONTACT1 CLASS =MATION ACCEL]AT$4 ,! ,EUROPEAN P[]S ?AT 9VAD$ & COLONIZ$ ,AFRICA 9 ! LATE #a#i? C5TURY W]E FULLY 9DU/RIALIZ$ CAPITALI/ C\NTRIES ?AT SAW 9 ,AFRICA A CAPTIVE M>KET AS WELL AS A S\RCE = RAW MAT]IALS = !IR 9DU/RIES4 ,?IS WAS ! FUNDAM5TAL REASON = COLONIALISM4 

,! COLONIZ]S PRODUC$ A CAPITALI/ ECONOMY ) SOME SIMIL>ITIES TO ! ECONOMIES ( !IR [N C\NTRIES4.<#f.> ,9 ,EUROPE1 ! [N]S ( CAPITAL HAD EXPROPRIAT$ ! L& & O!R MEANS ( PRODUCTION FROM PEASANTS & >TISANS1 TURN+ !M 9TO WAGE WORK]S4 ,FROM !IR LABOR1 ! CAPITALI/S EXTRACT$ A SURPLUS :I* !Y ACCUMULAT$ & 9VE/$ 9 MORE L&1 FACTORIES1 & LABOR 9 ORD] TO EXTRACT MORE SURPLUS4 ,9 ?IS WAY !Y EXP&$ WEAL? & REPRODUC$ CAPITALI/ SOCIAL RELATIONS AT ! SAME TIME4.<#f#a.> 

,AS WE SAW PREVI\SLY1 ! PRE-COLONIAL ,AFRICAN MODE ( PRODUCTION WAS ANY?+ BUT A CAPITALI/ MODE ( PRODUCTION4 ,TO S]VE !IR [N 9T]E/S1 ! ,EUROPEAN COLONIZ]S SUP]IMPOS$ CAPITALISM ON ,AFRICA4 ,?IS 5TAIL$ ! TRANS=MATION ( ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES FROM RELATIVELY SELF-SUFFICI5T COMMUNAL AGRICULTURAL UNITS 9TO UNITS DEP5D5T ON ! L>G] ECONOMIES BE+ CREAT$4.<#f#b.> ,A NEW DIVISION ( LABOR WAS BE+ =C$ ON ,AFRICANS LEAD+ TO NEW MAT]IAL RELATION%IPS 9 ! L>G] SOCIETY4 ,9 ! COLONIES1 ! HORTICULTURAL BASIS ( ! ,AFRICAN MODE ( PRODUCTION WAS PROGRESSIVELY UND]M9$ AS VILLAGES W]E =C$ TO GR[ CA% CROPS = EXPORT OR PROVIDE *EAP LABOR = ,EUROPEAN PLANTS & M9ES4 ,?IS CREAT$ NEW CLASSES -- NEW MAT]IAL RELATION%IPS -- )9 ! COLONIES4 ,9 H] /UDY ( COLONIAL ,GU9EA1 = EXAMPLE1 ,R4,E4 ,GALLI ID5TIFIES SEV]AL COLONIAL CLASSES3 

,A NEW ADM9I/RATIVE CLASS ( ,EUROPEANS 

,A ,EUROPEAN CLASS ( L>GE L&[N]S 

,A ,EUROPEAN CLASS ( L>GE M]*ANTS 7! TRAD+ FIRMS7 

,A ,EUROPEAN MANAG]IAL CLASS 

,?IS GR\P =M$ ! B\RGEOIS CLASS1 ! [N]S ( CAPITAL -- ?AT IS1 ! [N]S ( ! L& & MEANS ( PRODUCTION4 ,?IS CLASS WAS AID$ BY :AT ,GALLI CALLS ! PETIT B\RGEOISIE.<#f#c.>3 

,MID-LEVEL MANAG]S 9 ! /ATE APP>ATUS1 ON PLANTATIONS1 & 9 TRAD+ & M9+ COMPANIES 

,COLONIAL PR(ESSIONALS 7DOCTORS1 LAWY]S1 ETC47 

,SOME 9DIG5\S SMALL %OPKEEP]S & TRAD]S 

,H[ W]E ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES 9CORPORAT$ 9TO ! COLONIAL CAPITALI/ SY/EM8 ,FIR/1 ! NOBILITY & *IEFS W]E CO-OPT$ 9TO ACT+ AS ADM9I/RATORS = ! COLONI/S4 ,GALLI SEES !M AS AN AGR>IAN CLASS1 NOT A CAPITALI/ CLASS1 BECAUSE !Y DID NOT EXPLOIT VILLAG]S 9 A CAPITALI/ MANN]4 ,!Y EXPLOIT$ !M1 RA!R1 BECAUSE ( !IR TRADITIONAL AU?ORITY OV] L& & LABOR4.<#f#d.> ,!Y DELIV]$ TAXES & LABOR TO ! COLONIALI/S1 SQUEEZ+ ! PEASANTRY AS MU* AS !Y C\LD1 BUT NOT DIRECTLY EXPROPRIAT+ L&4 7,A COROLL>Y ( ?IS C\LD BE CIT$ 9 ,NIG]IA ) REG>D TO >I/OCRATIC RUL]S -- ! ,EMIROS ( NOR!RN ,NIG]IA1 & ! TRADITIONAL ,OBAS 9 ! S\?WE/47 ,! NOBILITY & *IEFS W]E ! TOOLS US$ TO EXECUTE ! COLONIAL P[]S' 9DIRECT RULE OV] !IR ,AFRICAN COLONIES4 

,!RE WAS ALSO A SMALL GR\P ( $UCAT$ ,AFRICANS :OM ! ,FR5* CALL$ ASSIMILES1 MA9LY SONS ( *IEFS & O!R NOTABLES S5T TO ,EUROPEAN CITIES = AN $UCATION4.<#f#e.> ,!Y W]E ABSORB$ AS L[]-LEVEL (FICIALS 9 GOV]NM5T & AS PR(ESSIONALS1 & AID$ ! COLONIAL CAPITALI/ CLASS 9 ADM9I/]+ & MA9TA9+ ! SOCIAL ORD]4 ,A GOOD EXAMPLE ( ?IS TYPE IS ! *>ACT] ,OBI ,OKONBA 9 ,*9UA ,A*EBE'S NOVEL1 ,NO ,LONG] AT ,EASE4 

,AS M9ES & FACTORIES OP5$ 9 SOME ,AFRICAN COLONIES1 A SMALL WORK+ CLASS CAME 9TO BE+4 ,! GREAT MASS ( ! PEOPLE W]E1 ?\<1 /ILL PEASANTS1 N[ PRODUC+ = URBAN M>KETS4 ,LA/LY1 !RE WAS :AT ,GALLI HAS CLASSIFI$ AS ! 0LUMP5 PROLET>IAT10 ?AT GR\P ( ,AFRICANS :O HAD BECOME ALI5AT$ FROM ! L& & HAD GONE TO ! CITIES 9 A VA9 SE>* = WORK4 ,)\T AN $UCATION1 !Y BECAME BEGG>S1 PRO/ITUTES1 PETTY TRAD]S1 & LAYAB\TS4 

,BY ! E>LY #b? C5TURY1 MU* ( ,AFRICA HAD COME UND] COLONIAL DOM9ATION4 ,SEV]AL SOCIETIES ON ! CONT95T HAD METAMORPHOS$ FROM !IR PRECOLONIAL /ATE 9TO SOCIETIES ) DISC]NIBLE1 ANTAGONI/IC CLASSES4 ,AS 9 ALL CLASS SOCIETIES1 ! DOM9ANT ,EUROPEAN IMP]IAL CLASS1 9 ALLIANCE ) ITS LOCAL AG5TS1 5GAG$ 9 BRUTAL1 :OLESALE EXPLOITATION ( LOCAL LABOR4 ,LOCAL LABOR WAS EXPLOIT$ TO PRODUCE RAW MAT]IALS = ,EUROPEAN 9DU/RIES & TO G5]ATE 5\< SURPLUS TO RUN ! COLONIES4 ,! RELATION%IP ( ! DOM9ANT & SUBORD9ATE CLASSES 9 ! COLONIES TYPIFI$ :AT HAS BE5 T]M$ 0! COLONIAL SITUATION40 ,?IS PHRASE APTLY CAPTURES ! SOCIOPOLITICAL1 ECONOMIC & PSY*OLOGICAL /ATE ( AFFAIRS 9 A COLONIZ$ SOCIETY4 

,9 ANALYZ+ ! GR[? & DEVELOPM5T ( ,AFRICAN AN>*ISM1 WE %ALL FOCUS ON ! CURR5TS ?AT ACT$ AS A C\NT]VAIL+ =CE AGA9/ ! 5TR5*$ CAPITALI/ MODE ( PRODUCTION1 BO? UND] COLONIALISM & NEO-COLONIALISM4 

,! ,TRADE ,UNION ,MOVEM5T & ! ,LIB]ATION ,/RUGGLE 9 ,AFRICA 

,TRADE UNIONS 9 ,AFRICA DID NOT BEG9 AS PURE1 IDEOLOGICAL REVOLUTION>Y ORGANIZATIONS4 ,RA!R1 !Y EM]G$ DUR+ ! COLONIAL P]IOD 9 DIRECT RESPONSE TO ! COLONIAL SITUATION4 ,!Y REPRES5T$1 9 ! MA91 A REVOLT AGA9/ AN IMPOS$1 9F]IOR SOCIOPOLITICAL & ECONOMIC /ATUS4 

,! EM]G5CE ( ,AFRICAN LABOR UNIONS WAS A FUR!R MANIFE/ATION ( ! 9CORPORATION ( ! CAPITALI/ MODE ( PRODUCTION 9TO ,AFRICAN ECONOMIES4 ,?IS 9CORPORATION1 AS WE SAW E>LI]1 L$ TO ! BALKANIZATION ( ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES 9TO NATIONS & CLASSES4 ,AS ! EXPLOITATION ( ! COLONIES CONT9U$ UND] ,EUROPEAN COLONIALISM1 ! COLONIZ$ PEOPLES CAME TO GRADUALLY REALIZE ?AT ! SITUATION WAS AN IMP$IM5T TO !IR [N FRE$OM4 ,! EM]G5CE ( LABOR UNIONS WAS A MANIFE/ATION ( BASIC CLASS CONSCI\SNESS AMONG ! WORK]S1 AS WELL AS A RESPONSE TO COLONIAL RULE4 

,! GR[? & DEVELOPM5T ( TRADE UNIONS 9 ,AFRICA DUR+ ! COLONIAL P]IOD REFLECT$ V>Y+ CONDITIONS 9 DIFF]5T SOCIETIES4 ,9 ! ORD9>Y COLONIES1 SU* AS ,<ANA & ,NIG]IA1 ! UNIONS W]E LESS REVOLUTION>Y ?AN 9 ,EUROPEAN-SETTL$ COLONIES SU* AS ,ALG]IA1 ,K5YA & ,S\? ,AFRICA1 :]E /RONG RACIAL UND]CURR5TS BR\<T ! CONTRADICTIONS ( ! COLONIAL SITUATION 9TO %>P FOCUS4 ,WE %ALL NEXT EXAM9E 9 SOME DETAIL ! TRADE UNION MOVEM5TS 9 ,NIG]IA & 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA1 AS REPRES5TATIVES ( ! TRADE UNIONS 9 !SE TWO COLONIAL SITUATIONS4 

,! ,NIG]IAN ,LABOR ,UNION ,MOVEM5T 

,NIG]IAN WORK]S MADE !IR FIR/ ATTEMPT TO ASS]T !IR RI<TS 9 #a#h#i#g1 :5 WORK]S 9 ! ,PUBLIC ,WORKS ,DEP>TM5T PROTE/$ = ?REE DAYS 9 ,AUGU/ AGA9/ >BITR>Y *ANGES 9 WORK+ H\RS4 ,9 DEFIANCE ( ,GOV]NOR ,MC,CALLUM'S ?REATS ( DISMISSAL1 ! WORK]S REFUS$ TO )DRAW !IR DEM&S1 & 9 ! 5D !Y OBTA9$ SOME MEASURE ( RELIEF ?R\< A COMPROMISE SOLUTION4 

,! TR5D T[>D LABOR AGITATION 9CREAS$ 9 ! E>LY #a#iS AS A RESULT ( ! WORS5+ NATURE ( COLONIAL GOV]NM5T POLICIES4 ,S9CE !RE W]E MORE WORK]S ?AN ! EXI/+ 9DU/RIES C\LD EMPLOY1 EMPLOY]S 9/ITUT$ OPPRESSIVE EMPLOYM5T CONTRACTS 9 :I* WORK]S W]E TREAT$ LIKE SLAVES4 ,AS ,ANANABA PO9TS \T 9 HIS BOOK1 ,! ,TRADE ,UNION ,MOVEM5T 9 ,NIG]IA1 !SE CONTRACTS LAID GREAT EMPHASIS ON ! OBLIGATION TO WORK1 :ILE !Y LAID NO EMPHASIS AT ALL ON ! RI<TS ( ! WORK]4.<#f#f.> 

,AT ! SAME TIME1 !RE WAS A GR[+ CONSCI\SNESS ( RACIAL B>RI]S TO ECONOMIC ADVANCEM5T1 & ( ! GREAT DISP>ITIES BETWE5 ,EUROPEAN & ,AFRICAN E>N+S1 EV5 = ! SAME JOBS4.<#f#g.> ,9 ! WORDS ( ,GUTK9D & ,COH51 0! COLONIAL-RACIAL NEXUS FUR!R ]ODE.<D.> CLASS AW>5ESS BY /RESS+ ! COMMON ID5TITY ( ALL ,AFRICANS 9 !IR SUBORD9ATION TO & EXPLOITATION BY AN ALI5 HI]>*Y40.<#f#h.> 

,MOREOV]1 ! #aibi GLOBAL DEPRESSION FUR!R AGGRAVAT$ ! CONDITION ( WORK]S UND] COLONIALISM1 AS COLONIAL GOV]NM5TS TOOK ! OPPORTUNITY CREAT$ BY ECONOMIC DESP]ATION TO IMPOSE DIRECT TAXATION ON WORK]S & TO CONV]T P]MAN5T JOBS TO DAY-LABOR JOBS1 AMONG O!R ?+S4.<#f#i.> ,?AT SAME YE>1 ! FAM\S ,ABA ,WOM5'S ,RIOT TOOK PLACE1 9 :I* WOM5 FROM ! S\!A/]N ,NIG]IAN T[N ( ,ABA & SURR\ND+ PROV9CES DEMON/RAT$ AGA9/ A NEW TAX ON !IR [N PROP]TY4 ,IT IS 9/RUCTIVE ?AT ?IS P>TICUL> RIOT1 9 :I* MANY WOM5 W]E KILL$1 WAS ORGANIZ$ & EXECUT$ BY WOM54.<#g.> 

,RADICALIZATION ( WORK]S 9 ,NIG]IA CONT9U$ 9 ! LATE #a#i#cS1 P>TLY DUE TO A GR[+ SPIRIT ( WORK+ CLASS CONSCI\SNESS & P>TLY1 ACCORD+ TO ,ASOBA1 AS A RESULT ( ,DR4 ,NNAMDI ,AZIKIWE'S NEW BR& ( COMBATIVE J\RNALISM1 :I* BR\<T TO PUBLIC ATT5TION ! V>I\S =MS ( COLONIAL EXPLOITATION4 ,AZIKIWE 9SPIR$ ,NIG]IANS' CONFID5CE 9 !IR ABILITY TO BR+ COLONIAL RULE TO AN 5D ?R\< ACTIVI/ POLITICAL & WORK+ CLASS AGITATION4.<#g#a.> ,O!R MANIFE/ATIONS ( RADICAL WORK+ CLASS CONSCI\SNESS W]E ! OBS]VANCE ( ,MAY ,DAY CELEBRATIONS & ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A ,WORK]S' ,WEEK4.<#g#b.> 

,ANO!R FACTOR 9 ! BURGEON+ ( RADICAL TRADE UNIONISM 9 ,NIG]IA WAS ! ,RAILWAY ,WORK]S ,UNION1 :I* WAS ! FIR/ RADICAL UNION TO ORGANIZE /RIKE ACTIONS4 ,! UNION'S RADICALISM CAN BE ATTRIBUT$ TO ! 0T[]+ & FE>LESS P]SONALITY ( ,MI*AEL ,IM\DU40.<#g#c.> ,HE L$ ,NIG]IAN WORK]S TO GREAT VICTORIES1 ! MO/ \T/&+ ( :I* WAS ! #aide G5]AL /RIKE2 !RE ! 0SOLID>ITY ( ! LAB\R RANK & FILE0.<#g#d.> WAS FIR/ TRULY SE5 9 ! ,NIG]IAN LABOR MOVEM5T4 ,SUBSEQU5T /RIKES >IS+ FROM ! NATURE ( ! COLONIAL SY/EM /R5G!N$ ! LABOR MOVEM5T *ALL5GE TO ! ECONOMIC & POLITICAL /ATUS QUO4 

,9 #a#i#d#i1 = 9/ANCE1 ! TRAGIC ,IVA ,VALLEY COAL M9]S /RIKE TOOK PLACE AT ,5UGU1 ,NIG]IA4 ,IT RESULT$ 9 ! MASSACRE ( DOZ5S ( /RIK+ M9]S BY ! COLONIAL POLICE =CE2 BUT DUR+ ! /RIKE ! M9]S MANAG$ TO SABOTAGE ! COAL M9+ PROCESS4 ,SU* /RIKES GREATLY RAIS$ ! CLASS CONSCI\SNESS ( ! WORK]S & SE$$ ?\<TS ( SOCIALISM 9 !IR M9DS1 OP5+ !IR EYES TO ! NATURE ( NOT ONLY CAPITALISM1 BUT ( ! GOV]NM5T & ITS LAWS AS WELL4.<#g#e.> 

,! TRADE UNION MOVEM5T 9 ! COLONIAL P]IOD ALSO S]V$ AS A C\NT]VAIL+ 9FLU5CE AGA9/ =EIGN 9VE/ORS1 :O DOM9AT$ /RATEGIC P>TS ( ! NATIONAL ECONOMY4 ,9 ,NIG]IA !SE 9VE/ORS 9CLUD$ DOM9E]+ TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS LIKE ! ,LEV] ,BRO!RS1 ,UNIT$ ,AFRICAN ,COMPANY1 & ! ,UNIT$ ,TRAD+ ,COMPANY1 ALL ( :I* MA9TA9$ A FIRM GRIP ON ! EXPORT & IMPORT TRADE4 ,! UNIONS F\<T COLLECTIVELY AGA9/ =EIGN MONOPOLY CAPITAL & AGITAT$ = ! SOCIALIZATION ( IMPORTANT 9DU/RIES 9 ! C\NTRY1 ) A VIEW TO 9/ALL+ A SOCIALI/ GOV]NM5T :]E ! ID5TITY ( ! WORK+ CLASS W\LD NOT BE =GOTT54.<#g#f.> 

,AL?\< ! LABOR MOVEM5T 9 ,NIG]IA CONTRIBUT$ QUITE SIGNIFICANTLY TO 5D+ ,BRITI% COLONIAL RULE1 PO/-9DEP5D5CE ,NIG]IA REFLECT$ ! SAME BASIC SOCIOPOLITICAL & ECONOMIC /RUCTURES ?AT EXI/$ UND] COLONIAL RULE4 ,9 PO/-COLONIAL ,NIG]IA1 WORK]S HAVE HAD TO CONT5D ) ESS5TIALLY ! SAME CAPITALI/ SY/EM1 TYPIFI$ BY ANTAGONISM BETWE5 CAPITAL & LABOR4 ,TODAY1 ! WORK+ PEOPLE ( ,NIG]IA >E SUFF]+ HEAVILY UND] ! BURD5 ( UNEMPLOYM5T1 FACTORY CLOSURES1 9ADEQUATE H\S+1 TRANSPORT1 HEAL? C>E & $UCATIONAL FACILITIES1 SOCIAL 9SECURITY1 & LACK ( P]SONAL FRE$OM4 

,A PROM95T FEATURE ( ! PO/-9DEP5D5CE ,NIG]IAN LABOR MOVEM5T1 ?AT DI/+UI%ES IT FROM ! PRE-9DEP5D5CE MOVEM5T1 IS ! CLE> ABS5CE ( A REVOLUTION>Y P]SPECTIVE4 ,S9CE 9DEP5D5CE1 ! UNIONS HAVE EXHIBIT$ A T5D5CY TO ACT 9 LEAGUE ) ! RUL+ ELITE 9 ! RUNN+ ( ! /ATE1 :ILE M\?+ REVOLUTION>Y J>GON4 

,9 #a#i#h#g1 UND] ! MILIT>Y DICTATOR%IP ( G5]AL ,IBRAHIM ,BABANGIDA1 ! ,NIG]IAN ,LAB\R ,CONGRESS 7,N,L,C7 P>TICIPAT$ 9 A WIDE-RANG+ DEBATE ON ! POLITICAL FUTURE ( ,NIG]IA4 ,! WORK]S PUBLI%$ A 0,WORK]S' ,MANIFE/O0 TITL$1 0,T[>DS A ,VIABLE & ,G5U9ELY ,DEMOCRATIC ,FUTURE3 .<!.> ,NIG]IAN ,WORK+ ,CLASS ,POSITION10 CONTA9+ #bh PO9TS RELAT+ TO POLITICAL1 ECONOMIC1 SOCIAL & CULTURAL ISSUES40.<#g#g.> ,ACCORD+ TO ! !N-,N,L,C PRESID5T1 ! DOCUM5T REFLECT$ ! POLITICAL ASPIRATIONS ( ! ,NIG]IAN WORK+ CLASS1 NAMELY1 ?AT 0ONLY A SOCIALI/ OPTION CAN 5SURE A VIABLE & /ABLE POLITICAL & ECONOMIC >RANGEM5T 9 ,NIG]IA40.<#g#h.> 

,! ,N,L,C MANIFE/O SPOKE ( RAIS+ ! POLITICAL CONSCI\SNESS ( ! WORK+ CLASS1 & IT CALL$ = FULL WORK+ CLASS 9VOLVEM5T 9 POLITICAL LIFE4 ,! DOCUM5T'S POSITION ON ! FUTURE ECONOMY IS ?AT ! WORK+ CLASS %\LD PLAN & CONTROL ! PRODUCTION & DI/RIBUTION PROCESSES4 ,ACCORD+ TO ! MANIFE/O3 

,FROM TAK+ CONTROL ( ! ECONOMY ?R\< SO-CALL$ 9VE/M5TS TO OV]9VOIC+1 WE HAVE SE5 CLE>LY ! COLLABORATION ( ! MULT9ATIONALS & !IR LOCAL AG5TS 9 RU9+ \R ECONOMY1 P]PETRAT+ FRAUD & CORRUPTION & 9FLU5C+ TE*NOCRATS & ADM9I/RATORS 9 ! P]=MANCE ( GOV]NM5T BUS9ESS4 ,:AT ,NIG]IA REQUIRES TODAY UND] ! LEAD]%IP ( ! WORK+ CLASS IS TO TAKE \R DE/9Y 9TO \R [N H&S ?R\< ! APPROPRIATE POLITICAL ACTION -- SOCIALIZATION ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 DI/RIBUTION & EX*ANGE4.<#g#i.> 

,UN=TUNATELY1 !RE HAS ALWAYS BE5 A %>P DIV]G5CE BETWE5 !ORY & PRACTICE 9 ! LEAD]%IP ( ! ,NIG]IAN WORK+ CLASS MOVEM5T4 ,9 REALITY1 ! LEAD]%IP ( ! TRADE UNION MOVEM5T HAS ALWAYS %>$ A CLASS 9T]E/ ) ! RUL+ ELITE4 ,?IS HAS ITS ORIG9 9 ! PRE-9DEP5D5CE ]A1 :5 ! LEAD]%IP ( ! WORK+ CLASS CAME TO REG>D ! NATIONALI/ /RUGGLE & ! CAUSE ( ! LABOR MOVEM5T AS 9DISSOLUBLY L9K$1 & ?US ALLI$ ITSELF ) NATIONALI/ POLITICAL P>TIES4 ,CR[!R HAS GONE SO F> AS TO REG>D ONE ( ! NATIONALI/ P>TIES1 ! ,NATIONAL ,C\NCIL ( ,NIG]IA & ! ,CAM]OONS1 AS MORE OR LESS A 0CONF$]ATION ( TRADE UNIONS40.<#h.> 

,9 PO/-9DEP5D5CE ,NIG]IA1 ! ROMANCE BETWE5 ! LEAD]%IP ( ! TRADE UNIONS & POLITICAL P>TIES HAS BLOSSOM$ EV5 MORE4 ,9 ,NIG]IA'S ILL-FAT$ ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC1 = 9/ANCE1 !RE W]E SPIRIT$ ATTEMPTS BY ! LABOR MOVEM5T TO =M A POLITICAL P>TY UND] ! AEGIS ( ! ,NIG]IAN ,LAB\R ,CONGRESS TO COMPETE AGA9/ O!R POLITICAL P>TIES4 ,:5 ?AT FAIL$1 ! LEAD] ( ! ,N,L,C1 ,PAS*AL ,BAFYAU1 ALONG ) HIS SUPPORT]S1 PIT*$ HIS T5T ) ! ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRATIC ,P>TY & CONTE/$ ! P>TY'S PRESID5TIAL PRIM>IES1 :I* HE LO/4 

,AS ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ MILIT>Y DICTATOR%IP GA9$ MOM5TUM 9 ,NIG]IA1 !RE HAVE BE5 SOME SUCCESSES4 ,LABOR LEAD]S SU* AS ,FRANK ,KOKORI1 ,G5]AL ,SECRET>Y ( ! ,NATIONAL ,UNION ( ,PETROLEUM & ,NATURAL ,GAS ,WORK]S1 & ,MILTON ,DABIBI1 ,G5]AL ,SECRET>Y ( ! ,PETROLEUM & ,NATURAL ,GAS ,S5IOR ,/AFF ,ASSOCIATION 7BO? UNIONS REPRES5T+ WORK]S 9 ! PETROLEUM 9DU/RY1 ! C\NTRY'S MA9/AY71 DISPLAY$ ADMIRABLE C\RAGE 9 #aiid :5 !Y SUCCESSFULLY L$ !IR UNIONS 9 /RIKES :I* = TWO MON?S CLOS$ OIL FACILITIES ACROSS ! C\NTRY4 ,:5 ! MILIT>Y GOV]NM5T REACT$ BY DEPLOY+ SOLDI]S TO BREAK ! /RIKES1 ! WORK]S RESORT$ TO SABOTAGE4 ,SO EFFECTIVE W]E ! /RIKE ACTIONS ?AT ! C\NTRY WAS VIRTUALLY P>ALYZ$ :ILE !Y LA/$4 ,9 ,LAGOS1 ! BU/L+ COMM]CIAL CAPITAL CITY ( ,NIG]IA1 /REETS & MAJOR HI<WAYS W]E NE>LY DES]T$1 PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION GR\ND$1 & (FICES & WORK PLACES %UT D[N4 ,AS REPORT$ 9 ,! ,LAGOS ,GU>DIAN ,NEWSPAP]1 ! ,LAGOS ,/ATE ,MILIT>Y ,ADM9I/RATOR1 ,COL4 ,OY9LOLA1 HAD TO WALK TO ! OP5+ ( A SEM9>1 HAV+ BE5 UNABLE TO F9D GAS = HIS (FICIAL C>4.<#h#a.> 

,ONE 9T]E/+ & 9/RUCTIVE ASPECT ( !SE /RIKES WAS !IR DECID$LY POLITICAL AIM -- 0TO BR+ AN 5D TO MILIT>Y DICTATOR%IP40 ,9 ITS #g#b-H\R ULTIMATUM TO ! F$]AL GOV]NM5T1 ! ,LAGOS BRAN* ( ! ,N,L,C DEM&$ ! FOLL[+3 

?AT ! F$]AL GOV]NM5T %\LD IMM$IATELY & UNCONDITIONALLY RELEASE ALL POLITICAL & LABOR ACTIVI/S DETA9$ NATIONWIDE2 

?AT ALL CLOS$ M$IA \TLETS BE REOP5$ IMM$IATELY2 & 

?AT ! GOV]NM5T %\LD IMM$IATELY 5T] 9TO MEAN+FUL DIALOGUE ) WORK]S & ALL DISAFFECT$ GR\PS1 M9ORITIES & DISAFFECT$ E?NIC NATIONALITIES4.<#h#b.> 

,AS ! CRISIS DEEP5$1 ! ,N,L,C 9 ,LAGOS CONCLUD$ ?AT 0IT WILL BE A GREAT DISS]VICE TO WORK]S 9 ,LAGOS ,/ATE IF .<!.> ,LAB\R ,CONGRESS W\LD FOLD ITS >MS & ALL[ ! WORK]S TO CONT9UE TO SUFF]4440.<#h#c.> ,CONSEQU5TLY1 IT DIRECT$ ALL ,LAGOS ,/ATE 0WORK]S 9 BANKS & 9SURANCE FIRMS1 FACTORIES1 & 9DU/RIES1 LOCAL GOV]NM5T C\NCILS1 PUBLIC CORPORATIONS1 F$]AL & /ATE CIVIL S]VICE1 & SO ON1 TO EMB>K ON A SIT-AT-HOME /RIKE AS FROM ,JULY #a#b1 #aiid UNTIL O!RWISE DIRECT$ BY ! ,/ATE ,C\NCIL40.<#h#d.> ,! AN>*OSYNDICALI/ ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE TOOK AN ACTIVE P>T 9 ! /RIKES & DEMON/RATIONS1 CONV9C$ ?AT ! DEP>TURE ( ! MILIT>Y GOV]NM5T W\LD ALL[ GREAT] OPPORTUNITY TO C>RY ON ! /RUGGLE = A LIB]T>IAN SOCIETY4 ,NEV] S9CE ! CIVIL W> ( ! #a#i#fS HAD ! ,NIG]IAN /ATE COME SO CLOSE TO DIS9TEGRAT+4 ,BUT ! MILIT>Y JUNTA ( ,G5]AL ,SANI ,ABA*A RESPOND$ BY ISSU+ A B>RAGE ( DECREES PROSCRIB+ LABOR UNIONS1 >RE/+ ACTIVI/S & LABOR LEAD]S 5 MASSE1 & SACK+ OPPOSITION M$IA \TLETS4 

,ONE ?+ REMA9S CLE>3 DESPITE C\RAGE\S ATTEMPTS BY ! LABOR MOVEM5T TO REVOLUTIONIZE ,NIG]IA1 ITS EF=TS W]E LIMIT$ 9 BO? SCOPE & CONT5T4 ,A PRIM>Y REASON IS ?AT1 BE+ C5TRALIZ$ & HI]>*ICAL 9 /RUCTURE1 ! UNIONS FUNCTION AS AU?ORIT>IAN1 BUREAUCRATIC ORGANIZATIONS4 ,!IR LEAD]S (T5 SEE !IR POSITIONS AS OPPORTUNITIES TO FEA!R !IR [N POLITICAL & ECONOMIC NE/S4 ,! ,N,L,C DESIRES TO SEE A MORE HUMANE ,NIG]IAN SOCIETY1 BUT ! IDEOLOGICAL 9SPIRATION ?AT 9=MS ! ACTIONS ( ! CONGRESS DOES NOT CONTEMPLATE A COMPLETELY DIFF]5T K9D ( SOCIETY1 BUILT BY ! WORK]S ORGANIZ+ 9 ! WORKPLACE & 9 ! COMMUNITY4 ,USUALLY ,NIG]IAN LABOR LEAD]S DO NOT ASPIRE BEYOND 9VOLVEM5T ) ! P[]S ?AT BE 9 ! RUNN+ ( ! ECONOMY & ! /ATE4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 ! ACTIVITIES ( ! MOVEM5T >E NOT BAS$ ON A CLE> CONCEPTION ( CLASS REALITY & CLASS /RUGGLE4 ,9 !IR WORLD VIEW ( A BETT] & FRE] SOCIETY1 MO/ LABOR LEAD]S FAIL TO DIRECT !IR ACTIVITIES AGA9/ ! D\BLE YOKE ( CAPITAL & /ATE4 ,?IS PATT]N HAS BE5 TYPICAL 9 ! =M] 0NORMAL0 COLONIES1 AS CONTRA/$ ) ,EUROPEAN-SETTL$ COLONIES SU* AS ,S\? ,AFRICA 

,! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,LABOR ,MOVEM5T 

,S\? ,AFRICA /&S \T AS ONE ( ! C\NTRIES 9 ,AFRICA 9 :I* LABOR HAS PLAY$ A DECISIVE ROLE 9 ! /RUGGLE = SIGNIFICANT SOCIO-POLITICAL *ANGE4 ,! /RUGGLE ( ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN WORK+ CLASS DATES BACK TO ! =MATIVE YE>S ( ,S\? ,AFRICA -- #aia TO #aibb -- :5 LABOR 5GAG$ 9 BLOODY BATTLES ) ! CAPITALI/ CLASS4 ,G>Y ,JEWELL'S DOCUM5TATION ( ! CONFLICTS BETWE5 EMPLOY]S & WORK]S IS MO/ 9/RUCTIVE4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,JEWELL1 9 ! SPACE ( A DECADE ! ORGY ( VIOL5CE HAD RESULT$ 9 A CALL BY ! WORK]S = 0A R$ OR SYNDICALI/ WORK]S' ,REPUBLIC40.<#h#e.> ,AL?\< !SE E>LY WORK]S' REVOLTS W]E C>RI$ \T PR$OM9ANTLY BY :ITE WORK]S1 OV] TIME SOME ( ! /RIKES BEGAN TO BE 9ITIAT$ BY BLACKS4 ,9 #a#i#b1 = EXAMPLE1 A /RIKE ( ! ,PORT ,ELIZABE? MUNICIPAL BLACK WORK]S1 ORGANIZ$ BY ,SAMUEL ,MASABALA ( ! ,CAPE ,PROV9CIAL ,NATIVE ,CONGRESS1 RESULT$ 9 ! POLICE %OOT+ DEA?S ( #ai WORK]S4.<#h#f.> ,?IS L$ TO A /RIKE 9 ! ,R& 9 :I* OV] #d1 BLACK M9]S DEM&$ IMPROV$ C>E] PROSPECTS 9 JOBS RES]V$ = :ITES4.<#h#g.> 

,BY #a#i#b#a1 ,P]CY ,FI%]1 ,SECRET>Y ( ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,M9E ,WORK]S ,UNION1 HAD 9ITIAT$ ! =MATION ( A ,M9]'S ,C\NCIL ( ,ACTION1 :I* DEVELOP$ 9TO A ,R$ ,9T]NATIONAL ( ,LAB\R ,UNIONS1 ) A REVOLUTION>Y MISSION4 ,JEWELL ID5TIFIES ! F\R BASIC FACTIONS ?AT CON/ITUT$ ! UNION AS FOLL[S3 

! ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TY1 ,BOL%EVIK ) ,DE,LEONI/ ELEM5TS FAVOR+ AN 9DU/RIAL UNION GOV]NM5T2 

,AFRIKAN] ,MYNW]K]SBOND1 CONSI/+ ( POOR :ITE ,AFRIKAN]S CALL+ = AN ,AFRIKAN] ,UNION TO DE/ROY ! ,BRITI% CAPITALI/S & E/ABLI% A REPUBLIC2 

,LAB\R ,P>TY MOD]ATES1 L$ BY ,>*IE ,CRAW=D2 & 

! OLD ,I,W,W SYNDICALI/ NETWORK4.<#h#h.> 

,JEWELL NOTES ?AT 0! PRES5CE ( 9DEP5D5T ,I,W,W SYNDICALI/S IS DEMON/RAT$ BY ! GOV]NM5T *>GE ?AT ! /RIKE ATTEMPT$ TO SET UP A ',R$ OR ,SYNDICALI/ ,WORK]S' ,REPUBLIC4'0.<#h#i.> ,JEWELL'S ACC\NT ( ! EV5TS LEAD+ TO ! DECL>ATION ( A ,R$ ,WORK]S ,REPUBLIC IS 9=MATIVE4 ,ACCORD+ TO HIM1 ! /RIKE ACTION WAS C>RI$ \T BY WORK]S 9 DIFF]5T 9DU/RIES1 9CLUD+ ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,9DU/RIAL ,F$]ATION'S COAL M9]S1 LAT] JO9$ BY GOLD M9]S1 5G9E]S1 & P[] WORK]S4 

,9 ! FACE-(F BETWE5 ! WORK]S & ! RUL]S1 ! ,SMUTS GOV]NM5T TRI$ H>D TO BREAK ! WORK]S' SOLID>ITY1 BUT ) LITTLE SUCCESS4 ,:5 IT BECAME CLE> ?AT ! WORK]S REMA9$ UNCOMPROMIS+ 9 !IR DEM&S1 ,SMUTS ?REW ! GOV]NM5T'S MILIT>Y SUPPORT BEH9D ! M9E BOSSES & DECL>$ M>TIAL LAW1 URG+ !M TO REOP5 ! M9ES4.<#i.> ,AS DISCUSSIONS CONT9U$ TO BREAK D[N1 ! ,M9]S ,C\NCIL ( ,ACTION 0SEIZ$ ! 9ITIATIVE & =C$ ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,9DU/RIAL ,F$]ATION TO PROCLAIM A G5]AL /RIKE40.<#i#a.> ,! DECL>ATION ( A ,R$ ,WORK]S ,REPUBLIC FOLL[$ ! PROCLAMATION ( A G5]AL /RIKE4 ,! ,SMUTS GOV]NM5T RESPOND$ BY S5D+ DETA*M5TS ( ! >MY & AIR =CE TO ATTACK ! /RIK+ WORK]S4 ,! BUILD+ H\S+ ! /RIK]S' HEADQU>T]S 9 ,B5ONI WAS /RAF$ ON ! #a#d? ( ,M>*1 & AT LEA/ #aec PEOPLE DI$ 9 ! ATTACK4.<#i#b.> 

,IT HAS BE5 >GU$ ?AT BECAUSE ?IS /RIKE WAS CONDUCT$ PRIM>ILY BY :ITE WORK]S ) RELATIVELY LITTLE SUPPORT FROM BLACKS1 !RE WAS AN ABS5CE ( CLASS SOLID>ITY4 ,H[EV]1 ,JEWELL QUOTES ,JAMES ,DUKE'S VIEW ?AT ! /RIKE & ! DECL>ATION ( A ,R$ ,WORK]S ,REPUBLIC WAS 0A MAJOR BREAK?R\< 9 RACE RELATIONS & CLASS /RUGGLE1 VIRTUALLY AN ,AFRIKAN] CIVIL W> ) BLACK SUPPORT = ! ,AFRIKAN]40.<#i#c.> 

,! IMPOSITION ( AP>!ID 9 #a#i#d#h1 H[EV]1 5TR5*$ 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA A CLASS W> ?AT L>GELY FOLL[$ RACIAL L9ES4 ,) ! ASC5DANCE ( AP>!ID1 CLASS ID5TIFICATION & CLASS /RUGGLE 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA BECAME PR$ICAT$ ON ! COLOR ( A WORK]'S SK94 ,?IS HAD />T$ TWO YE>S PREVI\SLY 9 #aidf :5 A /RIKE BY #f1 BLACK WORK]S RECEIV$ NO SUPPORT FROM ! ALL-:ITE ,M9]S' ,UNION1 & WAS QUICKLY CRU%$ BY ! M9E [N]S & ! ,SMUTS GOV]NM5T4.<#i#d.> 

,BY #a#i#e#f1 ! ,NATIONALI/ GOV]NM5T HAD BROK5 UP ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,TRADES & ,LAB\R ,C\NCIL ALONG RACIAL L9ES -- ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,CONF$]ATION ( ,LAB\R WAS MADE UP ( :ITES1 & ! ,TRADE ,UNION ,C\NCIL ( ,S\? ,AFRICA WAS MADE UP ( NON:ITES 7COLOR$S & ,ASIANS74.<#i#e.> ,AL?\< AP>!ID GREATLY EMASCULAT$ ! WORK]S' MOVEM5T & POL>IZ$ WORK]S ALONG RACIAL L9ES1 MASSIVE BLACK /RIKES CONT9U$ 9TO ! #a#i#gS1 (T5 AIM$ AT W9N+ PAY 9CREASES = WORK]S4 

,BUT ! REAL IMPETUS = ! BURGEON+ ( RADICAL BLACK LABOR UNIONS UND] AP>!ID WAS ! ,LAB\R ,RELATIONS ,ACT ( #a#i#h#a1 :I* GAVE ! UNIONS A MEASURE ( RECOGNITION & ALL[$ !M TO OP]ATE LEGALLY4.<#i#f.> ,9 #a#i#g#e1 ! ,PROGRESSIVE ,P>TY HAD DECL>$ ,S\? ,AFRICA ! SECOND MO/ /RIKE-RIDD5 C\NTRY 9 ,AFRICA 7AFT] ,MOROCCO74.<#i#g.> ,BUT 9 #a#i#g#f1 ,VOR/] ,BO?A1 !N PRIME M9I/] ( ,S\? ,AFRICA1 HAD BOA/$ TO ,G]MAN 9VE/ORS ?AT 0,S\? ,AFRICA WAS FREE ( /RIKE.<S.>40.<#i#h.> ,BUT /RIKES RESULT$ 9 ! LOSS ( #b#d#c1 WORK+ DAYS DUR+ ! FIR/ ?REE MON?S ( #a#i#h#h1 & A WALK\T BY TWO TO ?REE MILLION WORK]S ON ,JUNE #f? ?R\< #h? ( ?AT SAME YE> WAS ! BIGGE/ 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA'S HI/ORY4.<#i#i.> ,:ILE WAGES & WORK+ CONDITIONS W]E ! MAJOR CAUSES ( ! /RIKES1 AN AGGRAVAT+ FACTOR WAS CAPITAL'S PRESSURE ON ! REGIME TO R$UCE ! NUMB] ( JOBS 9 ! PUBLIC SECTOR1 RE/RICT WAGE 9CREASES TO ?REE P]C5T1 & TO PRIVATIZE ! ECONOMY AS A WAY TO SOLVE ! C\NTRY'S ECONOMIC CRISIS4.<#a.> 

,! ,CONGRESS ( ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,TRADE ,UNIONS 7,C,O,S,A,T,U71 A SYNDICALI/-ORI5T$ ORGANIZATION1 WAS LAUN*$ ON ,NOVEMB] #c1 #aihe DUR+ ! /ATE ( EM]G5CY ( ,JULY #aihe -- ,M>* #a#i#h#f4.<#a#a.> ,! ,NATIONAL ,UNION ( ,M9E ,WORK]S 7,N,U,M7 WAS ! L>GE/ ( ,C,O,S,A,T,U'S AFFILIATES4.<#a#b.> ,WE MAY WELL SAY ?AT ! GLORY DAYS ( WORK+ CLASS /RUGGLE 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA W]E BR\<T BACK TO LIFE ) ! BIR? ( ,C,O,S,A,T,U4 ,9 #a#i#h#f1 ! LABOR MOVEM5T 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA1 UND] ! LEAD]%IP ( ,C,O,S,A,T,U & ) ! SUPPORT ( /UD5TS & COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS1 OBS]V$ ! #a? ,MAY ,DAY ) A WALK\T_//RIKE4 ,AT ! TIME1 IT WAS ! L>GE/ SU* ACTION TO EV] TAKE PLACE 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA2 OV] #a1#e1 MILLION WORK]S TOOK P>T 9 ! CALL = ! DAY TO BE DECL>$ A PUBLIC HOLIDAY4.<#a#c.> 

,ANO!R DISPLAY ( WORK]S' SOLID>ITY OCCURR$ ON ,OCTOB] #a1 #a#i#h#f1 ! DAY ( M\RN+ = ! #agg M9]S :O W]E VICTIMS ( ! ,K9CROSS M9+ DISA/]4 ,! WORK /OPPAGE WAS ORGANIZ$ BY ! ,NATIONAL ,UNION ( ,M9E ,WORK]S1 & #c#b#e1 M9]S TOOK P>T4.<#a#d.> 

,AS A C\NT]VAIL+ =CE AGA9/ =EIGN MONOPOLY CAPITAL1 ! UNIONS SUPPORT$ DIS9VE/M5T FROM ,S\? ,AFRICA4 ,! ECONOMIC SANCTIONS & DIS9VE/M5T CAMPAIGNS SPE>HEAD$ BY ! UNIONS1 & LAT] ADOPT$ BY MANY ,WE/]N GOV]NM5TS1 CONTRIBUT$ 9 NO SMALL MEASURE TO ! F9AL CAPITULATION ( AP>!ID4 

,! /RUGGLE ( ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN WORK+ CLASS ?AT PREC$$ ! COLLAPSE ( AP>!ID %[$ ?AT MANY WORK]S W]E PREP>$ TO LOSE !IR JOBS 9 ! C\RSE ( ! /RUGGLE4 ,T4,B4 ,FULANI NOTES ?AT :5 A BLACK WORK] 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA W5T ON /RIKE1 ! WORK] RISK$ NOT ONLY LOS+ HIS JOB1 BUT ALSO LOS+ HIS HOME 9 ! CITY1 & BE+ =C$ 9TO A ,BANTU/AN .<AN ECONOMICALLY DEPRESS$ 0HOMEL&0 SIMIL> TO A ,U4,S4 ,9DIAN RES]VATION -- $4.>4.<#a#e.> ,9 SPITE ( A %>P 9CREASE 9 ! CO/ ( LIV+1 TAXATION1 GR[+ UNEMPLOYM5T1 & 9CREAS$ REPRESSION ( TRADE UNIONI/S1 ! NUMB] ( /RIKES 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA CONT9U$ TO RISE 9 ! YE>S PREC$+ ! COLLAPSE ( ! AP>!ID REGIME4 ,FULANI SUMM>IZES ! RANGE ( SOCIAL1 ECONOMIC & POLITICAL DEM&S ( ,S\? ,AFRICAN LABOR UNIONS3 S9CE #aigi WORK]S HAVE DEM&$ ! RI<T TO =M TRADE UNIONS ( !IR *OICE2 !Y REJECT$ ALL GOV]NM5T-CREAT$ 9/ITUTIONS SU* AS COMMUNITY C\NCILS & ! PRESID5T'S C\NCIL2 !Y F\<T AGA9/ ! 9TRODUCTION ( A NEW 9COME TAX = BLACKS 9 #a#i#h#d2 !Y DEM&$ ! )DRAWAL ( GOV]NM5T TROOPS FROM BLACK T[N%IPS4 ,!Y F\<T AGA9/ L[ WAGES & ! VICTIMIZATION ( WORK]S2 & !Y ORGANIZ$ A BOYCOTT ( :ITE-[N$ %OPS & FACTORIES4.<#a#f.> 

,AL?\< ! WORK+ CLASS MOVEM5T 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA CAN BOA/ ( A LONG HI/ORY ( /RUGGLE1 ?IS /RUGGLE HAS NOT FUNDAM5TALLY *ANG$ SOCIETY4 ,9 ! FI<T AGA9/ ! AP>!ID REGIME1 ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN UNIONS W]E TAK5 OV] BY MIDDLE CLASS POLITICIANS ( ! ,AFRICAN ,NATIONAL ,CONGRESS 7,A,N,C71 :O LACK CLE> REVOLUTION>Y POLITICAL GOALS4 ,! \TCOME ( ?IS TAKEOV] COMPROMIS$ ! IDEAL ( A COMPLETELY DIFF]5T K9D ( SOCIETY4 ,! LEAD]%IP ( ! UNIONS BECAME AN 9TEGRAL P>T ( ! RE=MI/ /RUGGLE ( ! ,A,N,C = MAJORITY RULE 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA4 ,IT'S NO ACCID5T ?AT MANY LEAD]S ( ,C,O,S,A,T,U HAVE RECEIV$ PLUM JOBS 9 ! PO/-AP>!ID ,A,N,C GOV]NM5T ( ,NELSON ,M&ELA4 

,! ,A,N,C GOV]NM5T DOES NOT REPRES5T MU* ?AT IS FUNDAM5TALLY NEW TO ! WORK+ CLASS 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA4 ,?IS IS CLE> TO BO? ! RUL+ ELITE & TO ,S\? ,AFRICAN WORK]S4 ,! SAME OLD CAPITALI/ MODE ( PRODUCTION1 BAS$ ON ! EXPLOITATION ( LABOR BY CAPITAL1 CONT9UES TO EXI/ 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA4 ,! WORK+ CLASS TASK /ILL REMA9S ! REVOLUTION>Y TRANS=MATION ( SOCIETY1 ?AT IS1 ! A*IEVEM5T ( A TRULY NEW SOCIETY BAS$ ON LIB]TY & SOCIOECONOMIC EQUALITY4 

"9 "9 "9 

,SOCIALISM OR COMMUNISM AS AN IDEOLOGICAL MODEL IS NOT 5TIRELY NEW TO ,AFRICA2 IT FIR/ GA9$ GR\ND 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA ) ! =MATION ( ! ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TY 9 #a#i#b#a4 ,! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,COMMUNI/S1 :O BROKE AWAY FROM ! ,LAB\R ,P>TY 9 #aiae TO =M ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,SOCIALI/ ,LEAGUE 7,I,S,L71 HAD AS ONE ( !IR OBJECTIVES ! PURSUIT ( PROLET>IAN 9T]NATIONALISM4.<#a#g.> ,AN $ITORIAL 9 ! F\R? ISSUE ( ,! ,9T]NATIONAL1 ! WEEKLY PAP] ( ! ,I,S,L1 /AT$ ON ,OCTOB] #a1 #aiae ?AT 0AN 9T]NATIONALISM ?AT DOES NOT CONC$E ! FULLE/ RI<TS :I* ! NATIVE WORK+ CLASS IS CAPABLE ( CLAIM+ WILL BE A %AM444 ,IF ! ,LEAGUE DEALS RESOLUTELY 9 CONSONANCE ) SOCIALI/ PR9CIPLES ) ! NATIVE QUE/ION1 IT WILL SUCCE$ 9 %AK+ ,S\? ,AFRICAN CAPITALISM TO ITS F\NDATION4440.<#a#h.> ,?US ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,SOCIALI/ ,LEAGUE MADE EF=TS TO ID5TIFY ) ! WORK]S & ) ! PLI<T ( ! D[N-TRODD5 BLACK POPULATION4 ,IT MADE CONTACT ) ALL EXI/+ BLACK ORGANIZATIONS1 SU* AS ! ,AFRICAN ,NATIONAL ,CONGRESS1 & F\ND$ ! ,9DU/RIAL ,WORK]S ( ,AFRICA TRADE UNION4.<#a#i.> 

,9 #a#i#b#a1 UND] ! AUSPICES ( ! ,?IRD ,9T]NATIONAL1 ! ,M>XI/-,DE,LEONI/ ,I,S,L ACCEPT$ ,L59'S #ba DEM&S & =M$ ! ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TY ( ,S\? ,AFRICA4 ,ITS LEAD]S W]E ,S4,P4 ,BUNT+1 =M] ,LAB\R ,P>TY ,*AIRMAN ,W4,H4 ,&REWS1 & DIRECT-ACTION M9E WORK]S ,]NIE ,%AW & ,P]CY ,FI%]4 ,?\< IT ADOPT$ ! ORGANIZATIONAL =M ( A ,BOL%EVIK P>TY1 ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,C4,P4 REMA9$ /RONGLY 9FLU5C$ BY ,I,W,W 7,9DU/RIAL ,WORK]S ( ! ,WORLD7 REVOLUTION>Y SYNDICALI/ VIEWS1 & BY ,DE,LEONI/ 9DU/RIAL UNION CONCEPTS4.<#a#a.> 

,BUT ?R\< ! YE>S ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TY UND]W5T A M>K$ TRANS=MATION1 BO? 9 ITS RELATION%IP TO ! /ATE & 9 ITS CONCEPTION ( ! /RUGGLE = A BETT] SOCIETY4 ,IT AB&ON$ ITS 9ITIAL REVOLUTION>Y PROGRAM1 & 9 ALLIANCE ) O!R NATIONALI/ GR\PS CONCEIV$ & BEGAN TO WORK = A TWO-/EP APPROA* TO LIB]ATION1 TO WIT1 A B\RGEOIS DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION1 FOLL[$ BY A SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION4 ,! P>TY WAS MORE CONC]N$ ) ! ISSUE ( /ATE P[] ?AN CLASS P[]1 & PAID SCANT ATT5TION TO BR++ AN 5D TO P[] & PRIVILEGE 9 ,S\? ,AFRICAN SOCIETY4 

,! MAJOR LIB]ATION MOVEM5TS 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA -- ! ,AFRICAN ,NATIONAL ,CONGRESS & ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TY -- BO? ADOPT$ A DOCUM5T KN[N AS ! ,FRE$OM ,*>T] AS A FRAMEWORK = A LIB]AT$ ,S\? ,AFRICA4 ,! ,FRE$OM ,*>T]1 H[EV]1 :ILE IT PROPOS$ TO RE/RICT ! OP]ATIONS ( MONOPOLY CAPITALISM1 DID NOT 5VISAGE ! ABOLITION ( ! CAPITALI/ SY/EM4 ,AS ,SISA ,MAJOLA /ATES1 ! ,FRE$OM ,*>T] 05VISAGE.<D.> ! DEVELOPM5T ( SMALL-SCALE CAPITALI/ 5T]PRISES AS A RESULT ( ! ELIM9ATION ( ! V>I\S COL\R B>RI]S40.<#a#a#a.> ,ACCORD+LY1 ! ,*>T] 5VISION$ A ,S\? ,AFRICA :]E ALL PEOPLE 0%ALL HAVE EQUAL RI<TS TO TRADE :]E !Y *OOSE1 TO MANUFACTURE & TO 5T] ALL TRADES1 CRAFTS & PR(ESSIONS40 ,MAJOLA FUR!R OBS]VES ?AT EV5 ! DEM& CONTA9$ 9 ! ,*>T]1 ?AT 0RE/RICTION ( L& [N]%IP ON A RACIAL BASIS %ALL BE 5D$1 & ALL ! L& R$IVID$ AMONG ?OSE :O WORK IT1 TO BANI% FAM9E & HUNG]10 DID NOT NECESS>ILY PROPOSE ! SOCIALIZATION ( L& [N]%IP & CONTROL40 ,FROM ALL ( ?IS WE CAN CONCLUDE ?AT ! 9ITIAL IDEALS :I* ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TY EMBRAC$ W]E %ORT LIV$2 !Y W]E COMPROMIS$ BY ITS ALLIANCE ) NATIONALI/ GR\PS = ! PURPOSE ( ACQUIR+ POLITICAL P[]4 

,! 0,REVOLUTION0 9 ,GU9EA 

,! SO-CALL$ REVOLUTION 9 ,GU9EA DES]VES COMM5T 9 ?AT ! P>TY ?AT L$ ! 0REVOLUTION0 -- ! ,DEMOCRATIC ,P>TY ( ,GU9EA 7,D,P,G7 -- WAS A MASS P>TY ) A REVOLUTION>Y IDEOLOGY BAS$ ON WORK] & PEASANT 9T]E/S4 

,! ORGANIZATION ( WORK]S 9 ,GU9EA WAS L$ BY ,SEK\ ,T\RE1 A DESC5DANT ( A FAM\S ANTI-,FR5* COLONIALISM RESI/ANCE LEAD] 9 ! #a#i? C5TURY4 ,UND] ,T\RE'S GUIDANCE1 TRADE UNIONS M]G$ !IR PROTE/ AGA9/ ,FR5* RULE ) ?AT ( V>I\S E?NIC & REGIONAL ASSOCIATIONS1 CREAT+ ! ,P,D,G4 ,9 ITS E>LY YE>S1 ! ,P,D,G MA9TA9$ /RONG L9KS ) ! ,FR5* SYNDICALI/ UNION1 ! ,C,G,T4 

,! OBJECTIVE ( ! ,P,D,G'S F\ND]S WAS TO CREATE A MASS P>TY1 & !Y A*IEV$ ?IS AT LEA/ = ! DURATION ( ! 9DEP5D5CE /RUGGLE4 ,! ,P,D,G A*IEV$ ITS MASS MOBILIZATION BY APPEAL+ TO WORK]S ON BREAD & BUTT] ISSUES -- SAL>IES1 B5EFITS1 ETC4 -- & !N TO PEASANTS ON ! BASIS ( NE$S SU* AS ROADS & S*OOLS1 & ALSO ON ! BASIS ( !IR RES5TM5T T[>D !IR *IEFS & NOBILITY :O HAD SOLD !M \T TO ! ,FR5*4 ,!Y P>TICUL>LY APPEAL$ TO WOM5 & TO Y\?1 BO? GR\PS EXTREMELY EXPLOIT$ BY ! ELD]S & *IEFS4 

,GU9EA'S *IEFS W]E MORE OR LESS TAX ADM9I/RATORS = ! ,FR5*1 BLE$+ !IR [N PEOPLE DRY4 ,!Y ALSO PROVID$ =C$ LABOR = M9ES & PLANTATIONS4 ,!Y HAD BECOME DISCR$IT$ AMONG !IR PEOPLE1 & ! ,P,D,G EXPLOIT$ ?IS4 ,BY #a#i#e#f1 ! P>TY HAD UNIT$ ! C\NTRY & SWEPT ! ELECTIONS ( ?AT YE>4 ,?IS CAUS$ ! ,FR5* GOV]NOR TO ISSUE A /ATEM5T ?AT RECOGNIZ$ ?AT ! *IEFTA9CY 0WAS GRAVELY COMPROMIS$444 & IT WAS NO LONG] ADMISSIBLE ?AT WE MA9TA9 AGA9/ W9D & /ORM *IEFS :O NO LONG] REPRES5T ANY?+40 ,FOLL[+ ! ELECTION1 ! ,P,D,G SET UP VILLAGE COMMITTEES1 SOME ( :I* MADE UP LI/S ( GRIEVANCES AGA9/ !IR *IEFS & EXACT$ REP>ATIONS FROM !M4 ,?IS FRI<T5$ MANY *IEFS1 :O !N FL$ TO ! CAPITAL1 ,CONAKRY4 

,9 #a#i#e#g-#e#h1 ! ,P,D,G /RIPP$ ! *IEFS ( P[] & E/ABLI%$ POPUL>LY ELECT$ LOCAL GOV]NM5TS1 FROM ! VILLAGE UP4 ,!Y ALSO BEGAN TO TAX ,FR5* COMPANIES1 BROKE UP TRAD+ MONOPOLIES1 & RE=M$ GOV]NM5T4 ,:5 9 #aieh ! PEOPLE ( ,GU9EA VOT$ = 9DEP5D5CE1 ! ,FR5* FL$ 5 MASSE1 & 9 REV5GE TOOK ) !M :ATEV] !Y C\LD C>RY1 EV5 ! TELEPHONES FROM ! WALLS4 ,ONLY #b ,FR5* ADM9I/RATORS \T ( AN E/IMAT$ #d#a1 REMA9$4 ,! /AGE WAS !N SET = PEASANT & WORK] 9T]E/S TO 9FLU5CE ! GOV]NM5T & ! DEVELOPM5T ( ,GU9EA4 ,BUT1 AS 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA1 ?IS WAS %ORT LIV$4 ,! NEW 0REVOLUTION>Y0 POLITICIANS SOON PRO/ITUT$ ! IDEALS ( ! LIB]ATION /RUGGLE1 AS IS 9EVITABLE :5EV] 0REVOLUTION>Y0 POLITICIANS OCCUPY POSITIONS ( P[] & PRIVILEGE4 

,! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE3 AN ,AFRICAN ,AN>*I/ ,MOVEM5T 

,! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE BEGAN AS AN 9=MAL /UDY GR\P AT ! ,UNIV]SITY ( ,NIG]IA1 ,NSUKKA1 9 ! MID #a#i#hS4 ,! GR\P CONT9U$ TO FUNCTION ESS5TIALLY AS A LEFTI/ COALITION COMPOS$ ( M>XI/S1 TROTSKYITES1 HUMAN RI<TS ACTIVI/S1 & LEFTI/S & RADICALS ( V>I\S P]SUASIONS4 ,UNTIL #a#i#h#i1 ! GR\P CONSI/$ MO/LY ( /UD5T ACTIVI/S1 J\RNALI/S1 & UNIV]SITY GRADUATES4 ,! DIFF]5T T5D5CIES )9 ! BODY G5]AT$ 9T5SE DEBATES & SELF-CRITICISM4 

,?IS TYPE ( GR\P WAS NOT )\T PREC$5T1 ?\<4 ,AT ,IBADAN ,UNIV]SITY1 A SIMIL> LEFT COALITION1 ,! ,AXE1 HAD EXI/$ S9CE AB\T #a#i#h#c4 ,ITS MEMB]S PUBLI%$ = A :ILE A P]IODIC NEWSLETT] KN[N ALSO AS ,! ,AXE1 & LAT] ,! ,SOCIALI/ ,REGI/]4 ,?IS GR\P B>ELY SURVIV$ ! CRISIS ?AT 5GULF$ ! LEFT1 NOTABLY ! AU?ORIT>IAN LEFT1 9 ! SECOND HALF ( ! #a#i#hS4 

,! DEBATES ?AT W5T ON )9 ! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE AT ! 5D ( ! #a#i#hS BR\<T TO ! =E ! NE$ TO TRANSC5D ! BODY'S ORGANIZATIONAL /RUCTURE -- NAMELY1 ITS 9=MALITY & ITS SEEM+ ABS5CE ( A CLE> IDEOLOGICAL DIRECTION4 ,?IS TURMOIL CO9CID$ ) ! POLITICAL CONVULSIONS 9 ,EA/]N ,EUROPE & ! GR[+ UNPOPUL>ITY ( M>XI/ SOCIALISM >\ND ! WORLD4 

,! EV5TUAL COLLAPSE ( ,COMMUNISM WAS =E%AD[$ 9 A L5G?Y ANALYSIS 9 ,! ,TOR* NEWSPAP]1 A MON?LY PUBLICATION ( ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,SOCIALI/ ,LEAGUE 9 ! ,U4,S4,A4 ,! =M] TROTSKYITES AT ,! ,TOR* RAN A LONG & ?OR\< REPUDIATION ( M>XISM-L59ISM & ! /ATE SOCIALI/ SY/EMS IT HAD GIV5 RISE TO4 ,AU?OR$ BY ,RON ,TAB]1 & TITL$ 0,A ,LOOK AT ,L59ISM10 ! S]IES ATTEMPT$ TO %[ ?AT ,SOVIET-/YLE /ATE SOCIALISM WAS DOOM$4 

,MEMB]S ( ! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE /UDY GR\P FOLL[$ ?IS CRITIQUE ) CLOSE 9T]E/4 ,ITS BRUTAL P]CEPTIV5ESS LEFT MO/ MEMB]S ( ! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE 9 NO D\BT AB\T ! WAY =W>D = ! ,LEAGUE4 ,9 RESPONSE TO ! S]IES PUBLI%$ 9 ,! ,TOR*1 ! ,LEAGUE WROTE1 0WE >E A BODY ( Y\NG1 UNEMPLOY$ UNIV]SITY GRADUATES1 /UD5TS1 & >TISANS1 9T]E/$ 91 & COMMITT$ TO1 ! TEA*+S & PR9CIPLES ( SOCIALISM4 ,WE HOLD REVOLUTION>Y SOCIALISM AS \R MANIFE/O444 ,WE >E P>TICUL>LY IMPRESS$ BY ! PUBLICATION1 ',A ,LOOK AT ,L59ISM1' :I* WE CONSID] AN IMPORTANT SELF-CRITICAL EF=T1 :I* NO TRUE M>XI/ OR REVOLUTION>Y CAN AF=D TO WI% AWAY40 

,SUBSEQU5T EV5TS L$ TO ! TRANS=MATION ( ! GR\P 9TO AN AN>*I/ ORGANIZATION1 ?\< IT /ILL RETA9$ ITS OLD NAME4 ,BY ,FEBRU>Y #a1 #a#i#i1 ! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE =MALLY %$ ITS =M] IMAGE AS A LEFTI/ COALITION4 ,! GR\P'S *>T]1 APPROV$ 9 #a#i#i#a1 PRON\NC$ ! ,LEAGUE AS A3SOCIAL LIB]T>IAN ORGANIZATION 9SPIR$ BY & COMMITT$ TO ! IDEALS1 PR9CIPLES1 OBJECTIVES1 GOALS1 5DS & PURPOSES ( REVOLUTION>Y SOCIALISM & AN>*OSYNDICALISM1 *>ACT]IZ$ AS ! ANTI!SIS ( /ATISM AS WELL AS ! MANIFE/ATIONS & 9/ITUTIONS !RE(4 

,) CAPITALISM 5ME%$ 9 9T]M9ABLE CRISIS & ITS 9/ITUTIONS -- SOCIAL1 ECONOMIC1 POLITICAL & CULTURAL -- 9CREAS+LY SUCCUMB+ TO FATIGUE ACROSS ! GLOBE1 ! IMP]ATIVE = SU/A9$ /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! =CES ( CAPITALISM HAS NEV] BE5 GREAT]4 ,IT IS 9/RUCTIVE TO NOTE ?AT ! CRISIS ( CAPITALISM HAS BE5 MO/ 9T5SIVE & PRON\NC$ 9 ! UND]DEVELOP$ ?IRD WORLD C\NTRIES4 ,?IS IS NOT SURPRIS+1 TO SAY ! LEA/3 CAPITALISM'S *A9 WAS B\ND TO BREAK AT ITS WEAKE/ L9KS4 

,! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE UPHOLDS ! PR9CIPLES & DICTATES ( 9T]NATIONALISM1 CONV9C$ ?AT NATIONAL B\ND>IES & T]RITORIALITY >E BUT >TIFICIAL CREATIONS4 ,! ,LEAGUE /&S = & IS COMMITT$ TO PEACE & REJECTS W>1 MILIT>ISM1 FASCISM1 & RACISM AS WELL AS ! ACQUISITION & DEVELOPM5T ( TE*NOLOGIES ?AT PROMOTE W>1 MILIT>ISM1 &1 9 TURN1 UND]M9E PEACE & PEACEFUL COEXI/5CE AMONG NATIONS4 

,! ,LEAGUE ADVOCATES VIOL5CE ONLY AS A =M ( RESI/ANCE TO ! VIOL5CE & VIOL5T ME?ODS & TACTICS ( ! RUL+ CLASS1 ITS AG5CIES & COLLABORATORS OR AS A =M ( LIB]ATION /RUGGLE4 ,TO ?IS 5D1 ! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE1 AS AN AN>*OSYNDICALI/ & REVOLUTION>Y SOCIALI/ FRONT1 PROCLAIMS ALL OV] ! WORLD & 9SI/S ?AT NO =M ( COLLABORATION CAN EXI/ BETWE5 ! RUL+ CLASSES -- ! EXPLOIT] -- & !IR VICTIMS1 ! MASSES4 

,! ,LEAGUE HAS S9CE GR[N 9TO A #a-MEMB] MOVEM5T ) MEMB]S 9 ALL #ae S\!RN ,NIG]IAN /ATES1 AS WELL AS ! /ATES ( ,KADUNA1 ,ADAMAWA & ,PLATEAU 9 ! NOR?4 ,9 #aiif ! ,LEAGUE WAS ADMITT$ AS ! ,NIG]IAN SECTION ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,WORK]S ,ASSOCIATION 7,I,W,A71 ! AN>*OSYNDICALI/ 9T]NATIONAL4 

,*APT] #e3 ,! ,FAILURE ( ,SOCIALISM 9 ,AFRICA 

,ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T HAS BE5 C5TRAL TO ! IDEOLOGIES ( PO/-COLONIAL ,AFRICAN /ATES4 ,9 !IR *OICE ( :I* IDEOLOGICAL MODEL TO ADOPT = ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T1 SOME /ATES HAVE *OS5 A =M ( SOCIALISM -- 0,AFRICAN SOCIALISM10 AS SOME ( ITS PROPON5TS HAVE LABEL$ IT4 ,H[EV]1 ! T]M 0SOCIALISM0 AS US$ H]E DOES NOT SIGNIFY A RIGID1 DOCTR9AIRE APPROA* AS 9 M>XISM-L59ISM4 ,?US ,S5<OR ID5TIFIES 0SPIRITUAL VALUES0 :I* HE FEELS W]E LO/ TO ,SOVIET ,COMMUNI/S UND] ,/AL92 ,KWAME ,NKRUMAH SAW NO CONTRADICTION BETWE5 SOCIALISM & ,*RI/IANITY2 & ,JULIUS ,NY]]E HAS ASSOCIAT$ ,AFRICAN SOCIALISM ) TRADITIONAL K9%IP SOLID>ITY 9 HIS ,UJAMAA CONCEPT4 ,ADVOCATES ( ,AFRICAN SOCIALISM PO/ULATE ?AT ! M>XI/ !ORY ( MAT]IAL DET]M9ISM %\LD NOT BE APPLI$ 9 ,AFRICA1 GIV5 ,AFRICA'S VA/LY DIFF]5T 7?AN ,EUROPEAN7 ECONOMIC & SOCIAL CONDITIONS4 ,RA!R1 !Y CALL = A DEC5TRALIZ$1 DEMOCRATIC ,AFRICAN SOCIALISM1 :I* !Y TRACE BACK TO ! HI/ORY & CULTURES ( ! ,AFRICAN PEOPLE4 

,BUT ! CONCEPT ( ,AFRICAN SOCIALISM HAS BE5 SEV]ELY CRITICIZ$4 ,GOLD?ORPE ID5TIFIES A /RONG /R& ( ELITISM 9 0,AFRICAN SOCIALISM40 ,ACCORD+ TO HIM1 :]E !RE IS SOCIALISM 9 ,AFRICA1 IT HAS BE5 PLANN$ BY AN ELITE4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ,PAUL ,SIGMUND HAS PO9T$ \T ?AT MANY PO/-COLONIAL ,AFRICAN /ATES SEE /RONG GOV]NM5T AS ! ONLY WAY TO A*IEVE MOD]NIZATION & DEVELOPM5T1 & !IR LEAD]S CO9 PHRASES SU* AS ,SEK\ ,T\RE'S 0DEMOCRATIC DICTATOR%IP0 TO EXPRESS !IR BELIEF ?AT ! GOV]NM5T OR RUL+ P>TY MU/ LEAD ! PEOPLE4 ,NKRUMAH1 :O ADVOCAT$ ,AFRICAN SOCIALISM1 ASS]T$ ?AT HIS ,CONV5TION ,PEOPLE'S ,P>TY =M$ ! NUCLEUS ( A NEW ,<ANIAN SOCIETY4 ,?IS REQUIR$ ?AT ! P>TY 0G5]ALIZE0 ITSELF 9TO SOCIETY4 ,AS ,NKRUMAH SAID1 0! ,C,P,P IS A P[]FUL =CE1 MORE P[]FUL 9DE$ ?AN ANY?+ ?AT HAS APPE>$ 9 ! HI/ORY ( ,<ANA4 ,IT IS ! UNIT+ =CE ?AT GUIDES & PILOTS ! NATION1 & IT IS ! N]VE C5TRE ( ! POSITIVE ASPIRATIONS 9 ! /RUGGLE = ,AFRICAN IRR$5TISM4 ,ITS SUPREMACY CANNOT BE *ALL5G$4 ,! ,C,P,P IS ,<ANA1 & ,<ANA IS ! ,C,P,P40.<#a#a#b.> 

,! ACTUAL POLICIES & ! FAILURES ( 0,AFRICAN SOCIALI/0 REGIMES REVEAL ! EMPT9ESS ( SU* GR&IOSE1 SELF-S]V+ RHETORIC4 ,! ,AFRICAN POET ,OKOT APTLY CAPTURES ! FAILURE & TRAG$Y ( PO/-9DEP5D5CE ,AFRICAN REGIMES 9 HIS >TICLE1 0,9DIG5\S ,ILLS0 

444! MO/ /RIK+ & FRI<T5+ *>ACT]I/ICS ( ALL ,AFRICA GOV]NM5TS IS ?IS1 ?AT )\T AN EXCEPTION1 ALL ( !M >E DICTATOR%IPS1 & PRACTICE RU?LESS DISCRIM9ATION AS MAKES ! ,S\? ,AFRICAN AP>!ID LOOK TAME4 ,AFRICAN ,SOCIALISM MAY BE DEF9$ AS ! GOV]NM5T ( ! PEOPLE BY ! $UCAT$ = ! $UCAT$444 .<,IT IS.> DISCRIM9ATION BY ! $UCAT$ M5 9 P[] AGA9/ !IR FELL[ M5 -- !IR BRO!RS & SI/]S1 MO!RS & FA!RS1 AGA9/ !IR [N FOLK LEFT 9 ! VILLAGES4.<#a#a#c.> 

,LET US LOOK AT SOME SPECIFIC 9/ANCES :]E ,AFRICAN SOCIALISM FAIL$ TO IMPROVE ! LIVES ( ! ORD9>Y PEOPLE4 ,:AT HAPP5$ TO ! ,GU9EAN REVOLUTION AFT] 9DEP5D5CE8 ,SOME ANALY/S DESCRIBE :AT HAPP5$ 9 PO/-9DEP5D5CE ,GU9EA AS SIMPLY AN OV]REACTION2 BUT = A MORE DETAIL$ ANALYSIS WE TURN TO ,SAMIR ,AM9'S BOOK1 ,NEO-,COLONIALISM 9 ,WE/ ,AFRICA4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,AM91 ! FIR/ IMPORTANT PO9T IS ?AT AFT] 9DEP5D5CE1 ! ,P,D,G OP5$ ITSELF TO ! OPPOSITION P>TIES ?AT HAD REPRES5T$ ! *IEFS4 ,! SECOND IMPORTANT PO9T IS ?AT1 DESPITE AN ORIG9AL DEMOCRATIC ORGANIZATION FROM ! VILLAGE UPW>D1 SOON MAJOR DECISIONS = ! C\NTRY W]E MADE BY ! G5]AL SECRET>Y & ! EXECUTIVE ORGAN ( ! POLITICAL BUREAU4 ,?US DECISION MAK+ SOON BECAME V]Y C5TRALIZ$4 ,! ,P,D,G 9CORPORAT$ ALL ORGANIZATIONS1 9CLUD+ TRADE UNIONS & WOM5'S ORGANIZATIONS1 9TO ITS FOLD1 ?US CONC5TRAT+ P[] AT ! TOP4 

,GIV5 ALL ?IS1 IT'S OBVI\S ?AT ! ,GU9EAN PEASANTRY HAD LITTLE IMPACT ON GOV]NM5T DECISIONS4 ,AS WE HAVE SE51 DECISIONS W]E EXECUT$ BY A CADRE ( ! FEW ,AFRICAN CIVIL S]VANTS $UCAT$ BY ! ,FR5*1 & BY A NUMB] ( EXPATRIATES4 ,9 ! FIR/ ?REE-YE> PLAN1 ! PEASANTS W]E TO BE ORGANIZ$ 9TO COOP]ATIVES1 & ! GOV]NM5T WAS TO E/ABLI% A NUMB] ( /ATE F>MS US+ MOD]N TE*NIQUES2 BUT BY #a#i#g1 ,AM9 C\LD REPORT NO S]I\S />T ON COOP]ATIVE ORGANIZATION1 & ! PLANS = COOP]ATIVES W]E SUBSEQU5TLY DROPP$4 ,HE ALSO REPORT$ ?AT AGRICULTURAL MOD]NIZATION HAD NOT PROCE$$ AT ALL4 

,R4,E4 ,GALLI CITES TWO FACTORS = ! FAILURE ( ! ,GU9EAN REVOLUTION4 ,ONE WAS ! OV]-C5TRALIZATION ( ! P>TY 9 ! PO/-9DEP5D5CE P]IOD4 ,SECOND1 & MORE FUNDAM5TALLY1 ! GOV]NM5T & P>TY DELIB]ATELY *OSE TO RELY ON M9+ AS OPPOS$ TO AGRICULTURE AS ! ECONOMIC BASE ( ! C\NTRY4 ,FROM ! MOM5T ?AT IT A*IEV$ P[]1 ! ,P,D,G MOV$ TO ALLY ITSELF ) M9+ COMPANIES 9 ! H&S ( =EIGN CAPITAL4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,GALLI1 ! P>TY SAW ! M9ES AS ITS OPPORTUNITY TO EXTRACT AN ECONOMIC SURPLUS ) :I* TO MA9TA9 ! /ATE & TO KEEP ! ,P,D,G 9 P[]1 BECAUSE ! M9ES C\LD PROVIDE AN 9COME S\RCE 9DEP5D5T ( PEASANTS & WORK]S1 & ! ,P,D,G C\LD ?US AF=D TO IGNORE !IR 9T]E/S4 

,H[EV]1 DESPITE ITS V5TURES 9TO M9+1 ,GU9EA TODAY REMA9S ONE ( ! POORE/ C\NTRIES 9 ! WORLD4 ,! ,UNIT$ ,NATIONS HAS DESIGNAT$ IT AS ONE ( ! #ca LEA/-DEVELOP$ C\NTRIES2 & IT HAS A V]Y L[ ,G,N,P4 ,GU9EAN WORK]S1 AS ONE MI<T SUSPECT1 HAVE NOT F>$ WELL -- ?R\<\T ! #a#i#gS & #a#i#hS REAL WAGES FELL AS 9FLATION ROSE4 

,! PURPOSE ( EXAM9+ ,GU9EA H]E IS NOT TO PA9T A COMPLETE PICTURE ( ITS POLITICAL ECONOMY1 BUT TO LAY B>E ! %AM ( ,AFRICAN SOCIALISM &1 9 P>TICUL>1 ! ROLE ( ! /ATE 9 IT4 ,! LESSONS TO BE LE>N$ FROM ,GU9EA >E3 

,!RE CAN BE NO DEVELOPM5T ( ,AFRICA ?AT DOES NOT RAISE ! PRODUCTIVITY & 9COME ( PEASANTS1 SKILL$ & NONSKILL$ WORK]S1 :O =M AB\T #i.0 ( ! ECONOMICALLY PRODUCTIVE POPULATION ( SUB-,SAH>AN ,AFRICA4 ,ANY DEVELOPM5T POLICY ?AT AIMS AT MEAN+FUL *ANGE MU/ T\* ! LIVES ( ! POOR MAJORITY4 

,! RELIANCE ON /ATE P[] OV] WORK]S & PEASANTS DIRECTLY CONTRIBUTES TO ,AFRICA'S UND]DEVELOPM5T4 

,A SUCCESSFUL AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION PROCESS WILL BE BAS$ ON ! WORK]S & PEASANTS !MSELVES RUNN+ ?+S 7VOLUNT>Y COLLECTIVIZATION71 ! ELIM9ATION ( ! PR(IT MOTIVE1 & ! APPROPRIATE APPLICATION ( TE*NOLOGY4.<#a#a#d.> 

,TANZANIA PROVIDES ANO!R P]T95T CASE /UDY ( A C\NTRY :OSE LEAD]S D$ICAT$ !MSELVES TO RURAL DEVELOPM5T %ORTLY AFT] A*IEV+ 9DEP5D5CE 7FROM ,BRITA974 ,JULIUS ,NY]]E1 HEAD ( ! ,TANZANIAN GOV]NM5T1 WAS ONE ( ! =EMO/ EXPON5TS ( ,AFRICAN SOCIALISM & ! PR9CIPLE ( SELF-RELIANCE4 ,9 #aigi HE ADDRESS$ ! ,WORLD ,CONF]5CE ON ,AGR>IAN ,RE=M & ,RURAL ,DEVELOPM5T1 /AT+ ?AT3 

,RURAL DEVELOPM5T MEANS DEVELOPM5T4 ,IT 9DICATES AN APPROA* & ! ORD] ( PRIORITIES4 ,IT 9VOLVES EV]Y ASPECT ( GOV]NM5T & SOCIAL ACTIVITIES4 ,IT MEANS ACT+ TO REV]SE ! TRADITIONAL FL[ ( WEAL? FROM ! RURAL >EAS 9TO ! T[NS & =C+ ?AT WEAL? 9TO *ANNELS :I* WILL B5EFIT ! WORK]S :O ACTUALLY PRODUCE IT ) !IR H&S & BRA9S4 ,IT MEANS TRANSF]R+ TO ! POOR] & RURAL >EAS SOME ( ! WEAL? PRODUC$ 9 ! RI*E/ ECONOMIC SECTORS4 ,9 PRACTICALLY ALL DEVELOP+ C\NTRIES !SE ?+S REQUIRE A REVOLUTION 9 ! PRES5T PATT]NS ( GOV]NM5T EXP5DITURE & TAXATION4 ,!Y WILL BE DONE IF1 & ONLY IF1 ! PEOPLE CAN ORGANIZE !IR [N P[] 9 !IR [N 9T]E/4 

,HAS ,TANZANIA PRACTIC$ :AT ,NY]]E PREA*$8 ,TO ANSW] ?IS QUE/ION1 LET'S LOOK AT ! /ORY ( SOCIALISM 9 ,TANZANIA4 

,TANGANYIKA WON ITS 9DEP5D5CE FROM ! ,BRITI% 9 #aifa AFT] YE>S ( /RUGGLE L$ BY ! ,TANGANYIKA ,AFRICAN ,NATIONAL ,UNION 7,T,A,N,U74 ,T,A,N,U WAS L$ BY TEA*]S1 JUNIOR CIVIL S]VANTS1 M]*ANTS1 RI* F>M]S1 :ITE COLL> WORK]S1 SAL>I$ EMPLOYEES1 %OPKEEP]S -- BASICALLY ! $UCAT$ & PR(ESSIONAL CLASSES 9 ! URBAN >EAS & RI* F>M]S & M]*ANTS 9 ! RURAL >EAS4 ,T,A,N,U SUCCESSFULLY MOBILIZ$ ! PEASANTRY1 TO :I* IT GAVE SOME ECONOMIC & ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT4 ,LIKE ! ,P,D,G1 ,T,A,N,U ASPIR$ TO BE A MASS P>TY4 ,9 #a#i#f#d1 IT ORGANIZ$ ITSELF 9 CELL-LIKE FA%ION 9 T[NS & 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE4 ,T5 FAMILIES =M$ A P>TY CELL AT ! BASE ( ! P>TY /RUCTURE4 ,ORGANIZATION EXT5D$ FROM VILLAGE TO W>D TO DI/RICT TO REGION &1 F9ALLY1 TO ! NATIONAL LEVEL4 

,! ,BRITI% DID NOT AB&ON ,TANGANYIKA 7LAT] ,TANZANIA1 AFT] ITS M]G] ) ,ZANZIB>7 AS ! ,FR5* DID 9 ,GU9EA1 BUT V]Y FEW ,EUROPEANS EV] LIV$ 9 ! C\NTRY4 ,! ,BRITI% [N]S ( CAPITAL W]E 9DIRECTLY REPRES5T$ BY ! COLONIAL /ATE & ! MANAG]S ( !IR PLANTATIONS & COMPANIES4 ,!Y EMPLOY$ AS AN 9T]M$I>Y GR\P ! ,ASIAN COMM]CIAL CLASS1 :I* 9CLUD$ M]*ANTS ?AT DEALT 9 IMPORT+ & EXPORT+1 PR(ESSIONALS SU* AS LAWY]S1 HI< /ATE FUNCTION>IES1 & BUS9ESS MANAG]S4 ,?IS ,ASIAN 9T]M$I>Y GR\P WAS COMP>ABLE TO ! ,FR5* MIDDLEM5 9 ,GU9EA4 ,EV5 AFT] 9DEP5D5CE ! ,ASIANS /AY$ BEH9D 9 !IR CU/OM>Y ROLES4 

,! RE/ ( PO/-COLONIAL ,TANZANIAN SOCIETY MAY BE BROK5 D[N AS FOLL[S4 ,!RE WAS AN ,ASIAN CLASS ( >TISANS1 :ITE COLL> WORK]S1 SMALL M]*ANTS1 & EV5 SAL>I$ EMPLOYEES4 ,!Y W]E HI<] 9 RANK ?AN !IR ,AFRICAN C\NT]P>TS4 ,ANO!R CLASS CONSI/$ ( RI* F>M]S4 ,& /ILL ANO!R CONSI/$ ( M9E1 PLANTATION1 CON/RUCTION1 & S]VICE WORK]S4 ,?IS LA/ WAS A SMALL BUT IMPORTANT GR\P1 ?\< IT NEV] EX]T$ ANY REAL 9FLU5CE 9 ,T,A,N,U4 ,! F9AL & MO/ NUM]\S CLASS CONSI/$ ( PEASANTS1 DIFF]5TIAT$ 9TO MIDDLE & POOR PEASANTS4 

,ONE ( ! FIR/ ACTIONS ( ! NEW ,T,A,N,U ,TANZANIAN GOV]NM5T WAS TO CONSOLIDATE ITS P[] & POSITION AGA9/ ! ,ASIAN COMM]CIAL CLASS4 ,IT DID ?IS BY LIMIT+ ! LATT]'S SCOPE ( ACTIVITY & BY EXP&+ ! /ATE SECTOR TO TAKE OV] COMM]CIAL & 9DU/RIAL 5T]PRISES2 ! /ATE WAS MOV+ TO TAKE OV] ! ,ASIANS' 9T]M$I>Y ROLE BETWE5 ! PEOPLE & ! =EIGN CAPITALI/S4 

,! GOV]NM5T ALSO MOV$ AGA9/ RI* F>M]S :O HAD B5EFITT$ MO/ FROM ! COOP]ATIVES SET UP TO FACILITATE M>KET+4 ,:5 9EFFICI5CIES & CORRUPTION BECAME APP>5T1 ! GOV]NM5T ALSO MOV$ AGA9/ ! COOP]ATIVES4 ,&1 TO CONSOLIDATE ITS CONTROL1 ,T,A,N,U MOV$ AGA9/ ! ,NATIONAL ,UNIONS ( ,WORK]S 9 #aifd AFT] A S]IES ( DISPUTES1 PLAC+ ! ORGANIZATION UND] ! CONTROL ( ! ,M9I/RY ( ,LAB\R4 ,AFT] ! MID-#a#i#fS1 ,TANZANIAN WORK]S EFFECTIVELY LO/ !IR RI<T TO /RIKE4 

,BY ! 5D ( ! #a#i#fS WE CAN SEE ?AT ! LEAD]S ( ,T,A,N,U HAD LIMIT$ ! ECONOMIC CAPABILITIES & 9FLU5CE ( MO/ RIVALS OR POT5TIAL RIVALS3 ! ,ASIAN COMM]CIAL CLASS2 ! RI* F>M]S2 & ! WORK+ CLASS4 ,! NEXT /EP WAS TO CONSOLIDATE !IR HEGEMONY OV] !SE GR\PS & ANY FACTIONS ?AT W]E NOT YET UND] !IR CONTROL4 

,T,A,N,U LEAD]S \TL9$ !IR RELATION%IP ) =EIGN CAPITAL & ! PEASANTRY 9 ! ,>U%A ,DECL>ATION ( #a#i#f#g4 ,! /ATE NATIONALIZ$ L&1 & IT ALSO TOOK CONTROL ( MAJORITY [N]%IP 9 ! MAJOR MEANS ( PRODUCTION -- ! BANKS & ! L>GE 9DU/RIAL FIRMS4 ,DID ?IS MEAN ?AT ! ,TANZANIAN /ATE WAS DRIV+ \T =EIGN CAPITAL8 ,DID IT MEAN ?AT ! /ATE REFUS$ TO PLAY AN 9T]M$I>Y ROLE8 ,NO1 ACCORD+ TO NOTABLE S*OL>S SU* AS ,COL9 ,LEYS1 ,JOHN ,SAUL & ,MI*AELA ,VON ,FREYHOLD4 ,AFT] ALL1 ! /ATE WAS M]ELY NATIONALIZ+ ! BANKS & 9DU/RIES1 9 SOME CASES (F]+ TO M]GE ITS CAPITAL ) ?AT ( L>GE =EIGN FIRMS1 9 EFFECT BECOM+ !IR P>TN]S4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,VON ,FREYHOLD1 0NO NATIONAL B\RGEOISIE CAN ANY LONG] AF=D TO IGNORE ! FACILITIES (F]$ BY 9T]NATIONAL CAPITAL40 ,&1 WE MI<T NOTE1 CAPITAL FROM ! ,WORLD ,BANK1 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 ,CANADA1 ,SW$51 ,G]MANY1 ,D5M>K1 EV5 ,*9A1 AS WELL AS ,GREAT ,BRITA91 P\R$ 9 TO ASSI/ 9 ! BUILD+ ( 9FRA/RUCTURE1 ! TRA9+ ( MANAG]S1 & TO FO/] AGRICULTURAL & RURAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,AS ( ! LATE #a#i#gS1 =EIGN AID WAS PAY+ #e.0 ( ! GOV]NM5T'S DEVELOPM5T BUDGET4 

,?IS ALLIANCE ( NATIONAL 9T]E/S ) =EIGN CAPITAL DID NOT SOLVE ! PROBLEM ( ! GOV]NM5T'S GR[+ NE$ = AN ECONOMIC BASE -- ?AT IS1 REV5UE TO SUPPORT ! /ATE & A SURPLUS TO 9VE/ 9 DEVELOPM5T4 ,NOR DID IT BUILD A POLITICAL BASE 9 ! =M ( A LOYAL1 SUPPORTIVE CON/ITU5CY4 

,IT WAS AGA9/ ?IS BACKGR\ND ?AT ,JULIUS ,NY]]E TURN$ TO ! PEASANTRY1 :I* CON/ITUT$ #i.0 ( ! POPULATION1 BY PREA*+ A RETURN TO ! T5ETS ( ,AFRICAN COMMUNALISM4 ,H5CE=?1 AGRICULTURE & ! PEOPLE !MSELVES W\LD BECOME ! NEW BASES = DEVELOPM5T4 ,! GOV]NM5T 5C\RAG$ ,TANZANIAN PEASANTS TO =M !MSELVES 9TO VILLAGES BAS$ ON COOP]ATION & COMMUNAL WORK -- ! ,UJAMAA VILLAGES4 ,TO SUPPORT ?IS1 IT W\LD PROVIDE SOCIAL S]VICES SU* AS ROADS1 S*OOLS1 ETC4 ,9 ,SEPTEMB] #a#i#f#g1 ,NY]]E PUBLI%$ HIS PAMPHLET1 ,SOCIALISM & ,RURAL ,DEVELOPM5T1 9 :I* HE SPELL$ \T ?REE FUNDAM5TAL TRADITIONAL PR9CIPLES UPHELD BY ! ,AFRICAN FAMILY3 EQUALITY1 MUTUAL RESPECT = ALL FAMILIES1 & P>TICIPATION 9 ! B5EFITS ( COLLECTIVE PRODUCTION4 ,!SE W]E TO BE ! BASIS ( ! ,UJAMAA VILLAGES4 

,TODAY1 !RE >E NO SURVIV+ ,UJAMAA VILLAGES 9 ,TANZANIA1 ONLY MEMORIES ( !M4 ,! ECONOMY IS 9 S]I\S F9ANCIAL & PRODUCTION CRISIS4 ,AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION CONT9UES TO DECL9E1 & FOOD %ORTAGES AB\ND4 

,9 ! E>LY #a#i#gS1 ,GAV9 ,WILLIAMS WROTE A %ORT BUT V]Y 9T]E/+ >TICLE CALL$ 0,TAK+ ! ,P>T ( ! ,PEASANTS10 9 :I* HE COMP>$ ,TANZANIAN & ,NIG]IAN GOV]NM5T POLICIES4 ,HE F\ND ?AT 9 BO? CASES ! GOV]NM5TS CONSID]$ ! PEASANTS ! PROBLEM RA!R ?AN ! SOLUTION TO RAIS+ AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY4 ,DESPITE ! FACT ?AT ! ONE GOV]NM5T CALL$ ITSELF SOCIALI/ :ILE ! O!R WAS AV[$LY CAPITALI/1 BO? GOV]NM5TS FOCUS$ ON \TSIDE1 P>TICUL>LY =EIGN1 EXP]TISE & TE*NOLOGY TO DEVELOP AGRICULTURE1 & IGNOR$ ! PEASANTS !MSELVES4 

,! ,UJAMAA MODEL FAIL$ BECAUSE IT DEG5]AT$ 9TO /ATE CONTROL OV] ! PEASANTS4 ,?R\< ITS BUREAUCRATS & TE*NICAL ASSI/ANTS1 ! /ATE />T$ TO DICTATE TO ! PEASANTS :AT TO DO & :AT NOT TO DO1 :AT TO PRODUCE & :AT NOT TO PRODUCE4 ,SOON1 TOO1 ! ,WORLD ,BANK & O!R AID DONORS HIJACK$ ! PROGRAM4 ,! GOV]NM5T_/,WORLD ,BANK_/=EIGN AID /RATEGY WAS TO E/ABLI% NATIONAL PRODUCTION T>GETS = EA* FOOD CROP1 9CLUD+ EXPORT CROPS SU* AS COTTON1 C(FEE1 CA%EW NUTS1 TEA1 SISAL1 & TOBACCO4 ,! NEXT /EP WAS TO SET REGIONAL T>GETS = ! CROPS GR[N BE/ 9 EA* REGION -- A TYPE ( REGIONAL DIVISION ( LABOR4 ,! ?IRD /EP WAS TO COMMUNICATE !SE GOALS TO VILLAGES ?R\< ! /ATE APP>ATUS4 ,:ATEV] ! PEASANTS PRODUC$ WAS SOLD TO ! AU?ORITIES1 & ! GOV]NM5T CONTROLL$ ! PRICES4 ,9 ?IS WAY1 ! /ATE SQUEEZ$ ! PEASANTS = AS MU* SURPLUS AS POSSIBLE4 ,IT W\LD HAVE BE5 SIMPLY UN?9KABLE TO IMAG9E ?AT ,UJAMAA1 9 ITS ORIG9AL1 UNDILUT$ =M1 W\LD HAVE SUCCE$$ AS P>T ( A /ATE SY/EM4 ,TO ?AT EXT5T1 ITS FAILURE WAS LOGICAL & 9EVITABLE4 

,AFRICAN SOCIALISM HAS BE5 A FAILURE 9 O!R P>TS ( ,AFRICA AS WELL4 ,9 ,E?IOPIA UND] ,M5<I/U1 = 9/ANCE1 ! SO-CALL$ ,WORK]S ,P>TY BY ! LATE #a#i#hS HAD FAIL$ MIS]ABLY 9 ITS ATTEMPT TO LAY ! GR\NDWORK = ! SOCIALI/ TRANS=MATION ( AGRICULTURE1 ! ATTA9M5T ( SELF-SUFFICI5CY 9 FOOD PRODUCTION1 & IMPROVEM5T 9 ! /&>D ( LIV+4 ,AL?\< APOLOGI/S = ! REGIME NORMALLY BLAME !SE FAILURES ON 0/RONG ECONOMIC L9KS ) ! CAPITALI/ C\NTRIES444 .<:I* MEANT ,E?IOPIA WAS.> H>D HIT BY ! WORS5+ ECONOMIC CRISIS ( ! CAPITALI/ WORLD10.<#a#a#e.> ! CRISIS /EMM$ L>GELY FROM ,E?IOPIA'S /ATE CAPITALISM & BUREAUCRATIC C5TRALISM4 ,IT'S ALSO WOR? NOT+ ?AT ! ,SOVIET-/YLE ,M5<I/U REGIME WAS ONE ( ! WOR/1 MO/ MURD]\S HUMAN RI<TS ABUS]S EV] SE5 9 ,AFRICA4 

,9 ,MOZAMBIQUE1 ! T5-YE> DEVELOPM5T PLAN ADOPT$ 9 #aih BY ! RUL+ ,F,R,E,L,I,M,O P>TY PROV$ UNSUCCESSFUL4 ,?IS FAILURE WAS BLAM$ ON 0=EIGN AGGRESSION ?R\< B&IT GANGS40 ,NO?+ WAS SAID ( ! EXCESSIVE C5TRALISM ( ,MOZAMBIQUE'S PLANN+ & MANAGEM5T1 AS WELL AS RET5TION ( COLONIAL /RUCTURES 9H]IT$ FROM ! ,PORTUGUESE4 

,9 ,WE/ ,AFRICA1 ! ,BURK9A ,FASO 0REVOLUTION0 ( #aihd CAME TO AN 5D 9 #aihg ) ! ASSASS9ATION ( ,?OMAS ,SANK>A1 ITS 9ITIATOR4 ,AL?\< ,SANK>A RECOGNIZ$ ?AT ! MAJORITY PEASANT POPULATION WAS A KEY =CE1 HE UN=TUNATELY HAD AN OV]TLY CRITICAL ATTITUDE T[>D ! TRADE UNION MOVEM5T & LEFT-W+ P>TIES4.<#a#a#f.> ,SANK>A'S EF=TS C5T]$ ON ! ,COMMITTEES = ! ,DEF5CE ( ! ,REVOLUTION 7,C,D,RS74 ,C,D,RS W]E ORGANIZ$ AT ALL WORK PLACES & 9 ALL NEI<BORHOODS & MILIT>Y UNITS1 AS 0DEF5D]S0 ( ! REVOLUTION2 ?AT IS -- AS 9 ,CUBA -- !Y FUNCTION$ AS SPIES = ! GOV]NM5T & AS 5=C]S ( ITS POLICIES4 ,! ,C,D,RS 9 ,BURK9A ,FASO1 H[EV]1 DID NOT HAVE ! TIME TO DEVELOP ! EFFICI5CY ( !IR ,CUBAN C\NT]P>TS1 :I* CAN BE CONSID]$ ! BACKBONE 7OR AT LEA/ ! F>-REA*+ T5TACLES7 ( ! ,CUBAN REPRESSIVE APP>ATUS4 ,9 HIS REVIEW ( ! BOOK1 ,?OMAS ,SANK>A ,SPEAKS1 ,AHM$ ,AZAD NOTES ?AT 0NO REAL ATTEMPT IT SEEMS WAS MADE444 TO RESOLVE ! ISSUE ( ! ROLE1 FUNCTIONS1 DUTIES1 & RESPONSIBILITIES ( ! ,C,D,RS & ?OSE ( ! TRADE UNION MOVEM5T40.<#a#a#g.> 

,ON ,OCTOB] #a#e1 #a#i#h#g1 ,SANK>A WAS ASSASS9AT$ BY HIS FRI5D & COMRADE1 ,BLAISE ,COMPAORE4 ,9 JU/IFY+ ! C\P1 ,COMPAORE SAID ?AT ! ,BURK9AN REVOLUTION HAD /RAY$ UND] ,SANK>A2 HE COMP>$ HIS 0RECTIFICATION PROCESS0 ) GLASNO/ 9 ! ,SOVIET ,UNION4 ,H[EV]1 ACCORD+ TO ,JABULANI ,MKHAT%WA1 ,COMPAORE'S IDEA ( GLASNO/ 0IS ! FUR!R CLASS DIFF]5TIATION ?AT IS TAK+ PLACE AMONG ! PEOPLE1 ! CREATION ( ! PETTY B\RGEOISIE & ! IMPORT ( ,M]C$ES ,B5Z40.<#a#a#h.> ,JABULANI BLAMES ,COMPAORE = ! IMPLEM5TATION ( ECONOMIC POLICIES CONTR>Y TO ! ORIG9AL IDEALS ( ! REVOLUTION4 ,AS WE HAVE SE51 H[EV]1 ! PROCESS ( BETRAYAL WAS ALREADY WELL UND] WAY UND] ,SANK>A4 

,WE CAN SEE ?AT ! SO-CALL$ SOCIALI/ P>TIES & REGIMES 9 ,AFRICA -- BO? ?OSE ?AT L$ !IR C\NTRIES TO 9DEP5D5CE1 & ?OSE ?AT A*IEV$ P[] 9 ! PO/-9DEP5D5CE P]IOD -- HAVE NOT SUCCE$$ 9 *ANG+ ! LIVES & =TUNES ( POOR WORK]S & PEASANTS4 ,!SE REGIMES HAVE NOT A*IEV$ ANY?+ BEYOND :AT OP5LY CAPITALI/ /ATES HAVE A*IEV$4 ,IF ANY?+1 !Y HAVE MA9TA9$ & EXP&$ ! OLD SY/EM ( CLASS PRIVILEGE4 ,! RESULT HAS BE5 ?AT CLASS ANTAGONISMS1 9/ABILITY1 & ECONOMIC CRISIS CONFRONT ! CONT95T4 ,AS ! CRISIS RAGES ON & ! PROSPECT ( ! RADICALIZATION ( ! MASSES HEI<T5S1 ,AFRICAN REGIMES HAVE BE5 COMPELL$ TO REACT4 ,SOME HAVE TURN$ 9TO FULL-BL[N DICTATOR%IPS & BECOME OP5LY REPRESSIVE2 O!R HAVE TRI$ ONE =M ( /RUCTURAL ADJU/M5T OR ANO!R2 & /ILL O!RS HAVE EXP]IM5T$ ) V>I\S =MS ( ELECTORALISM4 ,YET ALL !SE >E PALLIATIVES AIM$ AT TEMPOR>ILY QUELL+ RE/IVE WORK]S & PEASANTS1 = :OM DAILY LIFE HAS BECOME SYNONYM\S ) MIS]Y4 

,/ATE ,CAPITALISM & ,9/ABILITY 

,IT'S N[ TIME TO LOOK AT H[ ! FUNDAM5TALLY CAPITALI/ /ATE SY/EM 9 ,AFRICA HAS CREAT$ UN/ABLE SOCIOPOLITICAL & ECONOMIC /RUCTURES1 AS WELL AS ! PROSPECT ( ITS [N COLLAPSE4 ,9 ANALYZ+ ! CONNECTION BETWE5 /ATE CAPITALISM & 9/ABILITY 9 ,AFRICA1 \R PRIM>Y OBJECTIVE IS TO DEMON/RATE H[ ! ECONOMIC MANIFE/ATIONS ( /ATE CAPITALISM -- UND]DEVELOPM5T1 DEP5D5CE1 & SUBORD9ATION TO =EIGN 9T]E/S1 PLUS !IR CONCOMITANTS1 POV]TY1 ILLIT]ACY1 & DISEASE -- HAVE L$ TO POLITICAL 9/ABILITY4 

,! ROOT ( ,AFRICAN UND]DEVELOPM5T IS1 ( C\RSE1 ! E/ABLI%M5T ( COLONIAL CAPITALISM4 ,PUT DIFF]5TLY1 ,AFRICA'S REC5T ECONOMIC HI/ORY IS ! RESULT ( ITS COLONIAL PA/1 ! MO/ SIGNIFICANT ASPECT ( :I* WAS ! DISPLACEM5T ( ! PRECOLONIAL ,AFRICAN MODE ( PRODUCTION ?R\< ! EXPANSION ( M]CANTILI/ CAPITALISM FROM ,EUROPE TO ,AFRICA4 ,AS WE HAVE SE51 DUR+ ! /RUGGLES = NATIONAL LIB]ATION1 ! FUNDAM5TAL ECONOMIC RELATION%IPS E/ABLI%$ DUR+ ! COLONIAL P]IOD W]E NOT G5]ALLY SE5 AS DETRIM5TAL TO ! 9T]E/S ( ! DEVELOP+ NATIONS4 ,NATIONALISM 9 ,AFRICA WAS ?US PRIM>ILY LIMIT$ TO ! ELIM9ATION ( \TRI<T =EIGN POLITICAL DOM9ATION1 & ! GRANT+ ( POLITICAL 9DEP5D5CE WITNESS$ ! P]PETUATION ( CLASS ANTAGONISMS & ! EM]G5CE ( AN 9DIG5\S RUL+ ELITE4 

,9 ACC\NT+ = ! 9/ABILITY ( PRES5T-DAY ,AFRICAN POLITICAL SY/EMS1 ,PR(ESSOR ,CLAUDE ,AKE >GUES ?AT !RE >E /RONG REVOLUTION>Y PRESSURES AGA9/ ! EXI/+ EXPLOITATIVE CLASS RELATIONS1 & ?US AGA9/ ! V]Y SURVIVAL ( ! RUL+ ELITE & ! /ATE4 ,HE ATTRIBUTES !SE PRESSURES TO1 FIR/1 ! DESP]ATE POV]TY ( ,AFRICAN WORK]S2 SECOND1 ! HUGE ECONOMIC & SOCIAL DISCREPANCY BETWE5 RI* & POOR2 ?IRD1 RIS+ EXPECTATIONS DUE TO MOD]NIZATION2 F\R?1 ! 5TIC+ MODELS PROVID$ BY ! DEVELOP$ C\NTRIES1 MADE EV5 MORE PIQUANT BY !IR PORTRAYALS 9 ! M$IA & BY ! LIMIT$ P5ETRATION ( CONSUM] GOODS & RETAIL FIRMS 9TO ,AFRICAN M>KETS2 & FIF?1 ! POLITICIZATION ( ! ,AFRICAN PEOPLES ?R\< !IR FRU/RAT+ COLONIAL & PO/-COLONIAL EXP]I5CES4 

,AKE NOTES ?AT ! ,AFRICAN PEOPLE >E ESS5TIALLY DEM&+ TWO ?+S4 ,! FIR/ IS EQUALITY1 :I*1 9 EFFECT1 MEANS ! ABOLITION ( PO/-COLONIAL CAPITALISM & ITS PRIVILEG$ CLASSES4 ,! SECOND IS 0SOCIAL WELL-BE+1444 EAS+ ! AGONY ( EXTREME WANT40.<#a#a#i.> ,AKE1 H[EV]1 PO/ULATES ?AT NEI!R ( !SE DEM&S WILL BE GRANT$ BY ,AFRICAN RUL+ ELITES BECAUSE 0! V]Y CONDITION ( UND]DEVELOPM5T V]Y DRA/ICALLY LIMITS ! EXPANSION ( ! ECONOMIC SURPLUS40 ,?US ! CAPITALI/S CANNOT REACT FAVORABLY TO REVOLUTION>Y PRESSURES )\T COMMITT+ CLASS SUICIDE1 :I*1 ( C\RSE1 !Y WILL NOT DO4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,AKE1 ?IS LEAVES !M ! OPTION ( TRY+ TO DISC\RAGE SU* DEM&S1 :ILE PREV5T+ !IR POLITICAL MANIFE/ATIONS4 ,?IS IS :AT ,AKE MEANS :5 HE REF]S TO 0DEPOLITICIZATION40 

,ACCORD+ TO ,AKE1 ! PRIM>Y MANIFE/ATION ( DEPOLITICIZATION 9 ,AFRICA IS ! PREA*+ BY ,AFRICAN REGIMES ( ONE-P>TY-/ATE IDEOLOGIES2 ?IS1 ( C\RSE1 T5DS TO MAKE ,AFRICAN REGIMES P>TICUL>LY REPRESSIVE4 ,9 ,AKE'S VIEW1 0EV]Y ,AFRICAN C\NTRY IS 9 EFFECT A ONE-P>TY /ATE 9 ! S5SE ?AT EV]Y REGIME 9 ,AFRICA ASSUMES ITS EXCLUSIVE RI<T TO RULE & PROHIBITS ORGANIZ$ OPPOSITION40 ,MOREOV]1 0GIV5 ! CONTRADICTIONS 9 CONTEMPOR>Y ,AFRICAN SOCIETY1 DEPOLITICIZATION CANNOT BE C>RI$ \T )\T BRUTAL REPRESSION40 

,9 CONSID]+ ! EFFECTS ( DEPOLITICIZATION ON ,AFRICAN REGIMES1 IT C\LD BE >GU$ ?AT1 S9CE DEPOLITICIZATION HELPS MA9TA9 EXI/+ CLASS /RUCTURES1 IT PROMOTES 0POLITICAL /ABILITY40.<#a#b.> ,H]E1 0POLITICAL /ABILITY0 MEANS ! P]SI/5CE ( ! POLITICAL /RUCTURE1 ESPECIALLY ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 ! DOM9ANT & SUBORD9ATE CLASSES4 ,DEPOLITICIZATION 9 ?IS S5SE 5HANCES ! /ABILITY ( REGIMES :5 IT LEADS TO ! HOMOG5IZATION ( ! EXPLOIT+ CLASSES4 0,DEPOLITICIZATION 9CREASES HOMOG5IZATION BY IMPOS+ IDEOLOGICAL UNITY1 BY BUILD+ ALLIANCES BETWE5 FACTIONS1 BY CO-OPT+ DANG]\S OPPON5TS 9TO ! HEGEMONIC FACTION & BY LIQUIDAT+ C]TA9 O!R FACTIONS ALTOGE!R40 

,ON ! O!R H&1 DEPOLITICIZATION MAY ACTUALLY ACC5TUATE GOV]NM5TAL 9/ABILITY4 ,9 FACT1 ,AKE PO/ULATES ?AT 0ON BALANCE1 ! 9TRACLASS DEPOLITICIZATION IS MORE CONDUCIVE TO GOV]NM5T 9/ABILITY ?AN TO /ABILITY40 ,HE ATTRIBUTES ?IS TO ! FACT ?AT 0IT GREATLY RE9=CES ! DE/ABILIZ+ EFFECT :I* /ATISM PRODUCES BY FOCUS+ ! AMBITION ( ALL ! FACTIONS ( ! EXPLOIT+ CLASS PRIM>ILY ON ! CAPTURE ( /ATE P[]1 BY MAK+ ! \TCOME ( ! /RUGGLE = HEGEMONY AMONG ! FACTIONS ( ! B\RGEOISIE TOO IMPORTANT40.<#a#b#a.> ,9 EFFECT1 SUPPRESSION 9 ! POLITICAL >5A DOES NOT ELIM9ATE ! CRISIS 9 SOCIETY4 ,EV5 ) ! DEPOLITICIZATION ( ! MASSES OR ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A ONE-P>TY SY/EM1 9/ABILITY REMA9S BECAUSE ! OBJECTIVE BASIS ( ! DIFF]5CES BETWE5 FACTIONS 9 SOCIETY REMA94 ,?US1 PRESSURES M\NT1 ) EXPLOSIVE SOCIAL T5SIONS BETWE5 GR\PS 9 ! SY/EM4 0,:5 MAJOR DIFF]5CES 9 ?IS POLITICAL MONOLI? APPE>1 A CRISIS 9V>IABLY OCCURS40.<#a#b#b.> ,! OPTIONS = RESOLV+ !SE DIFF]5CES >E DRA/ICALLY LIMIT$1 ACCORD+ TO ,AKE1 BECAUSE !Y >ISE FROM ! SUB/RUCTURE4 ,! RUL]S >E OBLIG$ TO USE CO]CION1 BUT ?IS ONLY WORS5S ! UN/ABLE POLITICAL SITUATION1 CREAT+ OPPORTUNITIES & CONDITIONS ?AT FACILITATE MILIT>Y 9T]V5TION4 

,! ,MILIT>Y ,FACTOR 

,9 ! VIEW ( ,PET] ,H>RIS1 ! WID5+ GULF BETWE5 ! PROGRESSIVELY IMPOV]I%$ MAJORITY & ! PRIVILEG$ FEW G5]ATES ! POT5TIAL = CRISES 9 ,AFRICAN POLITICAL SY/EMS4.<#a#b#c.> ,DESCRIB+ ! PRES5T *>ACT] ( ,AFRICAN POLITICAL DEVELOPM5TS SU* AS ! PH5OM5ON ( MILIT>Y C\PS1 ,H>RIS RECALLS ?AT ,FRANZ ,FANON HAD PR$ICT$ AS F> BACK AS ! #a#i#eS ?AT ! ,AFRICAN MIDDLE & PR(ESSIONAL CLASSES :O L$ ! NATIONAL 9DEP5D5CE MOVEM5TS W\LD 9CREAS+LY TURN !IR BACKS ON ! PEOPLE & 9/EAD ALIGN !MSELVES ) =EIGN 9T]E/S4 

,9 ,CLASS ,CONFLICT 9 ,AFRICA1 ,M>KOVITZ >GUES ?AT A FUNDAM5TAL REASON = ! EASE ( MILIT>Y TAKEOV]S ACROSS ! CONT95T WAS ?AT ! POLITICIANS REPRES5T$ ONLY ! PRIVILEG$4.<#a#b#d.> ,HE AGREES ) ,RU? ,FIR/ ?AT 9 ! ABS5CE ( A SOCIALLY ROOT$1 ECONOMICALLY PRODUCTIVE BASE1 0P[] LIES 9 ! H&S ( ?OSE :O CONTROL ! MEANS ( VIOL5CE4 ,IT LIES 9 ! B>REL ( A GUN1 FIR$ OR SIL5T40 

,ACCORD+ TO ,H>RIS1 AS ! CORRUPTION & PR(ITE]+ ( ! RUL+ CLASS HAVE BECOME MORE BLATANT1 & ! /AGNATION ( ,AFRICAN ECONOMIES HAS REA*$ ! PO9T ( NATIONAL BANKRUPTCY1 POPUL> DISCONT5T HAS BECOME WIDESPREAD4 ,AS A RESULT1 MANY REGIMES HAVE DISC>D$ !IR POPULI/ SMOKESCRE5S4 ,?IS1 COMB9$ ) POPUL> DISCONT5T1 HAS SET ! /AGE = MILIT>Y TAKEOV]S4 ,AS ,FANON HAD =EW>N$1 :5 ! DISCONT5T ( ! PEASANTRY & ! WORK]S GR[S1 & ! REGIME IS =C$ TO RESORT TO H>%] MEASURES ( RULE1 0IT IS ! >MY ?AT BECOMES ! >BIT]44440.<#a#b#e.> ,ACCORD+ TO ,H>RIS1 MILIT>Y (FIC]S CORPS1 AN IMPORTANT SEGM5T ( ! LOCAL RUL+ CLASS1 5T] ! C5T] ( ! POLITICAL >5A BY REPLAC+ DISCR$IT$ POLITICIANS1 !REBY PREV5T+ ! MOBILIZATION ( ! PEOPLE4 ,! MILIT>Y ASSUME P[] NOT ONLY TO PRES]VE ! CONT9U$ DOM9ANCE ( ! LOCAL PRIVILEG$ CLASS1 BUT ALSO TO PROTECT ! NEOCOLONIAL 9T]E/S ( ! =M] MO!R C\NTRY & ( MULT9ATIONAL CORPORATIONS4 ,AS ,FANON PUTS IT1 0! RANKS ( ! DECK$-\T PR(ITE]S :OSE GRASP+ H&S SCRAPE UP ! BANK NOTES FROM A POV]TY-/RICK5 C\NTRY WILL SOON] OR LAT] BE M5 ( /RAW 9 ! H&S ( ! >MY CLEV]LY H&L$ BY =EIGN EXP]TS4 ,9 ?IS WAY1 ! =M] METROPOLITAN C\NTRY PRACTICES 9DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 BO? BY ! B\RGEOISIE ?AT IT UPHOLDS & ALSO BY ! NATIONAL >MY44440.<#a#b#f.> 

,H>RIS & ,MURRAY HAVE ALSO ANALYZ$ H[ ! GRAVE ECONOMIC PROBLEMS ( PO/-9DEP5D5CE ,AFRICAN REGIMES HAVE CAUS$ ! DECL9E ( POPULI/ NATIONALI/ P>TIES & ( ! *>ISMATIC NATIONAL LEAD]S ?AT L$ ! /RUGGLE = 9DEP5D5CE4 ,H>RIS BELIEVES ?AT ! NATIONALI/ P>TIES & ONE-P>TY RULE HAVE BECOME OBSOLETE =MS ( PROTECT+ ! 9T]E/S ( 9T]NATIONAL & LOCAL CAPITALI/S DUE TO ! COMB9ATION ( PR$ATORY ECONOMIC /RUCTURES & ! GR[+ AW>5ESS ( ELITE CORRUPTION4 ,MURRAY ATTRIBUTES ?IS TO ! DEPLORABLE ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 9 ,AFRICA1 GR[+ POLITICAL CYNICISM1 & ! ABID+ HUMAN QUE/ = FRE$OM 9 ! SOCIAL1 ECONOMIC1 & POLITICAL SPH]ES4 ,HE >GUES ?AT ?IS DECL9E IS A DIRECT RESULT ( ! EFFECTS ( ECONOMIC /AGNATION1 URBAN 9FLATION1 ! OSSIFICATION ( ! NATIONALI/ P>TIES1 & ! RAPACITY ( ! RUL+ ELITES4.<#a#b#g.> 

,MURRAY >GUES ?AT BECAUSE ( ! POLITICAL & ECONOMIC SITUATION1 MANY PO/-COLONIAL GOV]NM5TS HAVE BE5 UNABLE TO DEAL ) GR[+ CONTRADICTIONS 9 !IR SOCIETIES1 & HAVE HAD DIFFICULTY LEGITIMIZ+ !IR AU?ORITY4 ,AS A RESULT1 BO? =EIGN & 9T]NAL PRESSURES HAVE PROVOK$ *ANGES FROM CIVILIAN TO MILIT>Y RULE4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,MURRAY1 ! CORRUPTION & 9COMPET5CE ( ! NATIONALI/ POLITICIANS HAVE ADD$ TO ! 0FR+E CO/S0 ( ECONOMIC ACTIVITY 9 !SE /ATES1 & >E UND]M9+ ! FUNCTION ( !SE REGIMES AS 0POLITICAL HOLD+ COMPANIES0 = =EIGN CAPITAL4 ,! MILIT>Y1 ON ! O!R H&1 HAS (F]$ 0A MORE EFFECTIVE ALT]NATIVE TO =EIGN CAPITAL & TO ! LOCAL B\RGEOISIE NOT DIRECTLY B5EFITT+ FROM ! DISCR$IT$ REGIMES40.<#a#b#h.> 

,SO1 TYPICALLY1 ! MILIT>Y 9T]V5ES & COMES TO P[] ON ! CRE/ ( RIS+ PUBLIC DISCONT5T1 P>TICUL>LY OV] ECONOMIC D[NTURNS1 & ! CORRUPTION & DECAD5CE ( ! POLITICAL LEAD]%IP4 ,!Y SUCCE$ 9 TURN+ ! MORAL \TRAGE ( ! PEOPLE TO !IR [N ADVANTAGE & JU/IFY !IR SEIZURE ( P[] BY PO9T+ TO ! CORRUPTION & 9EFFICI5CY ( ! POLITICIANS4 ,K5NE? ,GRUNDY /ATES ?AT1 UND] ! 9ITIAL EUPHORIC /ATE ( AFFAIRS ?AT ATT5DS MO/ MILIT>Y 9T]V5TIONS1 ! MILIT>Y SUCCE$ 9 RAIS+ ! EXPECTATIONS ( ! MASSES OV] & ABOVE !IR ABILITY TO DELIV]4.<#a#b#i.> ,?IS /RATEGY1 ( C\RSE1 PRODUCES A TIME BOMB4 

,9 ! LONG RUN1 MILIT>Y REGIMES APPE> EV5 LESS CAPABLE ( W9N+ POPUL> SUPPORT ?AN ! CIVILIAN REGIMES ?AT !Y REPLACE4 ,BECAUSE ( ! TIME BOMB ( IMPOSSIBLE-TO-MEET RIS+ EXPECTATIONS1 ! MILIT>Y >E ULTIMATELY =C$ EI!R TO RESORT TO REPRESSIVE MEASURES & RISK A C\NT] C\P OR TO REL9QUI% P[] TO A NEW SET ( CIVILIANS4 ,BECAUSE ( ! RELUCTANCE ( MILIT>Y REGIMES TO GIVE UP P[]1 ?IS (T5 SETS 9 MOTION A VICI\S CYCLE ( C\PS & C\NT] C\PS1 & HELPS 0TO BR+ 9TO CLE>] FOCUS ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL CRISIS ( NEO-COLONIAL SOCIETY40.<#a#c.> ,ACCORD+ TO ,H>RIS1 ?IS CRISIS /EMS FROM ! FACT ?AT 0! SMALL LOCAL B\RGEOISIE 79CLUD+ ITS MILIT>Y COMPON5T7 HAVE NEI!R ! ECONOMIC P[] NOR ! SUPPORT ( O!R SOCIAL /RATA TO /ABILIZE !IR POSITION ( DOM9ATION & PRIVILEGE40 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 !Y >E =C$ TO RELY ON REPRESSIVE MEASURES4 ,?IS 0ADVANCES BO? ! CRITICAL CONSCI\SNESS ( ! SUBORD9ATE CLASSES & ! POL>IZATION ( ,AFRICAN SOCIETY40 

,POLITICAL ,CORRUPTION & ,SOCIAL ,9/ABILITY3 ,CASE ,/UDIES ( ,<ANA & ,NIG]IA 

,BECAUSE ( ITS ROLE 9 CREAT+ 9/ABILITY 9 ,AFRICAN /ATES1 POLITICAL 7(FICIAL7 CORRUPTION IS DIRECTLY ASSOCIAT$ )1 & ALMO/ SYNONYM\S )1 ! /ATE SY/EM4 ,! EXI/5CE ( ! /ATE & ! MANIPULATION ( ! /RUCTURES & 9/ITUTIONS ( ! /ATE BY ! RUL+ ELITE = ! 7MIS7ALLOCATION & 7MAL7DI/RIBUTION ( PUBLIC GOODS & S]VICES 9EVITABLY LEADS TO CORRUPT PRACTICES4 ,LEV9E DEF9ES POLITICAL CORRUPTION AS ! 0UNSANCTION$1 UNS*$UL$ USE ( PUBLIC POLITICAL RES\RCES &_/OR GOODS = PRIVATE1 ?AT IS1 NON-PUBLIC1 5DS40.<#a#c#a.> ,9 ,AFRICA1 ! C\P D'ETAT IS (T5 PREC$$ BY ! 9/ABILITY G5]AT$ BY POLITICAL CORRUPTION4 

,9 ,<ANA1 ! POPULI/ ,CONV5TION ,PEOPLES ,P>TY 7,C,P,P7 GOV]NM5T ( ,KWAME ,NKRUMAH WAS MORE OR LESS A CONGLOM]ATION ( DIV]G5T 9T]E/ GR\PS1 SOME ( :I* W]E MORE CONC]N$ ?AN O!RS ) ! PLUND] & EXPROPRIATION ( NATIONAL WEAL?4 ,TO ?IS 5D1 IT IS P]T95T1 AS ,PR(ESSOR ,C>D PO9TS \T1 TO DI/+UI% BETWE5 ! ,C,P,P LEAD]%IP & ! ,C,P,P MEMB]%IP 9 ORD] TO DISC]N :AT ,C>D T]MS ! 0CLASS0 BASIS ( ! P>TY4.<#a#c#b.> ,! T5D5CY TO SEE ! ,C,P,P ?R\<\T ITS #ae YE>S AS AN UNDIVID$ 5TITY HAS BLURR$ ?IS DI/9CTION4 

,AS ,C>D PO9TS \T1 MANY MEMB]S ( ! ,C,P,P LEAD]%IP BEGAN !IR C>E]S AS 9DEP5D5T RADICALS 0) LITTLE OR NO?+ TO LOSE1 9 ! ,FANONI/ S5SE40 ,H[EV]1 OV] ! YE>S1 MANY ( ! E>LY ,C,P,P LEAD]S GA9$ ACCESS TO WEAL? & P[] VIA ! /ATE1 0& DIFF]5CES 9 PURELY P]SONAL 9T]E/S BEGAN TO BE REFLECT$ 9 DIFF]5CES OV] POLICY MATT]S RELAT$ TO ! EXT5T & PACE ( ,<ANAIAN SOCIALISM40 ,BY #a#i#f1 :5 9N] P>TY PURGES ( ! OLD LEAD]%IP BEGAN 9 E>NE/1 SOME ( ! =M]LY 0RADICAL0 LEAD]S HAD BECOME WEAL?Y M51 :OSE PROSP]ITY WAS 0L9K$ TO ! /ATE & =EIGN CAPITAL40 

,! POLITICAL CORRUPTION ( ! ,C,P,P BEGAN 9 ! #a#i#eS1 :5 ! P>TY BEGAN TO CONSOLIDATE ITS HOLD OV] ! POPULATION & OV] ! C5T]S ( ECONOMIC & POLITICAL P[]4 ,IT ORGANIZ$ P>TY BRAN*ES ?R\<\T ! C\NTRY1 SET UP A V>IETY ( AUXILI>Y ORGANIZATIONS1 & BEGAN TO MOVE ITS PEOPLE 9TO KEY POSITIONS 9 V>I\S GOV]NM5T AG5CIES4 ,LEV9E CITES AS AN EXAMPLE :AT HAPP5$ :5 ! P>TY MANAG$ TO GA9 CONTROL ( ! ,COCOA ,PUR*AS+ ,COMPANY 7,C,P,C71 =M$ 9 #aieb AS AN AG5CY ( ! ,COCOA ,M>KET+ ,BO>D4 ,A #aief 9VE/IGATION ( ! ,C,P,C REVEAL$ ?AT ! ,C,P,P HAD US$ ! ,C,P,C'S CONTROL ( AGRICULTURAL LOANS1 BULK PUR*AS+1 & TRANSPORTATION TO 5RI* P>TY C(F]S1 TO CO]CE F>M]S 9TO JO9+ ! P>TY1 & TO CONTROL PETTY COMM]CE ?AT WAS DEP5D5T ON COCOA4 ,BY #a#i#f#a1 ACCUSATIONS ( CORRUPTION AMONG ! P>TY LEAD]%IP HAD GR[N TOO L\D TO IGNORE1 BUT EV5 ,NKRUMAH'S MU*-CELEBRAT$ 0,DAWN ,BROADCA/0 ( ,APRIL #h1 #aifa -- 9 :I* HE D5\NC$ (FICIAL CORRUPTION & SELF-SEEK+ -- DID NOT BREAK ! CULT ( CORRUPTION ?AT HAD GRIPP$ ! P>TY & ! /ATE BUREAUCRACIES4 ,OCRAN *>GES ?AT CORRUPTION HAD BECOME 9/ITUTIONALIZ$ 9 HI< PLACES & AMONG ,NKRUMAH'S M9/]S & FOLL[]S 9 ! ,C,P,P4.<#a#c#c.> ,HE M5TIONS A REPORT ( ! COMMISSION ( 9QUIRY 9TO ! AFFAIRS ( ! ,NATIONAL ,DEVELOPM5T ,COMPANY :I* F\ND ?AT IT WAS 0E/ABLI%$ O/5SIBLY TO F9ANCE ! ,C,P,P1 BUT ?AT IT LAT] BECAME A CLE>+ H\SE = BRIBES PAID TO ! P>TY OR TO ,NKRUMAH P]SONALLY40 ,OCRAN CONCLUDES ?AT 0,<ANAIANS BO? 9SIDE OR \TSIDE ! P>TY W]E HAV+ A FIELD DAY *OPP+ ,<ANA SMALL1 )\T ANY LET OR H9DRANCE :ATSOEV]40 

,! ABOVE OCCURR$ UND] ! 0SOCIALI/0 GOV]NM5T ( ,KWAME ,NKRUMAH1 AT ! TIME CONSID]$ ! BEACON ( HOPE = ! DECOLONIZ+ C\NTRIES 9 ,AFRICA4 ,9 ,NIG]IA1 %ORTLY AFT] 9DEP5D5CE ON ,OCTOB] #a1 #a#i#f1 ! Y\NG /ATE CAME P]IL\SLY CLOSE1 FIR/ TO COLLAPSE1 !N TO CON/ITUTIONAL *AOS & A BLOODY CIVIL W>4 ,! UP%OT WAS A RAPID SUCCESSION ( CIVILIAN & MILIT>Y REGIMES4 ,9 ! LATE #a#i#gS UND] ,G5]AL ,OLUSEGUN ,OBASANJO1 A CON/ITU5T ASSEMBLY WAS SET UP TO WRITE A CON/ITUTION = ! C\NTRY4 ,9 #aigi IT PRODUC$ A CON/ITUTION :I* U%]$ 9 ! CIVILIAN GOV]NM5T ( ,ALHAJI ,%EHU ,%AG>I4 

,LIKE PREVI\S ,NIG]IAN CIVILIAN & MILIT>Y GOV]NM5TS1 ,%EHU ,%AG>I'S REGIME WAS A %[PIECE ( CORRUPTION4 ,ILL-CONCEIV$ BILLS SLID !IR WAY ?R\< ! NATIONAL LEGISLATURE LUBRICAT$ BY BRIBES4 ,UND] ,OBOSANJO & !N ,%AG>I1 ! ,NIG]IAN GOV]NM5T LO/ MILLIONS ( DOLL>S TO FRAUD2 AN EXAMPLE UND] ,%AG>I WAS A @s#b MILLION 7,NIG]IAN DOLL>S7 FRAUD LOSS BY ! ,F$]AL ,H\S+ ,CORPORATION4.<#a#c#d.> ,ANO!R 9/ANCE WAS ! SALE ( #d1 BAGS ( RICE TO RUL+ P>TY BIGWIGS AT @s#f4 P] BAG4 ,!Y !N RESOLD ! RICE = BETWE5 @s#f & @s#i P] BAG4 ,AN AGGRIEV$ P]MAN5T SECRET>Y 9 ! UPP] *AMB] ( P>LIAM5T M5TION$ S5IOR PUBLIC FUNCTION>IES -- PA/ & PRES5T -- AS SOME ( ! B5EFICI>IES4 ,HE ALLEG$ ?AT IMPORT LIC5SES W]E GIV5 TO #aba P]SONS = #b#e#e1#c#e TONS ( RICE1 & ?AT ,PRESID5T ,%AG>I TOOK #b1 TONS = HIMSELF4.<#a#c#e.> 

,A YE> AFT] ! MULTI/ORY ,REPUBLIC ,BUILD+ 9 ,LAGOS W5T UP 9 FLAMES1 ! ,AUDIT ,DIVISION ( ! ,F$]AL ,CAPITAL ,T]RITORY WAS SIMIL>LY RAZ$4 ,! 9CID5T WAS CONNECT$ ) A @s#a#e MILLION 7,NIG]IAN7 FRAUD 9VOLV+ DEP>TM5T PAYM5T V\*]S4 ,ANO!R EXAMPLE ( FRAUD WAS ?AT REPORT$ 9 LATE #a#i#h#b1 9 :I* FIVE TOP (FICIALS ( ! ,NIG]IAN ,EXT]NAL ,TELECOMMUNICATIONS ,COMPANY W]E >RE/$ = A @s#e#c MILLION FRAUD4 ,!SE 9CID5TS >E ONLY ! TIP ( ! ICEB]G 9 ! CORRUPTION ?AT 5GULF$ ! ,%AG>I REGIME %ORTLY BE=E ! MILIT>Y C\P ON ,DECEMB] #c#a1 #a#i#h#c4 

,CORRUPTION & !FT ( PUBLIC FUNDS BY PUBLIC (FICIALS HAVE S9CE BECOME A WAY ( LIFE 9 ,NIG]IA1 AS EV]Y REGIME /RUGGLES TO 0BETT]0 ! RECORD ( ITS PR$ECESSOR 9 (FICE4 ,?IS REA*$ ITS APEX UND] DICTATOR ,G5]AL ,IBRAHIM ,BABANGIDA :O1 ALONG ) HIS AIDES1 SALT$ AWAY BILLIONS 9 OV]SEAS BANK ACC\NTS4 ,G5]AL ,ABA*A1 ! MAN :O SUCCE$$ HIM1 IS NO LESS CORRUPT4 

,IS !RE ANY CAUSAL RELATION%IP BETWE5 ! TWO V>IABLES -- POLITICAL CORRUPTION & SOCIOECONOMIC 9/ABILITY -- 9 ,AFRICAN /ATES8 ,JOSEPH ,NYE1 9 HIS >TICLE1 0,CORRUPTION & ,POLITICAL ,DEVELOPM5T3 ,A ,CO/-,B5EFIT ,ANALYSIS10 >GUES ?AT1 SO F> AS CORRUPTION DE/ROYS ! LEGITIMACY ( POLITICAL /RUCTURES1 IT CONTRIBUTES TO 9/ABILITY & QUITE PROBABLY LEADS TO NATIONAL DIS9TEGRATION4 ,9 MANY ,AFRICAN /ATES1 0CORRUPTION CONTRIBUTE.<D.> TO ! AURA ( DISILLUSION ?AT PREC$$ C\PS & MADE IT IMPOSSIBLE = ! REGIMES TO F9D POPUL> 7OR ELITE7 SUPPORT :5 ! *IPS .<W]E.> D[N40.<#a#c#f.> 

,NYE NOTES ?AT 0ONE ( ! MO/ IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS ( GOV]NM5T IS TO PROVIDE GOODS & S]VICES TO QUALIFI$ RECIPI5TS ON A REGUL>1 PR$ICTABLE BASIS40.<#a#c#g.> ,ACCORD+ TO HIM1 !RE >E TWO PROBLEMS 9 ! ALLOCATION ( GOODS & S]VICES ?R\< POLITICALLY CORRUPT RELATION%IPS4 ,FIR/1 !Y T5D TO BE SELECTIVELY ALLOCAT$1 NOT ON ! BASIS ( NE$ OR UTILITY1 BUT ON ! BASIS ( P]SONAL TIES2 SECOND1 ?AT SU* ALLOCATION T5DS TO BE 0UNRELIABLE BECAUSE ! GOODS !MSELVES >E CLOSELY TI$ TO ! POLITICAL =TUNES & POSITIONS ( ! DI/RIBUTOR .<OR.> (FICE HOLD]40 ,9DIVIDUALS OR GR\PS :O DO NOT F9D !MSELVES 9 ANY ( ! DI/RIBUTIVE NETWORKS GET LEFT \T ALTOGE!R1 OR1 AT BE/1 >E M>G9ALIZ$4 

,AGA9/ ?IS BACKGR\ND1 ONE CAN SEE ?AT 9 CORRUPT CAPITALI/_/ /ATI/ POLITICAL SY/EMS1 ! DI/RIBUTION ( POLITICAL GOODS & S]VICES BO? CREATES SOCIAL 9EQUALITIES & EXAC]BATES ?OSE ?AT ALREADY EXI/4 ,9 ,AFRICA1 ! GAP BETWE5 ! HAVES & ! HAVE-NOTS HAS CONT9U$ TO WID5 S9CE 9DEP5D5CE1 ) ! LOT ( BO? MAJORITY & M9ORITY E?NIC GR\PS DET]IORAT+4 ,IT'S LITTLE WOND] ?AT BO? GR\PS HAVE BECOME ALI5AT$ & CYNICAL4 ,= EXAMPLE1 ,NKRUMAH'S 0,DAWN ,BROADCA/0 WAS PRIVATELY D]ID$ BY HIS COLLEAGUES & CRITICS1 & WAS RECEIV$ ) CYNICISM BY ! PUBLIC1 BECAUSE ! CORRUPTION ( ! REGIME WAS BY !N TOO PAT5T TO BE CONCEAL$4 

,! NET IMPACT ( ALL ?IS IS A REJECTION ( GOV]NM5T & ! POLITICAL PROCESS BY ,AFRICA'S POOR MAJORITY1 & ! 9T5SIFICATION ( REVOLUTION>Y PRESSURES >\ND ! CONT95T4 

,/RUCTURAL ,ADJU/M5T1 ,ELECTORALISM & ,AFRICA'S ,FUTURE 

,! 9TRODUCTION ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,MONET>Y ,FUND'S 7,I,M,F'S7 ,/RUCTURAL ,ADJU/M5T ,PROGRAM 7,S,A,P7 9 ! MID-#a#i#hS WAS A CLE> SIGNAL1 IF ANY W]E NE$$1 ?AT PO/-9DEP5D5CE ,AFRICAN REGIMES HAVE NOT SEV]$ ! BONDS ( IMP]IALISM4 ,DESPITE ! FACT ( POLITICAL 9DEP5D5CE1 ,AFRICAN /ATES >E /ILL CLOSELY TI$ TO 9T]NATIONAL CAPITALISM4 

,=EIGN CONTROL ( ,AFRICAN ECONOMIC POLICIES IS FACILITAT$ BY ! MASSIVE 9DEBT$NESS ( ,AFRICAN REGIMES TO ,AM]ICAN & ,EUROPEAN GOV]NM5TS & F9ANCIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,AS ,ABLAYE ,DIAGNE1 A LECTUR] 9 ECONOMICS AT ! ,UNIV]SITY ( ,S5EGAL1 HAS /AT$1 0! DEBT IS ONE ( ! ME*ANISMS ?R\< :I* ! ,AFRICAN C\NTRIES HAVE AGA9 FALL5 UND] ! YOKE ( ! MO/ F]OCI\S IMP]IALI/ EXPLOITATION40.<#a#c#h.> ,DIAGNE ID5TIFIES SOME ( ! CAUSES ( ?IS MASSIVE 9DEBT$NESS AS3 #a7 ! WAY 9 :I* ,AFRICAN C\NTRIES >E 9TEGRAT$ 9TO ! 9T]NATIONAL CAPITALI/ DIVISION ( LABOR2 #b7 ! ECONOMIC POLICIES FOLL[$ )9 ?AT FRAMEWORK2 #c7 9 P>TICUL>1 ! =MS ( 9DEBT$NESS & ! USE ( RES\RCES BORR[$ FROM ABROAD2 #d7 ! >MAM5TS RACE1 9TO :I* ,AFRICA HAS BE5 PLUNG$ BY IMP]IALISM2 & #e7 DEBT RES*$UL+ POLICIES4 

,BECAUSE ( ! ECONOMIC CRISES FAC+ !M1 MANY ,AFRICAN GOV]NM5TS HAVE HAD NO *OICE BUT TO BORR[ FROM F9ANCIAL 9/ITUTIONS SU* AS ! ,WORLD ,BANK & ,I,M,F4 ,A /&>D ,I,M,F PACKAGE (T5 9VOLVES1 AMONG O!R ?+S1 ! FOLL[+ 0CONDITIONALITIES03 #a7 DEVALUATION ( CURR5CY2 #b7 TI<T MONET>Y & FISCAL CON/RA9TS2 #c7 BUDGET CUTS1 ) %>PLY R$UC$ PUBLIC EXP5DITURES2 #d7 A WAGE FREEZE2 & #e7 %>P R$UCTION OR ELIM9ATION ( IMPORT & PRICE SUBSIDIES4 

,*9WEIZU >GUES ?AT ! ,I,M,F M$IC9E ADM9I/]$ TO CURE A C\NTRY'S LIQUIDITY HEADA*E ALMO/ ALWAYS WORS5S ! ILLNESS4 ,?IS IS MA9LY BECAUSE ! ,I,M,F 0TREATM5T0 IS DESIGN$ TO HELP C\NTRIES ) /RONG 9DU/RIAL BASES -- C\NTRIES ?AT CAN OV]COME LIQUIDITY PROBLEMS ?R\< MORE COMPETITIVE PRIC+ ( !IR 9DU/RIAL GOODS4 ,BUT = ,AFRICAN C\NTRIES1 ) WEAK OR NONEXI/5T 9DU/RIAL MANUFACTUR+ BASES1 ! ,I,M,F SOLUTION DOES NO?+ BUT /IMULATE MORE RAW MAT]IAL EXPORTS AT L[ PRICES 9TO A WEAK WORLD COMMODITY M>KET4 

,NEV]!LESS1 ,AFRICAN GOV]NM5TS HAVE HAD NO ALT]NATIVE TO BANKRUPTCY O!R ?AN TO BORR[ FROM ! ,WORLD ,BANK & ,I,M,F & TO 9TRODUCE ! H>% AU/]ITY MEASURES !Y DEM&4 ,E?IOPIA1 = EXAMPLE1 9TRODUC$ AU/]ITY MEASURES 9 #aihe :ILE ,M5<I/U DRA9$ ! NATIONAL TREASURY ON MILIT>Y EXP5DITURES2 & ,NIG]IA FIR/ 9TRODUC$ FULL-BL[N AU/]ITY MEASURES 9 #aiha UND] ! CORRUPT ,%AG>I REGIME1 & !N AGA9 9 #aihf ?R\< ! ,WORLD ,BANK_/,I,M,F ,/RUCTURAL ,ADJU/M5T ,PROGRAM4 

,! IMPOSITION ( AU/]ITY MEASURES HAS HAD F>-REA*+ CONSEQU5CES 9 MANY ,AFRICAN C\NTRIES4 ,RA!R ?AN AMELIORATE ECONOMIC PROBLEMS1 !SE 0ADJU/M5T0 POLICIES EXAC]BATE !M4 ,RIS+ UNEMPLOYM5T1 9FLATION1 A SO>+ CO/ ( LIV+1 & O!R WORS5+ SOCIAL CONDITIONS GIVE LIE TO ! ASSUMPTIONS ( ,S,A,P4 ,ITS SOCIAL CONSEQU5CES ALONE >E A /RONG GOAD TO A REVOLUTION>Y CONSCI\SNESS AMONG ,AFRICA'S WORK+ CLASS2 BUT ) ! POT5TIAL RADICALIZATION ( ?IS SECTOR ( ,AFRICAN SOCIETY COMES ! PROSPECT ( ! RETURN ( MILIT>Y GOV]NM5TS TO PROTECT ! PRIVILEGE ( BO? =EIGN & LOCAL ELITES4 

,AP>T FROM ! PROSPECT ( MILIT>Y 9T]V5TION1 SOME ,AFRICAN REGIMES HAVE 9TRODUC$ CON/ITUTIONAL CONV5TIONS AS A MEANS ( SABOTAG+ ! BURGEON+ ( RADICAL CONSCI\SNESS4 ,SU* A CONV5TION WAS EMPLOY$ ) TELL+ EFFECT 9 ,B591 :]E ,PRESID5T ,MATTEW ,K]EK\ PASS$ ! POLITICAL BATON TO ,NICEPHORE ,SOGLO4 ,NIG]IA IS ! LATE/ EXAMPLE 9 ,AFRICA :]E ! GOV]NM5T SET UP A CON/ITUTIONAL CONV5TION TO OBVIATE ! PROSPECT ( RADICAL *ANGE4 

,CON/ITUTIONAL CONV5TIONS NORMALLY PRESCRIBE ELECTORALISM AS ! WAY TO ALLEVIATE A C\NTRY'S PROBLEMS4 ,BUT ELECTORALISM 9 ,AFRICA IS M]ELY A DIV]SION>Y TACTIC US$ TO MASK ! TRANSF] ( P[] FROM ONE GR\P ( EXPLOIT]S TO ANO!R4 ,! FACT ?AT DICTATORS 9 C\NTRIES SU* AS ,CONGO1 ,E?IOPIA1 ,ANGOLA1 ,MOZAMBIQUE1 & ,MALAWI HAVE LATELY 9/ALL$ MULTI-P>TY ELECTORALISM IS EVID5CE ?AT IT LEADS TO NO?+ REALLY NEW4 ,AS ELSE:]E1 ELECTORALISM 9 ,AFRICA DOES NO?+ TO FUNDAM5TALLY *ANGE ! /ATUS QUO2 IT DOES NO?+ TO ABOLI% ! SY/EM ( PRIVILEGE & CLASS DIFF]5TIATION4 ,IT SEEMS OBVI\S ?AT AT ?IS PO9T ELECTORALISM C>RIES NO R$EMPTIVE PROSPECTS = ,AFRICA4 ,! SUCCESS RATES ( ! V>I\S 0DEMOCRATIZ+0 POLITICAL MOVEM5TS 9 ,AFRICA ON SU* M9IMAL PROGRAMS AS HUMAN RI<TS & ! RULE ( LAW >E NO?+ TO WRITE HOME AB\T4 

,! 9TRODUCTION ( ,S,A,PS & CON/ITUTIONAL CONV5TIONS HAVE CO9CID$ ) ! COLLAPSE ( M>XI/-L59I/ SOCIALISM ! WORLD OV]4 ,AFRICA HAS WITNESS$ ! COLLAPSE ( COMMUNI/ DICTATOR%IPS 9 ,E?IOPIA1 ,B591 & ,SOMALIA2 & SOCIALI/ REGIMES 9 ,ZIMBABWE1 ,MOZAMBIQUE1 & ,ANGOLA >E TOTT]+ & HAVE S\<T RESPITE BY OP5+ !IR ECONOMIES TO =EIGN TRADE & 9VE/M5T1 & BY ALL[+ 0FREE M>KET0 =CES TO OP]ATE4 ,! PO9T IS1 H[EV]1 ?AT ! COLLAPSE ( SO-CALL$ ,AFRICAN SOCIALISM DOES NOT TRANSLATE 9TO A TRIUMPH ( CAPITALISM1 BECAUSE ,AFRICAN CAPITALISM ITSELF IS 5ME%$ 9 DEEP CRISIS4 ,RA!R1 IT IS A V9DICATION ( ! AN>*I/ CRITIQUE ( BO? PRIVATE_/CORPORATE CAPITALISM & ( /ATE CAPITALISM MASQU]AD+ AS SOCIALISM4 

,! CURR5T CRISIS 9 ,AFRICA ?US AF=DS AN>*ISM AN HI/ORIC OPPORTUNITY TO TAKE FIRM ROOT ON ! ,AFRICAN CONT95T4 ,9 REALITY1 PO/-COLONIAL ,AFRICA HAS ALWAYS BE5 9 IDEOLOGICAL FLUX1 BUT ?IS FLUX HAS 9CREAS$ ) ! COLLAPSE ( M>XISM4 ,! MAJORITY ( PO/-COLONIAL ,AFRICAN /ATES HAVE TRADITIONALLY T5D$ T[>DS ! CAPITALI/ MODEL ONLY BECAUSE IT WAS FOI/$ ON !M AS A CONDITION = ! GRANT+ ( POLITICAL 9DEP5D5CE2 DUE TO CAPITALISM'S FAILURES1 O!R ,AFRICAN /ATES OPT$ = /ATE 0SOCIALISM10 :I* LIKEWISE FAIL$ TO DELIV] ! GOODS4 ,?IS LEAVES ,AFRICA ) AN ALT]NATIVE MODEL ( DEVELOPM5T ?AT WILL CONFRONT ! PRES5T CRISIS ( HUNG]1 POV]TY1 & DISEASE BY 5SUR+ ?AT ,AFRICA'S PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY NO LONG] REMA9S UND] ! CONTROL ( CAPITALI/ OR GOV]NM5TAL RUL+ CLASSES4 

,TODAY1 ! MILIT>Y 9 ,AFRICA MAKE NO PRET5SE ( (F]+ AN ALT]NATIVE TO CAPITALISM OR TO /ATE 0SOCIALISM40 ,IF ANY?+1 MO/ MILIT>Y M5 >E WELL AW>E ?AT !Y >E V]Y MU* P>T ( ! CRISIS FAC+ ! CONT95T4 ,GONE >E ! DAYS :5 ,EUROC5TRIC S*OL>S PA9T$ ! ,AFRICAN MILIT>Y AS AN ALT]NATIVE AG5T ( MOD]NIZATION OR DEVELOPM5T4 ,TODAY1 ,AFRICAN MILIT>Y REGIMES KN[ ?AT ! MAGNITUDE ( ! CRISIS FAC+ ! CONT95T IS BEYOND ! CAPACITY ( !IR MU*-VAUNT$ ORGANIZATIONAL CAPABILITIES4 ,IT IS F9ALLY BECOM+ WIDELY RECOGNIZ$ ?AT MILIT>Y 9T]V5TION 9 ,AFRICAN /ATES IS FUNDAM5TALLY REACTION>Y1 A TEMPOR>Y AB]RATION ?AT S]VES TO ROLL BACK ! GA9S ( ! POOR 9 !IR /RUGGLE AGA9/ RUL+ ELITES4 ,! WAY ?IS WORKS IS AS FOLL[S3 

,UPON COM+ TO P[]1 ! MILIT>Y IMPOSES M>TIAL LAW 9 AN ATTEMPT TO HOLD TOGE!R ! DIS9TEGRAT+ /ATE /RUCTURE4 ,AS ! CRISIS CONT9UES UNABAT$ 9 SPITE ( MILIT>Y REPRESSION & DICTATOR%IP1 ! MILIT>Y REGIME IS =C$ TO ANN\NCE DATES = ELECTIONS & ! RETURN ( ! CIVILIAN RUL+ ELITE4 ,9 REALITY1 ?IS IS A VICI\S CIRCLE3 ELECTIONS LEAD TO A CORRUPT CIVILIAN GOV]NM5T1 FOLL[$ BY MILIT>Y 9T]V5TION1 FOLL[$ BY ELECTIONS LEAD+ TO A CORRUPT CIVILIAN GOV]NM5T1 & SO ON & SO =?4 

,9 SUM1 BO? CIVILIAN & MILIT>Y REGIMES 9 ,AFRICA REPRES5T A M]E TRANSITIONAL PHASE 9 ! M>* T[>D A SOCIETY :I* WILL FULFILL ! HUMAN ASPIRATIONS = LIB]TY1 EQUALITY1 & A HUMANE /&>D ( LIV+4 ,?R\<\T ,AFRICA1 ! 5ORM\S SOCIOPOLITICAL & ECONOMIC TRAG$Y ?AT HAS BE5 ! CONT95T'S LOT S9CE ITS FIR/ CONTACT ) CAPITALISM & ! /ATE SY/EM CONT9UES TO DEEP54 ,IT IS AGA9/ ?IS BACKGR\ND ?AT WE PO/ULATE AN 9EVITABLE NEW SOCIAL ORD] :I* WILL 5TAIL ! REORGANIZATION ( SOCIAL LIFE ON ! BASIS ( LIB]T>IAN COMMUNISM1 ! ABOLITION ( /ATES & POLITICAL P>TIES1 ! DISAPPE>ANCE ( MONOPOLY CONTROL ( PROP]TY1 & ! ELIM9ATION ( ALL =MS ( DOM9ATION4 ,?IS WILL BE A*IEV$ ?R\< ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ECONOMIC COMMUNES & ADM9I/RATIVE ORGANS RUN BY ,AFRICAN WORK]S & PEASANTS !MSELVES 9 !IR WORKPLACES1 =M+ A SY/EM ( FREE1 VOLUNT>Y C\NCILS :I* WILL NOT BE SUBJECT TO AU?ORIT>IAN CONTROL BY ANY GOV]NM5T OR POLITICAL P>TY4 

,! ,HUMAN ,RI<TS ,QUE/ION 

,! HUMAN RI<TS RECORDS ( ,AFRICAN C\NTRIES -- BE !Y MILIT>Y 7,NIG]IA71 0SOCIALI/0 7,ZIMBABWE1 ,LIBYA71 OR B\RGEOIS DEMOCRATIC 7,K5YA1 ,<ANA7 -- HAVE NEV] BE5 WORSE ?AN !Y >E TODAY4 ,?IS IS 9 SPITE ( ! B\RGEOIS DEMOCRATIC CURR5T CURR5TLY SWEEP+ ! CONT95T4 ,USUALLY1 ! FACADE ( ELECTIONS IS ! ONLY SIGNIFICANT FEATURE ( ! TRANSITION FROM AN AU?ORIT>IAN1 ONE-P>TY /ATE DICTATOR%IP TO A MULTI-P>TY 0DEMOCRACY40 ,EV5 ! MO/ M9IMAL HUMAN RI<TS AG5DA IS ALMO/ ALWAYS LO/ 9 ! %UFFLE4 

,9 ,NIG]IA1 = EXAMPLE1 ! NUMB] ( POLITICAL PRISON]S DETA9$ )\T TRIAL 9 ! PA/ FIVE YE>S HAS RIS5 SIGNIFICANTLY TO OV] #a AT ANY GIV5 TIME4 ,SEV]AL DETA9EES LOSE !IR LIVES DAILY 9 PRISONS & POLICE DUNGEONS NATIONWIDE1 SOMETIMES )\T ANY RECORD ( !IR >RE/S1 DET5TION1 OR DEA?S4 ,! ,NIG]IAN GOV]NM5T REGUL>LY CLOSES OR BANS NEWSPAP]S & O!R PUBLICATIONS ?AT IT CONSID]S CRITICAL4 ,NO?+1 P]HAPS1 BETT] CAPTURES ! ,HOBBESIAN /ATE ( ,NIG]IA ?AN ! UNCANNY EASE ) :I* ! MILIT>Y AU?ORITIES PROMULGATE DECREES & $ICTS ?AT OV]RIDE ! REGUL> C\RTS1 ESPECIALLY ! NOTORI\S PREV5TIVE DET5TION ,DECREE ,NO4 #b ?AT REMOVES ! JURISDICTION ( ! C\RTS OV] ! 9DEF9ITE DET5TION ( P]SONS4 

,?OSE SUFF]+ LONG T]MS ( CONF9EM5T S9CE #aiia 9CLUDE LABOR LEAD]S1 POLITICAL ACTIVI/S1 /UD5TS1 & POLITICIANS4 ,!SE 9CLUDE F\R MEMB]S ( ! ,AW>5ESS ,LEAGUE DETA9$ 9 #aiib & NOT RELEAS$ UNTIL ,M>* #a#i#i#c4 ,NIG]IA'S MILIT>Y RUL]S HAVE S9CE PROSCRIB$ ALL LABOR UNIONS1 DISSOLV$ !IR LEAD]%IP1 & FROZ5 !IR ASSETS4 ,! MASSIVE REPRESSION 9 ,NIG]IA IS MAT*$ ONLY BY ! CLIMATE ( 9SECURITY ?AT P]VADES ! C\NTRY BECAUSE ( ! CRIM9AL ACTIVITIES ( >M$ ROBB]S1 ! DESP]ATELY UNEMPLOY$1 & \TRI<T GANG/]S4 

,SIMIL>LY1 9 ,LIBYA HUNDR$S ( POLITICAL PRISON]S1 9CLUD+ PRISON]S ( CONSCI5CE1 >E HELD 9 DET5TION C5T]S = REASONS &_/OR UND] CONDITIONS CONTR>Y TO 9T]NATIONAL HUMAN RI<TS /&>DS4 ,A REPORT COMPIL$ BY ,AMNE/Y ,9T]NATIONAL 7,M,D,E #a#i_/#c_/#i#b7 PUTS ! NUMB] ( POLITICAL PRISON]S 9 ,LIBYA 9 #aiib AT #e#e#d1 AN 9CREASE ( #abg OV] ! PREVI\S YE>'S FIGURE4 ,SOME ( !SE PRISON]S HAVE BE5 HELD S9CE #a#i#g#d4 

,LIKE ,NIG]IA1 ,LIBYA HAS SIGN$ RELEVANT 9T]NATIONAL PROTOCOLS ON HUMAN RI<TS1 9CLUD+ ! ,AFRICAN ,*>T] ON ,HUMAN & ,PEOPLE'S ,RI<TS4 ,!SE PROHIBIT TORTURE & O!R CRUEL1 9HUMAN1 OR DEGRAD+ TREATM5T4 ,UN=TUNATELY !SE ACCORDS HAVE DONE LITTLE OR NO?+ TO CURTAIL HUMAN RI<TS ABUSES BY ?IS 0,>AB SOCIALI/0 /ATE4 ,ZIMBABWE IS ANO!R 0SOCIALI/0 /ATE ) A POOR RECORD ON HUMAN RI<TS4 ,UND] ,ROB]T ,MUGABE'S #a#g-YE> RULE1 /ATE-SPONSOR$ H>ASSM5T & 9TIMIDATION ( POLITICAL OPPON5TS & ! /IFL+ ( LABOR UNIONS HAS BE5 R\T9E4 ,& 9 ,ALG]IA ! POPULACE IS HELD HO/AGE 9 A VIRTUAL /ATE ( T]ROR BETWE5 AN AU?ORIT>IAN MILIT>Y GOV]NM5T & A MURD]\S ,ISLAMIC FUNDAM5TALI/ OPPOSITION4 

,! SITUATION 9 ! NEWLY EM]G+ 0DEMOCRACIES0 9 ,AFRICA1 NAMELY ,K5YA1 ,<ANA & ! ,IVORY ,COA/1 IS NOT M>K$LY DIFF]5T4 ,HUMAN RI<TS VIOLATIONS 9 !SE PLACES >E SY/EMIC1 ?US 5ABL+ ! AU?ORITIES TO 9VOKE CON/ITUTIONAL & LEGAL PROVISIONS4 ,<ANA UND] ,J]RY ,RAWL+S HAS LIT]ALLY DECIMAT$ ! OPPOSITION4 ,9 ,K5YA1 ,>AP ,MOI IS 5GAG$ 9 AN E?NIC CLEANS+ CAMPAIGN AGA9/ SOME NATIONALITIES1 NOTABLY ! ,KIKUYU & ! ,LUO4 ,& 9 NOM9ALLY DEMOCRATIC ,EGYPT1 ! POLICE >E CONDUCT+ A 0DIRTY W>0 AGA9/ A VIOL5T1 FANATICAL ,ISLAMIC OPPOSITION4 

,:AT EM]GES IS ! OMNIPRES5CE ( AU?ORIT>IAN /ATE CONTROL -- 9 ! NEW DEMOCRACIES1 9 ! REMA9+ /ATE-SOCIALI/ \TPO/S1 &1 ( C\RSE1 9 ! MILIT>Y-RUL$ C\NTRIES4 ,IT'S EXTREMELY UNLIKELY ?AT ?IS SITUATION WILL *ANGE SIGNIFICANTLY :ILE PRIVATE_/CORPORATE CAPITALI/ REGIMES 7CIVILIAN OR MILIT>Y7 & /ATE-CAPITALI/ 70SOCIALI/07 REGIMES REMA9 9 P[]4 ,! ABOLITION ( !SE REGIMES & SOCIAL REORGANIZATION BAS$ ON ! AN>*I/IC ELEM5TS 9 TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES IS ! ONLY ANSW]4 

,*APT] #f3 ,OB/ACLES TO ! ,DEVELOPM5T ( ,AN>*ISM 9 ,AFRICA 

,AN>*I/ !ORY1 TO PUT IT MILDLY1 IS SE5 9 ,AFRICA AS A FR+E1 LEFTI/ IDEOLOGY2 ONE 9DICATION ( ?IS IS ?AT AN>*ISM USUALLY RECEIVES NO MORE ?AN A PASS+ NOD 9 ! SYLLABI ( ,AFRICAN UNIV]SITY CLASSES4 ,?IS IS P>ADOXICAL BECAUSE 9 NO O!R CONT95T HAVE AN>*I/ T5D5CIES BE5 AS /RONG AS 9 ,AFRICA1 & BECAUSE 9 MOD]N TIMES ! PROSPECT ( TURN+ MASS ACTION 9TO CLASS /RUGGLE REMA9S BRI<TE/ 9 ,AFRICA4 ,WE %ALL N[ CONSID] SOME ( ! FACTORS ?AT HAVE WORK$ AGA9/ ! DEVELOPM5T ( AN>*ISM 9 ,AFRICA4 

,COLONIAL ,$UCATION 

,ONE ( ! UNPLEASANT REALITIES WE 5C\NT]$ :ILE WRIT+ ?IS BOOK WAS H[ LITTLE ! CONTEMPOR>Y ,AFRICAN1 9CLUD+ ! ,AFRICAN POLITICAL OR SOCIAL SCI5TI/ 7:O HAS PROBABLY TAK5 A C\RSE OR TWO ON COMP>ATIVE POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES71 KN[S AB\T AN>*ISM4 ,9 T]MS ( LIT]ATURE1 VIRTUALLY NO?+ IS TO BE F\ND ON ! BOOK%ELVES ( UNIV]SITIES & BOOK/ORES4 ,?IS IS NOT SURPRIS+1 H[EV]2 9 HIS CRITIQUE ( M>XISM1 ,RON ,TAB] PO9TS \T ?AT = OV] #g YE>S1 AN>*ISM WAS ECLIPS$ BY M>XISM4 ,NO:]E HAS ?IS SUBORD9ATION ( AN>*ISM TO M>XI/ 0SOCIALISM0 BE5 MORE PR(\ND ?AN 9 ,AFRICA4 

,MU* ( ! DE>? ( AN>*I/ LIT]ATURE 9 ,AFRICA IS A RESULT ( ! COLONIAL $UCATIONAL SY/EM & ! CONCOMITANT HEGEMONY ( ,WE/]N IMP]IALI/ LIT]ATURE 9 ,AFRICA4 ,COLONIAL $UCATION 9 ,AFRICA DID NOT SEEK TO $UCATE L>GE NUMB]S ( /UD5TS2 RA!R1 ,EUROPEAN $UCATORS SELECT$ :AT !Y CONSID]$ ! CREAM ( ! CROP = ADVANC$ S*OOL+4 ,ONE RESULT ( ?IS IS ?AT ONLY A RELATIVELY SMALL PROPORTION ( ,AFRICA'S POPULATION HAS BE5 & IS LIT]ATE4 ,A COROLL>Y ( ?IS WAS ! EM]G5CE ( AN ACADEMIC ELITE :O CONSID]$ !MSELVES SUP]IOR TO ! RE/ ( ! PEOPLE4 ,BECAUSE ITS PHILOSOPHICAL & IDEOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS W]E TAK5 FROM ,EUROPEAN CLASS SOCIETIES1 & NOT FROM COMMUNAL & RELATIVELY UN/RATIFI$ ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES1 COLONIAL $UCATION WAS DIS9TEGRATIVE RA!R ?AN UNIFY+4 

,TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN $UCATION1 9 CONTRA/1 EMPHASIZ$ ! 9T]DEP5D5CE ( 9DIVIDUALS )9 ! COMMUNITY RA!R ?AN COMPETITION BETWE5 !M4 ,IT 9/ILL$ A GR\P SOCIAL CONSCI\SNESS & FO/]$ AN EGALIT>IAN SPIRIT2 ?IS 9 TURN NATURALLY L$ TO AN EMPHASIS ON COMMON 5DEAVORS & ! %>+ ( ! PRODUCTS !Y G5]AT$4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 COLONIAL $UCATION EMPHASIZ$ 9DIVIDUALISM & MADE SOCIAL EXI/5CE COMPETITIVE4 ,! COMMUNAL SPIRIT WAS SUPPLANT$ BY ! CONCEPT ( ! ISOLAT$ SELF & GRE$1 MAT]IALISM1 & AN UNBRIDL$ DESIRE = DOM9ATION4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 ,AFRICA HAS BECOME A CONT95T ( ATOMI/IC1 ANTAGONI/IC1 & COMPETITIVE GR\PS /RONGLY COMMITT$ TO TRIBAL LOYALTIES & DOM9AT$ BY E?NOC5TRIC VIEWS4 

,9 SUM1 COLONIAL $UCATION HAS L$ TO A HI< LEVEL ( ILLIT]ACY 9 ,AFRICA COMB9$ ) V]Y L[ POLITICAL CONSCI\SNESS1 EV5 AMONG ! $UCAT$4 ,NEI!R ,EUROC5TRIC NOR ,AFROC5TRIC S*OL>S HAVE RESE>*$ AN>*ISM AS IT RELATES TO ,AFRICA4 ,?IS HAS 5SUR$ ?AT AN>*ISM AS A SY/EMATIC BODY ( ?\<T REMA9S AN ESOT]IC1 IF NOT UNKN[N1 SUBJECT TO MANY ,AFRICANS4 

,! ,LEGAL ,SY/EM 

,AFRICAN LEGAL SY/EMS >E A HANGOV] FROM ! COLONIAL PA/4 ,= EXAMPLE1 AS 9 O!R =M] ,BRITI% COLONIES1 ! LEGAL SY/EM 9 ,NIG]IA IS SIMPLY AN IMITATION ( ,BRITI% COMMON LAW & EQUITY4 ,IT VIEWS NATIVE LAWS & CU/OMS AS B>B>\S TO ! EXT5T ?AT !Y DO NOT REFLECT ,EUROPEAN /&>DS & VALUE SY/EMS4 

,COLONIAL LAWS W]E =MULAT$ ESS5TIALLY TO MA9TA9 0LAW & ORD]10 & ?IS REMA9S ! C>D9AL AIM ( PO/-COLONIAL ,AFRICAN LAWS4 ,?IS CONTRA/S %>PLY ) ! PRE-COLONIAL ,AFRICAN SY/EM ( RI<TS & FRE$OMS4 ,TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES HAD AN 9T5SE S5SE ( HUMANITY & RESPECT = HUMAN DIGNITY4 ,PRE-COLONIAL ,AFRICANS 5JOY$ MO/ ( ! RI<TS ?AT TODAY W\LD FALL UND] ! RUBRIC ( CIVIL & POLITICAL RI<TS1 SU* AS FRE$OM ( ASSOCIATION1 FRE$OM ( MOVEM5T1 & FRE$OM ( EXPRESSION4 ,BASIC ECONOMIC & SOCIAL RI<TS1 LIKE ! RI<T TO ! USE ( A PIECE ( L&1 ! RI<T TO WORK1 & ! RI<T TO AN $UCATION1 W]E ALSO COMMON 9 TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES4 ,& !SE RI<TS W]E RECOGNIZ$ & PROTECT$4 0,ADJUDICATION10 IF IT CAN BE CALL$ SU*1 TYPICALLY CONSI/$ ( A FAIR 0HE>+0 = OPPOS+ P>TIES BE=E ! 5TIRE VILLAGE OR A C\NCIL FROM IT2 ! DECISION REA*$ WAS RESPECT$ & USUALLY CONSID]$ F9AL4 ,PO/-COLONIAL ,AFRICAN LEGAL SY/EMS1 ?\<1 CONCEIVE ( LAW AS A BODY ( RULES = ! PRES]VATION ( ! /ATE & ! P]PETUATION ( ORD] & /ABILITY4 ,9 MANY PLACES ANY ADVOCACY ( ! OV]?R[ ( ! /ATE IS CONSID]$ TREASON & IS PUNI%ABLE BY DEA?4 

,9 AN ATTEMPT TO HUMANIZE ,AFRICAN LEGAL SY/EMS1 9 ,JUNE #aiha ! #a#h? ASSEMBLY ( HEADS ( /ATE & GOV]NM5T ( ! ,ORGANIZATION ( ,AFRICAN ,UNITY ADOPT$ ! ,AFRICAN ,*>T] ON ,HUMAN & ,PEOPLES ,RI<TS4 7,!IR COLLECTIVE CONSCI5CE HAD BE5 PRICK$ BY ,IDI ,AM9'S ,UG&A1 ,JEAN ,B$EL ,BOKASSA'S ,C5TRAL ,AFRICAN ,REPUBLIC1 & ,M>CIAS ,NGUEMA'S ,EQUATORIAL ,GU9EA47 ,?IS *>T] S\<T TO NUDGE ,AFRICA'S LEGAL SY/EMS AWAY FROM !IR HEAVY COLONIAL 9FLU5CES2 IT WAS SOME:AT 9FLU5C$ BY ,AFRICAN TRADITION ) ITS EMPHASIS 7RELATIVE TO ,WE/]N TRADITIONS7 ON ! 9DIVIDUAL AS P>T ( A GR\P & ! CORRELATION ( RI<TS ) DUTIES4 ,H[EV]1 ! ,*>T] FALLS F> %ORT ( PRESCRIB+ NEW LAWS ?AT C\LD GU>ANTEE ! RI<TS1 LIB]TY & ECONOMIC WELL-BE+ ( ! MAJORITY ( ! PEOPLE4 

,= 9/ANCE1 ,>TICLE #a#c7#a7 ( ! ,*>T] GU>ANTEES AS FOLL[S ! RI<T TO P>TICIPATE 9 GOV]NM5T3 0EV]Y CITIZ5 %ALL HAVE ! RI<T TO FREELY P>TICIPATE 9 ! GOV]NM5T ( HIS C\NTRY1 EI!R DIRECTLY OR ?R\< FREELY *OS5 REPRES5TATIVES 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! PROVISIONS ( ! LAW40 ,9 ANALYZ+ ?IS PROVISO1 WE CAN SEE ?AT ! ACCOMMODAT+ CLAUSE1 09 ACCORDANCE ) ! PROVISIONS ( ! LAW10 /RIPS ! >TICLE ( ANY MEAN+FUL HUMAN RI<TS CONT5T4 ,EQUALLY1 0! RI<T TO FREELY P>TICIPATE0 IS VAGUE & MEAN+LESS & IS ( NO CONSEQU5CE4 ,! OBJECTIVE 9T]PRETATION ( ! CLAUSE IS ?AT ONE IS 0FREE0 ONLY TO ! EXT5T SPECIFI$ 9 ! APPLICABLE NATIONAL LAWS4 ,KOTEY >GUES ?AT AGA9/ ! BACKGR\ND ( ! ,AFRICAN EXP]I5CE ( ONE-P>TY /ATES1 MILIT>Y DICTATOR%IPS1 & 0REVOLUTION>Y0 AUTOCRACIES1 TO (F] ! ,AFRICAN PEOPLE ! RI<T TO P>TICIPATE 9 ! GOV]NANCE ( !IR C\NTRIES )9 ! P>AMET]S E/ABLI%$ BY NATIONAL LAW IS TO (F] NO?+ AT ALL4 

,9 SUM1 ,AFRICAN LEGAL SY/EMS REMA9 AN IMP$IM5T TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( AN>*ISM 9 ,AFRICA4 ,! EXTANT BODY ( LAWS IS CAPITALI/ 9SPIR$ & IS DESIGN$ TO P]PETUATE ! /ATUS QUO & ! /ATE SY/EM4 ,9 MO/ P>TS ( ,AFRICA1 MILIT>Y DICTATOR%IPS & CIVILIAN AUTOCRACIES HAVE 9TRODUC$ DECREES & /ATUTES ?AT PROHIBIT WORK]S FROM ORGANIZ+ !MSELVES 9TO UNIONS4 ,9 SOME C\NTRIES1 9 FACT1 /RIKES & O!R =MS ( WORK]S' ACTIONS >E ABSOLUTELY PROHIBIT$4 ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT IT SEES NO?+ FUNDAM5TALLY WRONG ) ! /ATE SY/EM 9 ,AFRICA1 ,! ,AFRICAN ,*>T] CANNOT ADDRESS ! ISSUE ( CLASS ANTAGONISMS & OPPRESSION ON ! ,AFRICAN CONT95T4 

,& AT ! SAME TIME1 AS LONG AS ,AFRICANS CONT9UE TO SUPPORT ! ,WE/]N_/COLONIALI/-9SPIR$ LEGAL SY/EM -- &1 IMPORTANTLY1 TO ACCEPT ITS UND]LY+ PHILOSOPHIES & RATIONALE -- ,AFRICAN LEGAL SY/EMS WILL REMA9 AN IMPORTANT OB/ACLE TO BO? HUMAN FRE$OM & ! DEVELOPM5T ( AN>*ISM 9 ,AFRICA4 

,! ,MILIT>Y ,CLASS & ! ,/ATUS ,QUO 

,AS DISCONT5T CONT9UES TO HEI<T5 & ! POSSIBILITY ( REVOLUTION>Y ACTION 9CREASES1 ! ,AFRICAN MILIT>Y CONT9UES TO ACT TO MA9TA9 ! /ATUS QUO4 ,ROG] ,MURRAY EXPLA9S MILIT>Y 9T]V5TION AS AN ATTEMPT TO PREV5T ! RADICALIZATION ( ! PEOPLE & REVOLUTION>Y SITUATIONS4 ,UND]LY+ ?IS IS ! FACT ?AT ! MILIT>Y IS A C5TRAL COMPON5T ( ! NATIONAL RUL+ CLASS 9 ALL ,AFRICAN C\NTRIES & ?US B5EFITS FROM BO? CONT9U$ GOV]NM5T RULE & FROM ALLIANCES ) =EIGN 9VE/ORS &1 9 MANY CASES1 BRIBES FROM !M4 

,! MILIT>Y ITSELF P]CEIVES ITS FUNCTION AS PROTECTION ( ! /ATE FROM BO? 9T]NAL & EXT]NAL ?REATS4 ,?IS BECOMES OBVI\S :5 ONE EXAM9ES MILIT>Y C\PS4 ,PR(ESSOR ,NNOLI NOTES ?AT 9 ! ,JANU>Y #aiff C\P 9 ,NIG]IA1 ! C\P PLOTT]S HAD NO 9T5TION1 EI!R /AT$ OR IMPLI$1 ( ADVANC+ ! 9T]E/S ( ! POOR4 0,!IR 9T]E/ WAS .<9.> ! RE=MATION ( ! SY/EM1 9 O!R WORDS1 TO A*IEVE ! 9T]E/S ( ! PRIVILEG$ CLASSES )\T IMPOS+ UNDUE /RA9S ON ! SY/EM40 ,YET SOME COMM5TATORS HAVE DUBB$ ?IS P>TICUL> MILIT>Y C\P AS 0REVOLUTION>Y40 ,TO DISPEL SU* ILLUSIONS1 ALL ONE NE$S TO DO IS TO LOOK AT ! CONCRETE ECONOMIC1 SOCIAL1 & HUMAN RI<TS RESULTS ( ,AFRICAN MILIT>Y C\PS4 ,! RESULTS >E 9V>IABLY 5RI*M5T ( ! MILIT>Y1 CONT9U$ IMPOV]I%M5T ( ! MAJORITY1 & WOEFUL ABUSES ( HUMAN RI<TS4 

,TO SUMM>IZE3 AS ! RADICALIZATION ( MASS CONSCI\SNESS 9CREASES1 ! MILIT>Y 9T]V5ES UND] ! GUISE ( ATTEMPT+ TO /OP SOCIETY FROM SLID+ 9TO A /ATE ( 0AN>*Y0 -- A DELIB]ATELY MISUS$ CAT*WORD = *AOS & DISORD]4 ,:AT ! MILIT>Y SUCCE$S 9 DO+ IS TO TEMPOR>ILY ROLL BACK ! GA9S ( WORK+ PEOPLE & PEASANTS 9 !IR ATTEMPTS TO BUILD BETT] LIVES = !MSELVES4 

,E?NIC ,V]SUS ,CLASS ,CONSCI\SNESS 

,! NATIONAL QUE/ION 9 ,AFRICAN POLITICS D]IVES FROM ,AFRICA'S COLONIAL HI/ORY & PRES5T-DAY NEO-COLONIALISM4 ,! PROCESS ( COLONIALIZATION 9 ,AFRICA 9 :I* E?NIC GR\PS W]E >BITR>ILY REGR\P$ 9TO >TIFICIAL POLITICAL BODIES HAS RESULT$ 9 9CREAS$ E?NIC T5SIONS & SOCIAL & ECONOMIC DISCRIM9ATION4 ,ONIGU ,OTITE HAS NOT$ ?AT UNEQUAL ACCESS TO POLITICAL & ECONOMIC RES\RCES AMONG ! V>I\S E?NIC GR\PS 9EVITABLY TRANS=MS E?NIC DIVISIONS 9TO ANTAGONISMS4 ,CAPITALI/ COMPETITION OV] CONTROL ( ! MA*9]Y ( GOV]NM5T PLAYS ON E?NIC S5TIM5TS & SETS GR\PS AGA9/ EA* O!R4 ,?US ISSUES >E DI/ORT$ & SIMPLIFI$ AS E?NIC- RA!R ?AN CLASS-BAS$4 ,9 A PAP] PRES5T$ TO ! ,NIG]IAN ,AN?ROPOLOGICAL & ,SOCIOLOGICAL ,ASSOCIATION1 ,DR4 ,9YANG ,ET5G EXPOSES ! SUCCESSES ( ! ,NIG]IAN RUL+ CLASS 9 UTILIZ+ E?NICITY & RELIGION TO CONCEAL 0! CLASS BASIS ( MO/ ( ! C\NTRY'S BASIC PROBLEMS40 ,ACCORD+ TO ,ET5G1 0! P]NICI\S CONSEQU5CE ( E?NIC .<CONSCI\SNESS.> IS TO 5C\RAGE COMMUNAL HATR$1 CORRUPTION1 VIOL5CE1 RELIGI\S MANIPULATION1 9T]E?NIC CONFLICT & TO UND]M9E ! GR[? ( CLASS CONSCI\SNESS 9 FAV\R ( E?NIC_//ATE CONSCI\SNESS40 

,ALL ( ?IS MAKES IT DIFFICULT = AN>*ISM TO TAKE ROOT 9 ,AFRICA BECAUSE ! BOSSES F9D IT EASY TO ATOMIZE ! WORK+ CLASS BY FANN+ ! EMB]S ( E?NICITY4 ,! LABOR MOVEM5T1 = 9/ANCE1 BECOMES POL>IZ$ ALONG E?NIC L9ES1 & ISSUES >E SE5 ?R\< E?NIC PRISMS4 ,9 ,NIG]IA1 :5 ! ,NATIONAL ,UNION ( ,PETROLEUM & ,NATURAL ,GAS ,WORK]S 7,N,U,P,5,G7 CALL$ A G5]AL /RIKE 9 #aiid TO DEM& AN 5D TO MILIT>Y DICTATOR%IP1 ! LEAD]%IP ( ,N,U,P,5,G BRAN*ES 9 ! NOR!RN P>T ( ! C\NTRY RESI/$ ! /RIKE4 ,!IR REASON8 ,!Y FELT AN E?NIC ID5TIFICATION ) ! MILIT>Y DICTATOR1 :O IS A NOR!RN]4 

,RELIGI\S & ,CULTURAL ,FACTORS 

,RELIGION IS A PR(\ND FEATURE ( ,AFRICAN LIFE4 ,LONG BE=E ! E>LIE/ CONTACT ) ,EUROPEANS1 ,AFRICANS HAD DEVELOP$ RELIGI\S BELIEF SY/EMS & RITUAL PRACTICES4 ,?IS RELIGI\S BELIEF PATT]N WAS CULTURE-BAS$ TO A GREAT EXT5T1 & IT F\ND EXPRESSION 9 MY?S SURR\ND+ LIFE & DEA? QUE/IONS4 ,AS WE SAW 9 ,*APT] ?REE1 C]TA9 BELIEFS & RITUALS ACTUALLY SOLIDIFI$ ! COMMUNAL NATURE ( TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN SOCIETIES4 ,BUT1 LIKE ALL RELIGIONS1 TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN RELIGIONS HAD CONS]VATIVE_/REACTION>Y ASPECTS4 ,! PREEM95T PLACE ACCORD$ ! SUPREME BE+ OR GOD 9 ! AFFAIRS ( M5 REQUIR$ EV]Y MEMB] ( SOCIETY TO ACT & ?9K 9 PRESCRIB$ MANN]S2 HOLD+ BELIEFS P]CEIV$ TO RUN CONTR>Y TO MA9/REAM SOCIETAL MORES & VALUES L$ TO DIRE CONSEQU5CES4 

,DESPITE ! COMPATIBILITY ( AN>*ISM & ! TRADITIONAL ,AFRICAN WAY ( LIFE1 ,AFRICAN CULTURE /ILL FR[NS ON ANY SET ( IDEAS ?AT CONFLICT ) RELIGI\S BELIEFS OR ?AT PROMOTE VALUES ?AT LIE \TSIDE ! SO-CALL$ MA9/REAM1 ESPECIALLY IF !Y 9VOLVE ! OV]?R[ ( ! EXI/+ SY/EM4 ,?IS IS NOT SURPRIS+1 H[EV]1 GIV5 ! CLOSE AFF9ITY BETWE5 SPIRITUAL & TEMPORAL P[]S4 

,RELIGION WILL CONT9UE TO BE AN 9HIBIT+ FACTOR DESPITE SU* MAT]IAL FACTORS AS CAPITALI/ EXPLOITATION1 SOCIAL & ECONOMIC 9EQUALITY1 & GOV]NM5TAL TYRANNY -- ALL ( :I* 9SPIRE DESPAIR1 UPON :I* RELIGION1 ESPECIALLY IMPORT$ ,WE/]N RELIGION1 FE$S4 ,IF W> IS ! HEAL? ( ! /ATE1 DESPAIR IS ! HEAL? ( RELIGION4 ,UNTIL ,AFRICAN WORK]S & PEASANTS F9D BELIEF SY/EMS ?AT PROVIDES !M ) REAL HOPE ( HAPP9ESS 9 ! H]E & N[1 !Y WILL CONT9UE TO GRASP AT RELIGION'S FALSE HOPE ( HAPP9ESS 9 ! H]EAFT]4 

,9T]NATIONAL ,SOLID>ITY 

,AS /AT$ E>LI]1 AN>*ISM AS A SY/EMATIC BODY ( ?\<T IS ONLY N[ BEG9N+ TO F9D ADH]5TS 9 ,AFRICA4 ,MU* REMA9S TO BE DONE4 ,HI< 9 PRIORITY IS ! NE$ TO MAKE PEOPLE AW>E ( ! !ORETICAL BASES ( AN>*ISM1 & TO UND]/& ?AT AN>*ISM IS AT ! LEA/ AS CR$IBLE AS O!R IDEOLOGIES4 ,9 ,AFRICA TODAY1 AS 9 TOO MANY O!R PLACES1 ! WORD AN>*ISM IS SYNONYM\S ) VIOL5CE & *AOS4 ,BUT ! IMAGE ( AN>*ISM WILL *ANGE IF SUFFICI5T LIT]ATURE BECOMES AVAILABLE ON ! SUBJECT4 ,TO ?IS 5D1 AN>*I/ GR\PS 9 ,AFRICA NE$ TO SET UP A PRESS TO PRODUCE LEAFLETS1 PAMPHLETS1 & NEWSLETT]S4 ,!RE IS ALSO ! NE$ = ALT]NATIVES TO ! /ATE ELECTRONIC M$IA1 :I* ALONG ) /ATE- & CORPORATE-CONTROLL$ NEWSPAP]S IS ALMO/ ! ONLY S\RCE ( 9=MATION = WORK]S AT PRES5T4 

,AFRICA REMA9S A CONT95T :]E NO S+LE IDEOLOGICAL MODEL CAN BE JUDG$ TO HAVE BE5 SUCCESSFUL4 ,UNLIKE ,AM]ICA & ,EUROPE1 :]E CAPITALISM & 0COMMUNISM0 HAVE BE5 9/ITUTIONALIZ$ & PRACTIC$ ) QUALIFI$ & LIMIT$ SUCCESSES1 ,AFRICA PRES5TS AN HI/ORICAL OPPORTUNITY = ANY IDEOLOGY CAPABLE ( LIFT+ PEOPLE \T ( !IR PRES5T-DAY MIS]Y4 ,EXI/+ AN>*I/ GR\PS ON ! CONT95T MU/ & WILL PLAY AN IMPORTANT HI/ORICAL ROLE 9 ?IS REG>D4 

,AFRICA ALSO NE$S 9T]NATIONAL SUPPORT = ITS EM]G+ AN>*I/ GR\PS1 :I* HAVE ONLY BEGUN TO *ALL5GE ! /ATE_/CAPITALI/ SY/EM4 ,)\T 9T]NATIONAL SUPPORT1 !SE GR\PS1 :OM ! GOV]NM5TS VIEW SIMPLY AS TR\BLEMAK]S1 /& LITTLE *ANCE AGA9/ ! ORGANIZ$ T]ROR ( ! /ATE4 ,BECAUSE ( ! ALLIANCE BETWE5 ! /ATE & 9T]NATIONAL CAPITAL1 LOCAL RUL+ CLASSES >E B\ND TO RECEIVE ! SUPPORT ( !IR 9T]NATIONAL COLLABORATORS 9 CRU%+ ANY P]CEIV$ ?REAT TO ! /ATUS QUO4 

,9 ! LA/ RESORT1 WILL ! LOCAL RUL+ CLASSES CALL 9 =EIGN TROOPS 9 AN ATTEMPT TO MA9TA9 !IR PRIVILEGES1 AS OCCURR$ 9 ,%ABA ,PROV9CE 9 ! ,CONGO 9 ! #a#i#fS8 ,( C\RSE !Y WILL4 ,CLE>LY ! FI<T AGA9/ 9T]NATIONAL CAPITAL & AGA9/ ! /ATE SY/EM MU/ PROCE$ 9T]NATIONALLY IF IT IS TO HAVE ANY HOPE ( SUCCESS4 

,*APT] #g3 ,AN>*ISM'S ,FUTURE 9 ,AFRICA 

,AN>*ISM 9 A ,WORLD ,CONTEXT 

,! PROSPECTS = AN>*ISM ON ! ,AFRICAN CONT95T >E1 9 ! F9AL ANALYSIS1 9EXTRICABLY TI$ TO ! FUTURE ( AN>*ISM WORLDWIDE4 ,[+ TO ITS 9T]NATIONALI/ \TLOOK & PLAT=M1 ! FUTURE ( AN>*ISM MU/ BE APPRAIS$ )9 A GLOBAL CONTEXT2 ANY ATTEMPT TO LOCALIZE IT IS B\ND TO YIELD A DI/ORT$ \TCOME4 ,! OB/ACLES TO AN>*ISM >E1 9 ! MA91 GLOBAL2 ONLY !IR SPECIFICS >E DET]M9$ BY LOCAL CIRCUM/ANCES AS IS ! CASE 9 ,AFRICA4 

,! CRISES ( CAPITALISM &1 LATELY1 M>XI/ 0SOCIALISM0 WORLDWIDE HAVE1 HI/ORICALLY SPEAK+1 ASSUR$ ! FUTURE ( AN>*ISM4 ,M>X'S DEVA/AT+ CRITIQUE ( CAPITALISM AS A MODE ( PRODUCTION REMA9S OV]ALL AS VALID TODAY AS :5 ,M>X HIMSELF FIR/ UNLEA%$ IT4 ,BUT ! ADMIRABLE LOGIC & SY/EMATIC APPROA* ( M>XISM HAS1 ULTIMATELY1 BE5 UNDONE BY M>XISM'S 9T]NAL CONTRADICTIONS4 

,M>XISM'S OV]T ATTA*M5T TO ! /ATE SY/EM & ITS /RUCTURES1 AS ! CONVULSIONS 9 ! ,SOVIET ,UNION1 ,EA/]N ,EUROPE1 ,AFRICA & ,ASIA HAVE CLE>LY DEMON/RAT$1 IS A FUNDAM5TAL FLAW4 ,IT HAS MADE A MOCK]Y ( M>XISM'S /AT$ GOALS 7FRE$OM1 SOCIALISM1 & A CLASSLESS SOCIETY74 ,! FACT ?AT !RE >E /ILL A FEW AU?ORIT>IAN /ATE SOCIALI/ \TPO/S -- ,*9A1 ,NOR? ,KOREA1 & ,CUBA -- DOES NOT DISPROVE ?IS CONCLUSION4 ,TWO \TCOMES 9 !SE NATIONS SEEM V]Y LIKELY3 A COLLAPSE ( ! /ATE SOCIALI/ IDEOLOGY & SY/EM1 AS OCCURR$ 9 ,EA/]N ,EUROPE1 AS !SE /ATES LOSE !IR CAPACITY TO HOLD \T ON !IR [N 7,CUBA1 ,NOR? ,KOREA72 & A TRANS=MATION FROM /ATE SOCIALISM TO /ATE CAPITALISM -- 9DE$1 TO A SY/EM ) NOTABLE SIMIL>ITIES TO ,ITALIAN-/YLE FASCISM 7,*9A74 

,EI!R WAY1 /ATE SOCIALISM1 LIKE CAPITALISM1 IS DOOM$4 ,?R\<\T HI/ORY1 ! OV]ALL T5D5CY 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN SOCIETY HAS BE5 T[>D SOCIAL EQUALITY & GREAT] 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM4 ,! PACE HAS SEEM$ AGONIZ+LY SL[ & !RE HAVE BE5 9NUM]ABLE SETBACKS1 BUT ! OV]ALL TR5D IS UND5IABLE4 ,*ANGE HAS BE5 ! ONE CON/ANT 9 ?IS DEVELOPM5T1 & IT ALMO/ C]TA9LY WILL BE ! ONE CON/ANT 9 ! FUTURE4 ,GIV5 ! 5DEMIC & IRRESOLVABLE CRISES ( BO? CAPITALISM & /ATE SOCIALISM1 HUMANITY'S NEXT /EP MU/ ALMO/ 9EVITABLY BE T[>D GREAT] 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM & GREAT] SOCIAL EQUALITY -- ?AT IS1 T[>D AN>*ISM1 & ESPECIALLY T[>D AN>*ISM'S SOCIAL EXPRESSIONS1 AN>*OSYNDICALISM & AN>*OCOMMUNISM4 

,M>XI/ 0COMMUNISM0 IS A FAIL$ EXP]IM5T4 ,IT SIMPLY DIDN'T DELIV] ! GOODS 7FRE$OM1 SOCIAL WELL-BE+ & SOCIAL EQUALITY72 & GIV5 ITS HI/ORY 9 ! #b? C5TURY1 IT SEEMS OBVI\S ?AT IT CANNOT DELIV] ! GOODS4 

,NEI!R CAN CAPITALISM1 9CLUD+ ! LAISSEZ-FAIRE V>IETY ( :I* ,AM]ICAN 0,LIB]T>IANS0 >E SO 5AMOR$4 ,M]E ELIM9ATION ( ! /ATE :ILE RETA9+ A CAPITALI/ ECONOMY W\LD NOT ELIM9ATE HI]>*Y1 DOM9ATION1 & ! CLASS /RUCTURE4 ,IT W\LD NOT & C\LD NOT LEAD TO A TRULY POSITIVE FRE$OM4 ,! BE/ ?AT IT C\LD PRODUCE W\LD BE A SOME:AT 9CREAS$ FRE$OM FROM EXT]NAL 9T]F]5CE4 

,NE>LY A C5TURY AGO1 ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN DEF9$ 0POSITIVE FRE$OM0 AS ! 0FRE$OM TO .<DO.>40 ,:ILE GROSS DISP>ITIES EXI/ 9 ! DI/RIBUTION ( WEAL? & 9COME1 IT SEEMS OBVI\S ?AT ?IS POSITIVE FRE$OM WILL EXI/ MEAN+FULLY = ONLY A SMALL NUMB] ( 9DIVIDUALS -- & SOCIAL EQUALITY WILL REMA9 AN ILLUSION4 ,( C\RSE1 POSITIVE FRE$OM IS A RELATIVE1 NOT AN ABSOLUTE1 FRE$OM2 ! BE/ ?AT WE CAN /RIVE = IS EQUAL POSITIVE FRE$OM4 ,& WE CANNOT A*IEVE ?AT UND] ANY =M ( CAPITALISM4 

,SO1 M>XI/ 0SOCIALISM0 PROMIS$ 7BUT FAIL$ TO DELIV]7 EQUAL POSITIVE FRE$OM1 :ILE BRUTALLY SUPPRESS+ ! 0NEGATIVE0 FRE$OMS 7FRE$OM FROM RE/RA9T_/CO]CION72 & CAPITALISM HAS DELIV]$ ONLY SEV]ELY RE/RICT$ NEGATIVE FRE$OMS4 ,& IT DOES NOT EV5 CONTEMPLATE EQUAL POSITIVE FRE$OM4 

,HUMANK9D CAN DO BETT]4 

,! ,AFRICAN ,CONDITION 

,AFRICA TODAY LIES PRO/RATE1 BLE$+1 & EMBATTL$ ON ALL FRONTS1 A VICTIM ( CAPITALI/ &1 TO A GREAT EXT5T1 /ATE SOCIALI/ AMBITIONS4 ,! HE>T-R5D+ MIS]Y ( ITS PEOPLES1 ! CONDITIONS ( ABJECT POV]TY1 SQUALOR & DISEASE 9 :I* !Y LIVE1 EXI/ SIDE BY SIDE ) ! WANTON LUXURY1 RAPACITY1 & CORRUPTION ( ITS LEAD]S4 ,! MIS]Y ( ! OV]:ELM+ MAJORITY IS ! RESULT ( ! OPUL5CE ( A FEW1 :OSE /RANGLEHOLD ON SOCIAL PRODUCE & RES\RCES1 9 CONJUNCTION ) ! P[] ( 9T]NATIONAL CAPITAL1 CONF]S TO !M ! VIRTUAL P[] ( LIFE & DEA? OV] ! MAJORITY4.<#a#c#i.> 

,ACT+ AS MIDDLEM5 & COMMISSION$ AG5TS TO MULT9ATIONAL CORPORATIONS1 AW>D+ CONTRACTS & LIC5SES1 ! LOCAL BUS9ESS CLASS APPROPRIATES TO ITSELF1 ) ! HELP ( ! /ATE1 ,AFRICA'S SOCIAL SURPLUS4 ,:ILE ! LOCAL BUS9ESS CLASS IS V]Y PRIVILEG$ 9 COMP>ISON ) ! RE/ ( ! POPULATION1 IT IS /ILL 9 A SUBS]VI5T ROLE 9 RELATION TO =EIGN CAPITAL2 ?IS1 ( C\RSE1 IS A RESULT ( ! RET5TION ( ! COLONIAL ECONOMIC /RUCTURE 9 ! PO/-COLONIAL P]IOD4.<#a#d.> 

,?IS IS ACCOMPANI$ BY CO]CION & MASSIVE REPRESSION ( ALL =MS ( PROTE/ BY ! POOR MAJORITY4 ,WAGES 9 ,AFRICA >E AMONG ! WOR/ ANY:]E2 !Y >E SO L[ ?AT !Y CAN B>ELY GU>ANTEE BASIC SUBSI/5CE4 ,& ! SLAVE WAGES PAID >E P]PETUALLY 09 >RE>S10 GO+ UNPAID = MON?S ON 5D4 

,! SITUATION 9 ! SELF-/YL$ 0SOCIALI/0 /ATES IS NOT ANY BETT]4 ,! RUL+ SOCIALI/ P>TY CADRES & ! /ATE >E1 = ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES1 FUS$ 9TO ONE4 ,! NET EFFECT IS ?AT ! PROCESS ( PRIMITIVE ACCUMULATION 7= ! B5EFIT ( A SMALL M9ORITY7 PROCE$S AT AN EV5 FA/] RATE ?AN 9 OP5LY CAPITALI/ /ATES4 

,BECAUSE ! LOCAL CAPITALI/ CLASS IS WEAK & DEP5D5T ON =EIGN CAPITAL -- & ?US ! /ATE IS RELATIVELY /RONG] ?AN 9 DEVELOP$ CAPITALI/ C\NTRIES -- & BECAUSE 9 0SOCIALI/0 ,AFRICAN C\NTRIES ! /ATE IS ! SOLE [N] ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 ! /RUGGLE = /ATE P[] 9 ,AFRICA IS FI]CE1 (T5 RU?LESSLY SO4 ,?IS EXPLA9S ! EASE & REGUL>ITY ) :I* ,AFRICAN POLITICIANS1 ONCE 9 P[]1 TRANS=M !MSELVES OV]NI<T 9TO SIT-TI<T RUL]S & PRESID5TS = LIFE1 IMP]VI\S TO ! DET]IORAT+ SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS ( !IR C\NTRIES4 

,ON A GLOBAL LEVEL1 ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 ,AFRICA & ! RE/ ( ! WORLD IS *>ACT]IZ$ BY UNEQUAL EX*ANGE & M>G9ALIZATION4 ,! PROCESS WORKS LIKE ?IS3 ,AFRICA IS CONSIGN$ TO ! PRODUCTION ( RAW MAT]IALS & PRIM>Y GOODS AT *EAP RATES1 :ILE IT PAYS = F9I%$ GOODS & PRODUCTS AT EXORBITANT RATES4 ,BECAUSE ( ?IS UNEQUAL EX*ANGE1 ,AFRICAN NATIONS >E DEBTOR NATIONS ?AT MU/ RESORT TO EXT]NAL LOANS4 ,! RESULT IS ?AT SUB-,SAH>AN ,AFRICAN NATIONS >E 9DEBT$ TO A CURR5T TOTAL ( WELL OV] @s#c BILLION4 ,?IS1 NATURALLY1 EXACTS ITS TOLL ON NATIONAL ECONOMIES4 ,AN AV]AGE ( #d.0 ( ALL =EIGN EX*ANGE E>N+S GOES TO DEBT S]VICE *>GES ANNUALLY1 LEAV+ LITTLE OR NO?+ = DEVELOPM5T NE$S4 

,! #a#i#hS WITNESS$ ! COLLAPSE ( ECONOMIES ACROSS ! CONT95T4 ,9 RESPONSE TO ?IS1 ! DEVELOP$ C\NTRIES1 ACT+ UND] ! AEGIS ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,MONET>Y ,FUND 7,I,M,F7 & ! ,WORLD ,BANK1 =MULAT$ A SCOR*$-E>? ,/RUCTURAL ,ADJU/M5T ,POLICY 7,S,A,P7 :I* !Y =C$ D[N ! ?ROATS ( MO/ ,AFRICAN C\NTRIES 7SEE ,*APT] FIVE74 ,AT ! TIME ( ?IS WRIT+1 #ce ,AFRICAN C\NTRIES HAVE BE5 =C$ TO ADOPT ! PROGRAM S9CE #a#i#h#e4 ,IT 5TAILS DRA/IC DEVALUATION ( NATIONAL CURR5CIES1 ! 9TRODUCTION ( 0M>KET RE=MS10 & D]EGULATION ( NATIONAL ECONOMIES1 9CLUD+ ! PRIVATIZATION ( /ATE-[N$ 9DU/RIES & CORPORATIONS4 

,9 ! #a#i#iS1 ! SITUATION HAS GONE FROM BAD TO WORSE4 ,NEGATIVE GR[? RATES >E ! ORD] ( ! DAY1 AS >E UNEMPLOYM5T1 TRIPLE-DIGIT 9FLATION1 FALL+ MANUFACTUR+ CAPACITY UTILIZATION1 & A RIS+ CRIME RATE4 ,& ?OSE BE>+ ?IS BURD5 >E PRIM>ILY ! POOR1 WORK]S1 & PEASANTS4 ,MANY ECONOMI/S1 9CLUD+ CAPITALI/ ECONOMI/S1 AGREE ?AT ,AFRICA'S DEBT LOAD IS1 9 FACT1 UNREPAYABLE4.<#a#d#a.> 

,AGA9/ ?IS BACKDROP1 P>TS ( ,AFRICA HAVE ]UPT$ 9 ORGIES ( VIOL5CE1 EFFECTIVELY SPELL+ ! BEG9N+ ( ! COLLAPSE ( ! MOD]N NATION-/ATE SY/EM ON ! CONT95T2 & ! RISE ( A NEW1 ANGRY G5]ATION DUR+ ?IS *AOS IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR 9 DET]M9+ H[ & 9 :I* DIRECTION ! PRES5T CRISIS IS RESOLV$4 

,H[EV] MU* WE MAY WANT TO EXPLA9 AWAY ! EV5TS 9 ,LIB]IA1 ,SOMALIA1 ,RW&A1 ,SI]RA ,LEONE1 ,E?IOPIA1 ,MOZAMBIQUE1 ,ANGOLA1 ,SUDAN1 ,ALG]IA1 &1 NOT LEA/ ( ALL1 ,NIG]IA & ,ZAIRE1 ! FACT IS ?AT !Y HAVE !IR ROOTS 9 ! /ATE-CAPITALI/ SY/EM & 9 ! SOCIAL & ECONOMIC RELATIONS IT 5G5D]S4 ,! MOD]N NATION /ATE SY/EM1 LIKE ! EMPIRE /ATE SY/EM BE=E IT1 HAS FAIL$ ,AFRICA1 AS IT HAS FAIL$ ! RE/ ( ! WORLD4 

,AN>*ISM & ! ,NATIONAL ,QUE/ION 9 ,AFRICA 

,P]HAPS ! S+LE MO/ IMPORTANT QUE/ION 9 ! BREAKD[N ( ! MOD]N NATION /ATE IS ! 0NATIONAL QUE/ION10 ALSO CALL$ ! RI<T TO 0SELF-DET]M9ATION40.<#a#d#b.> ,! DEBATE REVOLVES >\ND ! RI<TS ( DIFF]5T E?NIC GR\PS TO AUTONOM\S SOCIO-CULTURAL DEVELOPM5T )9 GIV5 /ATES4 

,! NATIONAL QUE/ION IS ( P>TICUL> RELEVANCE TO ,AFRICA GIV5 ! HET]OG5EITY 9SIDE ITS COMPON5T /ATES4 ,MANY CIVIL CONFLICTS ON ! CONT95T HAVE BE5 BLAM$1 DIRECTLY OR 9DIRECTLY1 ON ! ABS5CE ( HOMOG5\S POPULATIONS4 ,! PROBLEM IS ACC5TUAT$ BY ! SOLUTIONS PR(F]$ BY BO? CAPITALISM & /ATE SOCIALISM3 ! ONE (F]S 9DIVIDUALS & GR\PS LIB]TY )\T EQUALITY2 & ! O!R (F]S EQUALITY )\T LIB]TY4 

,COMMON TO BO? SY/EMS1 H[EV]1 IS A /RID5T APPEAL TO PATRIOTISM1 A CONCEPT ?AT ,BAKUN9 CONTEMPTU\SLY DISMISS$ AS ! UNIT$ 9T]E/ ( ! PRIVILEG$ CLASS4.<#a#d#c.> ,HID+ BEH9D PATRIOTIC APPEALS1 ! /ATE 9 ,AFRICA IMPOSES 9JU/ICES & MIS]Y ON ITS SUBJECTS1 AS1 ( C\RSE1 IT DOES EV]Y:]E ELSE4 ,& PATRIOTISM PRODUCES ! FALSE CONSCI\SNESS -- 9 :I* 9DIVIDUALS ACT DIRECTLY AGA9/ !IR [N SELF-9T]E/ -- ?AT ALL[S 9DIVIDUALS TO CONDONE1 9DE$ SUPPORT1 ! 9JU/ICE & MIS]Y CAUS$ BY ! /ATE SY/EM4 ,! /ATE1 9 ,BAKUN9'S WORDS1 0RE/RA9S1 IT MUTILATES1 IT KILLS HUMANITY 9 .<ITS SUBJECTS.>1 SO ?AT444 !Y %ALL NEV] RAISE !MSELVES BEYOND ! LEVEL ( ! CITIZ5 TO ! LEVEL ( A MAN40.<#a#d#d.> 

,CAPITALI/ DEMOCRACY & /ATE SOCIALISM HAVE BO? A*IEV$ ! HI<E/ DEGREE ( 9T5SIFI$ RACIAL & NATIONAL OPPRESSION4 ,M>XI/ SUPPORT = ! PR9CIPLE ( NATIONAL SELF-DET]M9ATION IS AS ILLUSORY AS IS CAPITALI/ SUPPORT ( 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM4 

,G4,P4 ,MAXIM(F ELUCIDATES3 

,NATIONAL RI<TS >E NOT A PR9CIPLE 9 !MSELVES1 BUT A RESULT ( ! PR9CIPLE ( FRE$OM4 ,NO NATION OR NATIONALITY1 AS A NATURAL ASSOCIATION ( 9DIVIDUALS ON ! BASIS ( COMMON LANGUAGE1 CAN F9D SUITABLE CONDITIONS = ITS NORMAL DEVELOPM5T )9 ! CONF9ES ( A CAPITALI/ 5VIRONM5T & /ATE ORGANIZATION4 ,/RONG] NATIONS CONQU] ! WEAK] ONES & MAKE EV]Y EF=T TO DISMEMB] !M BY MEANS ( >TIFICIAL ASSIMILATION4 ,= ?AT REASON1 NATIONAL DOM9ATION IS A CON/ANT COMPANION ( ! /ATE & ( CAPITALISM4.<#a#d#e.> 

,! NATIONAL QUE/ION 9 ,AFRICA1 !RE=E1 IS ONLY ONE COMPON5T ( ! PR9CIPAL PROBLEM -- NAMELY1 ! ATTA9M5T ( TRUE FRE$OM & EQUALITY4 ,! 0NATIONAL QUE/ION0 IS ?US P]IPH]AL TO ! REAL 9T]E/S ( ,AFRICA'S WORK+ CLASS & PEASANTS4 ,AS LONG AS CAPITALISM & ! /ATE SY/EM EXI/1 0SELF-DET]M9ATION0 ( NATIONALITIES MEANS LITTLE4 ,MAXIM(F NOTES ?AT )\T FUNDAM5TAL *ANGE1 0,! RI<T ( A NATION TO 'SELF-DET]M9ATION' & TO 9DEP5D5T SOV]EIGN EXI/5CE IS NO?+ BUT ! RI<T ( ! NATIONAL B\RGEOISIE TO ! UNLIMIT$ EXPLOITATION ( ITS PROLET>IAT40.<#a#d#f.> 

,HAV+ SAID ?AT1 AN>*ISM IS NOT 9 ANY WAY OPPOS$ TO ! RI<TS ( OPPRESS$ NATIONALITIES OR E?NIC GR\PS 9 ,AFRICA OR ELSE:]E4 ,BUT AN>*ISM /&S ABOVE ! N>R[ & PETTY AMBITIONS ASSOCIAT$ ) ! QUE/ = NATIONAL SELF-DET]M9ATION4 ,AN>*I/S SEE FRE$OM1 EQUALITY1 & JU/ICE AS HI<] GOALS ?AN NATIONAL 9T]E/S1 & ! /RUGGLE = !SE HI<] GOALS MU/ NECESS>ILY BE 9T]NATIONAL4 ,! PO9T1 ( C\RSE1 IS ?AT ! /ATE1 EV]Y /ATE -- NO MATT] H[ NATIONALI/ -- IS AN 5EMY ( !SE GOALS4 ,MAXIM(F EXPLA9S3 

,NATIONS :I* A*IEVE !IR RI<T TO SELF-DET]M9ATION & :I* BECOME /ATES1 9 !IR TURN BEG9 TO D5Y NATIONAL RI<TS TO !IR [N SUBORD9ATE M9ORITIES1 TO P]SECUTE !IR LANGUAGES1 !IR DESIRES1 & !IR RI<T TO BE !MSELVES4 ,9 ?IS MANN]1 'SELF-DET]M9ATION' NOT ONLY BR+S ! NATION CONC]N$ NONE ( ?AT 9T]NAL FRE$OM 9 :I* ! PROLET>IAT IS MO/ 9T]E/$1 BUT ALSO FAILS TO SOLVE ! NATIONAL PROBLEM4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 IT BECOMES A ?REAT TO ! WORLD1 S9CE /ATES MU/ ALWAYS AIM TO EXP& AT ! EXP5SE ( !IR WEAK] NEI<BORS4.<#a#d#g.> 

,= ?AT REASON1 AN>*ISM REPUDIATES ANY ATTEMPT TO SOLVE ! NATIONAL QUE/ION )9 ! CONTEXT ( ! /ATE SY/EM4 ,MAXIM(F >GUES3 

,A REAL & FULL SOLUTION WILL BE POSSIBLE ONLY 9 CONDITIONS ( ,AN>*Y1 9 A COMMUNISM EMANAT+ FROM ! LIB]TY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL & A*IEV$ BY ! FREE ASSOCIATION ( 9DIVIDUALS 9 COMMUNES1 ( COMMUNES 9 REGIONS1 & REGIONS 9 NATIONS -- ASSOCIATIONS F\ND$ 9 LIB]TY & EQUALITY & CREAT+ A NATURAL UNITY 9 PLURALITY4.<#a#d#h.> 

,AN>*I/S DEM& ! LIB]ATION ( ALL EXI/+ COLONIES & SUPPORT /RUGGLES = NATIONAL 9DEP5D5CE 9 ,AFRICA & >\ND ! WORLD AS LONG AS !Y EXPRESS ! WILL ( ! PEOPLE 9 ! NATIONS CONC]N$4 ,H[EV]1 AN>*I/S ALSO 9SI/ ?AT ! USEFULNESS ( 0SELF-DET]M9ATION0 WILL BE V]Y LIMIT$ AS LONG ! /ATE SY/EM & CAPITALISM -- 9CLUD+ M>XI/ /ATE CAPITALISM -- >E RETA9$4 

,! IMPLICATIONS ( ?IS = ,AFRICA >E IMM$IATELY OBVI\S4 ,A VIABLE SOLUTION TO ! MYRIAD ( PROBLEMS POS$ BY ! NATIONAL QUE/ION 9 ,AFRICA1 SU* AS 9T]NEC9E CIVIL CONFLICTS1 IS REALIZABLE ONLY \TSIDE ! CONTEXT ( ! /ATE SY/EM4 ,?IS REQUIRES ! DE/RUCTION ( ! /ATE SY/EM1 & CONC]T$ 9T]NATIONAL SOLID>ITY & REVOLUTION>Y ACTIONS4 ,! ELIM9ATION ( ! /ATE SY/EM IS A LONG-T]M GOAL ?AT WILL BE DIFFICULT TO A*IEVE1 BUT IT IS DEF9ITELY PREF]ABLE TO ! ONGO+ ME*ANI/IC APPROA* AS EXPRESS$ 9 ! CREATION ( A MULTIPLICITY ( UNVIABLE NATION /ATES ACROSS ! CONT95T4 

,AN>*ISM -- ,! ,WAY ,=W>D = ,AFRICA 

,! RELEVANCE ( AN>*ISM TO HUMAN SOCIETY HAS NO:]E BE5 MORE OBVI\S ?AN IT IS 9 ,AFRICA4 ,GIV5 ! MULTITUDE ( PROBLEMS ?AT />E ! PEOPLES ( ,AFRICA 9 ! FACE1 ! DEBILITAT+ SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS UND] :I* A GREAT MAJORITY ( !M LIVE1 & ! OV]ALL ECONOMICALLY DEPRIV$ /ATUS ( ,AFRICA VIS-A-VIS ! O!R CONT95TS1 AN>*ISM IS REALLY ! ONLY LIB]AT+ CONCEPT CAPABLE ( TURN+ 0! D>K CONT95T0 9 A TRULY =W>D-LOOK+ DIRECTION4 

,?+S HAVE GONE HAYWIRE = TOO LONG2 ONLY A DRA/IC CURE CAN SATISFY AN 9CREAS+LY ANGRY1 BITT] & RE/IVE POPULATION /RET*+ FROM ,CAPE ,T[N TO ,CAIRO4 ,CONDITIONS 9CLUDE ! SEEM+LY 5DEMIC PROBLEM ( E?NIC CONFLICTS ACROSS ! CONT95T2 ! CONT9U$ POLITICAL & ECONOMIC M>G9ALIZATION ( ,AFRICA AT ! GLOBAL LEVEL2 ! UNSPEAKABLE MIS]Y ( AB\T #i.0 ( ,AFRICA'S POPULATION2 &1 9DE$1 ! ONGO+ COLLAPSE ( ! NATION /ATE 9 MANY P>TS ( ,AFRICA4 

,GIV5 !SE PROBLEMS1 A RETURN TO ! 0AN>*IC ELEM5TS0 9 ,AFRICAN COMMUNALISM IS VIRTUALLY 9EVITABLE4 ,! GOAL ( A SELF-MANAG$ SOCIETY BORN \T ( ! FREE WILL ( ITS PEOPLE & DEVOID ( AU?ORIT>IAN CONTROL & REGIM5TATION IS AS ATTRACTIVE AS IT IS FEASIBLE 9 ! LONG RUN4 

,AT ! GLOBAL LEVEL1 HUMAN CIVILIZATION IS PASS+ ?R\< A P]IOD ( TRANSITION OCCASION$ BY ! COLLAPSE ( M>XI/ 0SOCIALISM0 & ! EVID5TLY 9SUP]ABLE CRISIS ( CAPITALISM & ! /ATE SY/EM4 ,SO1 :]E DO WE GO FROM H]E8 ,AS WE NOT$ E>LI]1 ALL ADVANCES 9 HUMAN HI/ORY TO ?IS PO9T HAVE BE5 MADE POSSIBLE BY HUMANITY'S QUE/ = BO? FRE$OM & HUMAN SOLID>ITY4 ,S9CE ?IS CRAV+ SEEMS A NATURAL 9/9CT &1 AS SU*1 IS NOT GO+ TO DISAPPE> ANYTIME SOON1 IT FOLL[S ?AT ! CONT9U$ EVOLUTION ( SOCIETY WILL BE 9 ! DIRECTION ( FRE$OM1 EQUALITY1 & COMMUNITY4 

,! PROCESS ( AN>*I/ TRANS=MATION 9 ,AFRICA MI<T PROVE COMP>ATIVELY EASY1 GIV5 ?AT ,AFRICA LACKS A /RONG CAPITALI/ F\NDATION1 WELL-DEVELOP$ CLASS =MATIONS & RELATIONS ( PRODUCTION1 & A /ABLE1 5TR5*$ /ATE SY/EM4 ,:AT IS REQUIR$ = N[ IS A LONG-T]M PROGRAM ( CLASS CONSCI\SNESS BUILD+1 RELEVANT $UCATION1 & 9CREAS$ 9DIVIDUAL P>TICIPATION 9 SOCIAL /RUGGLES4 ,MEAN:ILE1 ! CRISES & MUTATIONS 9 CAPITALISM1 M>XI/ SOCIALISM1 & ! /ATE SY/EM1 9DIVIDUALLY & COLLECTIVELY1 CANNOT BUT ACCEL]ATE4 ,= ,AFRICA 9 P>TICUL>1 LONG-T]M DEVELOPM5T IS POSSIBLE ONLY IF !RE IS A RADICAL BREAK ) BO? CAPITALISM & ! /ATE SY/EM -- ! PR9CIPAL 9/RUM5TS ( \R >RE/$ DEVELOPM5T & /AGNATION4 ,AN>*ISM IS ,AFRICA'S WAY \T4 

,BIBLIOGRAPHY 

,ADE-,AJAYI1 ,J4,F41 & ,CR[D]1 ,M4 7$S47 ,HI/ORY ( ,WE/ ,AFRICA1 ,VOLUME #a4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,LONGMAN1 #a#i#g#f4 

,AFIGBO1 ,A4 ,ROPES ( ,S&3 ,/UDIES 9 ,IGBO ,HI/ORY & ,CULTURE4 ,NSUKKA1 ,NIG]IA3 ,NSUKKA ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#a4 

,AKE1 ,C4 ,A ,POLITICAL ,ECONOMY ( ,AFRICA4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,LONGMAN1 #a#i#h#a4 

-- ,REVOLUTION>Y ,PRESSURES 9 ,AFRICA4 ,LONDON3 ,Z$ ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#h4 

-- ,SOCIAL ,SCI5CE AS ,IMP]IALISM4 ,IBADAN1 ,NIG]IA3 ,IBADAN ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#b4 

,ALB]OLA1 ,O4 ,& ,GRANSAC1 ,A4 ,SPANI% ,AN>*ISM4 ,LONDON3 ,HURRICANE ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#f4 

,ALB]T1 ,M4 7$47 ,MIGUEL ,G>CIA'S ,/ORY4 ,ORKNEY3 ,CI5FUEGOS ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#b4 

,ANANABA1 ,W4 ,! ,TRADE ,UNION ,MOVEM5T 9 ,NIG]IA4 ,LONDON3 ,C4 ,HUR/1 #a#i#f#i4 

,ANONYM\S4 ,Y\ ,CAN'T ,BL[ ,UP A ,SOCIAL ,RELATION%IP4 ,TUCSON1 ,>IZONA3 ,SEE ,%>P ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#b4 

,APPADORAI1 ,A4 ,! ,SUB/ANCE ( ,POLITICS4 ,LONDON3 ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#e4 

,AZIKIWE1 ,N4 ,IDEOLOGY = ,NIG]IA4 ,LAGOS3 ,MACMILLAN1 #a#i#h4 

,BAKUN91 ,M4 ,M>XISM1 ,FRE$OM & ! ,/ATE4 ,LONDON3 ,FRE$OM ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#d4 

-- ,GOD & ! ,/ATE4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,DOV]1 #a#i#g4 

,B>K]1 ,R4 ,/UDIES 9 ,OPPOSITION4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,MACMILLAN1 #a#i#g#a4 

,B]KMAN1 ,A4 ,:AT ,IS ,COMMUNI/ ,AN>*ISM8 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,DOV]1 #a#i#g#b4 

-- ,! ,BOL%EVIK ,MY?4 ,LONDON3 ,PLUTO1 #a#i#h#i4 

-- ,! ,RUSSIAN ,TRAG$Y4 ,LONDON3 ,PHO5IX ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#f4 

,BOHANNAN1 ,P4 ,SOCIAL ,AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,HOLT1 ,R9EH>T @& ,W9/ON1 #a#i#f#c4 

,BR9TON1 ,M4 ,! ,BOL%EVIKS & ,WORK]S ,CONTROL4 ,LONDON3 ,SOLID>ITY1 #a#i#g4 

-- ,! ,IRRATIONAL 9 ,POLITICS4 ,TUCSON1 ,>IZONA3 ,SEE ,%>P ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#c4 

,BUFE1 ,C4 7$47 ,! ,H]ETIC'S ,H&BOOK ( ,QUOTATIONS4 ,TUCSON1 ,>IZONA3 ,SEE ,%>P ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#b4 

,*9WEIZU4 ,! ,WE/ & ! ,RE/ ( ,US4 ,N,O,K ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#g#h4 

,COH51 ,D4,L4 & ,DANIEL1 ,J4 7$S47 ,POLITICAL ,ECONOMY ( ,AFRICA4 ,LONDON3 ,LONGMAN1 #a#i#h#a4 

,COH51 ,R4 ,LAB\R & ,POLITICS 9 ,NIG]IA4 ,LONDON3 ,HE9EMANN1 #a#i#g#d4 

,COLEMAN1 ,J4 ,NIG]IA3 ,BACKGR\ND TO ,NATIONALISM4 ,B]KELEY3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,CALI=NIA ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#a4 

,CR[!R1 ,M4 ,! ,/ORY ( ,NIG]IA4 ,LONDON3 ,WE/]N ,PR9T+ ,PRESS1 #a#i#f#b4 

,DOLG(F1 ,S4 7$47 ,! ,AN>*I/ ,COLLECTIVES4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,FREE ,LIFE ,$ITIONS1 #a#i#g#d4 

,DUV]G]1 ,M4 ,! ,/UDY ( ,POLITICS4 ,NELSON'S ,UNIV]SITY ,PAP]BACKS1 #a#i#g#b4 

,EJI(OR1 ,L4 ,DYNAMICS ( ,IGBO ,DEMOCRACY4 ,IBADAN1 ,NIG]IA3 ,IBADAN ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#a4 

,FANON1 ,F4 ,! ,WRET*$ ( ! ,E>?4 ,MIDDLESEX3 ,P5GU91 #a#i#f#a4 

,=TES1 ,M4 ,& ,EVANS-,PRIT*>D1 ,E4,E4 7$S47 ,AFRICAN ,POLITICAL ,SY/EMS4 ,LONDON3 ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#d4 

,GOLDFRANK1 ,W4 7$47 ,! ,WORLD ,SY/EM ( ,CAPITALISM4 ,LONDON3 ,SAGE ,PUBLICATIONS1 #a#i#g#i4 

,GOLDMAN1 ,E4 ,MY ,DISILLUSIONM5T 9 ,RUSSIA4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,APOLLO1 #a#i#g4 

,GUILL51 ,A4 ,AN>*I/ ,ECONOMICS4 ,I,S,E,L_/,L,A ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#f4 

,GUTK9D1 ,C4,W4,P4 & ,GOH54 ,AFRICAN ,LAB\R ,HI/ORY4 ,LONDON3 ,SAGE ,PUBLICATIONS1 #a#i#g#h4 

,GUTK9D1 ,C4,W4,P4 & ,WALL]/E91 ,I4 7$S47 ,! ,POLITICAL ,ECONOMY ( ,CONTEMPOR>Y ,AFRICA4 ,BEV]LY ,HILLS3 ,SAGE ,PUBLICATIONS1 #a#i#g#f4 

,GUTK9D1 ,C4,W4,P4 & ,WAT]MAN1 ,P4 ,AFRICAN ,SOCIAL ,/UDIES4 ,LONDON3 ,HE9EMANN1 #a#i#g#g4 

,H>RIS1 ,R4 7$47 ,! ,POLITICAL ,ECONOMY ( ,AFRICA4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,S*5KMAN ,PUBLI%+1 #a#i#g#e4 

,ILOGUN1 ,E4 ,*RI/IANITY & ,IGBO ,CULTURE4 ,N,O,K ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#g#d4 

,ISI*EI1 ,E4 ,A ,HI/ORY ( ! ,IGBO ,PEOPLE4 ,LONDON3 ,MACMILLAN1 #a#i#g#f4 

,KROPOTK91 ,P4 ,FIELDS1 ,FACTORIES & ,WORK%OPS ,TOMORR[4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,H>P]1 #a#i#g#d4 

-- ,AN>*ISM & ,AN>*I/ ,COMMUNISM4 ,LONDON3 ,FRE$OM ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#g4 

,L591 ,V4,I4 ,IMP]IALISM3 ,! ,HI<E/ ,/AGE ( ,CAPITALISM4 ,BEIJ+3 ,=EIGN ,LANGUAGES ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#e4 

-- ,/ATE & ,REVOLUTION4 ,BEIJ+3 ,=EIGN ,LANGUAGES ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#f4 

-- ,SELECT$ ,WORKS1 ,VOLUMES #a-#c4 ,MOSC[3 ,PROGRESS ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#g#g4 

,LEVAL1 ,G4 ,COLLECTIVES 9 ! ,SPANI% ,REVOLUTION4 ,LONDON3 ,FRE$OM ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#e4 

,LEV9E1 ,V4,T4 ,POLITICAL ,CORRUPTION3 ,! ,<ANA ,CASE4 ,PALO ,ALTO1 ,CALI=NIA3 ,/AN=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#e4 

,MAXIM(F1 ,G4,P4 ,! ,GUILLOT9E AT ,WORK4 ,ORKNEY3 ,CI5FUEGOS1 #a#i#g#i4 

-- ,PROGRAM ( ,AN>*O-,SYNDICALISM4 ,SYDNEY3 ,MONTY ,MILL ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#e4 

-- 7$47 ,BAKUN9 ON ,AN>*Y4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,KNOPF1 #a#i#g#b4 

,M>KOVITZ1 ,L4 ,P[] & ,CLASS 9 ,AFRICA4 ,SECAUCUS1 ,NEW ,J]SEY3 ,PR5TICE-,HALL1 #a#i#g#g4 

,M>X1 ,K4 ,A ,CONTRIBUTION TO ! ,CRITIQUE ( ,POLITICAL ,ECONOMY4 ,MOSC[3 ,PROGRESS ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#g4 

-- ,CAPITAL1 ,VOLUMES #a-#c4 ,MOSC[3 ,PROGRESS ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#e#f4 

,MELTZ]1 ,A4 7$47 ,A ,NEW ,WORLD ,9 ,\R ,HE>TS4 ,SOM]VILLE1 ,MASSA*USETTS3 ,BLACK ,?ORN1 #a#i#g#h4 

,MUTISO1 ,G4,C4,M4 & ,ROHIO1 ,S4,W4 7$S47 ,READ+S 9 ,AFRICAN ,POLITICAL ,?\<T4 ,LONDON3 ,HE9EMANN1 #a#i#g#e4 

,MURDOCK1 ,G4 ,AFRICA3 ,ITS ,PEOPLES & ,!IR ,CULTURAL ,HI/ORY4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,PRAEG]1 #a#i#e#i4 

,OCRAM1 ,A4 ,POLITICS ( ! ,SWORD4 ,LONDON3 ,REX ,COLL+S1 #a#i#g#g4 

,(FIONG1 ,D4,A4 ,IMP]IALISM & ,DEP5D5CY4 ,5UGU1 ,NIG]IA3 ,F\R? ,DIM5SION ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#h4 

,OKA=1 ,S4,O4 ,9DIRECT ,RULE4 ,NELSON1 #a#i#h#a4 

,ONIMODE1 ,B4 ,IMP]IALISM & ,UND]DEVELOPM5T 9 ,NIG]IA4 ,LONDON3 ,Z$ ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#b4 

,ORWELL1 ,G4 ,HOMAGE TO ,CATALONIA4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,P5GU91 #a#i#g#h4 

,OTITE1 ,O4 7$47 ,!MES 9 ,AFRICAN ,SOCIAL & ,POLITICAL ,?\<T4 ,5UGU1 ,NIG]IA3 ,F\R? ,DIM5SION ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#g#h4 

,PEIL1 ,M4 ,CONS5SUS & ,CONFLICT 9 ,AFRICAN ,SOCIETIES4 ,LONDON3 ,LONGMAN1 #a#i#g#g4 

,PUR*ASE1 ,G4 ,AN>*ISM & ,5VIRONM5TAL ,SURVIVAL4 ,TUCSON1 ,>IZONA3 ,SEE ,%>P ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#d4 

,ROCK]1 ,R4 ,AN>*ISM & ,AN>*O-,SYNDICALISM4 ,LONDON3 ,FRE$OM ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#h4 

,RODNEY1 ,W4 ,H[ ,EUROPE ,UND]DEVELOP$ ,AFRICA4 ,5UGU1 ,NIG]IA3 ,IK5GA ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#h#b4 

,RUB9 ,L4 ,& ,W9/E91 ,B4 7$S47 ,9TRODUCTION TO ,AFRICAN ,POLITICS3 ,A ,CONT95TAL ,APPROA*4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,PRAEG]1 #a#i#g#d4 

,TABOR1 ,R4 ,A ,LOOK AT ,L59ISM4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,ASPECT ,F\NDATION1 #a#i#h#h4 

,VOL9E 7,E4,K4 ,EI*5BAUM74 ,! ,UNKN[N ,REVOLUTION4 ,DETROIT3 ,BLACK @& ,R$1 #a#i#g#d4 

,W>D1 ,C4 ,AN>*Y 9 ,ACTION4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,H>P] @& ,R[1 #a#i#g#c4 

  

.<#a.> ,! ,NEW ,5CYCLOPA$IA ,BRITANNICA 7#a#e? ,$ITION71 ,VOLUME ,I1 #a#i#i1 P4 #c#g#a4 

.<#b.> ,! ,5CYCLOP$IA ,AM]ICANA 7,9T]NATIONAL ,$ITION71 ,VOLUME ,I1 #a#i#h#a1 P4 #b#g#g4 

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.<#a#c#d.> ,NIG]IAN ,DEP>TM5T ( ,9=MATION1 ,PR9T+ ,DIVISION1 ,LAGOS 7,AUDIT ,REPORT1 #a#i#h#b74 

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.<#a#d#a.> ,SEE ,PIUS ,OKIGBO'S PAP]1 0,AFRICA'S ,EXT]NAL ,DEBT ,CRISIS10 PRES5T$ AT A PUBLIC SYMPOSIUM1 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,LAGOS1 ,NOVEMB] #a#i#h#i4 

.<#a#d#b.> ,MAXIM(F1 ,G4,P4 ,PROGRAM ( ,AN>*O-,SYNDICALISM4 ,SYDNEY3 ,MONTY ,MILL] ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#e1 P4 #d#f4 

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