,AN ,ESSAY ON ! ,TRIAL BY ,JURY 

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,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,LYS&] ,SPOON] 

,TAGS 3 MAGNA C>TA1 COMMON LAW1 C\NTY C\RT1 CRIM9AL CASES1 NATURAL LAW1 CIVIL SUITS1 :OLE PEOPLE1 UNIT$ /ATES1 LEGISLATIVE P[]1 CRIM9AL 9T5T4 

,TEXT 3 

  

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 ,= MORE ?AN SIX HUNDR$ YE>S --- ?AT IS1 S9CE ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 9 #abae --- !RE HAS BE5 NO CLE>] PR9CIPLE ( ,5GLI% OR ,AM]ICAN CON/ITUTIONAL LAW1 ?AN ?AT1 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 IT IS NOT ONLY ! RI<T & DUTY ( JURIES TO JUDGE :AT >E ! FACTS1 :AT IS ! LAW1 & :AT WAS ! MORAL 9T5T ( ! ACCUS$2 BUT ?AT IT IS ALSO !IR RI<T1 & !IR PRIM>Y & P>AM\NT DUTY1 TO JUDGE ( ! JU/ICE ( ! LAW1 & TO HOLD ALL LAWS 9VALID1 ?AT >E1 9 !IR OP9ION1 UNJU/ OR OPPRESSIVE1 & ALL P]SONS GUILTLESS 9 VIOLAT+1 OR RESI/+ ! EXECUTION (1 SU* LAWS4  

 ,UNLESS SU* BE ! RI<T & DUTY ( JURORS1 IT IS PLA9 ?AT1 9/EAD ( JURIES BE+ A 0PALLADIUM ( LIB]TY0 --- A B>RI] AGA9/ ! TYRANNY & OPPRESSION ( ! GOV]NM5T --- !Y >E REALLY M]E TOOLS 9 ITS H&S1 = C>RY+ 9TO EXECUTION ANY 9JU/ICE & OPPRESSION IT MAY DESIRE TO HAVE EXECUT$4  

 ,BUT = !IR RI<T TO JUDGE ( ! LAW1 & ! JU/ICE ( ! LAW1 JURIES W\LD BE NO PROTECTION TO AN ACCUS$ P]SON1 EV5 AS TO MATT]S ( FACT2 =1 IF ! GOV]NM5T CAN DICTATE TO A JURY ANY LAW :ATEV]1 9 A CRIM9AL CASE1 IT CAN C]TA9LY DICTATE TO !M ! LAWS ( EVID5CE4 ,?AT IS1 IT CAN DICTATE :AT EVID5CE IS ADMISSIBLE1 & :AT 9ADMISSIBLE1 & ALSO :AT =CE OR WEI<T IS TO BE GIV5 TO ! EVID5CE ADMITT$4 ,& IF ! GOV]NM5T CAN ?US DICTATE TO A JURY ! LAWS ( EVID5CE1 IT CAN NOT ONLY MAKE IT NECESS>Y = !M TO CONVICT ON A P>TIAL EXHIBITION ( ! EVID5CE RI<TFULLY P]TA9+ TO ! CASE1 BUT IT CAN EV5 REQUIRE !M TO CONVICT ON ANY EVID5CE :ATEV] ?AT IT PLEASES TO (F] !M4  

 ,?AT ! RI<TS & DUTIES ( JURORS MU/ NECESS>ILY BE SU* AS >E H]E CLAIM$ = !M1 WILL BE EVID5T :5 IT IS CONSID]$ :AT ! TRIAL BY JURY IS1 & :AT IS ITS OBJECT4  

 0,! TRIAL BY JURY10 !N1 IS A 0TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY0 ---?AT IS BY ! PEOPLE AS DI/+UI%$ FROM A TRIAL ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,IT WAS ANCI5TLY CALL$ 0TRIAL P] PAIS0 ?AT IS1 0TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY40 ,& N[1 9 EV]Y CRIM9AL TRIAL1 ! JURY >E TOLD ?AT ! ACCUS$ 0HAS1 = TRIAL1 PUT HIMSELF UPON ! C\NTRY2 :I* C\NTRY Y\ 7! JURY7 >E40  

 ,! OBJECT ( ?IS TRIAL 0BY ! C\NTRY10 OR BY ! PEOPLE1 9 PREF]5CE TO A TRIAL BY ! GOV]NM5T1 IS TO GU>D AGA9/ EV]Y SPECIES ( OPPRESSION BY ! GOV]NM5T4 ,9 ORD] TO EFFECT ?IS 5D1 IT IS 9DISP5SABLE ?AT ! PEOPLE1 OR 0! C\NTRY10 JUDGE ( & DET]M9E !IR [N LIB]TIES AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T2 9/EAD ( ! GOV]NM5T'S JUDG+ ( & DET]M9+ ITS [N P[]S OV] ! PEOPLE4 ,H[ IS IT POSSIBLE ?AT JURIES CAN DO ANY?+ TO PROTECT ! LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T2 IF !Y >E NOT ALL[$ TO DET]M9E :AT ?OSE LIB]TIES >E8  

 ,ANY GOV]NM5T1 ?AT IS ITS [N JUDGE (1 & DET]M9ES AU?ORITATIVELY = ! PEOPLE1 :AT >E ITS [N P[]S OV] ! PEOPLE1 IS AN ABSOLUTE GOV]NM5T ( C\RSE4 ,IT HAS ALL ! P[]S ?AT IT *OOSES TO EX]CISE4 ,!RE IS NO O!R --- OR AT LEA/ NO MORE ACCURATE --- DEF9ITION ( A DESPOTISM ?AN ?IS4  

 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ANY PEOPLE1 ?AT JUDGE (1 & DET]M9E AU?ORITATIVELY = ! GOV]NM5T1 :AT >E !IR [N LIB]TIES AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T1 ( C\RSE RETA9 ALL ! LIB]TIES !Y WI% TO 5JOY4 ,& ?IS IS FRE$OM4 ,AT LEA/1 IT IS FRE$OM TO !M2 BECAUSE1 AL?\< IT MAY BE !ORETICALLY IMP]FECT1 IT1 NEV]!LESS1 CORRESPONDS TO !IR HI<E/ NOTIONS ( FRE$OM4  

 ,TO SECURE ?IS RI<T ( ! PEOPLE TO JUDGE ( !IR [N LIB]TIES AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T1 ! JURORS >E TAK51 7OR MU/ BE1 TO MAKE !M LAWFUL JURORS17 FROM ! BODY ( ! PEOPLE1 BY LOT1 OR BY SOME PROCESS ?AT PRECLUDES ANY PREVI\S KN[L$GE1 *OICE1 OR SELECTION ( !M1 ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T4  ,?IS IS DONE TO PREV5T ! GOV]NM5T'S CON/ITUT+ A JURY ( ITS [N P>TISANS OR FRI5DS2 9 O!R WORDS1 TO PREV5T ! GOV]NM5T'S PACK+ A JURY1 ) A VIEW TO MA9TA9 ITS [N LAWS1 & ACCOMPLI% ITS [N PURPOSES4  

 ,IT IS SUPPOS$ ?AT1 IF TWELVE M5 BE TAK51 BY LOT1 FROM ! MASS ( ! PEOPLE1 )\T ! POSSIBILITY ( ANY PREVI\S KN[L$GE1 *OICE1 OR SELECTION ( !M1 ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T1 ! JURY WILL BE A FAIR EPITOME ( 0! C\NTRY0 AT L>GE1 & NOT M]ELY ( ! P>TY OR FACTION ?AT SU/A9 ! MEASURES ( ! GOV]NM5T2 ?AT SUB/ANTIALLY ALL CLASSES1 ( OP9IONS1 PREVAIL+ AMONG ! PEOPLE1 WILL BE REPRES5T$ 9 ! JURY2 & ESPECIALLY ?AT ! OPPON5TS ( ! GOV]NM5T1 7IF ! GOV]NM5T HAVE ANY OPPON5TS17 WILL BE REPRES5T$ !RE1 AS WELL AS ITS FRI5DS2 ?AT ! CLASSES1 :O >E OPPRESS$ BY ! LAWS ( ! GOV]NM5T1 7IF ANY >E ?US OPPRESS$17 WILL HAVE !IR REPRES5TATIVES 9 ! JURY1 AS WELL AS ?OSE CLASSES1 :O TAKE SIDES ) ! OPPRESSOR --- ?AT IS1 ) ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,IT IS FAIRLY PRESUMABLE ?AT SU* A TRIBUNAL WILL AGREE TO NO CONVICTION EXCEPT SU* AS SUB/ANTIALLY ! :OLE C\NTRY W\LD AGREE TO1 IF !Y W]E PRES5T1 TAK+ P>T 9 ! TRIAL4 ,A TRIAL BY SU* A TRIBUNAL IS1 !RE=E1 9 EFFECT1 0A TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY40 ,9 ITS RESULTS IT PROBABLY COMES AS NE> TO A TRIAL BY ! :OLE C\NTRY1 AS ANY TRIAL ?AT IT IS PRACTICABLE TO HAVE1 )\T TOO GREAT 9CONV5I5CE & EXP5SE4 ,&1 AS UNANIMITY IS REQUIRE = A CONVICTION1 IT FOLL[S ?AT NO ONE CAN BE CONVICT$1 EXCEPT = ! VIOLATION ( SU* LAWS AS SUB/ANTIALLY ! :OLE C\NTRY WI% TO HAVE MA9TA9$4 ,! GOV]NM5T CAN 5=CE NONE ( ITS LAWS1 7BY PUNI%+ (F5D]S1 ?R\< ! V]DICTS ( JURIES17 EXCEPT SU* AS SUB/ANTIALLY ! :OLE PEOPLE WI% TO HAVE 5=C$4 ,! GOV]NM5T1 !RE=E1 CONSI/5TLY ) ! TRIAL BY JURY1 CAN EX]CISE NO P[]S OV] ! PEOPLE1 7OR1 :AT IS ! SAME ?+1 OV] ! ACCUS$ P]SON1 :O REPRES5TS ! RI<TS ( ! PEOPLE17 EXCEPT SU* AS SUB/ANTIALLY ! :OLE PEOPLE ( ! C\NTRY CONS5T ?AT IT MAY EX]CISE4 ,9 SU* A TRIAL1 !RE=E1 0! C\NTRY10 OR ! PEOPLE1 JUDGE ( & DET]M9E !IR [N LIB]TIES AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T1 9/EAD ( ! GOV]NM5T'S JUDG+ ( & DET]M9+ ITS [N P[]S OV] ! PEOPLE4  

 ,BUT ALL ?IS TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY0 W\LD BE NO TRIAL AT ALL 0BY ! C\NTRY10 BUT ONLY A TRIAL BY ! GOV]NM5T1 IF ! GOV]NM5T C\LD EI!R DECL>E :O MAY1 & :O MAY NOT1 BE JURORS1 OR C\LD DICTATE TO ! JURY ANY?+ :ATEV]1 EI!R ( LAW OR EVID5CE1 ?AT IS ( ! ESS5CE ( ! TRIAL4  

 ,IF ! GOV]NM5T MAY DECIDE :O MAY1 & :O MAY NOT1 BE JURORS1 IT WILL ( C\RSE SELECT ONLY ITS P>TISANS1 & ?OSE FRI5DLY TO ITS MEASURES4 ,IT MAY NOT ONLY PRESCRIBE :O MAY1 & :O MAY NOT1 BE ELIGIBLE TO BE DRAWN AS JURORS2 BUT IT MAY ALSO QUE/ION EA* P]SON DRAWN AS A JUROR1 AS TO HIS S5TIM5TS 9 REG>D TO ! P>TICUL> LAW 9VOLV$ 9 EA* TRIAL1 BE=E SUFF]+ HIM TO BE SWORN ON ! PANEL2 & EXCLUDE HIM IF HE BE F\ND UNFAVORABLE TO ! MA9T5ANCE ( SU* A LAW4 #a  

 ,SO1 ALSO1 IF ! GOV]NM5T MAY DICTATE TO ! JURY :AT LAWS !Y >E TO 5=CE1 IT IS NO LONG] A TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY10 BUT A TRIAL BY ! GOV]NM5T2 BECAUSE ! JURY !N TRY ! ACCUS$1 NOT BY ANY /&>D ( !IR [N --- BY !IR [N JUDGM5TS ( !IR RI<TFUL LIB]TIES --- BUT BY A /&>D DICTAT$ TO !M BY ! GOV]NM5T4 ,& ! /&>D1 ?US DICTAT$ BY ! GOV]NM5T1 BECOMES ! MEASURE ( ! PEOPLE'S LIB]TIES4 ,IF ! GOV]NM5T DICTATE ! /&>D ( TRIAL1 IT ( C\RSE DICTATES ! RESULTS ( ! TRIAL4 ,& SU* A TRIAL IS NO TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY1 BUT ONLY A TRIAL BY ! GOV]NM5T2 & 9 IT ! GOV]NM5T DET]M9ES :AT >E ITS [N P[]S OV] ! PEOPLE1 9/EAD ( ! PEOPLE'S DET]M9+ :AT >E !IR [N LIB]TIES AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T4 ,9 %ORT1 IF ! JURY HAVE NO RI<T TO JUDGE ( ! JU/ICE ( A LAW ( ! GOV]NM5T1 !Y PLA9LY CAN DO NO?+ TO PROTECT ! PEOPLE1 AGA9/ ! OPPRESSIONS ( ! GOV]NM5T2 = !RE >E NO OPPRESSIONS :I* ! GOV]NM5T MAY NOT AU?ORIZE BY LAW4  

 ,! JURY >E ALSO TO JUDGE :E!R ! LAWS >E RI<TLY EXP\ND$ TO !M BY ! C\RT4 ,UNLESS !Y JUDGE ON ?IS PO9T1 !Y DO NO?+ TO PROTECT !IR LIB]TIES AGA9/ ! OPPRESSIONS ?AT >E CABLE ( BE+ PRACTIC$ UND] COV] ( A CORRUPT EXPOSITION ( ! LAWS4 ,IF ! JUDICI>Y CAN AU?ORITATIVELY DICTATE TO A JURY ANY EXPOSITION ( ! LAW1 !Y CAN DICTATE TO !M ! LAW ITSELF1 & SU* LAWS AS !Y PLEASE2 BECAUSE LAWS >E1 9 PRACTICE1 ONE ?+ OR ANO!R1 ACCORD+ AS !Y >E EXP\ND$4  

 ,! JURY MU/ ALSO JUDGE :E!R !RE REALLY BE ANY SU* LAW1 7BE IT GOOD OR BAD17 AS ! ACCUS$ IS *>G$ ) HAV+ TRANSGRESS$4 ,UNLESS !Y JUDGE ON ?IS PO9T1 ! PEOPLE >E LIABLE TO HAVE !IR LIB]TIES TAK5 FROM !M BY BRUTE =CE1 )\T ANY LAW AT ALL4  

 ,! JURY MU/ ALSO JUDGE ( ! LAWS ( EVID5CE4 ,IF ! GOV]NM5T CAN DICTATE TO A JURY ! LAWS ( EVID5CE1 IT CAN NOT ONLY %UT \T ANY EVID5CE IT PLEASES1 T5D+ TO V9DICATE ! ACCUS$1 BUT IT CAN REQUIRE ?AT ANY EVID5CE :ATEV]1 ?AT IT PLEASES TO (F]1 BE HELD AS CONCLUSIVE PRO( ( ANY (F5SE :ATEV] :I* ! GOV]NM5T *OOSES TO ALLEGE4  

 ,IT IS MANIFE/1 !RE=E1 ?AT ! JURY MU/ JUDGE ( & TRY ! :OLE CASE1 & EV]Y P>T & P>CEL ( ! CASE1 FREE ( ANY DICTATION OR AU?ORITY ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T4 ,!Y MU/ JUDGE ( ! EXI/5CE ( ! LAW2 ( ! TRUE EXPOSITION ( ! LAW2 ( ! JU/ICE ( ! LAW2 & ( ! ADMISSIBILITY & WEI<T ( ALL ! EVID5CE (F]$2 O!RWISE ! GOV]NM5T WILL HAVE EV]Y?+ ITS [N WAY2 ! JURY WILL BE M]E PUPPETS 9 ! H&S ( ! GOV]NM5T2 & ! TRIAL WILL BE1 9 REALITY1 A TRIAL BY ! GOV]NM5T1 & NOT A 0TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY40 ,BY SU* TRIALS ! GOV]NM5T WILL DET]M9E ITS [N P[]S OV] ! PEOPLE1 9/EAD ( ! PEOPLE'S DET]M9+ !IR [N LIB]TIES AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T2 & IT WILL BE AN 5TIRE DELUSION TO TALK1 AS = C5TURIES WE HAVE DONE1 ( ! TRIAL BY JURY1 AS A 0PALLADIUM ( LIB]TY10 OR AS ANY PROTECTION TO ! PEOPLE AGA9/ ! OPPRESSION & TYRANNY ( ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,! QUE/ION1 !N1 BETWE5 TRIAL BY JURY1 AS ?US DESCRIB$1 & TRIAL BY ! GOV]NM5T1 IS SIMPLY A QUE/ION BETWE5 LIB]TY & DESPOTISM4 ,! AU?ORITY TO JUDGE :AT >E ! P[]S ( ! GOV]NM5T1 & :AT ! LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE1 MU/ NECESS>ILY BE VE/$ 9 ONE OR ! O!R ( ! P>TIES !MSELVES ! GOV]NM5T1 OR ! PEOPLE2 BECAUSE !RE IS NO ?IRD P>TY TO :OM IT CAN BE 5TRU/$4 ,IF ! AU?ORITY BE VE/$ 9 ! GOV]NM5T1 ! GOV]NM5T IS ABSOLUTE1 & ! PEOPLE HAVE NO LIB]TIES EXCEPT SU* AS ! GOV]NM5T SEES FIT TO 9DULGE !M )4 ,IF1 ON ! O!R H&1 ?AT AU?ORITY BE VE/$ 9 ! PEOPLE1 !N ! PEOPLE HAVE ALL LIB]TIES1 7AS AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T17 EXCEPT SU* AS SUB/ANTIALLY ! :OLE PEOPLE 7?R\< A JURY7 *OOSE TO DISCLAIM2 & ! GOV]NM5T CAN EX]CISE NO TO P[] EXCEPT SU* AS SUB/ANTIALLY ! :OLE PEOPLE 7?R\< A JURY7 CONS5T ?AT IT MAY EX]CISE4  

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 ,! =CE & JU/ICE ( ! PREC$+ >GUM5T CANNOT BE EVAD$ BY SAY+ ?AT ! GOV]NM5T IS *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE2 ?AT1 9 !ORY1 IT REPRES5TS ! PEOPLE2 ?AT IT IS DESIGN$ TO DO ! WILL ( ! PEOPLE2 ?AT ITS MEMB]S >E ALL SWORN TO OBS]VE ! FUNDAM5TAL OR CON/ITUTIONAL LAW 9/ITUT$ BY ! PEOPLE2 ?AT ITS ACTS >E !RE=E 5TITL$ TO BE CONSID]$ ! ACTS ( ! PEOPLE2 & ?AT TO ALL[ A JURY1 REPRES5T+ ! PEOPLE1 TO 9VALIDATE ! ACTS ( ! GOV]NM5T1 W\LD !RE=E BE >RAY+ ! PEOPLE AGA9/ !MSELVES4  

 ,!RE >E TWO ANSW]S TO SU* AN >GUM5T4  

 ,ONE ANSW] IS1 ?AT1 9 A REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T1 !RE IS NO ABSURDITY OR CONTRADICTION1 NOR ANY >RAY+ ( ! PEOPLE AGA9/ !MSELVES1 9 REQUIR+ ?AT ! /ATUTES OR 5ACTM5TS ( ! GOV]NM5T %ALL PASS ! ORDEAL ( ANY NUMB] ( SEP>ATE TRIBUNALS1 BE=E IT %ALL BE DET]M9$ ?AT !Y >E TO HAVE ! =CE ( LAWS4 ,\R ,AM]ICAN CON/ITUTIONS HAVE PROVID$ FIVE ( !SE SEP>ATE TRIBUNALS1 TO WIT1 REPRES5TATIVES1 S5ATE1 EXECUTIVE1#b JURY1 & JUDGES2 & HAVE MADE IT NECESS>Y ?AT EA* 5ACTM5T %ALL PASS ! ORDEAL ( ALL !SE SEP>ATE TRIBUNALS1 BE=E ITS AU?ORITY CAN BE E/ABLI%$ BY ! PUNI%M5T ( ?OSE :O *OOSE TO TRANSGRESS IT4 ,& !RE IS NO MORE ABSURDITY OR 9CONSI/5CY 9 MAK+ A JURY ONE ( !SE SEV]AL TRIBUNALS1 ?AN !RE IS 9 MAK+ ! REPRES5TATIVES1 OR ! S5ATE1 OR ! EXECUTIVE1 OR ! JUDGES1 ONE ( !M4 ,!RE IS NO MORE ABSURDITY 9 GIV+ A JURY A VETO UPON ! LAWS1 ?AN !RE IS 9 GIV+ A VETO TO EA* ( !SE O!R TRIBUNALS4 ,! PEOPLE >E NO MORE >RAY$ AGA9/ !MSELVES1 :5 A JURY PUTS ITS VETO UPON A /ATUTE1 :I* ! O!R TRIBUNALS HAVE SANCTION$1 ?AN !Y >E :5 ! SAME VETO IS EX]CIS$ BY ! REPRES5TATIVES1 ! S5ATE1 ! EXECUTIVE1 OR ! JUDGES4  

 ,BUT ANO!R ANSW] TO ! >GUM5T ?AT ! PEOPLE >E >RAY$ AGA9/ !MSELVES1 :5 A JURY HOLD AN 5ACTM5T ( ! GOV]NM5T 9VALID1 IS1 ?AT ! GOV]NM5T1 & ALL ! DEP>TM5TS ( ! GOV]NM5T1 >E M]ELY ! S]VANTS & AG5TS ( ! PEOPLE2 NOT 9VE/$ ) >BITR>Y OR ABSOLUTE AU?ORITY TO B9D ! PEOPLE1 BUT REQUIR$ TO SUBMIT ALL !IR 5ACTM5TS TO ! JUDGM5T ( A TRIBUNAL MORE FAIRLY REPRES5T+ ! :OLE PEOPLE1 BE=E !Y C>RY !M 9TO EXECUTION BY PUNI%+ ANY 9DIVIDUAL = TRANSGRESS+ !M4 ,IF ! GOV]NM5T W]E NOT ?US REQUIR$ TO SUBMIT !IR 5ACTM5TS TO ! JUDGM5T ( 0! C\NTRY10 BE=E EXECUT+ !M UPON 9DIVIDUALS IF1 9 O!R WORDS1 ! PEOPLE HAD RES]V$ TO !MSELVES NO VETO UPON ! ACTS ( ! GOV]NM5T1 ! GOV]NM5T1 9/EAD ( BE+ A M]E S]VANT & AG5T ( ! PEOPLE W\LD BE AN ABSOLUTE DESPOT OV] ! PEOPLE4 ,IT W\LD HAVE ALL P[] 9 ITS [N H&S2 BECAUSE ! P[] TO PUNI% C>RIES ALL O!R P[]S ) IT4 ,A P[] ?AT CAN1 ( ITSELF1 & BY ITS [N AU?ORITY1 PUNI% DISOB$I5CE1 CAN COMPEL OB$I5CE & SUBMISSION1 & IS ABOVE ALL RESPONSIBILITY = ! *>ACT] ( ITS LAWS4 ,9 %ORT1 IT IS A DESPOTISM4  

 ,& IT IS ( NO CONSEQU5CE TO 9QUIRE H[ A GOV]NM5T C>NE BY ?IS P[] TO PUNI%1 :E!R BY PRESCRIPTION1 BY 9H]ITANCE1 BY USURPATION1 OR BY DELEGATION FROM ! PEOPLE8 ,IF IT HAVE N[ BUT GOT IT1 ! GOV]NM5T IS ABSOLUTE4  

 ,IT IS PLA91 !RE=E1 ?AT IF ! PEOPLE HAVE 9VE/$ ! GOV]NM5T ) P[] TO MAKE LAWS ?AT ABSOLUTELY B9D ! PEOPLE1 & TO PUNI% ! PEOPLE = TRANSGRESS+ ?OSE LAWS1 ! PEOPLE HAVE SURR5D]$ !IR LIB]TIES UNRES]V$LY 9TO ! H&S ( ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,IT IS ( NO AVAIL TO SAY1 9 ANSW] TO ?IS VIEW ( ! CASE1 ?AT 9 SURR5D]+ !IR LIB]TIES 9TO ! H&S ( ! GOV]NM5T1 ! PEOPLE TOOK AN OA? FROM ! GOV]NM5T1 ?AT IT W\LD EX]CISE ITS P[] )9 C]TA9 CON/ITUTIONAL LIMITS2 = :5 DID OA?S EV] RE/RA9 A GOV]NM5T ?AT WAS O!RWISE UNRE/RA9$8 :5 DID A GOV]NM5T FAIL TO DET]M9E ?AT ALL ITS ACTS W]E )9 ! CON/ITUTIONAL & AU?ORIZ$ LIMITS ( ITS P[]1 IF IT W]E P]MITT$ TO DET]M9E ?AT QUE/ION = ITSELF8  

 ,NEI!R IS IT ( ANY AVAIL TO SAY1 ?AT1 IF ! GOV]NM5T ABUSE ITS P[]1 & 5ACT UNJU/ & OPPRESSIVE LAWS1 ! GOV]NM5T MAY BE *ANG$ BY ! 9FLU5CE ( DISCUSSION1 & ! EX]CISE ( ! RI<T ( SUFFRAGE4 ,DISCUSSION CAN DO NO?+ TO PREV5T ! 5ACTM5T1 OR PROCURE ! REPEAL1 ( UNJU/ LAWS1 UNLESS IT BE UND]/OOD ?AT ! DISCUSSION IS TO BE FOLL[$ BY RESI/ANCE4 ,TYRANTS C>E NO?+ = DISCUSSIONS ?AT >E TO 5D ONLY 9 DISCUSSION4 ,DISCUSSIONS1 :I* DO NOT 9T]F]E ) ! 5=CEM5T ( !IR LAWS1 >E BUT IDLE W9D TO !M4 ,SUFFRAGE IS EQUALLY P[]LESS & UNRELIABLE4 ,IT CAN BE EX]CIS$ ONLY P]IODICALLY2 & ! TYRANNY MU/ AT LEA/ BE BORNE UNTIL ! TIME = SUFFRAGE COMES4 ,BESIDES1 :5 ! SUFFRAGE IS EX]CIS$1 IT GIVES NO GU>ANTEE = ! REPEAL ( EXI/+ LAWS ?AT >E OPPRESSIVE1 & NO SECURITY AGA9/ ! 5ACTM5T ( NEW ONES ?AT >E EQUALLY SO4 ,! SECOND BODY ( LEGISLATORS >E LIABLE & LIKELY TO BE JU/ AS TYRANNICAL AS ! FIR/4 ,IF IT BE SAID ?AT ! SECOND BODY MAY BE *OS5 = !IR 9TEGRITY1 ! ANSW] IS1 ?AT ! FIR/ W]E *OS5 = ?AT V]Y REASON1 & YET PROV$ TYRANTS4 ,! SECOND WILL BE EXPOS$ TO ! SAME TEMPTATIONS AS ! FIR/1 & WILL BE JU/ AS LIKELY TO PROVE TYRANNICAL4 ,:O EV] HE>D ?AT SUCCE$+ LEGISLATURES W]E1 ON ! :OLE1 MORE HONE/ ?AN ?OSE ?AT PREC$$ !M8 ,:AT IS !RE 9 ! NATURE ( M5 OR ?+S TO MAKE !M SO8 ,IF IT BE SAID ?AT ! FIR/ BODY W]E *OS5 FROM MOTIVES ( 9JU/ICE1 ?AT FACT PROVES ?AT !RE IS A PORTION ( SOCIETY :O DESIRE TO E/ABLI% 9JU/ICE2 & IF !Y W]E P[]FUL OR >TFUL 5\< TO PROCURE ! ELECTION ( !IR 9/RUM5TS TO COMPOSE ! FIR/ LEGISLATURE1 !Y WILL BE LIKELY TO BE P[]FUL OR >TFUL 5\< TO PROCURE ! ELECTION ( ! SAME OR SIMIL> 9/RUM5TS TO COMPOSE ! SECOND4 ,! RI<T ( SUFFRAGE1 !RE=E1 & EV5 A *ANGE ( LEGISLATORS1 GU>ANTEES NO *ANGE ( LEGISLATION --- C]TA9LY NO *ANGE = ! BETT]4 ,EV5 IF A *ANGE = ! BETT] ACTUALLY COMES1 IT COMES TOO LATE1 BECAUSE IT COMES ONLY AFT] MORE OR LESS 9JU/ICE HAS BE5 IRREP>ABLY DONE4  

 ,BUT1 AT BE/1 ! RI<T ( SUFFRAGE CAN BE EX]CIS$ ONLY P]IODICALLY2 & BETWE5 ! P]IODS ! LEGISLATORS >E :OLLY IRRESPONSIBLE4 ,NO DESPOT WAS EV] MORE 5TIRELY IRRESPONSIBLE ?AN >E REPUBLICAN LEGISLATORS DUR+ ! P]IOD = :I* !Y >E *OS54 ,!Y CAN NEI!R BE REMOV$ FROM !IR (FICE1 NOR CALL$ TO ACC\NT :ILE 9 !IR (FICE1 NOR PUNI%$ AFT] !Y LEAVE !IR (FICE1 BE !IR TYRANNY :AT IT MAY4 ,MOREOV]1 ! JUDICIAL & EXECUTIVE DEP>TM5TS ( ! GOV]NM5T >E EQUALLY IRRESPONSIBLE TO ! PEOPLE1 & >E ONLY RESPONSIBLE1 7BY IMPEA*M5T1 & DEP5D5CE = !IR SAL>IES71 TO !SE IRRESPONSIBLE LEGISLATORS4 ,?IS DEP5D5CE ( ! JUDICI>Y & EXECUTIVE UPON ! LEGISLATURE IS A GU>ANTEE ?AT !Y WILL ALWAYS SANCTION & EXECUTE ITS LAWS1 :E!R JU/ OR UNJU/4 ,?US ! LEGISLATORS HOLD ! :OLE P[] ( ! GOV]NM5T 9 !IR H&S1 & >E AT ! SAME TIME UTT]LY IRRESPONSIBLE = ! MANN] 9 :I* !Y USE IT4  

 ,IF1 N[1 ?IS GOV]NM5T1 7! ?REE BRAN*ES ?US REALLY UNIT$ 9 ONE71 CAN DET]M9E ! VALIDITY (1 & 5=CE1 ITS [N LAWS1 IT IS1 = ! TIME BE+1 5TIRELY ABSOLUTE1 & :OLLY IRRESPONSIBLE TO ! PEOPLE4  

 ,BUT ?IS IS NOT ALL4 ,!SE LEGISLATORS1 & ?IS GOV]NM5T1 SO IRRESPONSIBLE :ILE 9 P[]1 CAN P]PETUATE !IR P[] AT PLEASURE1 IF !Y CAN DET]M9E :AT LEGISLATION IS AU?ORITATIVE UPON ! PEOPLE1 & CAN 5=CE OB$I5CE TO IT2 = !Y CAN NOT ONLY DECL>E !IR P[] P]PETUAL1 BUT !Y CAN 5=CE SUBMISSION TO ALL LEGISLATION ?AT IS NECESS>Y TO SECURE ITS P]PETUITY4 ,!Y CAN1 = EXAMPLE1 PROHIBIT ALL DISCUSSION ( ! RI<TFULNESS ( !IR AU?ORITY2 =BID ! USE ( ! SUFFRAGE2 PREV5T ! ELECTION ( ANY SUCCESSORS2 DIS>M1 PLUND]1 IMPRISON1 & EV5 KILL ALL :O REFUSE SUBMISSION4 ,IF1 !RE=E1 ! GOV]NM5T 7ALL DEP>TM5TS UNIT$7 BE ABSOLUTE = A DAY --- ?AT IS1 IF IT CAN1 = A DAY1 5=CE OB$I5CE TO ITS [N LAW CAN1 9 ?AT DAY1 SECURE ITS P[] = ALL TIME --- LIKE ! QUE51 :O WI%$ TO REIGN BUT = A DAY1 BUT 9 ?AT DAY CAUS$ ! K+1 H] HUSB&1 TO BE SLA91 & USURP$ HIS ?RONE4 ,NOR WILL IT AVAIL TO SAY ?AT SU* ACTS W\LD BE UNCON/ITUTIONAL1 & ?AT UNCON/ITUTIONAL ACTS MAY BE LAWFULLY RESI/$2 = EV]Y?+ A GOV]NM5T PLEASES TO DO WILL1 ( C\RSE1 BE DET]M9$ TO BE CON/ITUTIONAL1 IF ! GOV]NM5T ITSELF BE P]MITT$ TO DET]M9E ! QUE/ION ( ! CON/ITUTIONALITY ( ITS [N ACTS4 ,?OSE :O >E CAPABLE ( TYRANNY1 >E CAPABLE ( P]JURY TO SU/A9 IT4  

 ,! CONCLUSION1 !RE=E1 IS1 ?AT ANY GOV]NM5T1 ?AT CAN1 = A DAY1 5=CE ITS [N LAWS1 )\T APPEAL+ TO ! PEOPLE1 7OR TO A TRIBUNAL FAIRLY REPRES5T+ ! PEOPLE17 = !IR CONS5T1 IS1 9 !ORY1 AN ABSOLUTE GOV]NM5T1 IRRESPONSIBLE TO ! PEOPLE1 & CAN P]PETUATE ITS P[] AT PLEASURE4  

 ,! TRIAL BY JURY IS BAS$ UPON A RECOGNITION ( ?IS PR9CIPLE1 & !RE=E =BIDS ! GOV]NM5T TO EXECUTE ANY ( ITS LAWS1 BY PUNI%+ VIOLATORS1 9 ANY CASE :ATEV]1 )\T FIR/ GETT+ ! CONS5T ( 0! C\NTRY10 OR ! PEOPLE1 ?R\< A JURY4 ,9 ?IS WAY1 ! PEOPLE1 AT ALL TIMES1 HOLD !IR LIB]TIES 9 !IR [N H&S1 & NEV] SURR5D] !M1 EV5 = A MOM5T1 9TO ! H&S ( ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,! TRIAL BY JURY1 !N1 GIVES TO ANY & EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL ! LIB]TY1 AT ANY TIME1 TO DISREG>D OR RESI/ ANY LAW :ATEV] ( ! GOV]NM5T1 IF HE BE WILL+ TO SUBMIT TO ! DECISION ( A JURY1 ! QUE/IONS1 :E!R ! LAW BE 9TR9SICALLY JU/ & OBLIGATORY8 & :E!R HIS CONDUCT1 9 DISREG>D+ OR RESI/+ IT1 W]E RI<T 9 ITSELF8 ,& ANY LAW1 :I* DOES NOT1 9 SU* TRIAL1 OBTA9 ! UNANIM\S SANCTION ( TWELVE M51 TAK5 AT R&OM FROM ! PEOPLE1 & JUDG+ ACCORD+ TO ! /&>D ( JU/ICE 9 !IR [N M9DS1 FREE FROM ALL DICTATION & AU?ORITY ( ! GOV]NM5T1 MAY BE TRANSGRESS$ & RESI/$ ) IMPUNITY1 BY :OMSOEV] PLEASES TO TRANSGRESS OR RESI/ IT4#c  

 ,! TRIAL BY JURY AU?ORIZES ALL ?IS1 OR IT IS A %AM & A HOAX1 UTT]LY WOR?LESS = PROTECT+ ! PEOPLE AGA9/ OPPRESSION4 ,IF IT DO NOT AU?ORIZE AN 9DIVIDUAL TO RESI/ ! FIR/ & LEA/ ACT ( 9JU/ICE OR TYRANNY1 ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T1 IT DOES NOT AU?ORIZE HIM TO RESI/ ! LA/ & ! GREATE/4 ,IF IT DO NOT AU?ORIZE 9DIVIDUALS TO NIP TYRANNY 9 ! BUD1 IT DOES NOT AU?ORIZE !M TO CUT IT D[N :5 ITS BRAN*ES >E FILL$ ) ! RIPE FRUITS ( PLUND] & OPPRESSION4  

 ,?OSE :O D5Y ! RI<T ( A JURY TO PROTECT AN 9DIVIDUAL 9 RESI/+ AN UNJU/ LAW ( ! GOV]NM5T1 D5Y HIM ALL LEGAL DEF5SE :ATSOEV] AGA9/ OPPRESSION4 ,! RI<T ( REVOLUTION1 :I* TYRANTS1 9 MOCK]Y1 ACCORD TO MANK9D1 IS NO LEGAL RI<T UND] A GOV]NM5T2 IT IS ONLY A NATURAL RI<T TO OV]TURN A GOV]NM5T4 ,! GOV]NM5T ITSELF NEV] ACKN[L$GES ?IS RI<T4 ,& ! RI<T IS PRACTICALLY E/ABLI%$ ONLY :5 & BECAUSE ! GOV]NM5T NO LONG] EXI/S TO CALL IT 9 QUE/ION4 ,! RI<T1 !RE=E1 CAN BE EX]CIS$ ) IMPUNITY1 ONLY :5 IT IS EX]CIS$ VICTORI\SLY4 ,ALL UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPTS AT REVOLUTION1 H[EV] JU/IFIABLE 9 !MSELVES1 >E PUNI%$ AS TREASON1 IF ! GOV]NM5T BE P]MITT$ TO JUDGE ( ! TREASON4 ,! GOV]NM5T ITSELF NEV] ADMITS ! 9JU/ICE ( ITS LAWS1 AS A LEGAL DEF5SE = ?OSE :O HAVE ATTEMPT$ A REVOLUTION1 & FAIL$4 ,! RI<T ( REVOLUTION1 !RE=E1 IS A RI<T ( NO PRACTICAL VALUE1 EXCEPT = ?OSE :O >E /RONG] ?AN ! GOV]NM5T4 ,SO LONG1 !RE=E1 AS ! OPPRESSIONS ( A GOV]NM5T >E KEPT )9 SU* LIMITS AS SIMPLY NOT TO EXASP]ATE AGA9/ IT A P[] GREAT] ?AN ITS [N1 ! RI<T ( REVOLUTION CANNOT BE APPEAL$ TO1 & IS !RE=E 9APPLICABLE TO ! CASE4 ,?IS AF=DS A WIDE FIELD = TYRANNY2 & IF A JURY CANNOT H]E 9T]V5E1 ! OPPRESS$ >E UTT]LY DEF5SELESS4  

 ,IT IS MANIFE/ ?AT ! ONLY SECURITY AGA9/ ! TYRANNY ( ! GOV]NM5T LIES 9 =CIBLE RESI/ANCE TO ! EXECUTION ( ! 9JU/ICE2 BECAUSE ! 9JU/ICE WILL C]TA9LY BE EXECUT$1 UNLESS IT BE =CIBLY RESI/$4 ,& IF IT BE BUT SUFF]$ TO BE EXECUT$1 IT MU/ !N BE BORNE2 = ! GOV]NM5T NEV] MAKES COMP5SATION = ITS [N WRONGS4  

 ,S9CE1 !N1 ?IS =CIBLE RESI/ANCE TO ! 9JU/ICE ( ! GOV]NM5T IS ! ONLY POSSIBLE MEANS ( PRES]V+ LIB]TY1 IT IS 9DISP5SABLE TO ALL LEGAL LIB]TY ?AT ?IS RESI/ANCE %\LD BE LEGALIZ$4 ,IT IS P]FECTLY SELF-EVID5T ?AT :]E !RE IS NO LEGAL RI<T TO RESI/ ! OPPRESSION ( ! GOV]NM5T1 !RE CAN BE NO LEGAL LIB]TY4 ,& H]E IT IS ALL-IMPORTANT TO NOTICE1 ?AT1 PRACTICALLY SPEAK+1 !RE CAN BE NO LEGAL RI<T TO RESI/ ! OPPRESSIONS ( ! GOV]NM5T1 UNLESS !RE BE SOME LEGAL TRIBUNAL1 O!R ?AN ! GOV]NM5T1 & :OLLY 9DEP5D5T (1 & ABOVE1 ! GOV]NM5T1 TO JUDGE BETWE5 ! GOV]NM5T & ?OSE :O RESI/ ITS OPPRESSIONS2 9 O!R WORDS1 TO JUDGE :AT LAWS ( ! GOV]NM5T >E TO BE OBEY$1 & :AT MAY BE RESI/$ & HELD = NAU<T4 ,! ONLY TRIBUNAL KN[N TO \R LAWS1 = ?IS PURPOSE1 IS A JURY4 ,IF A JURY HAVE NOT ! RI<T TO JUDGE BETWE5 ! GOV]NM5T & ?OSE :O DISOBEY ITS LAWS1 & RESI/ ITS OPPRESSIONS1 ! GOV]NM5T IS ABSOLUTE1 & ! PEOPLE1 LEGALLY SPEAK+1 >E SLAVES4 ,LIKE MANY O!R SLAVES !Y MAY HAVE SUFFICI5T C\RAGE & /R5G? TO KEEP !IR MA/]S SOME:AT 9 *ECK2 BUT !Y >E NEV]!LESS KN[N TO ! LAW ONLY AS SLAVES4  

 ,?AT ?IS RI<T ( RESI/ANCE WAS RECOGNIZ$ AS A COMMON LAW RI<T1 :5 ! ANCI5T & G5U9E TRIAL BY JURY WAS 9 =CE1 IS NOT ONLY PROV$ BY ! NATURE ( ! TRIAL ITSELF1 BUT IS ACKN[L$G$ BY HI/ORY4#d  

 ,?IS RI<T ( RESI/ANCE IS RECOGNIZ$ BY ! CON/ITUTION ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 AS A /RICTLY LEGAL & CON/ITUTIONAL RI<T4 ,IT IS SO RECOGNIZ$1 FIR/ BY ! PROVISION ?AT 0! TRIAL ( ALL CRIMES1 EXCEPT 9 CASES ( IMPEA*M5T1 %ALL BE BY JURY0 --- ?AT IS1 BY ! C\NTRY --- & NOT BY ! GOV]NM5T2 SECONDLY1 BY ! PROVISION ?AT 0! RI<T ( ! PEOPLE TO KEEP & BE> >MS %ALL NOT BE 9FR+$40 ,?IS CON/ITUTIONAL SECURITY = 0! RI<T TO KEEP & BE> >MS1 IMPLIES ! RI<T TO USE !MES MU* AS A CON/ITUTIONAL SECURITY = ! RI<T TO BUY & KEEP FOOD W\LD HAVE IMPLI$ ! RI<T TO EAT IT4 ,! CON/ITUTION1 !RE=E1 TAKES IT = GRANT$ ?AT ! PEOPLE WILL JUDGE ( ! CONDUCT ( ! GOV]NM5T1 & ?AT1 AS !Y HAVE ! RI<T1 !Y WILL ALSO HAVE ! S5SE1 TO USE >MS1 :5EV] ! NECESSITY ( ! CASE JU/IFIES IT4 ,& IT IS A SUFFICI5T & LEGAL DEF5SE = A P]SON ACCUS$ ( US+ >MS AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T1 IF HE CAN %[1 TO ! SATISFACTION ( A JURY1 OR EV5 ANY ONE ( A JURY1 ?AT ! LAW HE RESI/$ WAS AN UNJU/ ONE4  

 ,9 ! ,AM]ICAN ,/ATE CON/ITUTIONS ALSO1 ?IS RI<T ( RESI/ANCE TO ! OPPRESSIONS ( ! GOV]NM5T IS RECOGNIZ$1 9 V>I\S WAYS1 AS A NATURAL1 LEGAL1 & CON/ITUTIONAL RI<T4 ,9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 IT IS SO RECOGNIZ$ BY PROVISIONS E/ABLI%+ ! TRIAL BY JURY2 ?US REQUIR+ ?AT ACCUS$ P]SONS %ALL BE TRI$ BY 0! C\NTRY10 9/EAD ( ! GOV]NM5T4 ,9 ! SECOND PLACE1 IT IS RECOGNIZ$ BY MANY ( !M1 AS1 = EXAMPLE1 ?OSE ( ,MASSA*USETTS1 ,MA9E1 ,V]MONT1 ,CONNECTICUT1 ,P5NSYLVANIA1 ,OHIO1 ,9DIANA1 ,MI*IGAN1 ,K5TUCKY1 ,T5NESSEE1 ,>KANSAS1 ,MISSISSIPPI1 ,ALABAMA1 & ,FLORIDA1 BY PROVISIONS EXPRESSLY DECL>+ ?AT1 ! PEOPLE %ALL HAVE ! RI<T TO BE> >MS4 ,9 MANY ( !M ALSO1 AS1 = EXAMPLE1 ?OSE ( ,MA9E1 ,NEW ,HAMP%IRE1 ,V]MONT1 ,MASSA*USETTS1 ,NEW ,J]SEY1 ,P5NSYLVANIA1 ,DELAW>E1 ,OHIO1 ,9DIANA1 ,ILL9OIS1 ,FLORIDA1 ,I[A1 & ,>KANSAS1 BY PROVISIONS1 9 !IR BILLS ( RI<TS1 DECL>+ ?AT M5 HAVE A NATURAL1 9H]5T1 & 9ALI5ABLE RI<T ( 0DEF5D+ !IR LIVES & LIB]TIES40 ,?IS1 ( C\RSE1 MEANS ?AT !Y HAVE A RI<T TO DEF5D !M AGA9/ ANY 9JU/ICE ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T1 & NOT M]ELY ON ! P>T ( PRIVATE 9DIVIDUALS2 BECAUSE ! OBJECT ( ALL BILLS ( RI<TS IS TO ASS]T ! RI<TS ( 9DIVIDUALS & ! PEOPLE1 AS AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T1 & NOT AS AGA9/ PRIVATE P]SONS4 ,IT W\LD BE A MATT] ( RIDICUL\S SUP]]OGATION TO ASS]T1 9 A CON/ITUTION ( GOV]NM5T1 ! NATURAL RI<T ( M5 TO DEF5D !IR LIVES & LIB]TIES AGA9/ PRIVATE TRESPASS]S4  

 ,MANY ( !SE BILLS ( RI<TS ALSO ASS]T ! NATURAL RI<T ( ALL M5 TO PROTECT !IR PROP]TY --- ?AT IS1 TO PROTECT IT AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T4 ,IT W\LD BE UNNECESS>Y & SILLY 9DE$ TO ASS]T1 9 A CON/ITUTION ( GOV]NM5T1 ! NATURAL RI<T ( 9DIVIDUALS TO PROTECT !IR PROP]TY AGA9/ ?IEVES & ROBB]S4  

 ,! CON/ITUTIONS ( ,NEW ,HAMP%IRE & ,T5NESSEE ALSO DECL>E ?AT 0,! DOCTR9E ( NONRESI/ANCE AGA9/ >BITR>Y P[] & OPPRESSION IS ABSURD1 SLAVI%1 & DE/RUCTIVE ( ! GOOD & HAPP9ESS ( MANK9D40  

 ,! LEGAL EFFECT ( !SE CON/ITUTIONAL RECOGNITIONS ( ! RI<T ( 9DIVIDUALS TO DEF5D !IR PROP]TY1 LIB]TIES1 & LIVES1 AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T1 IS TO LEGALIZE RESI/ANCE TO ALL 9JU/ICE & OPPRESSION1 ( EV]Y NAME & NATURE :ATSOEV]1 ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,BUT = ?IS RI<T ( RESI/ANCE1 ON ! P>T ( ! PEOPLE1 ALL GOV]NM5TS W\LD BECOME TYRANNICAL TO A DEGREE ( :I* FEW PEOPLE >E AW>E4 ,CON/ITUTIONS >E UTT]LY WOR?LESS TO RE/RA9 ! TYRANNY ( GOV]NM5TS1 UNLESS IT BE UND]/OOD ?AT ! PEOPLE WILL1 BY =CE1 COMPEL ! GOV]NM5T TO KEEP )9 ! CON/ITUTIONAL LIMITS4 ,PRACTICALLY SPEAK+1 NO GOV]NM5T KN[S ANY LIMITS TO ITS P[]1 EXCEPT ! 5DURANCE ( ! PEOPLE4 ,BUT ?AT ! PEOPLE >E /RONG] ?AN ! GOV]NM5T1 & WILL RESI/ 9 EXTREME CASES1 \R GOV]NM5TS W\LD BE LITTLE OR NO?+ ELSE ?AN ORGANIZ$ SY/EMS ( PLUND] & OPPRESSION4 ,ALL1 OR NE>LY ALL1 ! ADVANTAGE !RE IS 9 FIX+ ANY CON/ITUTIONAL LIMITS TO ! P[] ( A GOV]NM5T1 IS SIMPLY TO GIVE NOTICE TO ! GOV]NM5T ( ! PO9T AT :I* IT WILL MEET ) RESI/ANCE4 ,IF ! PEOPLE >E !N AS GOOD AS !IR WORD1 !Y MAY KEEP ! GOV]NM5T )9 ! B\NDS !Y HAVE SET = IT2 O!RWISE IT WILL DISREG>D !M --- AS IS PROV$ BY ! EXAMPLE ( ALL \R ,AM]ICAN GOV]NM5TS1 9 :I* ! CON/ITUTIONS HAVE ALL BECOME OBSOLETE1 AT ! MOM5T ( !IR ADOPTION1 = NE>LY OR QUITE ALL PURPOSES EXCEPT ! APPO9TM5T ( (FIC]S1 :O AT ONCE BECOME PRACTICALLY ABSOLUTE1 EXCEPT SO F> AS !Y >E RE/RA9$ BY ! FE> ( POPUL> RESI/ANCE4  

 ,! B\NDS SET TO ! P[] ( ! GOV]NM5T1 BY ! TRIAL BY JURY1 AS WILL H]EAFT] BE %[N1 >E !SE --- ?AT ! GOV]NM5T %ALL NEV] T\* ! PROP]TY1 P]SON1 OR NATURAL OR CIVIL RI<TS ( AN 9DIVIDUAL1 AGA9/ HIS CONS5T1 7EXCEPT = ! PURPOSE ( BR++ !M BE=E A JURY = TRIAL17 UNLESS 9 PURSUANCE & EXECUTION ( A JUDGM5T1 OR DECREE1 R5D]$ BY A JURY 9 EA* 9DIVIDUAL CASE1 UPON SU* EVID5CE1 & SU* LAW1 AS >E SATISFACTORY TO !IR [N UND]/&+S & CONSCI5CES1 IRRESPECTIVE ( ALL LEGISLATION ( ! GOV]NM5T4 

 ,*,A,P,T,] ,I,I4 ,! ,T,R,I,A,L ,B,Y ,J,U,R,Y1 ,A,S ,D,E,F,9,$ ,B,Y ,M,A,G,N,A ,C,>,T,A4  

 ,?AT ! TRIAL BY JURY IS ALL ?AT HAS BE5 CLAIM$ = IT 9 ! PREC$+ *APT]1 IS PROV$ BO? BY ! HI/ORY & ! LANGUAGE ( ! ,GREAT ,*>T] ( ,5GLI% ,LIB]TIES1 TO :I* WE >E TO LOOK = A TRUE DEF9ITION ( ! TRIAL BY JURY1 & ( :I* ! GU>ANTEE = ?AT TRIAL IS ! VITAL1 & MO/ MEMORABLE1 P>T4  

 ,S,E,C,T,I,O,N ,I4 ,! ,HI/ORY ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA4  

 ,9 ORD] TO JUDGE ( ! OBJECT & MEAN+ ( ?AT *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA :I* SECURES ! TRIAL BY JURY1 IT IS TO BE BORNE 9 M9D ?AT1 AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ! K+ 7) EXCEPTIONS IMMAT]IAL TO ?IS DISCUSSION1 BUT :I* WILL APPE> H]EAFT]7 WAS1 CON/ITUTIONALLY1 ! 5TIRE GOV]NM5T2 ! SOLE LEGISLATIVE1 JUDICIAL1 & EXECUTIVE P[] ( ! NATION4 ,! EXECUTIVE & JUDICIAL (FIC]S W]E M]ELY HIS S]VANTS1 APPO9T$ BY HIM1 & REMOVABLE AT HIS PLEASURE4 ,9 ADDITION TO ?IS1 0! K+ HIMSELF (T5 SAT 9 HIS C\RT1 :I* ALWAYS ATT5D$ HIS P]SON4 ,HE !RE HE>D CAUSES1 & PRON\NC$ JUDGM5T2 & ?\< HE WAS ASSI/$ BY ! ADVICE ( O!R MEMB]S1 IT IS NOT TO BE IMAG9$ ?AT A DECISION C\LD BE OBTA9$ CONTR>Y TO HIS 9CL9ATION OR OP9ION40#e ,JUDGES W]E 9 ?OSE DAYS1 & AFT]W>DS1 SU* ABJECT S]VANTS ( ! K+1 ?AT 0WE F9D ?AT ,K+ ,$W>D ,I4 7#a#b#g#b TO #a#c#g7 F9$ & IMPRISON$ HIS JUDGES1 9 ! SAME MANN] AS ,ALFR$ ! ,GREAT1 AMONG ! ,SAXONS1 HAD DONE BE=E HIM1 BY ! SOLE EX]CISE ( HIS AU?ORITY40#f  

 ,P>LIAM5T1 SO F> AS !RE WAS A P>LIAM5T1 WAS A M]E C\NCIL ( ! K+4#g ,IT ASSEMBL$ ONLY AT ! PLEASURE ( ! K+2 SAT ONLY DUR+ HIS PLEASURE2 & :5 SITT+ HAD NO P[]1 SO F> AS G5]AL LEGISLATION WAS CONC]N$1 BEYOND ?AT ( SIMPLY ADVIS+ ! K+4 ,! ONLY LEGISLATION TO :I* !IR ASS5T WAS CON/ITUTIONALLY NECESS>Y1 WAS DEM&S = MONEY & MILIT>Y S]VICES = EXTRAORD9>Y OCCASIONS4 ,EV5 ,MAGNA ,C>TA ITSELF MAKES NO PROVISIONS :ATEV] = ANY P>LIAM5TS1 EXCEPT :5 ! K+ %\LD WANT MEANS TO C>RY ON W>1 OR TO MEET SOME O!R EXTRAORD9>Y NECESSITY4#h ,HE HAD NO NE$ ( P>LIAM5TS TO RAISE TAXES = ! ORD9>Y PURPOSES ( GOV]NM5T2 = HIS REV5UES FROM ! R5TS ( ! CR[N L&S & O!R S\RCES1 W]E AMPLE = ALL EXCEPT EXTRAORD9>Y OCCASIONS4 ,P>LIAM5TS1 TOO1 :5 ASSEMBL$1 CONSI/$ ONLY ( BI%OPS1 B>ONS1 & O!R GREAT M5 ( ! K+DOM1 UNLESS ! K+ *OSE TO 9VITE O!RS4#i ,!RE WAS NO ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS AT ?AT TIME1 & ! PEOPLE HAD NO RI<T TO BE HE>D1 UNLESS AS PETITION]S4#a  

 ,EV5 :5 LAWS W]E MADE AT ! TIME ( A P>LIAM5T1 !Y W]E MADE 9 ! NAME ( ! K+ ALONE4 ,SOMETIMES IT WAS 9S]T$ 9 ! LAWS1 ?AT !Y W]E MADE ) ! CONS5T OR ADVICE ( ! BI%OPS1 B>ONS1 & O!RS ASSEMBL$2 BUT (T5 ?IS WAS OMITT$4 ,!IR CONS5T OR ADVICE WAS EVID5TLY A MATT] ( NO LEGAL IMPORTANCE TO ! 5ACTM5T OR VALIDITY ( ! LAWS1 BUT ONLY 9S]T$1 :5 9S]T$ AT ALL1 ) A VIEW ( OBTA9+ A MORE WILL+ SUBMISSION TO !M ON ! P>T ( ! PEOPLE4 ,! /YLE ( 5ACTM5T G5]ALLY WAS1 EI!R 0,! ,K+ WILLS & COMM&S10 OR SOME O!R =M SIGNIFICANT ( ! SOLE LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY ( ! K+4 ,! K+ C\LD PASS LAWS AT ANY TIME :5 IT PLEAS$ HIM4 ,! PRES5CE ( A P>LIAM5T WAS :OLLY UNNECESS>Y4 ,HUME SAYS1 0,IT IS ASS]T$ BY ,SIR ,H>RY ,SPELMAN1 AS AN UND\BT$ FACT1 ?AT1 DUR+ ! REIGNS ( ! ,NORMAN PR9CES1 EV]Y ORD] ( ! K+1 ISSU$ ) ! CONS5T ( HIS PRIVY C\NCIL1 HAD ! FULL =CE ( LAW40#a#a ,& O!R AU?ORITIES ABUNDANTLY CORROBORATE ?IS ASS]TION4#a#b  

 ,! K+ WAS1 !RE=E1 CON/ITUTIONALLY ! GOV]NM5T2 & ! ONLY LEGAL LIMITATION UPON HIS P[] SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 SIMPLY ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 USUALLY CALL$ 0! LAW ( ! L&10 :I* HE WAS B\ND BY OA? TO MA9TA92 7:I* OA? HAD AB\T ! SAME PRACTICAL VALUE AS SIMIL> OA?S HAVE ALWAYS HAD47 ,?IS 0LAW ( ! L&0 SEEMS NOT TO HAVE BE5 REG>D$ AT ALL BY MANY ( ! K+S1 EXCEPT SO F> AS !Y F\ND IT CONV5I5T TO DO SO1 OR W]E CON/RA9$ TO OBS]VE IT BY ! FE> ( >\S+ RESI/ANCE4 ,BUT AS ALL PEOPLE >E SL[ 9 MAK+ RESI/ANCE1 OPPRESSION & USURPATION (T5 REA*$ A GREAT HEI<T2 &1 9 ! CASE ( ,JOHN1 !Y HAD BECOME SO 9TOL]ABLE AS TO 5LI/ ! NATION ALMO/ UNIV]SALLY AGA9/ HIM2 & HE WAS R$UC$ TO ! NECESSITY ( COMPLY+ ) ANY T]MS ! B>ONS SAW FIT TO DICTATE TO HIM4  

 ,IT WAS UND] !SE CIRCUM/ANCES1 ?AT ! ,GREAT ,*>T] ( ,5GLI% ,LIB]TIES WAS GRANT$4 ,! B>ONS ( ,5GL&1 SU/A9$ BY ! COMMON PEOPLE1 HAV+ !IR K+ 9 !IR P[]1 COMPELL$ HIM1 AS ! PRICE ( HIS ?RONE1 TO PL$GE HIMSELF ?AT HE W\LD PUNI% NO FREEMAN = A VIOLATION ( ANY ( HIS LAWS1 UNLESS ) ! CONS5T ( ! PE]S --- ?AT IS1 ! EQUALS --- ( ! ACCUS$4  

 ,! QUE/ION H]E >ISES1 ,:E!R ! B>ONS & PEOPLE 9T5D$ ?AT ?OSE PE]S 7! JURY7 %\LD BE M]E PUPPETS 9 ! H&S ( ! K+1 EX]CIS+ NO OP9ION ( !IR [N AS TO ! 9TR9SIC M]ITS ( ! ACCUSATIONS !Y %\LD TRY1 OR ! JU/ICE ( ! LAWS !Y %\LD BE CALL$ ON TO 5=CE8 ,:E!R ?OSE HAU<TY & VICTORI\S B>ONS1 :5 !Y HAD !IR TYRANT K+ AT !IR FEET1 GAVE BACK TO HIM HIS ?RONE1 ) FULL P[] TO 5ACT ANY TYRANNICAL LAWS HE MI<T PLEASE1 RES]V+ ONLY TO A JURY 70! C\NTRY07 ! CONTEMPTIBLE & S]VILE PRIVILEGE ( ASC]TA9+1 7UND] ! DICTATION ( ! K+1 OR HIS JUDGES1 AS TO ! LAWS ( EVID5CE71 ! SIMPLE FACT :E!R ?OSE LAWS HAD BE5 TRANSGRESS$8 ,WAS ?IS ! ONLY RE/RA9T1 :I*1 :5 !Y HAD ALL P[] 9 !IR H&S1 !Y PLAC$ UPON ! TYRANNY ( A K+1 :OSE OPPRESSIONS !Y HAD RIS5 9 >MS TO RESI/8 ,WAS IT TO OBTA9 SU* A *>T] AS ?AT1 ?AT ! :OLE NATION HAD UNIT$1 AS IT W]E1 LIKE ONE MAN1 AGA9/ !IR K+8 ,WAS IT ON SU* A *>T] ?AT !Y 9T5D$ TO RELY1 = ALL FUTURE TIME1 = ! SECURITY ( !IR LIB]TIES8 ,NO4 ,!Y W]E 5GAG$ 9 NO SU* S5SELESS WORK AS ?AT4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 :5 !Y REQUIR$ HIM TO R5\NCE =EV] ! P[] TO PUNI% ANY FREEMAN1 UNLESS BY ! CONS5T ( HIS PE]S1 !Y 9T5D$ ?OSE PE]S %\LD JUDGE (1 & TRY1 ! :OLE CASE ON ITS M]ITS1 9DEP5D5TLY ( ALL >BITR>Y LEGISLATION1 OR JUDICIAL AU?ORITY1 ON ! P>T ( ! K+4 ,9 ?IS WAY !Y TOOK ! LIB]TIES ( EA* 9DIVIDUAL --- & ?US ! LIB]TIES ( ! :OLE PEOPLE --- 5TIRELY \T ( ! H&S ( ! K+1 & \T ( ! P[] ( HIS LAWS1 & PLAC$ !M 9 ! KEEP+ ( ! PEOPLE !MSELVES4 ,& ?IS IT WAS ?AT MADE ! TRIAL BY JURY ! PALLADIUM ( !IR LIB]TIES4  

 ,! TRIAL BY JURY1 BE IT OBS]V$1 WAS ! ONLY REAL B>RI] 9T]POS$ BY !M AGA9/ ABSOLUTE DESPOTISM4 ,C\LD ?IS TRIAL1 !N1 HAVE BE5 SU* AN 5TIRE F>CE AS IT NECESS>ILY MU/ HAVE BE51 IF ! JURY HAD HAD NO P[] TO JUDGE ( ! JU/ICE ( ! LAWS ! PEOPLE W]E REQUIR$ TO OBEY8 ,DID IT NOT RA!R IMPLY ?AT ! JURY W]E TO JUDGE 9DEP5D5TLY & FE>LESSLY AS TO EV]Y?+ 9VOLV$ 9 ! *>GE1 & ESPECIALLY AS TO ITS 9TR9SIC JU/ICE1 & !REON GIVE !IR DECISION1 7UNBIAS$ BY ANY LEGISLATION ( ! K+17 :E!R ! ACCUS$ MI<T BE PUNI%$8 ,! REASON ( ! ?+1 NO LESS ?AN ! HI/ORICAL CELEBRITY ( ! EV5TS1 AS SECUR+ ! LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE1 & ! V5]ATION ) :I* ! TRIAL BY JURY HAS CONT9U$ TO BE REG>D$1 NOT)/&+ ITS ESS5CE & VITALITY HAVE BE5 ALMO/ 5TIRELY EXTRACT$ FROM IT 9 PRACTICE1 W\LD SETTLE ! QUE/ION1 IF O!R EVID5CES HAD LEFT ! MATT] 9 D\BT4  

 ,BESIDES1 IF HIS LAWS W]E TO BE AU?ORITATIVE ) ! JURY1 :Y %\LD ,JOHN 9DIGNANTLY REFUSE1 AS AT FIR/ HE DID1 TO GRANT ! *>T]1 7& F9ALLY GRANT IT ONLY :5 BR\<T TO ! LA/ EXTREMITY17 ON ! GR\ND ?AT IT DEPRIV$ HIM ( ALL P[]1 & LEFT HIM ONLY ! NAME ( A K+8 ,HE EVID5TLY UND]/OOD ?AT ! JURIES W]E TO VETO HIS LAWS1 & P>ALYZE HIS P[]1 AT DISCRETION1 BY =M+ !IR [N OP9IONS AS TO ! TRUE *>ACT] ( ! (F5SES !Y W]E TO TRY1 & ! LAWS !Y W]E TO BE CALL$ ON TO 5=CE2 & ?AT 0! K+ WILLS & COMM&S0 WAS TO HAVE NO WEI<T ) !M CONTR>Y TO !IR [N JUDGM5TS ( :AT WAS 9TR9SICALLY RI<T4#a#c  

 ,! B>ONS & PEOPLE HAV+ OBTA9$ BY ! *>T] ALL ! LIB]TIES !Y HAD DEM&$ ( ! K+1 IT WAS FUR!R PROVID$ BY ! *>T] ITSELF ?AT TW5TY-FIVE B>ONS1 %\LD BE APPO9T$ BY ! B>ONS1 \T ( !IR NUMB]1 TO KEEP SPECIAL VIGILANCE 9 ! K+DOM TO SEE ?AT ! *>T] WAS OBS]V$1 ) AU?ORITY TO MAKE W> UPON ! K+ 9 CASE ( ITS VIOLATION4 ,! K+ ALSO1 BY ! *>T]1 SO F> ABSOLV$ ALL ! PEOPLE ( ! K+DOM FROM !IR ALLEGIANCE TO HIM1 AS TO AU?ORIZE & REQUIRE !M TO SWE> TO OBEY ! TW5TY-FIVE B>ONS1 9 CASE !Y %\LD MAKE W> UPON ! K+ = 9FR+EM5T ( ! *>T]4 ,IT WAS !N ?\<T BY ! B>ONS & PEOPLE1 ?AT SOME?+ SUB/ANTIAL HAD BE5 DONE = ! SECURITY ( !IR LIB]TIES4  

 ,?IS *>T]1 9 ITS MO/ ESS5TIAL FEATURES1 & )\T ANY ABATEM5T AS TO ! TRIAL BY JURY1 HAS S9CE BE5 CONFIRM$ MORE ?AN ?IRTY TIMES2 & ! PEOPLE ( ,5GL& HAVE ALWAYS HAD A TRADITION>Y IDEA ?AT IT WAS ( SOME VALUE AS A GU>ANTEE AGA9/ OPPRESSION4 ,YET ?AT IDEA HAS BE5 AN 5TIRE DELUSION1 UNLESS ! JURY HAVE HAD ! RI<T TO JUDGE ( ! JU/ICE ( ! LAWS !Y W]E CALL$ ON TO 5=CE4  

 ,S,E,C,T,I,O,N ,I,I4 ,! ,LANGUAGE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA  

  

 ,! LANGUAGE ( ! ,GREAT ,*>T] E/ABLI%ES ! SAME PO9T ?AT IS E/ABLI%$ BY ITS HI/ORY1 VIZ41 ?AT IT IS ! RI<T & DUTY ( ! JURY TO JUDGE ( ! JU/ICE ( ! LAWS4  

 ,! *APT] GU>ANTEE+ ! TRIAL BY JURY IS 9 !SE WORDS3  

 0,NULLUS LIB] HOMO CAPIATUR1 VEL IMPRISONETUR1 AUT DISSEISETUR1 AUT UTLAGETUR1 AUT EXULTETUR1 AUT ALIQUO MODO DE/RUATUR2 NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS1 NISI P] LEGALE JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM1 VEL P] LEGEM T]RE40#a#d  

 ,! CORRESPOND+ *APT] 9 ! ,GREAT ,*>T]1 GRANT$ BY ,H5RY ,I,I,I41 7#a#b#b#e17 & CONFIRM$ BY ,$W>D ,I41 7#a#b#i#g17 7:I* *>T] IS N[ CONSID]$ ! BASIS ( ! ,5GLI% LAWS & CON/ITUTION17 IS 9 NE>LY ! SAME WORDS1 AS FOLL[S3  

 0,NULLUS LIB] HOMO CAPIATUR1 VEL IMPRISONETUR1 AUT DISSEISETUR DE LIB]O T5EM5TO1 VEL LIB]TATIBUS1 VEL LIB]IS CONSUETUD9IBUS SUIS1 AUT UTLAGETUR1 AUT EXULETUR1 AUT ALIQUO MODO DE/RUATUR1 NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS1 NISI P] LEGALE JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM1 VEL P] LEGEM T]RE40  

 ,! MO/ COMMON TRANSLATION ( !SE WORDS1 AT ! PRES5T DAY1 IS AS FOLL[S3  

 0,NO FREEMAN %ALL HE >RE/$1 OR IMPRISON$1 OR DEPRIV$ ( HIS FREEHOLD1 OR HIS LIB]TIES1 OR FREE CU/OMS1 OR \TLAW$1 OR EXIL$1 OR 9 ANY MANN] DE/ROY$1 NOR WILL WE 7! K+7 PASS UPON HIM1 NOR CONDEMN HIM1 UNLESS BY ! JUDGM5T ( HIS PE]S1 OR ! LAW ( ! L&40  

 0,NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS40  

 ,!RE HAS BE5 MU* CONFUSION & D\BT AS TO ! TRUE MEAN+ ( ! WORDS1 0NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS40 ,! MORE COMMON R5D]+ HAS BE51 0NOR WILL WE PASS UPON HIM1 NOR CONDEMN HIM40 ,BUT SOME HAVE TRANSLAT$ !M TO MEAN1 0NOR WILL WE PASS UPON HIM1 NOR COMMIT HIM TO PRISON40 ,COKE GIVES /ILL A DIFF]5T R5D]+1 TO ! EFFECT ?AT 0,NO MAN %ALL BE CONDEMN$ AT ! K+'S SUIT1 EI!R BE=E ! K+ 9 HIS B5*1 NOR BE=E ANY O!R COMMISSION] OR JUDGE :ATSOEV]40#a#e  

 ,BUT ALL !SE TRANSLATIONS >E CLE>LY ]RONE\S4 ,9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 0NOR WILL WE PASS UPON HIM10 --- MEAN+ !REBY TO DECIDE UPON HIS GUILT OR 9NOC5CE JUDICIALLY --- IS NOT A CORRECT R5D]+ ( ! WORDS1 0NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS4'' ,!RE IS NO?+ :ATEV]1 9 !SE LATT] WORDS1 ?AT 9DICATES JUDICIAL ACTION OR OP9ION AT ALL4 ,! WORDS1 9 !IR COMMON SIGNIFICANCE1 DESCRIBE PHYSICAL ACTION ALONE4 ,& ! TRUE TRANSLATION ( !M1 AS WILL H]EAFT] BE SE51 IS1 0NOR WILL WE PROCE$ AGA9/ HIM10 EXECUTIVELY4  

 ,9 ! SECOND PLACE1 ! R5D]+1 0NOR WILL WE CONDEMN HIM10 BE>S LITTLE OR NO ANALOGY TO ANY COMMON1 OR EV5 UNCOMMON1 SIGNIFICATION ( ! WORDS 0NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS40 ,!RE IS NO?+ 9 !SE LATT] WORDS ?AT 9DICATES JUDICIAL ACTION OR DECISION4 ,!IR COMMON SIGNIFICATION1 LIKE ?AT ( ! WORDS NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 DESCRIBES PHYSICAL ACTION ALONE4 0,NOR WILL WE S5D UPON 7OR AGA9/7 HIM10 W\LD BE ! MO/ OBVI\S TRANSLATION1 &1 AS WE %ALL H]EAFT] SEE1 SU* IS ! TRUE TRANSLATION4  

 ,BUT1 AL?\< !SE WORDS DESCRIBE PHYSICAL ACTION1 ON ! P>T ( ! K+1 AS DI/+UI%$ FROM JUDICIAL1 !Y NEV]!LESS DO NOT MEAN1 AS ONE ( ! TRANSLATIONS HAS IT1 0NOR WILL WE COMMIT HIM TO PRISON20 = ?AT W\LD BE A M]E REPETITION ( :AT HAD BE5 ALREADY DECL>$ BY ! WORDS 0NEC IMPRISONETUR40 ,BESIDES1 !RE IS NO?+ AB\T PRISONS 9 ! WORDS 0NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS20 NO?+ AB\T S5D+ HIM ANY:]E2 BUT ONLY AB\T S5D+ 7SOME?+ OR SOMEBODY7 UPON HIM1 OR AGA9/ HIM --- ?AT IS1 EXECUTIVELY4  

 ,COKE'S R5D]+ IS1 IF POSSIBLE1 ! MO/ ABSURD & GRATUIT\S ( ALL4 ,:AT IS !RE 9 ! WORDS1 0NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS10 ?AT CAN BE MADE TO MEAN 0NOR %ALL HE BE CONDEMN$ BE=E ANY O!R COMMISSION] OR JUDGE :ATSOEV]80 ,CLE>LY !RE IS NO?+4 ,! :OLE R5D]+ IS A %E] FABRICATION4 ,& ! :OLE OBJECT ( IT IS TO GIVE COLOR = ! EX]CISE ( A JUDICIAL P[]1 BY ! K+1 OR HIS JUDGES1 :I* IS NO:]E GIV5 !M4  

 ,NEI!R ! WORDS1 0NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS10 NOR ANY O!R WORDS 9 ! :OLE *APT]1 AU?ORIZE1 PROVIDE =1 DESCRIBE1 OR SUGGE/1 ANY JUDICIAL ACTION :ATEV]1 ON ! P>T EI!R ( ! K+1 OR ( HIS JUDGES1 OR ( ANYBODY1 EXCEPT ! PE]S1 OR JURY4 ,!RE IS NO?+ AB\T ! K+'S JUDGES AT ALL4 ,& !RE IS NO?+ :ATEV]1 9 ! :OLE *APT]1 SO F> AS RELATES TO ! ACTION ( ! K+1 ?AT DESCRIBES OR SUGGE/S ANY?+ BUT EXECUTIVE ACTION4#a#f  

 ,BUT ?AT ALL !SE TRANSLATIONS >E C]TA9LY ]RONE\S1 IS PROV$ BY A TEMPOR>Y *>T]1 GRANT$ BY ,JOHN A %ORT TIME PREVI\S TO ! ,GREAT ,*>T]1 = ! PURPOSE ( GIV+ AN OPPORTUNITY = CONF]5CE1 >BITRATION1 & RECONCILIATION BETWE5 HIM & HIS B>ONS4 ,IT WAS TO HAVE =CE UNTIL ! MATT]S 9 CONTROV]SY BETWE5 !M C\LD BE SUBMITT$ TO ! ,POPE1 & TO O!R P]SONS TO BE *OS51 SOME BY ! K+1 & SOME BY ! B>ONS4 ,! WORDS ( ! *>T] >E AS FOLL[S3  

 0,SCIATIS NOS CONCESSISSE B>ONIBUS NO/RIS QUI CONTRA NOS SUNT QUOD NEC EOS NEC HOM9ES SUOS CAPIEMUS1 NEC DISSEISIEMUS NEC SUP] EOS P] VIM VEL P] >MA IBIMUS NISI P] LEGEM REGNI NO/RI VEL P] JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM 9 CURIA NO/RA DONEC CONSID]ATIO FACTA FU]IT10 @&C41 @&C4  

 ,?AT IS1 0,KN[ ?AT WE HAVE GRANT$ TO \R B>ONS :O >E OPPOS$ TO US1 ?AT WE WILL NEI!R >RE/ !M NOR !IR M51 NOR DISSEIZE !M1 NOR WILL WE PROCE$ AGA9/ !M BY =CE OR BY >MS1 UNLESS BY ! LAW ( \R K+DOM1 OR BY ! JUDGM5T ( !IR PE]S 9 \R C\RT1 UNTIL CONSID]ATION %ALL BE HAD10 @&C41 @&C4  

 ,A COPY ( ?IS *>T] IS GIV5 9 A NOTE 9 ,BLACK/ONE'S ,9TRODUCTION TO ! ,*>T]S4#a#g  

 ,MR4 ,*RI/IAN SPEAKS ( ?IS *>T] AS SETTL+ ! TRUE MEAN+ ( ! CORRESPOND+ CLAUSE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ON ! PR9CIPLE ?AT LAWS & *>T]S ON ! SAME SUBJECT >E TO BE CON/RU$ ) REF]5CE TO EA* O!R4 ,SEE #c ,*RI/IAN'S ,BLACK/ONE1 #d#a1 NOTE4 

 ,! TRUE MEAN+ ( ! WORDS1 NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS1 IS ALSO PROV$ BY ! 0,>TICLES ( ! ,GREAT ,*>T] ( ,LIB]TIES10 DEM&$ ( ! K+ BY ! B>ONS1 & AGRE$ TO BY ! K+1 UND] SEAL1 A FEW DAYS BE=E ! DATE ( ! ,*>T]1 & FROM :I* ! ,*>T] WAS FRAM$4#a#h ,H]E ! WORDS US$ >E !SE3  

 0,NE CORPUS LIB]I HOM9IS CAPIATUR NEC IMPRISONETUR NEC DISSEISETUR NEC UTLAGETUR NEC EXULETUR NEC ALIQUO MODO DE/RUATUR NEC REX EAT VEL MITTAT SUP] EUM VI NISI P] JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM VEL P] LEGEM T]RE40  

 ,?AT IS1 0,! BODY ( A FREEMAN %ALL NOT BE >RE/$1 NOR IMPRISON$1 NOR DISSEIZ$1 NOR \TLAW$1 NOR EXIL$1 NOR 9 ANY MANN] DE/ROY$1 NOR %ALL ! K+ PROCE$ OR S5D 7ANY ONE7 AGA9/ HIM ) =CE UNLESS BY ! JUDGM5T ( HIS PE]S1 OR ! LAW ( ! L&40  

 ,! TRUE TRANSLATION ( ! WORDS NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS1 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 IS ?US MADE C]TA91 AS FOLL[S1 0NOR WILL WE 7! K+7 PROCE$ AGA9/ HIM1 NOR S5D 7ANY ONE7 AGA9/ HIM ) =CE OR >MS40#a#i  

 ,IT IS EVID5T ?AT ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! TRUE & FALSE TRANSLATIONS ( ! WORDS1 NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS1 IS ( ! HI<E/ LEGAL IMPORTANCE1 9 AS MU* AS ! TRUE TRANSLATION1 NOR WILL WE 7! K+7 PROCE$ AGA9/ HIM1 NOR S5D 7ANY ONE7 AGA9/ HIM BY =CE OR >MS1 REPRES5TS ! K+ ONLY 9 AN EXECUTIVE *>ACT]1 C>RY+ ! JUDGM5T ( ! PE]S & 0! LAW ( ! L&0 9TO EXECUTION2 :]EAS ! FALSE TRANSLATION1 NOR WILL WE PASS UPON HIM1 NOR CONDEMN HIM1 GIVES COLOR = ! EX]CISE ( A JUDICIAL P[]1 ON ! P>T ( ! K+1 TO :I* ! K+ HAD NO RI<T1 BUT :I*1 ACCORD+ TO ! TRUE TRANSLATION1 BELONGS :OLLY TO ! JURY4  

 0,P] LEGALE JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM40  

 ,! =EGO+ 9T]PRETATION IS CORROBORAT$1 7IF IT W]E NOT ALREADY TOO PLA9 TO BE SUSCEPTIBLE ( CORROBORATION17 BY ! TRUE 9T]PRETATION ( ! PHRASE 0P] LEGALE JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM40  

 ,9 GIV+ ?IS 9T]PRETATION1 ,I LEAVE \T1 = ! PRES5T1 ! WORD LEGALE1 :I* WILL BE DEF9$ AFT]W>DS4  

 ,! TRUE MEAN+ ( ! PHRASE1 P] JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM1 IS1 ACCORD+ TO ! S5T5CE ( HIS PE]S4 ,! WORD JUDICIUM1 JUDGM5T1 HAS A TE*NICAL MEAN+ 9 ! LAW1 SIGNIFY+ ! DECREE R5D]$ 9 ! DECISION ( A CAUSE4 ,9 CIVIL SUITS ?IS DECISION IS CALL$ A JUDGM5T2 9 *ANC]Y PROCE$+S IT IS CALL$ A DECREE2 9 CRIM9AL ACTIONS IT IS CALL$ A S5T5CE1 OR JUDGM5T1 9DIFF]5TLY4 ,?US1 9 A CRIM9AL SUIT1 0A MOTION 9 >RE/ ( JUDGM5T10 MEANS A MOTION 9 >RE/ ( S5T5CE4#b  

 ,9 CASES ( S5T5CE1 !RE=E1 9 CRIM9AL SUITS1 ! WORDS S5T5CE & JUDGM5T >E SYNONYM\S T]MS4 ,!Y >E1 TO ?IS DAY1 COMMONLY US$ 9 LAW BOOKS AS SYNONYM\S T]MS4 ,& ! PHRASE P] JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM1 !RE=E1 IMPLIES ?AT ! JURY >E TO FIX ! S5T5CE4  

 ,! WORD P] MEANS ACCORD+ TO4 ,O!RWISE !RE IS NO S5SE 9 ! PHRASE P] JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM4 ,!RE W\LD BE NO S5SE 9 SAY+ ?AT A K+ MI<T IMPRISON1 DISSEIZE1 \TLAW1 EXILE1 OR O!RWISE PUNI% A MAN1 OR PROCE$ AGA9/ HIM1 OR S5D ANY ONE AGA9/ HIM1 BY =CE OR >MS1 BY A JUDGM5T ( HIS PE]S2 BUT !RE IS S5SE 9 SAY+ ?AT ! K+ MAY IMPRISON1 DISSEIZE1 & PUNI% A MAN1 OR PROCE$ AGA9/ HIM1 OR S5D ANY ONE AGA9/ HIM1 BY =CE OR >MS1 ACCORD+ TO A JUDGM5T1 OR S5T5CE1 ( HIS PE]S2 CAUSE 9 ?AT CASE ! K+ W\LD BE M]ELY C>RY+ ! S5T5CE OR JUDGM5T ( ! PE]S 9TO EXECUTION4  

 ,! WORD P]1 9 ! PHRASE 0P] JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM10 ( C\RSE MEANS PRECISELY :AT IT DOES 9 ! NEXT PHRASE1 0P] LEGEM T]RE20 :]E IT OBVI\SLY MEANS ACCORD+ TO1 & NOT BY1 AS IT IS USUALLY TRANSLAT$4 ,!RE W\LD BE NO S5SE 9 SAY+ ?AT ! K+ MI<T PROCE$ AGA9/ A MAN BY =CE OR >MS1 BY ! LAW ( ! L&2 BUT !RE IS S5SE 9 SAY+ ?AT HE MAY PROCE$ AGA9/ HIM1 BY =CE OR >MS1 ACCORD+ TO ! LAW ( ! L&2 BECAUSE ! K+ W\LD !N BE ACT+ ONLY AS AN EXECUTIVE (FIC]1 C>RY+ ! LAW ( ! L& 9TO EXECUTION4 ,9DE$1 ! TRUE MEAN+ ( ! WORD BY AS US$ 9 SIMIL> CASES N[1 ALWAYS IS ACCORD+ TO2 AS1 = EXAMPLE1 :5 WE SAY A ?+ WAS DONE BY ! GOV]NM5T1 OR BY ! EXECUTIVE1 BY LAW1 WE MEAN ONLY ?AT IT WAS DONE BY !M ACCORD+ TO LAW2 ?AT IS1 ?AT !Y M]ELY EXECUT$ ! LAW4  

 ,OR1 IF WE SAY ?AT ! WORD BY SIGNIFIES BY AU?ORITY (1 ! RESULT WILL /ILL BE ! SAME2 = NO?+ CAN BE DONE BY AU?ORITY ( LAW1 EXCEPT :AT ! LAW ITSELF AU?ORIZES OR DIRECTS TO BE DONE2 ?AT IS1 NO?+ CAN BE DONE BY AU?ORITY ( LAW1 EXCEPT SIMPLY TO C>RY ! LAW ITSELF 9TO EXECUTION4 ,SO NO?+ C\LD BE DONE BY AU?ORITY ( ! S5T5CE ( ! PE]S1 OR BY AU?ORITY ( 0! LAW ( ! L&10 EXCEPT :AT ! S5T5CE ( ! PE]S1 OR ! LAW ( ! L&1 !MSELVES AU?ORIZ$ OR DIRECT$ TO BE DONE2 NO?+1 9 %ORT1 BUT ,I TO C>RY ! S5T5CE ( ! PE]S1 OR ! LAW ( ! L&1 !MSELVES 9TO EXECUTION4  

 ,DO+ A ?+ BY LAW1 OR ACCORD+ TO LAW1 IS ONLY C>RY+ ! LAW 9TO EXECUTION4 ,& PUNI%+ A MAN BY OR ACCORD+ TO1 ! S5T5CE OR JUDGM5T ( HIS PE]S1 IS ONLY C>RY+ ?AT S5T5CE OR JUDGM5T 9TO EXECUTION4  

 ,IF !SE REASONS C\LD LEAVE ANY D\BT ?AT ! WORD P] IS TO BE TRANSLAT$ ACCORD+ TO1 ?AT D\BT W\LD BE REMOV$ BY ! T]MS ( AN ANTEC$5T GU>ANTEE = ! TRIAL BY JURY1 GRANT$ BY ! ,EMP]OR ,CONRAD1 ( ,G]MANY1#b#a TWO HUNDR$ YE>S BE=E ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,BLACK/ONE CITES IT AS FOLL[S3 --- 7#c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#e7  

 0,NEMO B5EFICIUM SUUM P]DAT1 NISI SECUNDUM CONSUETUD9EM ANTECESSORUM NO/RORUM1 ET JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM40 ,?AT IS1 ,NO ONE %ALL LOSE HIS E/ATE1#b#b UNLESS ACCORD+ TO 70SECUNDUM07 ! CU/OM 7OR LAW7 ( \R ANCE/ORS1 & 7ACCORD+ TO7 ! S5T5CE 7OR JUDGM5T7 ( HIS PE]S4  

 ,! EVID5CE IS !RE=E CONCLUSIVE ?AT ! PHRASE P] JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM MEANS ACCORD+ TO ! S5T5CE ( HIS PE]S2 ?US IMPLY+ ?AT ! JURY1 & NOT ! GOV]NM5T1 >E TO FIX ! S5T5CE4  

 ,IF ANY ADDITIONAL PRO( W]E WANT$ ?AT JURIES W]E TO FIX ! S5T5CE1 IT W\LD BE F\ND 9 ! FOLL[+ PROVISIONS ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 VIZ43  

 0,A FREEMAN %ALL NOT BE AM]C$ = A SMALL CRIME1 7DELICTO17 BUT ACCORD+ TO ! DEGREE ( ! CRIME2 & = A GREAT CRIME 9 PROPORTION TO ! MAGNITUDE ( IT1 SAV+ TO HIM HIS CONT5EM5T2#b#c & AFT] ! SAME MANN] A M]*ANT1 SAV+ TO HIM HIS M]*&ISE4 ,& A VILLE9 %ALL BE AM]C$ AFT] ! SAME MANN]1 SAV+ TO HIM HIS WAYNAGE1#b#d IF HE FALL UND] \R M]CY2 & NONE ( ! A=ESAID AM]CEM5TS %ALL BE IMPOS$1 7OR ASSESS$1 PONATUR17 BUT ! OA? ( HONE/ M5 ( ! NEI<BORHOOD4 ,E>LS & ,B>ONS %ALL NOT BE AM]C$ BUT BY !IR PE]S1 & ACCORD+ TO ! DEGREE ( !IR CRIME40#b#e  

 ,PECUNI>Y PUNI%M5TS W]E ! MO/ COMMON PUNI%M5TS AT ?AT DAY1 & ! =EGO+ PROVISIONS ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA %[ ?AT ! AM\NT ( ?OSE PUNI%M5TS WAS TO BE FIX$ BY ! JURY4  

 ,F9ES W5T TO ! K+1 & W]E A S\RCE ( REV5UE2 & IF ! AM\NTS ( ! F9ES HAD BE5 LEFT TO BE FIX$ BY ! K+1 HE W\LD HAVE HAD A PECUNI>Y TEMPTATION TO IMPOSE UNREASONABLE & OPPRESSIVE ONES4 ,SO1 ALSO1 9 REG>D TO O!R PUNI%M5TS ?AN F9ES4 ,IF IT W]E LEFT TO ! K+ TO FIX ! PUNI%M5T1 HE MI<T (T5 HAVE MOTIVES TO 9FLICT CRUEL & OPPRESSIVE ONES4 ,AS IT WAS ! OBJECT ( ! TRIAL BY JURY TO PROTECT ! PEOPLE AGA9/ ALL POSSIBLE OPPRESSION FROM ! K+1 IT WAS NECESS>Y ?AT ! JURY1 & NOT ! K+1 %\LD FIX ! PUNI%M5TS4#b#f  

 0,LEGALE0  

 ,! WORD 0LEGALE10 9 ! PHRASE 0P] LEGAL JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM10 D\BTLESS MEANS TWO ?+S4 #a4 ,?AT ! S5T5CE MU/ HE GIV5 9 A LEGAL MANN]2 ?AT IS1 BY ! LEGAL NUMB] ( JURORS1 LEGALLY IMPANEL$ & SWORN TO TRY ! CAUSE2 & ?AT !Y GIVE !IR JUDGM5T OR S5T5CE AFT] A LEGAL TRIAL1 BO? 9 =M & SUB/ANCE1 HAS BE5 HAD4 #b4 ,?AT ! S5T5CE %ALL BE = A LEGAL CAUSE OR (F5SE4 ,IF1 !RE=E1 A JURY %\LD CONVICT & S5T5CE A MAN1 EI!R )\T GIV+ HIM A LEGAL TRIAL1 OR = AN ACT ?AT WAS NOT REALLY & LEGALLY CRIM9AL1 ! S5T5CE ITSELF W\LD NOT BE LEGAL2 & CONSEQU5TLY ?IS CLAUSE =BIDS ! K+ TO C>RY SU* A S5T5CE 9TO EXECUTION2 = ! CLAUSE GU>ANTEES ?AT HE WILL EXECUTE NO JUDGM5T OR S5T5CE1 EXCEPT IT BE LEGALE JUDICIUM1 A LEGAL S5T5CE4 ,:E!R A S5T5CE BE A LEGAL ONE1 W\LD HAVE TO BE ASC]TA9$ BY ! K+ OR HIS JUDGES1 ON APPEAL1 OR MI<T BE JUDG$ ( 9=MALLY BY ! K+ HIMSELF4  

 ,! WORD 0LEGALE0 CLE>LY DID NOT MEAN ?AT ! JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM 7JUDGM5T ( HIS PE]S7 %\LD BE A S5T5CE :I* ANY LAW 7( ! K+71 %\LD REQUIRE ! PE]S TO PRON\NCE2 = 9 ?AT CASE ! S5T5CE W\LD NOT S5T5CE ( ! PE]S1 BUT ONLY ! S5T5CE ( ! LAW1 7?AT IS1 ( ! K+72 & ! PE]S W\LD BE ONLY A M\?PIECE ( ! LAW1 7?AT IS1 ( ! K+17 9 UTT]+ IT4  

 0,P] LEGEM T]RE40  

 ,ONE O!R PHRASE REMA9S TO BE EXPLA9$1 VIZ41 0P] LEGEM T]RE10 0BY ! LAW ( ! L&40  

 ,ALL WRIT]S AGREE ?AT ?IS MEANS ! COMMON LAW4 ,?US1 ,SIR ,MAT!W ,HALE SAYS3  

 0,! COMMON LAW IS SOMETIMES CALL$1 BY WAY ( EM95CE1 LEX T]RE1 AS 9 ! /ATUTE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 *AP4 #b#i1 :]E C]TA9LY ! COMMON LAW IS PR9CIPALLY 9T5D$ BY ?OSE WORDS1 AUT P] LEGEM T]RE2 AS APPE>S BY ! EXPOSITION !RE( 9 SEV]AL SUBSEQU5T /ATUTES2 & P>TICUL>LY 9 ! /ATUTE ( #bh ,$W>D ,I,I,I40 *AP4 #c :I* IS BUT AN EXPOSITION & EXPLANATION ( ?AT /ATUTE4 ,SOMETIMES IT IS CALL$ LEX ,ANGLIAE1 AS 9 ! /ATUTE ( ,M]TON1 CAP4 #i1 0,NOLUMUS LEGES ,ANGLIAE MUT>I10 @&C41 7,WE WILL ?AT ! LAWS ( ,5GL& BE NOT *ANG$74 ,SOMETIMES IT IS CALL$ LEX ET CONSUETUDO REGNI 7! LAW & CU/OM ( ! K+DOM72 AS 9 ALL COMMISSIONS ( OY] & T]M9]2 & 9 ! /ATUTES ( #ah ,$W>D ,I41 CAP4 --1 & DE QUO W>RANTO1 & DIV]SE O!RS4 ,BUT MO/ COMMONLY IT IS CALL$ ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 OR ! ,COMMON ,LAW ( ,5GL&2 AS 9 ! /ATUTE ,>TICULI SUP] ,*>TAS1 CAP4 #a#e1 9 ! /ATUTE #be ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 CAP4 #e1 7#d17 & 9F9ITE MORE RECORDS & /ATUTES40 --- #a ,HALE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 #a#b#h4  

 ,?IS COMMON LAW1 OR 0LAW ( ! L&10 ! K+ WAS SWORN TO MA9TA94 ,?IS FACT IS RECOGNIZ$ BY A /ATUTE MADE AT ,WE/M9/]1 9 #a#c#d#f1 BY ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 :I* COMM5CES 9 ?IS MANN]3  

 0,$W>D1 BY ! ,GRACE ( ,GOD1 @&C41 @&C41 TO ! ,%]IFF ( ,/AF=D1 ,GREET+3 ,BECAUSE ?AT BY DIV]SE COMPLA9TS MADE TO US1 WE HAVE P]CEIV$ ?AT ! LAW ( ! L&1 :I* WE BY OA? >E B\ND TO MA9TA910 @&C4 --- ,/4 #b ,$W>D ,I,I,I4  

 ,! =EGO+ AU?ORITIES >E CIT$ TO %[ TO ! UNPR(ESSIONAL READ]1 :AT IS WELL KN[N TO ! PR(ESSION1 ?AT LEGEM T]RE1 ! LAW ( ! L&1 M5TION$ 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 WAS ! COMMON1 ANCI5T1 FUNDAM5TAL LAW ( ! L&1 :I* ! K+S W]E B\ND BY OA? TO OBS]VE2 & ?AT IT DID NOT 9CLUDE ANY /ATUTES OR LAWS 5ACT$ BY ! K+ HIMSELF1 ! LEGISLATIVE P[] ( ! NATION4  

 ,IF ! T]M LEGEM T]RE HAD 9CLUD$ LAWS 5ACT$ BY ! K+ HIMSELF1 ! :OLE *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 N[ UND] DISCUSSION1 W\LD HAVE AM\NT$ TO NO?+ AS A PROTECTION TO LIB]TY2 BECAUSE IT W\LD HAVE IMPOS$ NO RE/RA9T :ATEV] UPON ! P[] ( ! K+4 ,! K+ C\LD MAKE LAWS AT ANY TIME1 & SU* ONES AS HE PLEAS$4 ,HE C\LD1 !RE=E1 HAVE DONE ANY?+ HE PLEAS$1 BY ! LAW ( ! L&1 AS WELL AS 9 ANY O!R WAY1 IF HIS [N LAWS HAD BE5 0! LAW ( ! L&40 ,IF HIS [N LAWS HAD BE5 0! LAW ( ! L&10 )9 ! MEAN+ ( ?AT T]M AS US$ 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ?IS *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA W\LD HAVE BE5 %E] NONS5SE1 9ASMU* AS ! :OLE PURPORT ( IT W\LD HAVE BE5 SIMPLY ?AT 0NO MAN %ALL HE >RE/$1 IMPRISON$1 OR DEPRIV$ ( HIS FREEHOLD1 OR HIS LIB]TIES1 OR FREE CU/OMS1 OR \TLAW$1 OR EXIL$1 OR 9 ANY MANN] DE/ROY$ 7BY ! K+72 NOR %ALL ! K+ PROCE$ AGA9/ HIM1 NOR S5D ANY ONE AGA9/ HIM ) =CE & >MS1 UNLESS BY ! JUDGM5T ( HIS PE]S1 OR UNLESS ! K+ %ALL PLEASE TO DO SO40  

 ,?IS *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA W\LD1 !RE=E1 HAVE IMPOS$ NOT ! SLI<TE/ RE/RA9T UPON ! P[] ( ! K+1 OR AF=D$ ! SLI<TE/ PROTECTION TO ! LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE1 IF ! LAWS ( ! K+ HAD BE5 EMBRAC$ 9 ! T]M LEGEM T]RE4 ,BUT IF LEGEM T]RE WAS ! COMMON LAW1 :I* ! K+ WAS SWORN TO MA9TA91 !N A REAL RE/RICTION WAS LAID UPON HIS P[]1 & A REAL GU>ANTEE GIV5 TO ! PEOPLE = !IR LIB]TIES4  

 ,SU*1 !N1 BE+ ! MEAN+ ( LEGEM T]RE1 ! FACT IS E/ABLI%$ ?AT AN ACCUS$ P]SON 5TIRELY \T ( ! H&S ( ! LEGISLATIVE P[]1 ?AT IS1 ( ! K+2 & PLAC$ HIM 9 ! P[] & UND] ! PROTECTION ( HIS PE]S1 & ! COMMON LAW ALONE2 ?AT1 9 %ORT1 ,MAGNA ,C>TA SUFF]$ NO MAN TO BE PUNI%$ = VIOLAT+ ANY 5ACTM5T ( ! LEGISLATIVE P[]1 UNLESS ! PE]S OR EQUALS ( ! ACCUS$ FREELY CONS5T$ TO IT1 OR ! COMMON LAW AU?ORIZ$ IT2 ?AT ! LEGISLATIVE P[]1 ( ITSELF1 WAS :OLLY 9COMPET5T TO REQUIRE ! CONVICTION OR PUNI%M5T ( A MAN = ANY (F5SE :ATEV]4  

 ,:E!R ,MAGNA ,C>TA ALL[$ ( ANY O!R TRIAL ?AN BY JURY4  

 ,! QUE/ION H]E >ISES1 :E!R 0LEGEM T]RE0 DID NOT ALL[ ( SOME O!R MODE ( TRIAL ?AN ?AT BY JURY4  

 ,! ANSW] IS1 ?AT1 AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 IT IS NOT PROBABLE1 7= ! REASONS GIV5 9 ! NOTE17 ?AT LEGEM T]RE AU?ORIZ$1 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 ANY O!R TRIAL ?AN ! TRIAL BY JURY2 BUT1 IF IT DID1 IT C]TA9LY AU?ORIZ$ NONE BUT ! TRIAL BY BATTLE1 ! TRIAL BY ORDEAL1 & ! TRIAL BY COMPURGATORS4 ,!SE W]E ! ONLY MODES ( TRIAL1 EXCEPT BY JURY1 ?AT HAD BE5 KN[N 9 ,5GL&1 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 = SOME C5TURIES PREVI\S TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,ALL ( !M HAD BECOME NE>LY EXT9CT AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & IT IS NOT PROBABLE ?AT !Y W]E 9CLUD$ 9 0LEGEM T]RE10 AS ?AT T]M IS US$ 9 ?AT 9/RUM5T4 ,BUT IF !Y W]E 9CLUD$ 9 IT1 !Y HAVE N[ BE5 LONG OBSOLETE1 & W]E SU* AS NEI!R ?IS NOR ANY FUTURE AGE WILL EV] RETURN TO4#b#g ,= ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES ( ! PRES5T DAY1 !RE=E1 IT MAY BE ASS]T$ ?AT ,MAGNA ,C>TA ALL[S NO TRIAL :ATEV] BUT TRIAL BY JURY4  

 ,:E!R ,MAGNA ,C>TA ALL[$ S5T5CE TO BE FIX$ O!RWISE ?AN BY JURY4  

 ,/ILL ANO!R QUE/ION >ISES ON ! WORDS LEGEM T]RE1 VIZ41 :E!R1 9 CASES :]E ! QUE/ION ( GUILT WAS DET]M9$ BY ! JURY1 ! AM\NT ( PUNI%M5T MAY NOT HAVE BE5 FIX$ BY LEGEM T]RE1 ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 9/EAD ( ITS BE+ FIX$ BY ! JURY4  

 ,I ?9K WE HAVE NO EVID5CE :ATEV] ?AT1 AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 OR 9DE$ AT ANY O!R TIME1 LEX T]RE1 ! COMMON LAW1 FIX$ ! PUNI%M5T 9 CASES :]E ! QUE/ION ( GUILT WAS TRI$ BY A JURY2 OR1 9DE$1 ?AT IT DID 9 ANY O!R CASE4 ,D\BTLESS C]TA9 PUNI%M5TS W]E COMMON & USUAL = C]TA9 (F5SES2 BUT ,I DO NOT ?9K IT CAN BE %[N ?AT ! COMMON LAW1 9 ! LEX T]RE1 :I* ! K+ WAS SWORN TO MA9TA91 REQUIR$ ANY ONE SPECIFIC PUNI%M5T1 OR ANY PRECISE AM\NT ( PUNI%M5T1 = ANY ONE SPECIFIC (F5SE4 ,IF SU* A ?+ BE CLAIM$1 IT MU/ BE %[N1 = IT CANNOT BE PRESUM$4 ,9 FACT ! CONTR>Y MU/ BE PRESUM$1 BECAUSE1 9 ! NATURE ( ?+S1 ! AM\NT ( PUNI%M5T PROP] TO BE 9FLICT$ 9 ANY P>TICUL> CASE1 IS A MATT] REQUIR+ ! EX]CISE ( DISCRETION AT ! TIME1 9 ORD] TO ADAPT IT TO ! MORAL QUALITY ( ! (F5SE1 :I* IS DIFF]5T 9 EA* CASE1 V>Y+ ) ! M5TAL & MORAL CON/ITUTIONS ( ! (F5D]S1 & ! CIRCUM/ANCES ( TEMPTATION OR PROVOCATION4 ,& ,MAGNA ,C>TA RECOGNIZES ?IS PR9CIPLE DI/9CTLY1 AS HAS BE=E BE5 %[N1 9 PROVID+ ?AT FREEM51 M]*ANTS1 & VILLE9S1 0%ALL NOT BE AM]C$ = A SMALL CRIME1 BUT ACCORD+ TO ! DEGREE ( ! CRIME2 & = A GREAT CRIME 9 PROPORTION TO ! MAGNITUDE ( IT20 & ?AT 0NONE ( ! A=ESAID AM]CEM5TS %ALL BE IMPOS$ 7OR ASSESS$7 BUT BY ! OA?S ( HONE/ M5 ( ! NEI<BORHOOD20 & ?AT 0E>LS & B>ONS %ALL NOT BE AM]C$ BUT BY !IR PE]S1 & ACCORD+ TO ! QUALITY ( ! (F5SE40  

 ,ALL ?IS IMPLIES ?AT ! MORAL QUALITY ( ! (F5SE WAS TO BE JUDG$ ( AT ! TRIAL1 & ?AT ! PUNI%M5T WAS TO BE FIX$ BY ! DISCRETION ( ! PE]S1 OR JURY1 & NOT BY ANY SU* UNV>Y+ RULE AS A COMMON LAW RULE W\LD BE4  

 ,I ?9K1 !RE=E1 IT MU/ HE CONC$$ ?AT1 9 ALL CASES1 TRI$ BY A JURY1 ,MAGNA ,C>TA 9T5D$ ?AT ! PUNI%M5T %\LD HE FIX$ BY ! JURY1 & NOT BY ! COMMON LAW1 = !SE SEV]AL REASONS4  

 #a4 ,IT IS UNC]TA9 :E!R ! COMMON LAW FIX$ ! PUNI%M5T ( ANY (F5SE :ATEV]4  

 #b4 ,! WORDS 0P] JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM10 ACCORD+ TO ! S5T5CE ( HIS PE]S1 IMPLY ?AT ! JURY FIX$ ! S5T5CE 9 SOME CASES TRI$ BY !M2 & IF !Y FIX$ ! S5T5CE 9 SOME CASES1 IT MU/ BE PRESUM$ !Y DID 9 ALL1 UNLESS ! CONTR>Y BE CLE>LY %[N4 

 #c4 ,! EXPRESS PROVISIONS ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 BE=E ADV]T$ TO1 ?AT NO AM]CEM5TS1 OR F9ES1 %\LD HE IMPOS$ UPON FREEM51 M]*ANTS1 OR VILLE9S1 0BUT BY OA? ( HONE/ M5 ( ! NEI<BORHOOD10 & 0ACCORD+ TO ! DEGREE ( ! CRIME10 & ?AT 0E>LS & B>ONS %\LD NOT BE AM]C$ BUT BY !IR PE]S1 & ACCORD+ TO ! QUALITY ( ! (F5SE10 PROVES ?AT1 AT LEA/1 !RE WAS NO COMMON LAW FIX+ ! AM\NT ( F9ES1 OR1 IF !RE W]E1 ?AT IT WAS TO HE NO LONG] 9 =CE4 ,& IF !RE WAS NO COMMON LAW FIX+ ! AM\NT ( F9ES1 OR IF IT WAS TO HE NO LONG] 9 =CE1 IT IS REASONABLE TO 9F]1 79 ! ABS5CE ( ALL EVID5CE TO ! CONTR>Y17 EI!R ?AT ! COMMON LAW DID NOT FIX ! AM\NT ( ANY O!R PUNI%M5T1 OR ?AT IT WAS TO BE NO LONG] 9 =CE = ?AT PURPOSE4#b#h  

 ,UND] ! ,SAXON LAWS1 F9ES1 PAYABLE TO ! 9JUR$ P>TY1 SEEM TO HAVE BE5 ! COMMON PUNI%M5TS = ALL (F5SES4 ,EV5 MURD] WAS PUNI%ABLE BY A F9E PAYABLE TO ! RELATIVES ( ! DECEAS$4 ,! MURD] ( ! K+ EV5 WAS PUNI%ABLE BY F9E4 ,:5 A CRIM9AL WAS UNABLE TO PAY HIS F9E1 HIS RELATIVES (T5 PAID IT = HIM4 ,BUT IF IT W]E NOT PAID1 HE WAS PUT \T ( ! PROTECTION ( ! LAW1 & ! 9JUR$ P>TIES1 7OR1 9 ! CASE ( MURD]1 ! K9DR$ ( ! DECEAS$17 W]E ALL[$ TO 9FLICT SU* PUNI%M5T AS !Y PLEAS$4 ,& IF ! RELATIVES ( ! CRIM9AL PROTECT$ HIM1 IT WAS LAWFUL TO TAKE V5GEANCE ON !M ALSO4 ,AFT]W>DS ! CU/OM GREW UP ( EXACT+ F9ES ALSO TO ! K+ AS A PUNI%M5T = (F5SES4#b#i ,& ?IS LATT] WAS1 D\BTLESS1 ! USUAL PUNI%M5T AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 AS IS EVID5C$ BY ! FACT ?AT = MANY YE>S IMM$IATELY FOLL[+ ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 NE>LY OR QUITE ALL /ATUTES ?AT PRESCRIB$ ANY PUNI%M5T AT ALL1 PRESCRIB$ ?AT ! (F5D] %\LD 0BE GRIEV\SLY AM]C$10 OR 0PAY A GREAT F9E TO ! K+10 OR A 0GRIEV\S RANSOM10 --- ) ! ALT]NATIVE 9 SOME CASES 7P]HAPS UND]/OOD 9 ALL7 ( IMPRISONM5T1 BANI%M5T1 OR \TLAWRY1 9 CASE ( NONPAYM5T4#c  

 ,JUDG+1 !RE=E1 FROM ! SPECIAL PROVISIONS 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 REQUIR+ F9ES1 OR AM]CEM5TS1 TO BE IMPOS$ ONLY BY JURIES1 7)\T M5TION+ ANY O!R PUNI%M5TS27 JUDG+2 ALSO1 FROM ! /ATUTES :I* IMM$IATELY FOLL[$ ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 IT IS PROBABLE ?AT ! ,SAXON CU/OM ( PUNI%+ ALL1 OR NE>LY ALL1 (F5SES BY F9ES1 7) ! ALT]NATIVE TO ! CRIM9AL ( BE+ IMPRISON$1 BANI%$1 OR \TLAW$1 & EXPOS$ TO PRIVATE V5GEANCE1 9 CASE ( NONPAYM5T17 CONT9U$ UNTIL ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA2 & ?AT 9 PROVID+ EXPRESSLY ?AT F9ES %\LD BE FIX$ BY ! JURIES1 ,MAGNA ,C>TA PROVID$ = NE>LY OR QUITE ALL ! PUNI%M5TS ?AT W]E EXPECT$ TO BE 9FLICT$2 ?AT IF !RE W]E TO BE ANY O!RS1 !Y W]E TO BE FIX$ BY ! JURIES2 & CONSEQU5TLY ?AT NO?+ WAS LEFT TO BE FIX$ BY 0LEGEM T]RE40  

 ,BUT :E!R ! COMMON LAW FIX$ ! PUNI%M5T ( ANY (F5SES1 OR NOT1 IS A MATT] ( LITTLE OR NO PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE AT ?IS DAY2 BECAUSE WE HAVE NO IDEA ( GO+ BACK TO ANY COMMON LAW PUNI%M5TS ( SIX HUNDR$ YE>S AGO1 IF1 9DE$1 !RE W]E ANY SU* AT ?AT TIME4 ,IT IS 5\< = US TO KN[N --- & ?IS IS :AT IT MAT]IAL = US TO KN[ --- ?AT ! JURY FIX$ ! PUNI%M5TS1 9 ALL CASES1 UNLESS !Y W]E FIX$ BY ! COMMON LAW2 ?AT ,MAGNA ,C>TA ALL[$ NO PUNI%M5TS TO BE PRESCRIB$ BY /ATUTE --- ?AT IS1 BY ! LEGISLATIVE P[] --- NOR 9 ANY O!R MANN] BY ! K+2 OR HIS JUDGES1 9 ANY CASE :ATEV]2 &1 CONSEQU5TLY1 ?AT ALL /ATUTES PRESCRIB+ P>TICUL> PUNI%M5TS = P>TICUL> (F5SES1 OR GIV+ ! K+'S JUDGES ANY AU?ORITY TO FIX PUNI%M5TS1 W]E VOID4  

 ,IF ! P[] TO FIX PUNI%M5TS HAD BE5 LEFT 9 ! H&S ( ! K+1 IT W\LD HAVE GIV5 HIM A P[] ( OPPRESSION1 :I* WAS LIABLE TO BE GREATLY ABUS$2 :I* !RE WAS NO OCCASION TO LEAVE ) HIM2 & :I* W\LD HAVE BE5 9CONGRU\S ) ! :OLE OBJECT ( ?IS *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA2 :I* OBJECT WAS TO TAKE ALL DISCRETION>Y OR >BITR>Y P[] OV] 9DIVIDUALS 5TIRELY \T ( ! H&S ( ! K+1 & HIS LAWS1 & 5TRU/ IT ONLY TO ! COMMON LAW1 & ! PE]S1 OR JURY --- ?AT IS1 ! PEOPLE4  

 ,:AT LEX T]RE DID AU?ORIZE4  

 ,BUT H]E ! QUE/ION >ISES1 ,:AT !N DID 0LEGEM T]RE0 AU?ORIZE ! K+1 7?AT IS1 ! GOV]NM5T17 TO DO 9 ! CASE ( AN ACCUS$ P]SON1 IF IT NEI!R AU?ORIZ$ ANY O!R TRIAL ?AN ?AT BY JURY1 NOR ANY O!R PUNI%M5TS ?AN ?OSE FIX$ BY JURIES8  

 ,! ANSW] IS1 ?AT1 [+ TO ! D>KNESS ( HI/ORY ON ! PO9T1 IT IS PROBABLY :OLLY IMPOSSIBLE1 AT ?IS DAY1 TO /ATE1 ) ANY C]TA9TY OR PRECISION1 ANY?+ :ATEV] ?AT ! LEGEM T]RE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA DID AU?ORIZE ! K+1 7?AT IS1 ! GOV]NM5T17 TO DO1 7IF1 9DE$1 IT AU?ORIZ$ HIM TO DO ANY?+17 9 ! CASE ( CRIM9ALS1 O!R ?AN TO HAVE !M TRI$ & S5T5C$ BY !IR PE]S1 = COMMON LAW CRIMES2 & TO C>RY ?AT S5T5CE 9TO EXECUTION4  

 ,! TRIAL BY JURY WAS A P>T ( LEGEM T]RE1 & WE HAVE ! MEANS ( KN[+ :AT ! TRIAL BY JURY WAS4 ,! FACT ?AT ! JURY W]E TO FIX ! S5T5CE1 IMPLIES ?AT !Y W]E TO TRY ! ACCUS$2 O!RWISE !Y C\LD NOT KN[ :AT S5T5CE1 OR :E!R ANY S5T5CE1 \<T TO BE 9FLICT$ UPON HIM4 ,H5CE IT FOLL[S ?AT ! JURY W]E TO JUDGE ( EV]Y?+ 9VOLV$ 9 ! TRIAL2 ?AT IS1 !Y W]E TO JUDGE ( ! NATURE ( ! (F5SE1 ( ! ADMISSIBILITY & WEI<T ( TE/IMONY1 & ( EV]Y?+ ELSE :ATSOEV] ?AT WAS ( ! ESS5CE ( ! TRIAL4 ,IF ANY?+ :ATEV] C\LD BE DICTAT$ TO !M1 EI!R ( LAW OR EVID5CE1 ! S5T5CE W\LD NOT BE !IRS1 BUT W\LD BE DICTAT$ TO !M BY ! P[] ?AT DICTAT$ TO !M ! LAW OR EVID5CE4 ,! TRIAL & S5T5CE1 !N1 W]E :OLLY 9 ! H&S ( ! JURY4  

 ,WE ALSO HAVE SUFFICI5T EVID5CE ( ! NATURE ( ! OA? ADM9I/]$ TO JURORS 9 CRIM9AL CASES4 ,IT WAS SIMPLY1 ?AT !Y W\LD NEI!R CONVICT ! 9NOC5T1 NOR ACQUIT ! GUILTY4 ,?IS WAS ! OA? 9 ! ,SAXON TIMES1 & PROBABLY CONT9U$ TO BE UNTIL ,MAGNA ,C>TA4  

 ,WE ALSO KN[ ?AT1 9 CASE ( CONVICTION1 ! S5T5CE ( ! JURY WAS NOT NECESS>ILY F9AL2 ?AT ! ACCUS$ HAD ! RI<T ( APPEAL TO ! K+ & HIS JUDGES1 & TO DEM& EI!R A NEW TRIAL1 OR AN ACQUITTAL1 IF ! TRIAL OR CONVICTION HAD BE5 AGA9/ LAW4  

 ,SO MU*1 !RE=E1 ( ! LEGEM T]RE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 WE KN[ ) REASONABLE C]TA9TY4  

 ,WE ALSO KN[ ?AT ,MAGNA ,C>TA PROVIDES ?AT 0,NO BAILIFF 7BALIVUS7 %ALL H]EAFT] PUT ANY MAN TO HIS LAW1 7PUT HIM ON TRIAL17 ON HIS S+LE TE/IMONY1 )\T CR$IBLE WITNESSES BR\<T TO SUPPORT IT40 ,COKE ?9KS 0?AT UND] ?IS WORD BALIVUS1 9 ?IS ACT1 IS COMPREH5D$ EV]Y JU/ICE1 M9I/] ( ! K+2 /EW>D ( ! K+2 /EW>D & BAILIFF40 7#b ,9/4 #d#d47 ,& 9 SUPPORT ( ?IS IDEA HE QUOTES FROM A V]Y ANCI5T LAW BOOK1 CALL$ ! ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES1 WRITT5 9 ! TIME ( ,$W>D ,I41 )9 A C5TURY AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,BUT :E!R ?IS W]E REALLY A COMMON LAW PR9CIPLE1 OR :E!R ! PROVISION GREW \T ( ?AT JEAL\SY ( ! GOV]NM5T :I*1 AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 HAD REA*$ ITS HEI<T1 CANNOT P]HAPS N[ BE DET]M9$4  

 ,WE ALSO KN[ ?AT1 BY ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 AM]CEM5TS1 OR F9ES1 C\LD NOT BE IMPOS$ TO ! RU9 ( ! CRIM9AL2 ?AT1 9 ! CASE ( A FREEMAN1 HIS CONT5EM5T1 OR MEANS ( SUBSI/+ 9 ! CONDITION ( A FREEMAN1 MU/ BE SAV$ TO HIM2 ?AT1 9 ! CASE ( A M]*ANT1 HIS M]*&ISE MU/ BE SP>$2 & 9 ! CASE ( A VILLE91 HIS WAYNAGE1 OR PL[-TACKLE & C>TS4 ,?IS ALSO IS LIKELY TO HAVE BE5 A PR9CIPLE ( ! COMMON LAW1 9ASMU* AS1 9 ?AT RUDE AGE1 :5 ! MEANS ( GETT+ EMPLOYM5T AS LABOR]S W]E NOT :AT !Y >E N[1 ! MAN & HIS FAMILY W\LD PROBABLY HAVE BE5 LIABLE TO />VATION1 IF !SE MEANS ( SUBSI/5CE HAD BE5 TAK5 FROM HIM4  

 ,WE ALSO KN[1 G5]ALLY1 ?AT1 AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ALL ACTS 9TR9SICALLY CRIM9AL1 ALL TRESPASSES AGA9/ P]SONS & PROP]TY1 W]E CRIMES1 ACCORD+ TO LEX T]RE1 OR ! COMMON LAW4  

 ,BEYOND ! PO9TS N[ GIV51 WE H>DLY KN[ ANY?+2 PROBABLY NO?+ ) C]TA9TY1 AS TO :AT ! 0LEGEM T]RE0 ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA DID AU?ORIZE1 9 REG>D TO CRIMES4 ,!RE IS H>DLY ANY?+ EXTANT ?AT CAN GIVE US ANY REAL LI<T ON ! SUBJECT4  

 ,IT W\LD SEEM1 H[EV]1 ?AT !RE W]E1 EV5 AT ?AT DAY1 SOME COMMON LAW PR9CIPLES GOV]N+ >RE/S2 & SOME COMMON LAW =MS & RULES AS TO HOLD+ A MAN = TRIAL1 7BY BAIL OR IMPRISONM5T27 PUTT+ HIM ON TRIAL1 SU* AS BY 9DICTM5T OR COMPLA9T2 SUMMON+ & IMPANEL+ JURORS1 @&C41 @&C4 ,:ATEV] !SE COMMON LAW PR9CIPLES W]E1 ,MAGNA ,C>TA REQUIRES !M TO BE OBS]V$2 = ,MAGNA ,C>TA PROVIDES = ! :OLE PROCE$+S1 COMM5C+ ) ! >RE/1 70NO FREEMAN %ALL BE >RE/$10 @&C417 & 5D+ ) ! EXECUTION ( ! S5T5CE4 ,& IT PROVIDES ?AT NO?+ %ALL BE DONE1 BY ! GOV]NM5T1 FROM BEG9N+ TO 5D1 UNLESS ACCORD+ TO ! S5T5CE ( ! PE]S1 OR 0LEGEM T]RE10 ! COMMON LAW4 ,! TRIAL BY PE]S WAS A P>T ( LEGEM T]RE1 & WE HAVE SE5 ?AT ! PE]S MU/ NECESS>ILY HAVE GOV]N$ ! :OLE PROCE$+S AT ! TRIAL4 ,BUT ALL ! PROCE$+S = >RE/+ ! MAN1 & BR++ HIM TO TRIAL1 MU/ HAVE BE5 HAD BE=E ! CASE C\LD COME UND] ! COGNIZANCE ( ! PE]S1 & !Y MU/1 !RE=E1 HAVE BE5 GOV]N$ BY O!R RULES ?AN ! DISCRETION ( ! PE]S4 ,WE MAY CONJECTURE1 AL?\< WE CANNOT P]HAPS KN[ ) MU* C]TA9TY1 ?AT ! LEX T]RE1 OR COMMON LAW1 GOV]N+ !SE O!R PROCE$+S1 WAS SOME:AT SIMIL> TO ! COMMON LAW PR9CIPLES1 ON ! SAME PO9TS1 AT ! PRES5T DAY4 ,SU* SEEM TO BE ! OP9IONS ( ,COKE1 :O SAYS ?AT ! PHRASE NISI P] LEGEM T]RE MEANS UNLESS BY DUE PROCESS ( LAW4  

 ,?US1 HE SAYS3  

 0,NISI P] LEGEM T]RE4 ,BUT BY ! LAW ( ! L&4 ,= ! TRUE S5SE & EXPOSITION ( !SE WORDS1 SEE ! /ATUTE ( #cg ,$W4 ,I,I,I41 CAP4 #h1 :]E ! WORDS1 BY ! LAW ( ! L&1 >E R5D]$ )\T DUE PROCESS ( LAW2 = !RE IT IS SAID1 ?\< IT BE CONTA9$ 9 ! ,GREAT ,*>T]1 ?AT NO MAN BE TAK51 IMPRISON$1 OR PUT \T ( HIS FREEHOLD1 )\T PROCESS ( ! LAW2 ?AT IS1 BY 9DICTM5T OR PRES5TM5T ( GOOD & LAWFUL M51 :]E SU* DE$S BE DONE 9 DUE MANN]1 OR BY WRIT ORIG9AL ( ! COMMON LAW4  

 0,)\T BE+ BR\<T 9 TO ANSW] BUT BY DUE PROCESS ( ! COMMON LAW4  

 0,NO MAN BE PUT TO ANSW] )\T PRES5TM5T BE=E JU/ICES1 OR ?+ ( RECORD1 OR BY DUE PROCESS1 OR BY WRIT ORIG9AL1 ACCORD+ TO ! OLD LAW ( ! L&40 --- #b ,9/4 #e4  

 ,! =EGO+ 9T]PRETATIONS ( ! WORDS NISI P] LEGEM T]RE >E CORROBORAT$ BY ! FOLL[+ /ATUTES1 5ACT$ 9 ! NEXT C5TURY AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA4  

 0,?AT NO MAN1 FROM H5CE=?1 %ALL BE ATTA*$ BY ANY ACCUSATION1 NOR =EJUDG$ ( LIFE OR LIMB1 NOR HIS L&1 T5EM5TS1 GOODS1 NOR *ATTELS1 SEIZ$ 9TO ! K+'S H&S1 AGA9/ ! =MS ( ! ,GREAT ,*>T]1 & ! LAW ( ! L&40 --- ,/4 #e ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 ,*4 #i4 7#a#c#c#a47  

 0,:]EAS IT IS CONTA9$ 9 ! ,GREAT ,*>T] ( ! FRAN*ISES ( ,5GL&1 ?AT NONE %ALL BE IMPRISON$1 NOR PUT \T ( HIS FREEHOLD1 NOR ( HIS FRAN*ISES1 NOR FREE CU/OMS1 UNLESS IT BE BY ! LAW ( ! L&2 IT IS ACCORD$1 ASS5T$1 & E/ABLI%$1 ?AT FROM H5CE=? NONE %ALL BE TAK5 BY PETITION1 OR SUGGE/ION MADE TO \R LORD ! K+1 OR TO HIS C\NCIL1 UNLESS IT BE BY 9DICTM5T OR PRES5TM5T ( GOOD & LAWFUL PEOPLE ( ! SAME NEI<BORHOOD :]E SU* DE$S BE DONE 9 DUE MANN]1 OR BY PROCESS MADE BY WRIT ORIG9AL AT ! COMMON LAW2 NOR ?AT NONE BE PUT \T ( HIS FRAN*ISES1 NOR ( HIS FREEHOLD1 UNLESS HE BE DULY BR\<T 9TO ANSW]1 & =EJUDG$ ( ! SAME BY ! C\RSE ( ! LAW2 & IF ANY?+ BE DONE AGA9/ ! ME1 IT %ALL BE R$RESS$ & HOLD5 = NONE40 --- ,/4 #be ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 ,*4 #d4 7#a#c#e47  

 0,?AT NO MAN1 ( :AT E/ATE OR CONDITION ?AT HE BE1 %ALL BE PUT \T ( L& OR T5EM5T1 NOR TAK51 NOR IMPRISON$1 NOR DIS9H]IT$1 NOR PUT TO DEA?1 )\T BE+ BR\<T 9 ANSW] BY DUE PROCESS ( LAW40 --- ,/4 #bh ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 ,*4 #c4 7#a#c#e#d47  

 0,?AT NO MAN BE PUT TO ANSW] )\T PRES5TM5T BE=E JU/ICES1 OR MATT] ( RECORD1 OR BY DUE PROCESS & WRIT ORIG9AL1 ACCORD+ TO ! OLD LAW ( ! L&4 ,& IF ANY?+ FROM H5CE=? BE DONE TO ! CONTR>Y1 IT %ALL BE VOID 9 LAW1 & HOLD5 = ]ROR40 --- ,/4 #db ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 ,*4#c4 7#a#c#f#h47  

 ,! =EGO+ 9T]PRETATION ( ! WORDS NISI P] LEGEM T]RE ---- ?AT IS1 BY PROCESS ( LAW --- 9CLUD+ 9DICTM5T1 @&C41 HAS BE5 ADOPT$ AS ! TRUE ONE BY MOD]N WRIT]S & C\RTS2 AS1 = EXAMPLE1 BY ,K5T1 7#b ,COMM4 #a#c17 ,/ORY1 7#c ,COMM4 #f#f#a17 & ! ,SUPREME ,C\RT ( ,NEW ,YORK1 7#a#i ,W5DELL1 #f#g#f2 #d ,HILL1 #a#d#f47  

 ,! FIF? AM5DM5T TO ! CON/ITUTION ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 FRAM$ ON ! SAME IDEA1 9ASMU* AS IT PROVIDES ?AT 0NO P]SON %ALL BE DEPRIV$ ( LIFE1 LIB]TY1 OR PROP]TY1 )\T DUE PROCESS ( LAW4#c#a  

 ,:E!R ! WORD ,V,E,L %\LD BE OR R5D]$ BY ,O,R1 OR BY ,&4  

 ,HAV+ ?US GIV5 ! MEAN+S1 OR RA!R ! APPLICATIONS1 :I* ! WORDS VEL P] LEGEM T]RE WILL REASONABLY1 & P]HAPS MU/ NECESS>ILY1 BE>1 IT IS PROP] TO SUGGE/1 ?AT IT HAS BE5 SUPPOS$ BY SOME ?AT ! WORD VEL1 9/EAD ( BE+ R5D]$ BY OR1 AS IT USUALLY IS1 \<T TO BE R5D]$ BY &1 9ASMU* AS ! WORD VEL IS (T5 US$ = ET1 & ! :OLE PHRASE NISI P] JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM1 VEL P] LEGEM T]RE1 7:I* W\LD !N READ1 UNLESS BY ! S5T5CE ( HIS PE]S1 & ! LAW ( ! L&17 W\LD CONVEY A MORE 9TELLIGIBLE & H>MONI\S MEAN+ ?AN IT O!RWISE DOES4  

 ,BLACK/ONE SUGGE/S ?AT ?IS MAY BE ! TRUE READ+4 7,*>T]S1 P4#d#a47 ,ALSO ,MR4 ,HALLAM1 :O SAYS3  

 0,NISI P] LEGALE JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM1 VEL P] LEGEM T]RE4 ,SEV]AL EXPLANATIONS HAVE BE5 (F]$ ( ! ALT]NATIVE CLAUSE2 :I* SOME HAVE REF]R$ TO JUDGM5T BY DEFAULT1 OR DEMURR]2 O!RS TO ! PROCESS ( ATTA*M5T = CONTEMPT4 ,C]TA9LY !RE >E MANY LEGAL PROC$URES BESIDES TRIAL BY JURY1 ?R\< :I* A PADS GOODS OR P]SON MAY BE TAK54 ,BUT ONE MAY D\BT :E!R !SE W]E 9 CONTEMPLATION ( ! FRAM]S ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,9 AN 5TRY ( ! ,*>T] ( #abag BY A CONTEMPOR>Y H&1 PRES]V$ 9 ! ,T[N-CL]K'S (FICE 9 ,LONDON1 CALL$ ,LIB] ,CU/UM>UM ET ,REGUM ANTIQU>UM1 A V>I\S READ+1 ET P] LEGEM T]RE1 OCCURS4 ,BLACK/ONE'S ,*>T]S1 P4#d#b 7#d#a47 ,& ! WORD VEL IS SO FREQU5TLY US$ = ET1 ?AT ,I AM NOT :OLLY FREE FROM A SUSPICION ?AT IT  WAS SO 9T5D$ 9 ?IS PLACE4 ,! MEAN+ WILL BE1 ?AT NO P]SON %ALL BE DISSEIZ$1 @&C41 EXCEPT UPON A LAWFUL CAUSE ( ACTION1 F\ND BY ! V]DICT ( A JURY4 ,?IS REALLY SEEMS AS GOOD AS ANY ( ! DISJUNCTIVE 9T]PRETATIONS2 BUT ,I DO NOT (F] IT ) MU* CONFID5CE40 --- #b ,HALLAM'S ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 ,*4 #h1 ,P>T #b1 P4#d#d#i1 NOTE4#c#b  

 ,! IDEA ?AT ! WORD VEL %\LD BE R5D]$ BY &1 IS CORROBORAT$1 IF NOT ABSOLUTELY CONFIRM$1 BY ! FOLL[+ PASSAGE 9 ,BLACK/ONE1 :I* HAS BE=E BE5 CIT$4 ,SPEAK+ ( ! TRIAL BY JURY1 AS E/ABLI%$ BY ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 HE CALLS IT1  

 0,A PRIVILEGE :I* IS 9 ALMO/ SAME WORDS ) ?AT ( ! ,EMP]OR ,CONRAD TWO HUNDR$ YE>S BE=E3 'NEMO B5EFICIUM SUUM P]DAT1 NISI SECUNDUM CONSUETUD9EM ANTECESSORUM NO/RORUM1 ET JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM4'0 7,NO ONE %ALL LOSE HIS E/ATE UNLESS ACCORD+ TO ! CU/OM ( \R ANCE/ORS1 & ! JUDGM5T ( HIS PE]S47 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#e4  

 ,IF ! WORD VEL BE R5D]$ BY &1 7AS ,I ?9K IT MU/ BE1 AT LEA/ 9 SOME CASES17 ?IS *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA WILL !N READ ?AT NO FREEMAN %ALL BE >RE/$ OR PUNI%$1 0UNLESS ACCORD+ TO ! S5T5CE ( HIS PE]S1 & ! LAW ( ! L&40  

 ,! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ?IS READ+ & ! O!R IS IMPORTANT4 ,9 ! ONE CASE1 !RE W\LD BE1 AT FIR/ VIEW1 SOME COLOR ( GR\ND = SAY+ ?AT A MAN MI<T BE PUNI%$ 9 EI!R ( TWO WAYS1 VIZ41 ACCORD+ TO ! S5T5CE ( HIS PE]S1 OR ACCORD+ TO ! LAW ( ! L&4 ,9 ! O!R CASE1 IT REQUIRES BO? ! S5T5CE ( HIS PE]S & ! LAW ( ! L& 7COMMON LAW7 TO AU?ORIZE HIS PUNI%M5T4  

 ,IF ?IS LATT] READ+ BE ADOPT$1 ! PROVISION W\LD SEEM TO EXCLUDE ALL TRIALS EXCEPT TRIAL BY JURY1 & ALL CAUSES ( ACTION EXCEPT ?OSE ( ! COMMON LAW4  

 ,BUT ,I APPREH5D ! WORD VEL MU/ BE R5D]$ BO? BY &1 & BY OR2 ?AT 9 CASES ( A JUDGM5T1 IT %\LD BE R5D]$ BY &1 SO AS TO REQUIRE ! CONCURR5CE BO? ( 0! JUDGM5T ( ! PE]S & ! LAW ( ! L&10 TO AU?ORIZE ! K+ TO MAKE EXECUTION UPON A P>KS GOODS OR P]SON2 BUT ?AT 9 CASES ( >RE/ & IMPRISONM5T1 SIMPLY = ! PURPOSE ( BR++ A MAN TO TRIAL1 VEL %\LD BE R5D]$ BY OR1 BECAUSE !RE CAN HAVE BE5 NO JUDGM5T ( A JURY 9 SU* A CASE1 & 0! LAW ( ! L&0 MU/ !RE=E NECESS>ILY BE ! ONLY GUIDE TO1 & RE/RA9T UPON1 ! K+4 ,IF ?IS GUIDE & RE/RA9T W]E TAK5 AWAY1 ! K+ W\LD BE 9VE/$ ) AN >BITR>Y & MO/ DANG]\S P[] 9 MAK+ >RE/S1 & CONF9+ 9 PRISON1 UND] PRET5SE ( AN 9T5TION TO BR+ TO TRIAL4  

 ,HAV+ ?US EXAM9$ ! LANGUAGE ( ?IS *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 SO F> AS IT RELATES TO CRIM9AL CASES1 ITS LEGAL IMPORT MAY BE /AT$ AS FOLL[S1 VIZ43  

 ,NO FREEMAN %ALL BE >RE/$1 OR IMPRISON$1 OR DEPRIV$ ( HIS FREEHOLD1 OR HIS LIB]TIES1 OR FREE CU/OMS1 OR BE \TLAW$1 OR EXIL$1 OR 9 ANY MANN] DE/ROY$1 7H>M$17 NOR WILL WE 7! K+7 PROCE$ AGA9/ HIM1 NOR S5D ANY ONE AGA9/ HIM1 BY =CE OR >MS1 UNLESS ACCORD+ TO 7?AT IS1 9 EXECUTION (7 ! S5T5CE ( HIS PE]S1 & 7OR OR1 AS ! CASE MAY REQUIRE7 ! ,COMMON LAW ( ,5GL&1 7AS IT WAS AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 9 #a#b#a#e47  

,*,A,P,T,] ,I,I,I4 ,A,D,D,I,T,I,O,N,A,L ,P,R,O,(,S ,( ,! ,R,I,<,T,S ,& ,D,U,T,I,E,S ,( ,J,U,R,O,R,S  

 ,IF ANY EVID5CE1 EXTRANE\S TO ! HI/ORY & LANGUAGE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 W]E NE$$ TO PROVE ?AT1 BY ?AT *APT] :I* GU>ANTIES ! TRIAL BY JURY1 ALL WAS MEANT ?AT HAS N[ BE5 ASCRIB$ TO IT1 & ?AT ! LEGISLATION ( ! K+ WAS TO BE ( NO AU?ORITY ) ! JURY BEYOND :AT !Y *OSE TO ALL[ TO IT1 & ?AT ! JURIES W]E TO LIMIT ! PUNI%M5TS TO BE 9FLICT$1 WE %\LD F9D ?AT EVID5CE 9 V>I\S S\RCES1 SU* AS ! LAWS1 CU/OMS1 & *>ACT]S ( !IR ANCE/ORS ON ! CONT95T1 & ( ! NOR!RN ,EUROPEANS G5]ALLY2 9 ! LEGISLATION & CU/OMS ?AT IMM$IATELY SUCCE$$ ,MAGNA ,C>TA2 9 ! OA?S ?AT HAVE AT DIFF]5T TIMES BE5 ADM9I/]$ TO JURORS1 @&C41 @&C4 ,?IS EVID5CE CAN BE EXHIBIT$ H]E BUT P>TIALLY4 ,TO GIVE IT ALL W\LD REQUIRE TOO MU* SPACE & LABOR4  

 ,S,E,C,T,I,O,N #a4 ,WEAKNESS ( ! ,REGAL ,AU?ORITY4  
  

 ,HU<ES1 9 HIS PREFACE TO HIS TRANSLATION ( ,HORNE'S 0,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES10 7A BOOK WRITT5 9 ! TIME ( ,$W>D ,I41 #abgb TO #a#c#g17 GIV+ A CONCISE VIEW ( ! LAWS ( ,5GL& G5]ALLY1 SAYS3  

 0,AL?\< 9 ! ,SAXON'S TIME ,I F9D ! USUAL WORDS ( ! ACTS !N TO HAVE BE5 $ICITIM1 7$ICT17 CON/ITUTIO1 7/ATUTE17 LITTLE M5TION BE+ MADE ( ! COMMONS1 YET ,I FUR!R F9D ?AT1 TUM DEMUM LEGES VIM ET VIGOREM HABU]UNT1 CUM FU]UNT NON MODO 9/ITUTAE S$ FIRMATAE APPOBATIONE COMMUNITATIS40 7,! LAWS HAD =CE & VIGOR ONLY :5 !Y W]E NOT ONLY 5ACT$1 BUT CONFIRM$ BY ! APPROVAL ( ! COMMUNITY47  

 ,! ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES ITSELF ALSO SAYS1 7*4 #a1 SEC4 #c17 N SPEAK+ 0,( ! FIR/ ,CON/ITUTIONS ( ! ,ANCI5T ,K+S30  

 0,MANY ORD9ANCES W]E MADE BY MANY K+S1 UNTIL ! TIME ( ! ,K+ ?AT N[ IS 7,$W>D ,I472 ! :I* ORD9ANCES W]E ABUS$1 OR NOT US$ BY MANY1 NOR V]Y CURR5T1 BECAUSE !Y W]E NOT PUT 9 WRIT+1 & C]TA9LY PUBLI%$40 --- ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES1 P4 #f4  

 ,HALLAM SAYS3  

 0,! ,FRANKS1 ,LOMB>DS1 & ,SAXONS SEEM ALIKE TO HAVE BE5 JEAL\S ( JUDICIAL AU?ORITY2 & AV]SE TO SURR5D]+ :AT CONC]N$ EV]Y MAN'S PRIVATE RI<T1 \T ( ! H&S ( HIS NEI<BORS & EQUALS40 --- #a ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 #b#g#a4  

 ,! 0JUDICIAL AU?ORITY10 H]E SPOK5 (1 WAS ! AU?ORITY ( ! K+S1 7:O AT ?AT TIME UNIT$ ! (FICE ( BO? LEGISLATORS & JUDGES17 & NOT ( A SEP>ATE DEP>TM5T ( GOV]NM5T1 CALL$ ! JUDICI>Y1 LIKE :AT HAS EXI/$ 9 MORE MOD]N TIMES4#c#c  

 ,HUME SAYS3  

 0,! GOV]NM5T ( ! ,G]MANS1 & ?AT ( ALL ! NOR!RN NATIONS1 :O E/ABLI%$ !MSELVES ON ! RU9S ( ,ROME1 WAS ALWAYS EXTREMELY FREE2 & ?OSE FI]CE PEOPLE1 ACCU/OM$ TO 9DEP5D5CE & 9UR$ TO >MS1 W]E MORE GUID$ BY P]SUASION1 ?AN AU?ORITY1 9 ! SUBMISSION :I* !Y PAID TO !IR PR9CES4 ,! MILIT>Y DESPOTISM1 :I* HAD TAK5 PLACE 9 ! ,ROMAN EMPIRE1 & :I*1 PREVI\SLY TO ! IRRUPTION ( ?OSE CONQU]ORS1 HAD SUNK ! G5IUS ( M51 & DE/ROY$ EV]Y NOBLE PR9CIPLE ( SCI5CE & VIRTUE1 WAS UNABLE TO RESI/ ! VIGOR\S EF=TS ( A FREE PEOPLE1 & ,EUROPE1 AS FROM A NEW EPO*1 REK9DL$ H] ANCI5T SPIRIT1 & %OOK (F ! BASE S]VITUDE TO >BITR>Y WILL & AU?ORITY UND] :I* %E HAD SO LONG LABOR$4 ,! FREE CON/ITUTIONS !N E/ABLI%$1 H[EV] IMPAIR$ BY ! 5CROA*M5TS ( SUCCE$+ PR9CES1 /ILL PRES]VE AN AIR ( 9DEP5D5CE & LEGAL ADM9I/RATION1 :I* DI/+UI%$ ! ,EUROPEAN NATIONS2 & IF ?AT P>T ( ! GLOBE MA9TA9 S5TIM5TS ( LIB]TY1 HONOR1 EQUITY1 & VALOR1 SUP]IOR TO ! RE/ ( MANK9D1 IT [ES !SE ADVANTAGES *IEFLY TO ! SE$S IMPLANT$ BY ?OSE G5]\S B>B>IANS4  

 0,! ,SAXONS1 :O SUBDU$ ,BRITA91 AS !Y 5JOY$ GREAT LIB]TY 9 !IR [N C\NTRY1 OB/9ATELY RETA9S ?AT 9VALUABLE POSSESSION 9 !IR NEW SETTLEM5T2 & !Y IMPORT$ 9TO ?IS ISL& ! SAME PR9CIPLES ( 9DEP5D5CE1 :I* !Y 9H]ITS FROM !IR ANCE/ORS4 ,! *IEFTA9S1 7= SU* !Y W]E1 MORE ?AN K+S OR PR9CES17 :O COMM&$ !M 9 ?OSE MILIT>Y EXP$ITIONS1 /ILL POSSESS$ A V]Y LIMIT$ AU?ORITY2 & AS ! ,SAXONS EXT]M9AT$1 RA!R ?AN SUBDU$ ! ANCI5T 9HABITANTS1 !Y W]E1 9DE$1 TRANSPLANT$ 9TO A NEW T]RITORY1 BUT PRES]V$ UNALT]$ ALL !IR CIVIL & MILIT>Y 9/ITUTIONS4 ,! LANGUAGE WAS PURE ,SAXON2 EV5 ! NAMES ( PLACES1 :I* (T5 REMA9 :ILE ! TONGUE 5TIRELY *ANGES1 W]E ALMO/ ALL AFFIX$ BY ! CONQU]ORS2 ! MANN]S & CU/OMS W]E :OLLY ,G]MAN2 & ! SAME PICTURE ( A FI]CE & BOLD LIB]TY1 :I* IS DRAWN BY ! MA/]LY P5 ( ,TACITUS1 WILL SUIT ?OSE F\ND]S ( ! ,5GLI% GOV]NM5T4 ,! K+1 SO F> FROM BE+ 9VE/$ ) >BITR>Y P[]1 WAS ONLY CONSID]$ AS ! FIR/ AMONG ! CITIZ5S2 HIS AU?ORITY DEP5D$ MORE ON HIS P]SONAL QUALITIES ?AN ON HIS /ATION2 HE WAS EV5 SO F> ON A LEVEL ) ! PEOPLE1 ?AT A /AT$ PRICE WAS FIX$ = HIS HEAD1 & A LEGAL F9E WAS LEVI$ UPON HIS MURD]]1 :I* ?\< PROPORTIONATE TO HIS /ATION1 & SUP]IOR TO ?AT PAID = ! LIFE ( A SUBJECT1 WAS A S5SIBLE M>K ( HIS SUBORD9ATION TO ! COMMUNITY40 --- #a ,HUME1 ,APP5DIX1 #a4  

 ,/U>T SAYS3  

 0,! ,SAXONS BR\<T ALONG ) !M 9TO ,BRITA9 !IR [N CU/OMS1 LANGUAGE1 & CIVIL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,FREE 9 ,G]MANY1 !Y R5\NC$ NOT !IR 9DEP5D5CE1 :5 !Y HAD CONQU]$4 ,PR\D FROM VICTORY1 & ) !IR SWORDS 9 !IR H&S1 W\LD !Y SURR5D] !IR LIB]TIES TO A PRIVATE MAN8 ,W\LD TEMPOR>Y LEAD]S1 LIMIT$ 9 !IR P[]S1 & UNPROVID$ 9 RES\RCES1 EV] ?9K TO USURP AN AU?ORITY OV] W>RIORS1 :O CONSID]$ !MSELVES AS !IR EQUALS1 W]E IMPATI5T ( CONTROL1 & ATTA*$ ) DEVOT$ ZEAL TO !IR PRIVILEGES8 ,OR1 W\LD !Y F9D LEISURE TO =M RESOLUTIONS1 OR OPPORTUNITIES TO PUT !M 9 PRACTICE1 AMID ! TUMULT & CONFUSION ( ?OSE FI]CE & BLOODY W>S1 :I* !IR NATIONS FIR/ WAG$ ) ! ,BRITONS1 & !N 5GAG$ 9 AMONG !MSELVES8 ,SUFFICI5TLY FLATT]$ 9 LEAD+ ! >MIES ( !IR C\NTRYM51 ! AMBITION ( COMM&]S C\LD AS LITTLE SUGGE/ SU* DESIGNS1 AS ! LIB]TY ( ! PEOPLE C\LD SUBMIT TO !M4 ,! CONQU]ORS ( ,BRITA9 RETA9$ !IR 9DEP5D5CE2 & ?IS ISL& SAW ITSELF AGA9 9 ?AT FREE /ATE 9 :I* ! ,ROMAN >MS HAD DISCOV]$ IT4  

 0,! SAME FIRMNESS ( *>ACT]1 & G5]OSITY ( MANN]S1 :I*1 9 G5]AL1 DI/+UI%$ ! ,G]MANS1 W]E POSSESS$ 9 AN EM95T DEGREE BY ! ,SAXONS2 & :ILE WE 5DEAVOR TO UNFOLD !IR POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS1 WE MU/ P]PETUALLY TURN \R OBS]VATION TO ?AT MA/]LY PICTURE 9 :I* ! ,ROMAN HI/ORIAN HAS DESCRIB$ !SE NATIONS4 ,9 ! WOODS ( ,G]MANY %ALL WE F9D ! PR9CIPLES :I* DIRECT$ ! /ATE ( L&1 9 ! DIFF]5T ,K+DOMS ( ,EUROPE2 & !RE %ALL WE F9D ! F\NDATION ( ?OSE RANKS ( M51 & ( ?OSE CIVIL >RANGEM5TS1 :I* ! B>B>IANS EV]Y:]E E/ABLI%$2 & :I* ! ,5GLI% ALONE HAVE HAD ! GOOD =TUNE1 OR ! SPIRIT1 TO PRES]VE40 --- ,/U>T ON ! ,CON/ITUTION ( ,5GL&1 P4 #e#i-#f#a4  

 0,K+S !Y 7! ,G]MANS7 RESPECT$ AS ! FIR/ MAGI/RATES ( ! /ATE2 BUT ! AU?ORITY POSSESS$ BY !M WAS N>R[ & LIMIT$4 --- ,DITTO1 P4 #a#c#d4  

 0,DID HE1 7! ,K+17 AT ANY TIME1 RELAX HIS ACTIVITY & M>TIAL >DOR1 DID HE EMPLOY HIS ABILITIES TO ! PREJUDICE ( HIS NATION1 OR FANCY HE WAS SUP]IOR TO ! LAWS2 ! SAME P[] :I* RAIS$ HIM TO HONOR1 HUMBL$ & DEGRAD$ HIM4 ,! CU/OMS & C\NCILS ( HIS C\NTRY PO9T$ \T TO HIM HIS DUTY2 & IF HE 9FR+$ ON ! =M]1 OR DISOBEY$ ! LATT]1 A FI]CE PEOPLE SET ASIDE HIS AU?ORITY4  

 0,HIS LONG HAIR WAS ! ONLY ORNAM5T HE AFFECT$1 & TO BE =EMO/ TO ATTACK AN 5EMY WAS HIS *IEF DI/9CTION4 ,5GAG$ 9 EV]Y HAZ>D\S EXP$ITION1 HE WAS A /RANG] TO REPOSE2 &1 RIVAL$ BY HALF ! H]OES ( HIS TRIBE1 HE C\LD OBTA9 LITTLE P[]4 ,ANXI\S & WAT*FUL = ! PUBLIC 9T]E/1 HE FELT EV]Y MOM5T HIS DEP5D5CE1 & GAVE PRO(S ( HIS SUBMISSION4  

 0,HE ATT5D$ ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY ( HIS NATION1 & WAS ALL[$ ! PRIVILEGE TO H>ANGUE IT FIR/2 BUT ! >TS ( P]SUASION1 ?\< KN[N & RESPECT$ BY A RUDE PEOPLE1 W]E UNEQUALLY OPPOS$ TO ! PREJUDICES & PASSIONS ( M540 --- ,DITTO1 P4 #a#c#e-#f4  

 0,! AU?ORITY ( A ,SAXON MON>* WAS NOT MORE CONSID]ABLE4 ,! ,SAXONS SUBMITT$ NOT TO ! >BITR>Y RULE ( PR9CES4 ,!Y ADM9I/]$ AN OA? TO !IR SOV]EIGNS1 :I* B\ND !M TO ACKN[L$GE ! LAWS1 & TO DEF5D ! RI<TS ( ! *UR* & ! PEOPLE2 & IF !Y =GOT ?IS OBLIGATION1 !Y =FEIT$ !IR (FICE4 ,9 BO? C\NTRIES1 A PRICE WAS AFFIX$ ON K+S1 A F9E EXPIAT$ !IR MURD]1 AS WELL AS ?AT ( ! MEANE/ CITIZ52 & ! SMALLE/ VIOLATION ( ANCI5T USAGE1 OR ! LEA/ /EP T[>DS TYRANNY1 WAS ALWAYS DANG]\S1 & (T5 FATAL TO !M40 --- ,DITTO1 P4 #a#c#i-#d4  

 0,!Y W]E NOT ALL[$ TO IMPOSE TAXES ON ! K+DOM40 --- ,DITTO1 ,P4 #a#d#f4  

 0,LIKE ! ,G]MAN MON>*S1 !Y DELIB]AT$ 9 ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY ( ! NATION2 BUT !IR LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY WAS NOT MU* RESPECT$2 & !IR ASS5T WAS CONSID]$ 9 NO BETT] LI<T ?AN AS A =M4 ,?IS1 H[EV]1 WAS !IR *IEF PR]OGATIVE2 & !Y EMPLOY$ IT TO ACQUIRE AN ASC5DANT 9 ! /ATE4 ,TO >T & 9S9UATION !Y TURN$1 AS !IR ONLY RES\RCE1 & FLATT]$ A PEOPLE :OM !Y C\LD NOT AWE2 BUT ADDRESS1 & ! ABILITIES TO P]SUADE1 W]E A WEAK COMP5SATION = ! ABS5CE ( REAL P[]4  

 0,!Y DECL>$ W>1 IT IS SAID1 & MADE PEACE4 ,9 BO? CASES1 H[EV]1 !Y ACT$ AS ! 9/RUM5TS ( ! /ATE1 & PUT 9 EXECUTION ! RESOLUTIONS :I* ITS C\NCILS HAD DECRE$4 ,IF1 9DE$1 AN 5EMY HAD 9VAD$ ! ,K+DOM1 & ITS GLORY & ITS SAFETY W]E CONC]N$1 ! GREAT LORDS TOOK ! FIELD AT ! CALL ( !IR SOV]EIGN4 ,BUT HAD A SOV]EIGN DECL>$ W> AGA9/ A NEI<BOR+ /ATE1 )\T REQUIR+ !IR ADVICE1 OR IF HE MEANT TO REV5GE BY >MS AN 9SULT (F]$ TO HIM BY A SUBJECT1 A HAU<TY & 9DEP5D5T NOBILITY REFUS$ !IR ASSI/ANCE4 ,!SE !Y CONSID]$ AS ! QU>RELS ( ! ,K+1 & NOT ( ! NATION2 & 9 ALL SU* EM]G5CIES HE C\LD ONLY BE ASSI/$ BY HIS RETA9]S & DEP5D5TS40 --- ,DITTO1 P4 #a#d#g-#h4  

 0,NOR MU/ WE IMAG9E ?AT ! ,SAXON1 ANY MORE ?AN ! ,G]MAN MON>*S1 SUCCE$$ EA* O!R 9 A L9EAL DESC5T1#c#d OR ?AT !Y DID POS$ ( ! CR[N AT !IR PLEASURE4 ,9 BO? C\NTRIES1 ! FREE ELECTION ( ! PEOPLE FILL$ ! ?RONE2 & !IR *OICE WAS ! ONLY RULE BY :I* PR9CES REIGN$4 ,! SUCCESSION1 ACCORD+LY1 ( !IR ,K+S WAS (T5 BROK5 & SUCCESSION 9T]RUPT$1 & !IR DEPOSITIONS W]E FREQU5T & GR\NDLESS4 ,! WILL ( A PR9CE :OM !Y HAD LONG RESPECT$1 & ! FAVOR !Y NATURALLY TRANSF]R$ TO HIS DESC5DANT1 MADE !M (T5 ADVANCE HIM TO ! ROYAL DIGNITY2 BUT ! CR[N ( HIS ANCE/OR HE CONSID]$ AS ! GIFT ( ! PEOPLE1 & NEI!R EXPECT$ NOR CLAIM$ IT AS A RI<T40 --- ,DITTO1 P4 #a#e#a-#c4  

 ,9 ,G]MANY 0,IT WAS ! BUS9ESS ( ! GREAT TO COMM& 9 W>1 & 9 PEACE !Y DI/RIBUT$ JU/ICE4   

 0,! PR9CES 9 ,G]MANY W]E E>LS 9 ,5GL&4 ,! GREAT CONT5D$ 9 BO? C\NTRIES 9 ! NUMB] ( !IR RETA9]S1 & 9 ?AT SPL5DOR & MAGNIFIC5CE :I* >E SO ALLUR+ TO A RUDE PEOPLE2 & ?\< !Y JO9$ TO SET B\NDS TO REGAL P[]1 !Y W]E (T5 ANIMAT$ AGA9/ EA* O!R ) ! FI]CE/ HATR$4 ,TO A PR\D & IMPATI5T NOBILITY IT SEEM$ LITTLE & UNSUIT+ TO GIVE OR ACCEPT COMPOSITIONS = ! 9JURIES !Y COMMITT$ OR RECEIV$2 & !IR VASSALS ADOPT+ !IR RES5TM5T & PASSIONS1 W> & BLOOD%$ ALONE C\LD T]M9ATE !IR QU>RELS4 ,:AT NECESS>ILY RESULT$ FROM !IR SITUATION 9 SOCIETY1 WAS CONT9U$ AS A PRIVILEGE & ! GREAT1 9 BO? C\NTRIES1 MADE W>1 ( !IR PRIVATE AU?ORITY1 ON !IR 5EMIES4 ,! ,SAXON E>LS EV5 C>RI$ !IR >MS AGA9/ !IR SOV]EIGNS2 &1 SURR\ND$ ) RETA9]S OR SECURE 9 =TRESSES & CA/LES1 !Y DESPIS$ !IR RES5TM5T1 & DEFI$ !IR P[]4  

 0,! JUDGES ( ! PEOPLE1 !Y PRESID$ 9 BO? C\NTRIES 9 C\RTS ( LAW4#c#e ,! P>TICUL> DI/RICTS OV] :I* !Y EX]T$ !IR AU?ORITY W]E M>K$ \T 9 ,G]MANY BY ! C\NCIL ( ! /ATE2 & 9 ,5GL& !IR JURISDICTION EXT5D$ OV] ! FIEFS & O!R T]RITORIES !Y POSSESS$4 ,ALL CAUSES1 BO? CIVIL & CRIM9AL1 W]E TRI$ BE=E !M2 & !Y JUDG$1 EXCEPT 9 CASES ( ! UTMO/ IMPORTANCE1 )\T APPEAL4 ,!Y W]E EV5 ALL[$ TO GRANT P>DON TO CRIM9ALS1 & TO CORRECT BY !IR CLEM5CY ! RIGORS ( JU/ICE4 ,NOR DID ! SOV]EIGN EX]CISE ANY AU?ORITY 9 !IR L&S4 ,9 !SE HIS (FIC]S =M$ NO C\RTS1 & HIS WRIT WAS DISREG>D$4  

 0,!Y HAD (FIC]S1 AS WELL AS ! ,K+1 :O COLLECT$ !IR REV5UES & ADD$ TO !IR GREATNESS2 & ! 9HABITANTS ( !IR L&S !Y DI/+UI%$ BY ! NAME ( SUBJECTS4  

 0,BUT TO ATT5D ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY ( !IR NATION WAS ! *IEF PR]OGATIVE ( ! ,G]MAN & ,SAXON PR9CES2 & AS !Y CONSULT$ ! 9T]E/ ( !IR C\NTRY1 & DELIB]AT$ CONC]N+ MATT]S ( /ATE1 SO 9 ! K+'S C\RT1 ( :I* ALSO !Y W]E MEMB]S1 !Y ASSI/$ TO PRON\NCE JUDGM5T 9 ! COMPLA9TS & APPEALS :I* W]E LODG$ 9 IT4 --- ,DITTO1 P4 #aeh TO #a#f#e4  

 ,H5RY SAYS3  

 0,NO?+ CAN BE MORE EVID5T ?AN ?IS IMPORTANT TRU?2 ?AT \R ,ANGLO-,SAXON ,K+S W]E NOT ABSOLUTE MON>*S2 BUT ?AT !IR P[]S & PR]OGATIVES W]E LIMIT$ BY ! LAWS & CU/OMS ( ! C\NTRY4 ,\R ,SAXON ANCE/ORS HAD BE5 GOV]N$ BY LIMIT$ MON>*S 9 !IR NATIVE SEATS ON ! CONT95T1 & !RE IS NOT ! LEA/ APPE>ANCE OR PROBABILITY ?AT !Y REL9QUI%$ !IR LIB]TIES1 & SUBMITT$ TO ABSOLUTE GOV]NM5T 9 !IR NEW SETTLEM5TS 9 ?IS ISL&4 ,IT IS NOT TO BE IMAG9$ ?AT M51 :OSE REIGN+ PASSION WAS ! LOVE ( LIB]TY1 W\LD WILL+LY RESIGN IT2 & !IR NEW SOV]EIGNS1 :O HAD BE5 !IR FELL[-SOLDI]S1 HAD C]TA9LY NO P[] TO COMPEL !M TO SU* A RESIGNATION40 --- #c ,H5RY'S ,HI/ORY ( ,GREAT ,BRITA91 #c#e#h4  

 ,MACK9TO% SAYS3 0,! ,SAXON *IEFS1 :O W]E CALL$ K+S1 ORIG9ALLY ACQUIR$ P[] BY ! SAME NATURAL CAUSES :I* HAVE GRADUALLY1 & EV]Y:]E1 RAIS$ A FEW M5 ABOVE !IR FELL[S4 ,!Y W]E1 D\BTLESS1 MORE SKILLFUL1 MORE BRAVE1 OR MORE BEAUTIFUL1 ?AN ?OSE :O FOLL[$ !M4 "9 "9 ,A K+ WAS P[]FUL 9 W> BY ! LU/] ( HIS >MS1 & ! OBVI\S NECESSITY ( OB$I5CE4 ,HIS 9FLU5CE 9 PEACE FLUCTUAT$ ) HIS P]SONAL *>ACT]4 ,9 ! PROGRESS ( USAGE HIS P[] BECAME MORE FIX$ & MORE LIMIT$4 "9 "9 ,IT W\LD BE V]Y UNREASONABLE TO SUPPOSE ?AT ! NOR!RN ,G]MANS :O HAD CONQU]$ ,5GL&1 HAD SO F> *ANG$ !IR *>ACT]I/IC HABITS FROM ! AGE ( ,TACITUS1 ?AT ! VICTORS BECAME SLAVES1 & ?AT !IR G5]ALS W]E CONV]T$ 9TO TYRANTS4 --- ,MACK9TO%'S ,HI/4 ( ,5GL&1 ,*4 #b4 #de ,L>DN]'S ,CAB4 ,CYC41 #g#c-#d4  

 ,RAP91 9 HIS DISC\RSE ON ! 0,ORIG9 & ,NATURE ( ! ,5GLI% ,CON/ITUTION10 SAYS3  

 0,!RE >E BUT TWO ?+S ! ,SAXONS DID NOT ?9K PROP] TO TRU/ !IR K+S )2 = BE+ ( LIKE PASSIONS ) O!R M51 !Y MI<T V]Y POSSIBLY ABUSE !M2 NAMELY1 ! P[] ( *ANG+ ! LAWS 5ACT$ BY CONS5T ( K+ & PEOPLE2 & ! P[] ( RAIS+ ILLEGAL TAXES AT PLEASURE4 ,FROM !SE TWO >TICLES SPRUNG NUMB]LESS BRAN*ES CONC]N+ ! LIB]TY & PROP]TY ( ! SUBJECT1 :I* ! K+ CANNOT T\*1 )\T BREAK+ ! CON/ITUTION1 & !Y >E ! DI/+UI%+ *>ACT] ( ! ,5GLI% MON>*Y4 ,! PR]OGATIVES ( ! CR[N1 & ! RI<TS & PRIVILEGES ( ! PEOPLE1 FL[+ FROM ! TWO =E-M5TION$ >TICLES1 >E ! GR\ND ( ALL ! LAWS ?AT FROM TIME TO TIME HAVE BE5 MADE BY UNANIM\S CONS5T ( K+ & PEOPLE4 ,! ,5GLI% GOV]NM5T CONSI/S 9 ! /RICT UNION ( ! ,K+'S PR]OGATIVES ) ! PEOPLE'S LIB]TIES4 "9 "9 ,BUT :5 K+S >OSE1 AS SOME !RE W]E1 ?AT AIM$ AT ABSOLUTE P[]1 BY *ANG+ ! OLD1 & MAK+ NEW LAWS1 AT PLEASURE2 BY IMPOS+ ILLEGAL TAXES ON ! PEOPLE2 ?IS EXCELL5T GOV]NM5T BE+1 9 A MANN]1 DISSOLV$ BY !SE DE/RUCTIVE MEASURES1 CONFUSION & CIVIL W>S 5SU$1 :I* SOME V]Y WRONGFULLY ASCRIBE TO ! FICKLE & RE/LESS TEMP] ( ! ,5GLI%40 --- ,RAP9'S ,PREFACE TO HIS ,HI/ORY ( ,5GL&4  

 ,HALLAM SAYS ?AT AMONG ! ,SAXONS1 0! ROYAL AU?ORITY WAS WEAK40 --- #b ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 #d#c4  

 ,BUT AL?\< ! K+ HIMSELF HAD SO LITTLE AU?ORITY1 ?AT IT CANNOT BE SUPPOS$ = A MOM5T ?AT HIS LAWS W]E REG>D$ AS IMP]ATIVE BY ! PEOPLE1 IT HAS NEV]!LESS BE5 CLAIM$1 9 MOD]N TIMES1 BY SOME :O SEEM DET]M9$ TO F9D OR MAKE A PREC$5T = ! PRES5T LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY ( P>LIAM5T1 ?AT HIS LAWS W]E AU?ORITATIVE1 :5 ASS5T$ TO BY ! ,WIT5A-GEMOTE1 OR ASSEMBLY ( WISE M5 --- ?AT IS1 ! BI%OPS & B>ONS4 ,BUT ?IS ASSEMBLY EVID5TLY HAD NO LEGISLATIVE P[] :ATEV]4 ,! K+ W\LD OCCASIONALLY 9VITE ! BI%OPS & B>ONS TO MEET HIM = CONSULTATION ON PUBLIC AFFAIRS1 SIMPLY AS A C\NCIL1 & NOT AS A LEGISLATIVE BODY4 ,SU* AS SAW FIT TO ATT5D1 DID SO4 ,IF !Y W]E AGRE$ UPON :AT \<T TO BE DONE1 ! K+ W\LD PASS A LAW ACCORD+LY1 & ! B>ONS & BI%OPS W\LD !N RETURN & 9=M ! PEOPLE ORALLY :AT LAWS HAD BE5 PASS$1 & USE !IR 9FLU5CE ) !M TO 9DUCE !M TO CON=M TO ! LAW ( ! K+1 & ! RECOMM5DATION ( ! C\NCIL4 ,& ! PEOPLE NO D\BT W]E MU* MORE LIKELY TO ACCEPT A LAW ( ! K+1 IF IT HAD BE5 APPROV$ BY ?IS C\NCIL1 ?AN IF IT HAD NOT4 ,BUT IT WAS /ILL ONLY A LAW ( ! K+1 :I* !Y OBEY$ OR DISREG>D$ ACCORD+ TO !IR [N NOTIONS ( EXP$I5CY4 ,! NUMB]S :O USUALLY ATT5D$ ?IS C\NCIL W]E TOO SMALL TO ADMIT ( ! SUPPOSITION ?AT !Y HAD ANY LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY :ATEV]1 TO IMPOSE LAWS UPON ! PEOPLE AGA9/ !IR WILL4  

 ,L+>D SAYS3  

 0,IT WAS NECESS>Y ?AT ! K+ %\LD OBTA9 ! ASS5T ( !SE 7! MEMB]S ( ! ,WIT5A-GEMOTES7 TO ALL LEGISLATIVE 5ACTM5TS2 BECAUSE1 )\T !IR ACQUIESC5CE & SUPPORT1 IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE TO C>RY !M 9TO EXECUTION4 ,TO MANY *>T]S 7LAWS7 WE HAVE ! SIGNATURES ( ! ,WITAN4 ,!Y SELDOM EXCE$ ?IRTY 9 NUMB]2 !Y NEV] AM\NT TO SIXTY40 --- #a ,L+>D1 #d#h#f4 

 ,IT IS RIDICUL\S TO SUPPOSE ?AT ! ASS5T ( SU* AN ASSEMBLY GAVE ANY AU?ORITY TO ! LAWS ( ! K+1 OR HAD ANY 9FLU5CE 9 SECUR+ OB$I5CE TO !M1 O!RWISE ?AN BY WAY ( P]SUASION4 ,IF ?IS BODY HAD HAD ANY REAL LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY1 SU* AS IS ACCORD$ TO LEGISLATIVE BODIES ( ! PRES5T DAY1 !Y W\LD HAVE MADE !MSELVES AT ONCE ! MO/ CONSPICU\S PORTION ( ! GOV]NM5T1 & W\LD HAVE LEFT BEH9D !M ABUNDANT EVID5CE ( !IR P[]1 9/EAD ( ! EVID5CE SIMPLY ( !IR ASS5T TO A FEW LAWS PASS$ BY ! K+4  

 ,MORE ?AN ?IS4 ,IF ?IS BODY HAD HAD ANY REAL LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY1 !Y W\LD HAVE CON/ITUT$ AN >I/OCRACY1 HAV+1 9 CONJUNCTION ) ! K+1 ABSOLUTE P[] OV] ! PEOPLE4 ,ASSEMBL+ VOLUNT>ILY1 M]ELY ON ! 9VITATION ( ! K+2 DEPUT$ BY NOBODY BUT !MSELVES2 REPRES5T+ NOBODY BUT !MSELVES2 RESPONSIBLE TO NOBODY BUT !MSELVES2 !IR LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY1 IF !Y HAD HAD ANY1 W\LD ( NECESSITY HAVE MADE ! GOV]NM5T ! GOV]NM5T ( AN >I/OCRACY M]ELY1 & ! PEOPLE SLAVES1 ( C\RSE4 ,& ?IS W\LD NECESS>ILY HAVE BE5 ! PICTURE ?AT HI/ORY W\LD HAVE GIV5 US ( ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON GOV]NM5T1 & ( ,ANGLO-,SAXON LIB]TY4  

 ,! FACT ?AT ! PEOPLE HAD NO REPRES5TATION 9 ?IS ASSEMBLY1 & ! FUR!R FACT ?AT1 ?R\< !IR JURIES ALONE1 !Y NEV]!LESS MA9TA9$ ?AT NOBLE FRE$OM1 ! V]Y TRADITION ( :I* 7AFT] ! SUB/ANCE ( ! ?+ ITSELF HAS CEAS$ TO EXI/7 HAS CON/ITUT$ ! GREATE/ PRIDE & GLORY ( ! NATION TO ?IS DAY1 PROVE ?AT ?IS ASSEMBLY EX]CIS$ NO AU?ORITY :I* JURIES ( ! PEOPLE ACKN[L$G$1 EXCEPT AT !IR [N DISCRETION4#c#f  

 ,!RE IS NOT A MORE PALPABLE TRU?1 9 ! HI/ORY ( ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON GOV]NM5T1 ?AN ?AT /AT$ 9 ! ,9TRODUCTION TO ,GILB]T'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,PLEAS1#c#g VIZ410?AT ! ,C\NTY & ,HUNDR$ ,C\RTS10 7TO :I* %\LD HAVE BE5 ADD$ ! O!R C\RTS 9 :I* JURIES SAT1 ! C\RTS-B>ON & C\RT-LEET17 09 ?OSE TIMES W]E ! REAL & ONLY ,P>LIAM5TS ( ! K+DOM40 ,& :Y W]E !Y ! REAL & ONLY P>LIAM5TS ( ! K+DOM8 ,SOLELY BECAUSE1 AS WILL BE H]EAFT] %[N1 ! JURIES 9 ?OSE C\RTS TRI$ CAUSES ON !IR 9TR9SIC M]ITS1 ACCORD+ TO !IR [N IDEAS ( JU/ICE1 IRRESPECTIVE ( ! LAWS AGRE$ UPON BY K+S1 PRIE/S1 & B>ONS2 & :ATEV] PR9CIPLES !Y UNI=MLY1 OR P]HAPS G5]ALLY1 5=C$1 & NONE O!RS1 BECAME PRACTICALLY ! LAW ( ! L& AS MATT] ( C\RSE4#c#h  

 ,F9ALLY1 ON ?IS PO9T4 ,CONCLUSIVE PRO( ?AT ! LEGISLATION ( ! K+ WAS ( LITTLE OR NO AU?ORITY1 IS F\ND 9 ! FACT ?AT ! K+S 5ACT$ SO FEW LAWS4 ,IF !IR LAWS HAD BE5 RECEIV$ AS AU?ORITATIVE1 9 ! MANN] ?AT LEGISLATIVE 5ACTM5TS >E AT ?IS DAY1 !Y W\LD HAVE BE5 MAK+ LAWS CONT9UALLY4 ,YET ! CODES ( ! MO/ CELEBRAT$ K+S >E V]Y SMALL1 & W]E LITTLE MORE ?AN COMPILATIONS ( IMMEMORIAL CU/OMS4 ,! CODE ( ,ALFR$ W\LD NOT FILL TWELVE PAGES ( ! /ATUTE BOOK ( ,MASSA*USETTS1 & WAS LITTLE OR NO?+ ELSE ?AN A COMPILATION ( ! LAWS ( ,MOSES1 & ! ,SAXON CU/OMS1 EVID5TLY COLLECT$ FROM CONSID]ATIONS ( CONV5I5CE1 RA!R ?AN 5ACT$ ON ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY4 ,! CODE ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR W\LD NOT FILL TW5TY PAGES ( ! /ATUTE BOOK ( ,MASSA*USETTS1 &1 SAYS ,BLACK/ONE1 0SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 NO MORE ?AN A NEW $ITION1 OR FRE% PROMULGATION ( ,ALFR$'S CODE1 OR DOME-BOOK1 ) SU* ADDITIONS & IMPROVEM5TS AS ! EXP]I5CE ( A C5TURY & A HALF SUGGE/$40 --- #a ,BLACK/ONE1 #f#f4#c#i  

 ,! ,CODE ( ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR#d W\LD FILL LESS ?AN SEV5 PAGES ( ! /ATUTE BOOK ( ,MASSA*USETTS2 & MO/ ( ! LAWS CONTA9$ 9 IT >E TAK5 FROM ! LAWS ( ! PREC$+ K+S1 & ESPECIALLY ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR 7:OSE LAWS ,WILLIAM SWORE TO OBS]VE72 BUT FEW ( HIS [N BE+ ADD$4  

 ,! CODES ( ! O!R ,SAXON & ,NORMAN K+S W]E1 AS A G5]AL RULE1 LESS VOLUM9\S EV5 ?AN !SE ?AT HAVE BE5 NAM$2 & PROBABLY DID NOT EXCE$ !M 9 ORIG9ALITY4#d#a ,! ,NORMAN PR9CES1 FROM ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR TO ,JOHN1 ,I ?9K )\T EXCEPTION1 B\ND !MSELVES1 &1 9 ORD] TO MA9TA9 !IR ?RONES1 W]E OBLIG$ TO B9D !MSELVES1 TO OBS]VE ! ANCI5T LAWS & CU/OMS1 9 O!R WORDS1 ! 0LEX T]RE10 OR 0COMMON LAW0 ( ! K+DOM4 ,EV5 ,MAGNA ,C>TA CONTA9S H>DLY ANY?+ O!R ?AN ?IS 9 SAME 0COMMON LAW10 ) SOME NEW SECURITIES = ITS OBS]VANCE4  

 ,H[ IS ?IS AB/95CE FROM LEGISLATION1 ON ! P>T ( ! ANCI5T K+S1 TO BE ACC\NT$ =1 EXCEPT ON ! SUPPOSITION ?AT ! PEOPLE W\LD ACCEPT1 & JURIES 5=CE1 FEW OR NO NEW LAWS 5ACT$ BY !IR K+S8 ,PLA9LY IT CAN ACC\NT$ = 9 NO O!R WAY4 ,9 FACT1 ALL HI/ORY 9=MS US ?AT ANCI5TLY ! ATTEMPTS ( ! K+S TO 9TRODUCE OR E/ABLI% NEW LAWS1 MET ) DET]M9$ RESI/ANCE FROM ! PEOPLE1 & G5]ALLY RESULT$ 9 FAILURE4 0,NOLUMUS ,LEGES ,ANGLIAE MUT>I10 7WE WILL ?AT ! LAWS ( ,5GL& NOT BE *ANG$17 WAS A DET]M9$ PR9CIPLE ) ! ,ANGLO-,SAXONS1 FROM :I* !Y SELDOM DEP>T$1 UP TO ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & 9DE$ UNTIL LONG AFT]4#d#b  

 ,S,E,C,T,I,O,N ,I,I4 ,! ,ANCI5T ,COMMON ,LAW ,JURIES M]E ,C\RT ( ,CONSCI5CE  

 ,BUT IT IS 9 ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE1 OR ( LAW1 ?AT ! FRE$OM OR SUBJECTION ( A PEOPLE IS TE/$4 ,IF ?IS ADM9I/RATION BE 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! >BITR>Y WILL ( ! LEGISLATOR --- ?AT IS1 IF HIS WILL1 AS IT APPE>S 9 HIS /ATUTES1 BE ! HI<E/ RULE ( DECISION KN[N TO ! JUDICIAL TRIBUNALS1 --- ! GOV]NM5T IS A DESPOTISM1 & ! PEOPLE >E SLAVES4 ,IF1 ON ! O!R H&1 ! RULE ( DECISION BE ?OSE PR9CIPLES ( NATURAL EQUITY & JU/ICE1 :I* CON/ITUTE1 OR AT LEA/ >E EMBODI$ 91 ! G5]AL CONSCI5CE ( MANK9D1 ! PEOPLE >E FREE 9 JU/ SO F> AS ?AT CONSCI5CE IS 5LI<T5$4  

 ,?AT ! AU?ORITY ( ! K+ WAS ( LITTLE WEI<T ) ! JUDICIAL TRIBUNALS1 MU/ NECESS>ILY BE 9F]R$ FROM ! FACT ALREADY /AT$1 ?AT HIS AU?ORITY OV] ! PEOPLE WAS BUT WEAK4 ,IF ! AU?ORITY ( HIS LAWS HAD BE5 P>AM\NT 9 ! JUDICIAL TRIBUNALS1 IT W\LD HAVE BE5 P>AM\NT ) ! PEOPLE1 ( C\RSE2 BECAUSE !Y W\LD HAVE HAD NO ALT]NATIVE BUT SUBMISSION4 ,! FACT1 !N1 ?AT HIS LAWS W]E NOT AU?ORITATIVE ) ! PEOPLE1 IS PRO( ?AT !Y W]E NOT AU?ORITATIVE ) ! TRIBUNAL1 9 O!R WORDS1 ?AT !Y W]E NOT1 AS MATT] ( C\RSE1 5=C$ BY ! TRIBUNALS4  

 ,BUT WE HAVE ADDITIONAL EVID5CE ?AT1 UP TO ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ! LAWS ( ! K+ W]E NOT B9D+ UPON ! JUDICIAL TRIBUNALS2 & IF !Y W]E NOT B9D+ BE=E ?AT TIME1 !Y C]TA9LY W]E NOT AFT]W>DS1 AS HAS ALREADY BE5 %[N FROM ,MAGNA ,C>TA ITSELF4 ,IT IS MANIFE/ FROM ALL ! ACC\NTS WE HAVE ( ! C\RTS 9 :I* JURIES SAT1 PRIOR TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 SU* AS ! C\RT-B>ON1 ! HUNDR$ C\RT1 ! C\RT-LEET1 & ! C\NTY C\RT1 ?AT !Y W]E M]E C\RTS ( CONSCI5CE1 & ?AT ! JURIES W]E ! JUDGES1 DECID+ CAUSES ACCORD+ TO !IR [N NOTIONS ( EQUITY1 & NOT ACCORD+ TO ANY LAWS ( ! K+1 UNLESS !Y ?\<T !M JU/4  

 ,!SE C\RTS1 IT MU/ BE CONSID]$1 W]E V]Y NUM]\S1 & HELD V]Y FREQU5T SESSIONS4 ,!RE W]E PROBABLY SEV51 EI<T1 OR N9E HUNDR$ C\RTS A MON?1 9 ! K+DOM2 ! OBJECT BE+1 AS ,BLACK/ONE SAYS1 0TO BR+ JU/ICE HOME TO EV]Y MAN'S DOOR40 7#c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c47 ,! NUMB] ( ! C\NTY C\RTS ( C\RSE1 CORRESPOND$ TO ! NUMB] ( C\NTIES1 7#c#f47 ,! C\RT-LEET WAS ! CRIM9AL C\RT = A DI/RICT LESS ?AN A C\NTY4 ,! HUNDR$ C\RT WAS ! C\RT = ONE ( ?OSE DI/RICTS ANCI5TLY CALL$ A HUNDR$1 BECAUSE1 AT ! TIME ( !IR FIR/ ORGANIZATION = JUDICIAL PURPOSES1 !Y COMPRIS$ 7AS IS SUPPOS$7 BUT A HUNDR$ FAMILIES4#d#c ,! C\RT-B>ON WAS ! C\RT = A S+LE MANOR1 & !RE WAS A C\RT = EV]Y MANOR 9 ! K+DOM4 ,ALL !SE C\RTS W]E HOLD5 AS (T5 AS ONCE 9 ?REE OR FIVE WEEKS2 ! C\NTY C\RT ONCE A MON?4 ,! K+'S JUDGES W]E PRES5T AT NONE ( !SE C\RTS2 ! ONLY (FIC]S 9 ATT5DANCE BE+ %]IFFS1 BAILIFFS1 & /EW>DS1 M]ELY M9I/]IAL1 & NOT JUDICIAL1 (FIC]S2 D\BTLESS 9COMPET5T1 &1 IF NOT 9COMPET5T1 UNTRU/WOR?Y1 = GIV+ ! JURIES ANY RELIABLE 9=MATION 9 ) MATT]S ( LAW1 BEYOND :AT WAS ALREADY KN[N TO ! JURORS !MSELVES4  ,& YET !SE W]E ! C\RTS1 9 :I* WAS DONE ALL ! JUDICIAL BUS9ESS1 ! BO? CIVIL & CRIM9AL1 ( ! NATION1 EXCEPT APPEALS1 & SOME ( ! MORE IMPORTANT & DIFFICULT CASES4#d#d ,IT IS PLA9 ?AT ! JURIES1 9 !SE C\RTS1 MU/1 ( NECESSITY1 HAVE BE5 ! SOLE JUDGES ( ALL MATT]S ( LAW :ATSOEV]2 BECAUSE !RE WAS NO ONE PRES5T1 BUT %]IFFS1 BAILIFFS1 & /EW>DS1 TO GIVE !M ANY 9/RUCTIONS2 & SURELY IT WILL NOT BE PRET5D$ ?AT ! JURORS W]E B\ND TO TAKE !IR LAW FROM SU* S\RCES AS !SE4  

 ,9 ! SECOND PLACE1 IT IS MANIFE/ ?AT ! PR9CIPLES ( LAW1 BY :I* ! JURIES DET]M9$ CAUSES1 W]E1 AS A G5]AL RULE1 NO?+ ELSE ?AN !IR [N IDEAS ( NATURAL EQUITY1 & NOT ANY LAWS ( ! K+2 BECAUSE BUT FEW LAWS W]E 5ACT$1 & MANY ( ?OSE W]E NOT WRITT51 BUT ONLY AGRE$ UPON 9 C\NCIL4#d#e ,( ?OSE ?AT W]E WRITT51 FEW COPIES ONLY W]E MADE1 7PR9T+ BE+ !N UNKN[N17 & NOT 5\< TO SUPPLY ALL1 OR ANY CONSID]ABLE NUMB]1 ( !SE NUM]\S C\RTS4 AIDE & BEYOND ALL ?IS1 FEW OR NONE ( ! JURORS C\LD HAVE READ ! LAWS1 IF !Y HAD BE5 WRITT52 BECAUSE FEW OR NONE ( ! COMMON PEOPLE C\LD1 AT ?AT TIME1 READ4 ,NOT ONLY W]E ! COMMON PEOPLE UNABLE TO READ !IR [N LANGUAGE1 BUT1 AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ! LAWS W]E WRITT5 9 ,LAT91 A LANGUAGE ?AT C\LD BE READ BY FEW P]SONS EXCEPT ! PRIE/S1 :O W]E ALSO ! LAWY]S ( ! NATION4 ,MACK9TO% SAYS10 ! FIR/ ACT ( ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS COMPOS$ & RECORD$ 9 ! ,5GLI% TONGUE10 WAS 9 #a#d#a#e1 TWO C5TURIES AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA4#d#f ,UP TO ?IS TIME1 & = SOME SEV5TY YE>S LAT]1 ! LAWS W]E G5]ALLY WRITT5  EI!R 9 ,LAT9 OR ,FR5*2 BO? LANGUAGES 9CAPABLE ( BE+ READ BY ! COMMON PEOPLE1 AS WELL ,NORMANS AS ,SAXONS2 & ONE ( !M1 ! ,LAT91 NOT ONLY 9CAPABLE ( BE+ READ BY !M1 BUT ( BE+ EV5 UND]/OOD :5 IT WAS HE>D BY !M4  

 ,TO SUPPOSE ?AT ! PEOPLE W]E B\ND TO OBEY1 & JURIES TO 5=CE1 LAWS1 MANY ( :I* W]E UNWRITT51 NONE ( :I* !Y C\LD READ1 & ! L>G] P>T ( :I* 7?OSE WRITT5 9 ,LAT97 !Y C\LD NOT TRANSLATE1 OR ,UND]/& :5 !Y HE>D !M READ1 IS EQUIVAL5T TO SUPPOS+ ! NATION SUNK 9 ! MO/ DEGRAD+ SLAV]Y1 9/EAD ( 5JOY+ A LIB]TY ( !IR [N *OOS+4  

 ,!IR KN[L$GE ( ! LAWS PASS$ BY ! K+ WAS1 ( C\RSE1 D]IV$ ONLY FROM ORAL 9=MATION2 & 0! GOOD LAWS10 AS SOME ( !M W]E CALL$1 9 CONTRADI/9CTION TO O!RS --- ?OSE :I* ! PEOPLE AT L>GE E/EEM$ TO BE GOOD LAWS --- W]E D\BTLESS 5=C$ BY ! JURIES1 & ! O!RS1 AS A G5]AL ?+1 DISREG>D$4#d#g  

 ,?AT SU* WAS ! NATURE ( JUDICIAL PROCE$+S1 & ( ! P[] ( JURIES1 UP TO ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 IS FUR!R %[N BY ! FOLL[+ AU?ORITIES4  

 0,! %]IFFS & BAILIFFS CAUS$ ! FREE T5ANTS ( !IR BAILIWICS TO MEET AT !IR C\NTIES & HUNDR$S2 AT :I* JU/ICE WAS SO DONE1 ?AT EV]Y ONE SO JUDG$ HIS NEI<BOR BY SU* JUDGM5T AS A M>T C\LD NOT ELSE:]E RECEIVE 9 ! LIKE CASES1 UNTIL SU* TIMES AS ! CU/OMS ( ! REALM W]E PUT 9 WRIT+1 & C]TA9LY PUBLI%$4  

 0,& AL?\< A FREEMAN COMMONLY WAS NOT TO S]VE 7AS A JUROR OR JUDGE7 )\T HIS ASS5T1 NEV]!LESS IT WAS ASS5T$ UNTO ?AT FREE T5ANTS %\LD MEET TOGE!R 9 ! C\NTIES & HUNDR$S1 & LORDS C\RTS1 IF !Y W]E NOT SPECIALLY EXEMPT$ TO DO SU* SUITS1 & !RE JUDG$ !IR NEI<BORS40 --- ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES1 P4 #g1 #h4  

 ,GILB]T1 9 HIS TREATISE ON ! ,CON/ITUTION ( ,5GL&1 SAYS3  

 0,9 ! C\NTY C\RTS1 IF ! DEBT WAS ABOVE =TY %ILL+S1 !RE ISSU$ A JU/ICIES 7A COMMISSION7 TO ! %]IFF1 TO 5ABLE HIM TO HOLD SU* A PLEA1 :]E ! SUITORS 7JURORS7 >E JUDGES ( ! LAW & FACT40 --- ,GILB]T'S ,CASES 9 ,LAW & ,EQUITY1 @&C41 @&C1 #d#e#f4  

 ,ALL ! ANCI5T WRITS1 GIV5 9 ,GLANVILLE1 = SUMMON+ JURORS1 9DICATE ?AT ! JURORS JUDG$ ( EV]Y?+1 ON !IR CONSCI5CES ONLY4 ,! WRITS >E 9 ?IS =M3  

 0,SUMMON TWELVE FREE & LEGAL M5 7OR SOMETIMES TWELVE KNI<TS7 TO BE 9 C\RT1 PREP>$ UPON !IR OA?S TO DECL>E :E!R ,A OR BY HAVE ! GREAT] RI<T TO ! L& 7OR O!R ?+7 9 QUE/ION40 ,SEE ,WRITS 9 ,BEAMES' ,GLANVILLE1 P4 #$ TO #g1 & #b#c#c-#c#f TO #c#c#b4  

 ,CRABBE1 SPEAK+ ( ! TIME ( ,H5RY ,I41 7#a#a TO #a#a#c#e17 RECOGNIZES ! FACT ?AT ! JURORS W]E ! JUDGES4 ,HE SAYS3  

 0,BY ONE LAW1 EV]Y ONE WAS TO BE TRI$ BY HIS PE]S1 :O W]E ( ! SAME NEI<BORHOOD AS HIMSELF4 "9 "9 ,BY ANO!R LAW1 ! JUDGES1 = SO ! JURY W]E CALL$1 TO BE *OS5 BY ! P>TY IMPLEAD$ ( ! ,DANI% NEMBAS2 BY :I*1 PROBABLY1 IS TO BE UND]/OOD ?AT ! DEF5DANT HAD ! LIB]TY ( TAK+ EXCEPTIONS TO1 OR *ALL5G+ ! JURY1 AS IT WAS AFT]W>DS CALL$40 --- ,CRABBE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI% ,LAW1 P4#e#e4  

 ,REEVE SAYS3  

 0,! GREAT C\RT = CIVIL BUS9ESS WAS ! C\NTY C\RT2 HELD ONCE EV]Y F\R WEEKS4 ,H]E ! %]IFF PRESID$2 BUT ! SUITORS ( ! C\RT1 AS !Y W]E CALL$1 ?AT IS1 ! FREEM5 OR L&HOLD]S ( ! C\NTY1 W]E ! JUDGES2 & ! %]IFF WAS TO EXECUTE ! JUDGM5T4 "9 "9 "9  

 0,! HUNDR$ C\RT WAS HELD BE=E SOME BAILIFF2 ! LEET BE=E ! LORD ( ! MANOR'S /EW>D4#d#h "9 "9  

 0,\T ( ! C\NTY C\RT WAS D]IV$ AN 9F]IOR C\RT ( CIVIL JURISDICTION1 CALL$ ! C\RT-B>ON4 ,?IS WAS HELD FROM ?REE WEEKS TO ?REE WEEKS1 & WAS 9 EV]Y RESPECT LIKE ! C\NTRY C\RT20 7?AT IS1 ! JURORS W]E JUDGES 9 IT27 ONLY ! LORD TO :OM ?IS FRAN*ISE WAS GRANT$1 OR HIS /EW>D1 PRESID$ 9/EAD ( ! %]IFF40 --- #a ,REEVE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI% ,LAW1 P4 #g4  

 ,*IEF ,B>ON ,GILB]T SAYS3  

 0,BESIDES ! T5ANTS ( ! ,K+1 :I* HELD P] B>ONIAM1 7BY ! RI<T ( A B>ON17 & DID SUIT & S]VICE 7S]V$ AS JUDGES7 AT HIS [N C\RT2 & ! BUR<]S & T5ANTS 9 ANCI5T DEMESNE1 ?AT DID SUIT & S]VICE 7S]V$ AS JURORS OR JUDGES7 9 !IR [N C\RT 9 P]SON1 & 9 ! K+'S BY PROXY1 !RE WAS ALSO A SET ( FREEHOLD]S1 ?AT DID SUIT & S]VICE 7S]V$ AS JURORS7 AT ! C\NTY C\RT4 ,!SE W]E SU* AS ANCI5TLY HELD ( ! LORD ( ! C\NTY1 & BY ! ES*EATS ( E>LDOMS HAD FALL5 TO ! K+2 OR SU* AS W]E GRANT$ \T BY S]VICE TO HOLD ( ! K+1 BUT ) P>TICUL> RES]VATION TO DO SUIT & S]VICE 7S]VE AS JURORS7 BE=E ! K+'S BAILIFF2 BECAUSE IT WAS NECESS>Y ! %]IFF1 OR BAILIFF ( ! K+1 %\LD HAVE SUITORS 7JURORS7 AT ! C\NTY C\RT ?AT ! BUS9ESS MI<T BE DISPAT*$4 ,!SE SUITORS >E ! P>ES 7PE]S7 ( ! C\NTY C\RT1 & 9DE$ ! JUDGES ( IT2 AS ! P>ES 7PE]S7 W]E ! JUDGES 9 EV]Y C\RT-B>ON2 & !RE=E ! K+'S BAILIFF HAV+ A C\RT BE=E HIM1 !RE MU/ BE P>ES OR JUDGES1 = ! %]IFF HIMSELF IS NOT A JUDGE2 & ?\< ! /YLE ( ! C\RT IS ,CURIA PRIMA ,COMITATUS ,E4 ,C4 ,MILIT4' VICECOM' ,COMITAT'1 PRO$' ,T5T' APUD ,B41 @&C4 7,FIR/ ,C\RT ( ! C\NTY1 ,E4 ,C4 KNI<T1 %]IFF ( ! A=ESAID C\NTY1 HELD AT ,B4 @&C72 BY :I* IT APPE>S ?AT ! C\RT WAS ! %]IFF'S2 YET1 BY ! OLD FEUDAL CON/ITUTIONS1 ! LORD WAS NOT JUDGE1 BUT P>ES 7PE]S7 ONLY2 SO ?AT1 EV5 9 A JU/ICES1 :I* WAS A COMMISSION TO ! %]IFF TO HOLD PLEA ( MORE ?AN WAS ALL[$ BY ! NATURAL JURISDICTION ( A C\NTY C\RT1 ! P>ES 7PE]S1 JURORS7 ONLY W]E JUDGES1 & NOT ! %]IFF2 BECAUSE IT WAS TO HOLD PLEA 9 ! SAME MANN] AS !Y US$ TO DO 9 ?AT 7! LORD'S7 C\RT40 --- ,GILB]T ON ! ,C\RT ( ,EX*EQU]1 *4 #e1 P4 #f#a-#b4  

 0,IT IS A DI/+UI%+ FEATURE ( ! FEUDAL SY/EM1 TO MAKE CIVIL JURISDICTION NECESS>ILY1 & CRIM9AL JURISDICTION ORD9>ILY1 COEXT5SIVE ) T5URE2 & ACCORD+LY !RE IS 9SEP>ABLY 9CID5T TO EV]Y MANOR A C\RT-B>ON 7CURIA B>ONUM71 BE+ A C\RT 9 :I* ! FREEHOLD]S ( ! MANOR >E ! SOLE JUDGES1 BUT 9 :I* ! LORD1 BY HIMSELF1 OR MORE COMMONLY BY HIS /EW>D1 PRESIDES4 --- ,POLITICAL ,DICTION>Y1 WORD ,MANOR4  

 ,! SAME WORK1 SPEAK+ ( ! C\NTY C\RT1 SAYS3 0,! JUDGES W]E ! FREEHOLD]S :O DID SUIT TO ! C\RT40 ,SEE WORD ,C\RTS4  

 0,9 ! CASE ( FREEHOLD]S ATT5D+ AS SUITORS1 ! C\NTY C\RT OR C\RT-B>ON1 7AS 9 ! CASE ( ! ANCI5T T5ANTS P] B>ONIAM ATT5D+ ,P>LIAM5T17 ! SUITORS >E ! JUDGES ( ! C\RT1 BO? = LAW & = FACT1 & ! %]IFF OR ! UND] %]IFF 9 ! C\NTY C\RT1 & ! LORD OR HIS /EW>D 9 ! C\RT-ROOM1 >E ONLY PRESID+ (FIC]S1 ) NO JUDICIAL AU?ORITY40 --- ,POLITICAL ,DICTION>Y1 WORD ,SUIT4  

 0,C,\,R,T1 7CURTIS1 CURIA AULA72 ! SPACE 5CLOS$ BY ! WALLS ( A FEUDAL RESID5CE1 9 :I* ! FOLL[]S ( A LORD US$ TO ASSEMBLE 9 ! MIDDLE AGES1 TO ADM9I/] JU/ICE1 & DECIDE RESPECT+ AFFAIRS ( COMMON 9T]E/1 @&C4 ,IT WAS NEXT US$ = ?OSE :O /OOD 9 IMM$IATE CONNECTION ) ! LORD & MA/]1 ! P>ES CURIAE1 7PE]S ( ! C\RT17 ! LIMIT$ PORTION ( ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY1 TO :I* WAS 5TRU/$ ! PRON\NC+ ( JUDGM5T1 @&C4 --- ,5CYCLOP$IA ,AM]ICANA1 WORD ,C\RT4  

 0,9 C\RT-B>ONS OR C\NTY C\RTS ! /EW>D WAS NOT JUDGE1 BUT ! P>ES 7PE]S1 JURORS72 NOR WAS ! SPEAK] 9 ! ,H\SE ( ,LORDS JUDGE1 BUT ! B>ONS ONLY40 --- ,GILB]T ON ! ,C\RT ( ,EX*EQU]1 *4 #c1 P4 #d#b4  

 ,CRABBE1 SPEAK+ ( ! ,SAXON TIMES1 SAYS3  

 0,! %]IFF PRESID$ AT ! HUNDR$ C\RT444& SOMETIMES SAT 9 ! PLACE ( ! ALD]MAN 7E>L7 9 ! C\NTY C\RT40 --- ,CRABBE1 #b#c4  

 ,! %]IFF AFT]W>DS BECAME ! SOLE PRESID+ (FIC] ( ! C\NTY C\RT4  

 ,SIR ,?OMAS ,SMI?1 ,SECRET>Y ( ,/ATE TO ,QUE5 ,ELIZABE?1 WRIT+ MORE ?AN ?REE HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 9 DESCRIB+ ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! ,CIVIL LAW & ! ,5GLI% ,LAW1 SAYS3  

 0,JUDEX IS ( US CALL$ ,JUDGE1 BUT \R FA%ION IS SO DIV]SE1 ?AT !Y :I* GIVE ! DEADLY /ROKE1 & EI!R CONDEMN OR ACQUIT ! MAN = GUILTY OR NOT GUILTY1 >E NOT CALL$ JUDGES1 BUT ! TWELVE M54 ,& ! SAME ORD] AS WELL 9 CIVIL MATT]S & PECUNI>Y1 AS 9 MATT]S CRIM9AL40 --- ,SMI?'S ,COMMONWEAL? ( ,5GL&1 *4 #i1 P4 #e#c1 ,$ITION ( #a#f#b#a4  

 ,C\RT-,LEET3 0,?AT ! LEET IS ! MO/ ANCI5T C\RT 9 ! L& = CRIM9AL MATT]S1 7! C\RT-B>ON BE+ ( NO LESS ANTIQUITY 9 CIVIL17 HAS BE5 PRON\NC$ BY ! HI<E/ LEGAL AU?ORITY4 "9 "9 ,LORD ,MANSFIELD /ATES ?AT ?IS C\RT WAS COEVAL ) ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! ,SAXONS H]E1 & ITS ACTIVITY M>K$ V]Y VISIBLY BO? AMONG ! ,SAXONS & ,DANES4 "9 "9 ,! LEET IS A C\RT ( RECORD = ! COGNIZANCE ( CRIM9AL MATT]S1 OR PLEAS ( ! CR[N2 & NECESS>ILY BELONGS TO ! ,K+2 ?\< A SUBJECT1 USUALLY ! LORD ( ! MANOR1 MAY BE1 & IS1 5TITL$ TO ! PR(ITS1 CONSI/+ ( ! ESSOIGN P5CE1 F9ES1 & AM]CIAM5TS4  

 0,IT IS HELD BYE ! /EW>D1 OR WAS1 9 ANCI5T TIMES1 BE=E ! BAILIFF1 ( ! LORD40 --- ,TOML9'S ,LAW ,DICT41 WORD ,C\RT-,LEET4  

 ,( C\RSE ! JURY W]E ! JUDGES 9 ?IS C\RT1 :]E ONLY A 0/EW>D0 OR 0BAILIFF 0 ( A MANOR PRESID$4  

 0,NO CAUSE ( CONSEQU5CE WAS DET]M9$ )\T ! K+'S WRIT2 = EV5 9 ! C\NTY C\RTS1 ( ! DEBTS1 :I* W]E ABOVE =TY %ILL+S1 IT H]E ISSU$ A ,JU/ICIES 7COMMISSION7 TO ! %]IFF1 TO 5ABLE HIM TO HOLD SU* PLEA1 :]E ! SUITORS >E JUDGES ( ! LAW & FACT40 --- ,GILB]T'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 ,9TRODUCTION1 P4 #a#i4  

 0,?IS POSITION0 7?AT 0! MATT] ( LAW WAS DECID$ BY ! ,K+'S ,JU/ICES1 BUT ! MATT] ( FACT BY ! P>ES07 0IS :OLLY 9COMPATIBLE ) ! COMMON LAW1 = ! ,JURATA 7JURY7 W]E ! SOLE JUDGES BO? ( ! LAW & ! FACT40 --- ,GILB]T'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 P4 #g1 NOTE4  

 0,WE COME N[ TO ! *ALL5GE2 & ( OLD ! SUITORS 9 C\RT1 :O W]E JUDGES1 C\LD NOT BE *ALL5G$2 NOR BY ! FEUDAL LAW C\LD ! P>ES BE EV5 *ALL5G$1 ,P>ES QUI ORD9>IAM JURISDICTIONEM HAB5T RECUS>I NON POSSUNT2 7! PE]S :O HAVE ORD9>Y JURISDICTION CANNOT HE REJECT$27 0BUT ?OSE SUITORS :O >E JUDGES ( ! C\RT1 C\LD NOT BE *ALL5G$2 & ! REASON IS1 ?AT !RE >E SEV]AL QUALIFICATIONS REQUIR$ BY ! WRIT1 VIZ41 ?AT !Y BE LIB]OS ET LEGALES HOM9ES DE V9C9ETO 7FREE & LEGAL M5 ( ! NEI<BORHOOD7 ( ! PLACE LAID 9 ! DECL>ATION10 @&C41 @&C4 --- ,DITTO1 #i#c4  

 0,AD QUE/IONEM JURIS NON RESPOND5T ,JURATORES40 7,TO ! QUE/ION ( LAW ! JURORS DO NOT ANSW]47 0,! ,ANNOTI/ SAYS1 ?AT ?IS IS 9DE$ A MAXIM 9 ! ,CIVIL-,LAW ,JURISPRUD5CE1 BUT IT DOES NOT B9D AN ,5GLI% JURY1 = BY ! COMMON LAW ( ! L& ! JURY >E JUDGES AS WELL ( ! MATT] ( LAW1 AS ( ! FACT1 ) ?IS DIFF]5CE ONLY1 ?AT ! 7A ,SAXON WORD7 OR JUDGE ON ! B5* IS TO GIVE !M NO ASSI/ANCE 9 DET]M9+ ! MATT] ( FACT1 BUT IF !Y HAVE ANY D\BT AMONG !MSELVES RELAT+ TO MATT] ( LAW1 !Y MAY !N REQUE/ HIM TO EXPLA9 IT TO !M1 :I* :5 HE HA? DONE1 & !Y >E ?US BECOME WELL 9=M$1 !Y1 & !Y ONLY1 BECOME COMPET5T JUDGES ( ! MATT] ( LAW4 ,& ?IS IS ! PROV9CE ( ! JUDGE ON ! B5*1 NAMELY1 TO %[1 OR TEA* ! LAW1 BUT NOT TO TAKE UPON HIM ! TRIAL ( ! DEL9QU5T1 EI!R 9 MATT] ( FACT OR 9 MATT] ( LAW40 7,H]E V>I\S ,SAXON LAWS >E QUOT$47 0,9 NEI!R ( !SE FUNDAM5TAL LAWS IS !RE ! LEA/ WORD1 H9T1 OR IDEA1 ?AT ! E>L OR ALD]MAN 7?AT IS TO SAY1 ! ,PREPOSITUS 7PRESID+ (FIC]7 ( ! C\RT1 :I* IS TANTAM\NT TO ! JUDGE ON ! B5*7 IS TO TAKE UPON HIM TO JUDGE ! DEL9QU5T 9 ANY S5SE :ATEV]1 ! SOLE PURPORT ( HIS (FICE IS TO TEA* ! SECUL> OR WORLDLY LAW40 ---- ,DITTO1 P4 #e#g1 NOTE4  

 0,! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE WAS C>EFULLY PROVID$ =2 IT WAS NOT ! CAPRICE ( !IR LORD1 BUT ! S5T5CE ( !IR PE]S1 ?AT !Y OBEY$4 ,EA* WAS ! JUDGE ( HIS EQUALS1 & EA* BY HIS EQUALS WAS JUDG$40 --- ,9TRODUCTION TO ,GILB]T ON ,T5URES1 P4 #a#b4  

 ,HALLAM SAYS3 0,A RESPECTABLE CLASS ( FREE SOCAG]S1 HAV+1 9 G5]AL1 FULL RI<TS ( ALI5AT+ !IR L&S1 & HOLD+ !M PROBABLY AT A SMALL C]TA9 R5T FROM ! LORD ( ! MANOR1 FREQU5TLY OCCUR 9 ,DOMES-DAY ,BOOK4 "9 "9 ,!Y UND\BT$LY W]E SUITORS TO ! C\RT-B>ON ( ! LORD1 TO :OSE SOC1 OR RI<T ( JU/ICE1 !Y BELONG$4 ,!Y W]E CONSEQU5TLY JUDGES 9 CIVIL CAUSES1 DET]M9$ BE=E ! MANORIAL TRIBUNAL40 --- #b ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 #d#h#a4  

 ,/EPH5S ADOPTS AS CORRECT ! FOLL[+ QUOTATIONS FROM ,BLACK/ONE3  

 0,! ,C\RT-,B>ON IS A C\RT 9CID5T TO EV]Y MANOR 9 ! ,K+DOM1 TO BE HOLD5 BY ! /EW>D )9 ! SAID MANOR40 "9 "9 ,IT 0IS A C\RT ( COMMON LAW1 & IT IS ! C\RT BE=E ! FREEHOLD]S :O [E SUIT & S]VICE TO ! MANOR10 7>E B\ND TO S]VE AS JURORS 9 ! C\RTS ( ! MANOR17 0! /EW>D BE+ RA!R ! REGI/R> ?AN ! JUDGE4 "9 "9 ,! FREEHOLD]S' C\RT WAS COMPOS$ ( ! LORD'S T5ANTS1 :O W]E ! P>ES 7EQUALS7 ( EA* O!R1 & W]E B\ND BY !IR FEUDAL T5URE TO ASSI/ !IR LORD 9 ! DISP5SATION ( DOME/IC JU/ICE4 ,?IS WAS =M]LY HELD EV]Y ?REE WEEKS2 & ITS MO/ IMPORTANT BUS9ESS WAS TO DET]M9E1 BY WRIT ( RI<T1 ALL CONTROV]SIES RELAT+ TO ! RI<T ( L&S )9 ! MANOR40 --- #c ,/EPH5S' ,COMM5T>IES1 #c#i#b-#c4 #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#b-#c4  

 0,A ,HUNDR$ ,C\RT IS ONLY A L>G] C\RT-B>ON1 BE+ HELD = ALL ! 9HABITANTS ( A P>TICUL> HUNDR$1 9/EAD ( A MANOR4 ,! FREE SUITORS 7JURORS7 >E H]E ALSO ! JUDGES1 & ! /EW>D ! REGI/]40 --- #c ,/EPH5S1 #c#i#d4 #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#c4  

 0,! ,C\NTY ,C\RT IS A C\RT 9CID5T TO ! JURISDICTION ( ! %]IFF4 "9 "9 ,! FREEHOLD]S ( ! C\NTY >E ! REAL JUDGES 9 ?IS C\RT1 & ! %]IFF IS ! M9I/]IAL (FIC]40 --- #c ,/EPH5S1 #c#i#e-#f4 #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#e-#f4   

 ,BLACK/ONE DESCRIBES !SE C\RTS1 AS C\RTS 0:]E9 9JURIES W]E R$RESS$ 9 AN & $ITI\S MANN]1 BY ! SURGE ( NEI<BORS & FRI5DS40 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c4  

 0,:5 WE READ ( A C]TA9 NUMB] ( FREEM5 *OS5 BY ! P>TIES TO DECIDE 9 A DISPUTE --- ALL B\ND BY OA? TO VOTE 9 =O CONSCI5TIA --- & ?AT !IR DECISION1 NOT ! WILL ( ! JUDGE PRESID+1 5D$ ! SUIT1 WE AT ONCE P]CEIVE ?AT A GREAT IMPROVEM5T HAS BE5 MADE 9 ! OLD =M ( COMPURGATION IMPROVEM5T :I* IMP>TIAL OBS]VATION CAN HAVE NO HESITATION TO PRON\NCE AS ID5TICAL 9 ITS MA9 FEATURES ) ! TRIAL BY JURY40 --- ,DUNHAM'S ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 ,SEC4 #b1,B4 #b1 ,*4 L4 #eg ,L>DN]'S ,CAB4 ,CYC41 #f4  

 0,! BI%OP & ! E>L1 OR1 9 HIS ABS5CE1 ! G]EFA1 7%]IFF17 & SOMETIMES BO? ! E>L & ! G]EFA1 PRESID$ AT ! S*YRE-MOTE 7C\NTY C\RT72 ! G]EFA 7%]IFF7 USUALLY ALONE PRESID$ AT ! MOTE 7MEET+ OR C\RT7 ( ! HUNDR$4 ,9 ! CITIES & T[NS :I* W]E NOT )9 ANY PECULI> JURISDICTION1 !RE WAS HELD1 AT REGUL> /AT$ 9T]VALS1 A BUR< MOTE1 7BOR\< C\RT17 = ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE1 AT :I* A G]EFA1 OR A MAGI/RATE APPO9T$ BY ! K+1 PRESID$4 --- ,SP5CE'S ,ORIG9 ( ! ,LAWS & ,POLITICAL ,9/ITUTIONS ( ,MOD]N ,EUROPE1 P4 #d#d#d4  

 0,! RI<T ( ! PLA9TIFF & DEF5DANT1 & ( ! PROSECUTOR & CRIM9AL1 TO *ALL5GE ! JUDICES1 7JUDGES17 OR ASSESSORS1#d#i APPO9T$ TO TRY ! CAUSE 9 CIVIL MATT]S1 & TO DECIDE UPON ! GUILT OR 9NOC5CE ( ! ACCUS$ 9 CRIM9AL MATT]S1 IS RECOGNIZ$ 9 ! TREATISE CALL$ ! ,LAWS ( ,H5RY ! ,FIR/2 BUT ,I CANNOT DISCOV]1 FROM ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON LAWS OR HI/ORIES1 ?AT BE=E ! ,CONQUE/ ! P>TIES HAD ANY G5]AL RI<T ( *ALL5GE2 9DE$1 HAD SU* RI<T EXI/$1 ! 9JUNCTIONS TO ALL P]SONS /&+ 9 ! SITUATION ( JUDGES 7JURORS7 TO DO RI<T ACCORD+ TO !IR CONSCI5CE1 W\LD SC>CELY HAVE BE5 SO FREQU5TLY & ANXI\SLY REPEAT$40 --- ,SP5CE1 #d#e#f4  

 ,HALE SAYS3  

 0,! ADM9I/RATION ( ! COMMON JU/ICE ( ! K+DOM SEEMS TO BE :OLLY DISP5S$ 9 ! C\NTY C\RTS1 HUNDR$ C\RTS1 & C\RTS-B>ON2 EXCEPT SOME ( ! GREAT] CRIMES RE=M$ BY ! LAWS ( ,K+ ,H5RY ,I41 & ?AT P>T !RE( :I* WAS SOMETIMES TAK5 UP BY ! ,JU/ITI>IUS ,ANGLIAE4 ,?IS D\BTLESS BR$ GREAT 9CONV5I5CE1 UNC]TA9TY1 & V>IETY 9 ! LAWS1 VIZ43  

 0,FIR/1 BY ! IGNORANCE ( ! JUDGES1 :I* W]E ! FREEHOLD]S ( ! C\NTY4 "9 "9  

 0,?IRDLY1 A ?IRD 9CONV5I5CE WAS1 ?AT ALL ! BUS9ESS ( ANY MOM5T WAS C>RI$ BY P>TIES & FACTIONS4 ,= ! FREEHOLD]S BE+ G5]ALLY ! JUDGES1 & CONV]S+ ONE AMONG ANO!R1 & BE+ AS IT W]E ! *IEF JUDGES1 NOT ONLY ( ! FACT BUT ( ! LAW2 EV]Y MAN ?AT HAD A SUIT !RE1 SP$ ACCORD+ AS HE C\LD MAKE P>TIES40 --- ,HALE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 P4 #b#d#f4  

 0,9 ALL !SE TRIBUNALS10 7C\NTY C\RT1 HUNDR$ C\RT1 @&C417 0! JUDGES W]E ! FREE T5ANTS1 [+ SUIT TO ! C\RT1 & AFT]W>DS CALL$ ITS PE]S40 --- ,L+>D'S ,HI/ORY ( ,5GL&1 #d#h#h4  

 ,H5RY CALLS ! TWELVE JURORS 0ASSESSORS10 & SAYS3  

 0,!SE ASSESSORS1 :O W]E 9 REALITY JUDGES1 TOOK A SOLEMN OA?1 ?AT !Y W\LD FAI?FULLY DIS*>GE ! DUTIES ( !IR (FICE1 & NOT SUFF] AN 9NOC5T MAN TO BE CONDEMN$1 NOR ANY GUILTY P]SON TO BE ACQUITT$40 --- #c ,H5RY'S ,HI/ORY ( ,GREAT ,BRITA91 #c#d#f4  

 ,TYRRELL SAYS3  

 0,ALFR$ CANTON$ HIS ,K+DOM1 FIR/ 9TO ,TRIH+S & ,LA!S1 AS !Y >E /ILL CALL$ 9 ,K5T & O!R PLACES1 CONSI/+ ( ?REE OR F\R ,HUNDR$S2 9 :I*1 ! FREEHOLD]S BE+ JUDGES1 SU* CAUSES W]E BR\<T AS C\LD NOT BE DET]M9$ 9 ! ,HUNDR$ C\RT40 --- ,TYRRELL'S ,9TRODUCTION TO ! ,HI/ORY ( ,5GL&1 P4 #h4  

 ,( ! ,HUNDR$ ,C\RT HE SAYS3  

 0,9 ?IS C\RT ANCI5TLY1 ONE ( ! PR9CIPAL 9HABITANTS1 CALL$ ! ALD]MAN1 TOGE!R ) ! B>ONS ( ! ,HUNDR$#e --- ID E/ ! FREEHOLD]S --- WAS JUDGE40 --- ,DITTO1 P4 #h4  

 ,ALSO HE SAYS3  

 0,BY A LAW ( ,$W>D ! ,ELD]1 ',EV]Y %]IFF %ALL CONV5E ! PEOPLE ONCE A MON?1 & DO1 EQUAL RI<T TO ALL1 PUTT+ AN 5D TO CONTROV]SIES AT TIMES APPO9T$40 --- ,DITTO1 P4 #h#f4  

 0,A /ATUTE1 EMPHATICALLY T]M$ ! ',GR& ,ASSIZE1' 5ABL$ ! DEF5DANT1 IF HE ?\<T PROP]1 TO ABIDE BY ! TE/IMONY ( ! TWELVE GOOD & LAWFUL KNI<TS1 *OS5 BY F\R O!RS ( ! VIC9AGE1 & :OSE OA?S GAVE A F9AL DECISION TO ! CONTE/$ CLAIM40 --- ,PALGRAVE'S ,RISE & ,PROGRESS ( ! ,5GLI% ,COMMONWEAL?1 #b#f#a4  

 0,FROM ! MOM5T :5 ! CR[N BECAME ACCU/OM$ TO ! ',9QUE/1' A RE/RA9T WAS IMPOS$ UPON EV]Y BRAN* ( ! PR]OGATIVE4 ,! K+ C\LD NEV] BE 9=M$ ( HIS RI<TS1 BUT ?R\< ! M$IUM ( ! PEOPLE4 ,EV]Y 'EXT5T' BY :I* HE CLAIM$ ! PR(ITS & ADVANTAGES RESULT+ FROM ! CASUALTIES ( T5URE1 EV]Y PROCESS BY :I* HE REPRESS$ ! USURPATIONS ( ! B>ONAGE1 DEP5D$ UPON ! 'GOOD M5 & TRUE' :O W]E IMPANEL$ TO 'PASS' BETWE5 ! SUBJECT & ! SOV]EIGN2 & ! ?UND] ( ! ,EX*EQU] AT ,WE/M9/] MI<T BE SIL5C$ BY ! HONE/Y1 ! FIRMNESS1 OR ! OB/9ACY1 ( ONE /URDY KNI<T OR YEOMAN 9 ! DI/ANT %IRE4  

 ,TAXATION WAS CONTROLL$ 9 ! SAME MANN] BY ! VOICE ( ?OSE :O W]E MO/ LIABLE TO OPPRESSION4 "9 "9 ,A JURY WAS IMPANEL$ TO ADJUDGE ! PROPORTION DUE TO ! SOV]EIGN2 & ?IS C\RSE WAS NOT ESS5TIALLY V>I$1 EV5 AFT] ! RI<T ( GRANT+ AIDS TO ! CR[N WAS FULLY ACKN[L$G$ TO BE VE/$ 9 ! P>LIAM5T ( ! REALM4 ,! PEOPLE TAX$ !MSELVES2 & ! COLLECTION ( ! GRANTS WAS *ECK$ & CONTROLL$1 &1 P]HAPS1 9 MANY 9/ANCES EVAD$1 BY !SE VIRTUAL REPRES5TATIVES ( ! COMMUNITY4  

 ,! PR9CIPLE ( ! JURY WAS1 !RE=E1 NOT CONF9$ TO ITS M]E APPLICATION AS A MODE ( TRY+ CONTE/$ FACTS1 :E!R 9 CIVIL OR CRIM9AL CASES2 &1 BO? 9 ITS =M & 9 ITS CONSEQU5CES1 IT HAD A V]Y MAT]IAL 9FLU5CE UPON ! G5]AL1 CON/ITUTION ( ! REALM4 "9 "9 ,! MA9-SPR+ ( ! MA*9]Y ( REM$IAL JU/ICE EXI/$ 9 ! FRAN*ISE ( ! L[] & L[E/ ORD]S ( ! POLITICAL HI]>*Y4 ,)\T ! SUFFRAGE ( ! YEOMAN1 ! BURGESS1 & ! *URL1 ! SOV]EIGN C\LD NOT EX]CISE ! MO/ IMPORTANT & MO/ ESS5TIAL FUNCTION ( ROYALTY2 FROM !M HE RECEIV$ ! P[] ( LIFE & DEA?2 HE C\LD NOT WIELD ! SWORD ( JU/ICE UNTIL ! HUMBLE/ ( HIS SUBJECTS PLAC$ ! WEAPON 9 HIS H&4 --- ,PALGRAVE'S ,RISE & ,PROGRESS ( ! ,5GLI% ,CON/ITUTION1 #b#g#d-#g4  

 ,COKE SAYS1 0,! C\RT ( ! C\NTY IS NO C\RT ( RECORD1#e#a & ! SUITORS >E ! JUDGES !RE(40 --- #d ,9/41 #b#f#f4  

 ,ALSO1 0,! C\RT ( ! ,HUNDR$ IS NO C\RT ( RECORD1 & ! SUITORS BE !RE( JUDGES40 --- #d ,9/41 #b#f#g4  

 ,ALSO1 0,! C\RT-B>ON IS A C\RT 9CID5T TO EV]Y MANOR1 & IS NOT ( RECORD1 & ! SUITORS BE !RE( JUDGES40 --- #d ,9/41 #b#f#h4  

 ,ALSO1 0,! C\RT ( ANCI5T DEMESNE IS 9 ! NATURE ( A C\RT-B>ON1 :]E9 ! SUITORS >E JUDGES1 & IS NO C\RT ( RECORD40 #d ,9/41 #b#f#i4  

 ,MILL> SAYS1 0,SOME AU?ORS HAVE ?\<T ?AT JURYM5 W]E ORIG9ALLY COMPURGATORS1 CALL$ BY A DEF5DANT TO SWE> ?AT !Y BELIEV$ HIM 9NOC5T ( ! FACTS ) :I* HE WAS *>G$4 4 4 ,BUT 4 4 COMPURGATORS W]E M]ELY WITNESSES2 JURYM5 W]E1 9 REALITY1 JUDGES4 ,! =M] W]E CALL$ TO CONFIRM ! OA? ( ! P>TY BY SWE>+1 ACCORD+ TO !IR BELIEF1 ?AT HE HAD TOLD ! TRU?1 79 HIS OA? ( PURGATION27 ! LATT] W]E APPO9T$ TO TRY1 BY WITNESSES1 & BY ALL O!R MEANS ( PRO(1 :E!R HE WAS 9NOC5T OR GUILTY4 4 4 4 ,JURIES W]E ACCU/OM$ TO ASC]TA9 ! TRU? ( FACTS1 BY ! DEF5DANTS OA? ( PURGATION1 TOGE!R ) ?AT ( HIS COMPURGATORS4 4 4 ,BO? ( !M 7JURYM5 & COMPURGATORS7 W]E OBLIG$ TO SWE> ?AT !Y W\LD TELL ! TRU?4 4 4 ,ACCORD+ TO ! SIMPLE IDEA ( \R =EFA!RS1 GUILT OR 9NOC5CE WAS REG>D$ AS A M]E MATT] ( FACT2 & IT WAS ?\<T ?AT NO MAN1 :O KNEW ! REAL CIRCUM/ANCES ( A CASE1 C\LD BE AT A LOSS TO DET]M9E :E!R ! CULPRIT \<T TO BE CONDEMN$ OR ACQUITT$40 --- #a ,MILL>'S ,HI/4 ,VIEW ( ,5G4 ,GOV41 * #a#b1P4 #c#c#b-#d4  

 ,ALSO1 0,! SAME =M ( PROC$URE1 :I* TOOK PLACE 9 ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE AMONG ! VASSALS ( A B>ONY1 WAS GRADUALLY EXT5D$ TO ! C\RTS HELD 9 ! TRAD+ T[NS40 --- ,SAME1 P4 #c#c#e4  

 ,ALSO1 0,! SAME REGULATIONS1 CONC]N+ ! DI/RIBUTION ( JU/ICE BY ! 9T]V5TION ( JURIES1 4 4 W]E 9TRODUC$ 9TO ! B>ONS ( ! K+1 AS 9TO ?OSE ( ! NOBILITY1 OR SU* ( HIS SUBJECTS AS RETA9$ !IR ALLODIAL PROP]TY40 ---- ,SAME1 P4 #c#c#g4  

 ,ALSO1 0,?IS TRIBUNAL0 7! AULA REGIS1 OR K+'S C\RT1 AFT]W>DS DIVID$ 9TO ! C\RTS ( ,K+'S ,B5*1 ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 & ,EX*EQU]7 0WAS PROP]LY ! ORD9>Y B>ON-C\RT ( ! ,K+2 &1 BE+ 9 ! SAME CIRCUM/ANCES ) ! B>ON C\RTS ( ! NOBILITY1 IT WAS UND] ! SAME NECESSITY ( TRY+ CAUSES BY ! 9T]V5TION ( A JURY40 --- ,SAME1 VOL4 #b1 P4 #b#i#b4  

 ,SPEAK+ ( ! TIMES ( ,$W>D ! ,FIR/1 7#a#b#g#b TO #a#c#g17 ,MILL> SAYS3  

 0,:AT IS CALL$ ! PETTY JURY WAS !RE=E 9TRODUC$ 9TO !SE TRIBUNALS1 7! ,K+'S ,B5*1 ! ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 & ! ,EX*EQU]17 AS WELL AS 9TO !IR AUXILI>Y C\RTS EMPLOY$ TO DI/RIBUTE JU/ICE 9 ! CIRCUITS2 & WAS ?US R5D]$ ESS5TIALLY NECESS>Y 9 DET]M9+ CAUSES ( EV]Y SORT1 :E!R CIVIL1 CRIM9AL1 OR FISCAL40 --- ,SAME1 VOL4 #b1 P4 #bid  

 ,ALSO1 0,?AT ?IS =M ( TRIAL 7BY JURY7 OBTA9$ UNIV]SALLY 9 ALL ! FEUDAL GOV]NM5TS1 AS WELL AS 9 ?AT ( ,5GL&1 !RE CAN BE NO REASON TO D\BT4 ,9 ,FRANCE1 9 ,G]MANY1 & 9 O!R ,EUROPEAN C\NTRIES1 :]E WE HAVE ANY ACC\NTS ( ! CON/ITUTION & PROC$URE ( ! FEUDAL C\RTS1 IT APPE>S ?AT LAWSUITS ( EV]Y SORT CONC]N+ ! FREEM5 OR VASSALS ( A B>ONY1 W]E DET]M9$ BY ! P>ES CURIAE 7PE]S ( ! C\RT27 & ?AT ! JUDGE TOOK LITTLE MORE UPON HIM !N TO REGULATE ! ME?OD ( PROCE$+1 OR TO DECL>E ! V]DICT ( ! JURY40 --- ,SAME1 VOL4 #a1 *4 #a#b1 P4 #c#b#i4  

 ,ALSO1 0,AMONG ! ,GO?IC NATIONS ( MOD]N ,EUROPE1 ! CU/OM ( DECID+ LAWSUITS BY A JURY SEEMS TO HAVE PREVAIL$ UNIV]SALLY2 FIR/ 9 ! ALLODIAL C\RTS ( ! C\NTY1 OR ( ! HUNDR$1 & AFT]W>DS 9 ! B>ON-C\RTS ( EV]Y FEUDAL SUP]IOR40 --- ,SAME1 VOL4 #b1 P4 #b#i#f4  

 ,PALGRAVE SAYS ?AT 9 ,G]MANY 0,! ,GRAFF 7G]EFA1 %]IFF7 PLAC$ HIMSELF 9 ! SEAT ( JUDGM5T1 & GAVE ! *>GE TO ! ASSEMBL$ FREE ,E*EV9S1 W>N+ !M TO PRON\NCE JUDGM5T ACCORD+ TO RI<T & JU/ICE40 --- #b ,PALGRAVE1 #a#d#g4  

 ,ALSO1 ?AT1 9 ,G]MANY1 0,! ,E*EV9S W]E COMPOS$ ( ! VILLANAGE1 SOME:AT OBSCUR$ 9 !IR FUNCTIONS BY ! LE>N+ ( ! GRAVE CIVILIAN :O WAS ASSOCIAT$ TO !M1 & SOME:AT LIMIT$ BY ! 5CROA*M5TS ( MOD]N FEUDALITY2 BUT !Y W]E /ILL SUB/ANTIALLY ! JUDGES ( ! C\RT40 --- ,SAME1 #a#d#h4  

 ,PALGRAVE ALSO SAYS1 0,SCOTL&1 9 LIKE MANN]1 HAD ! LAWS ( ,BURLAW1 OR ,BIRLAW1 :I* W]E MADE & DET]M9$ BY ! NEI<BORS1 ELECT$ BY COMMON CONS5T1 9 ! ,BURLAW OR ,BIRLAW C\RTS1 :]E9 KN[L$GE WAS TAK5 ( COMPLA9TS BETWE5 NEI<BOR & NEI<BOR1 :I* M51 SO *OS51 W]E JUDGES1 & >BITRATORS1 & CALL$ ,BIRLAW M54 ---- ,PALGRAVE'S ,RISE1 @&C41 P4 #h4  

 ,BUT1 9 ORD] TO UND]/& ! COMMON LAW TRIAL BY JURY1 AS IT EXI/$ PRIOR TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & AS IT WAS GU>ANTE$ BY ?AT 9/RUM5T1 IT IS P]HAPS 9DISP5SABLE TO UND]/& MORE FULLY ! NATURE ( ! C\RTS 9 :I* JURIES SAT1 & ! EXT5T ( ! P[]S EX]CIS$ BY JURIES 9 ?OSE C\RTS4 ,I !RE=E GIVE 9 A NOTE EXT5D$ EXTRACTS1 ON !SE PO9TS1 FROM ,/U>T ON ! ,CON/ITUTION ( ,5GL&1 & FROM ,BLACK/ONE'S ,COMM5T>IES4#e#b  

 ,?AT ALL !SE C\RTS W]E M]E C\RTS ( CONSCI5CE1 9 :I* ! JURIES W]E SOLE JUDGES1 ADM9I/]+ JU/ICE ACCORD+ TO !IR [N IDEAS ( IT1 IS NOT ONLY %[N BY ! EXTRACTS ALREADY GIV51 BUT IS EXPLICITLY ACKN[L$G$ 9 ! FOLL[+ ONE1 9 :I* ! MOD]N 0C\RTS ( CONSCI5CE0 >E COMP>$ ) ! ANCI5T HUNDR$ & C\NT C\RTS1 & ! PREF]5CE GIV5 TO ! LATT]1 ON ! GR\ND ?AT ! DUTIES ( ! JURORS 9 ! ONE CASE1 & ( ! COMMISSION]S 9 ! O!R1 >E ! SAME1 & ?AT ! CONSCI5CES ( A JURY >E A SAF] & PUR] TRIBUNAL ?AN ! CONSCI5CES ( 9DIVIDUALS SPECIALLY APPO9T$1 & HOLD+ P]MAN5T (FICES4  

 0,BUT !RE IS ONE SPECIES ( C\RTS CON/ITUT$ BY ACT ( ,P>LIAM5T1 9 ! CITY ( ,LONDON1 & O!R TRAD+ & POPUL\S DI/RICTS1 :I*1 9 !IR PROCE$+S1 SO V>Y FROM ! C\RSE ( ! COMMON LAW1 ?AT !Y DES]VE A MORE P>TICUL> CONSID]ATION4 ,I MEAN ! C\RT ( REQUE/S1 OR C\RTS ( CONSCI5CE1 = ! RECOV]Y ( SMALL DEBTS4 ,! FIR/ ( !SE WAS E/ABLI%$ 9 ,LONDON SO E>LY AS ! REIGN ( ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I41 BY AN ACT ( !IR COMMON C\NCIL2 :I*1 H[EV]1 WAS C]TA9LY 9SUFFICI5T = ?AT PURPOSE1 & ILLEGAL1 TILL CONFIRM$ BY /ATUTE #c ,JAC4 ,I41 *4 #a#e1 :I* HAS S9CE BE5 EXPLA9$ & AM5D$ BY /ATUTE #ad ,GO4 ,I,I41 *4 #a4 ,! CON/ITUTION IS ?IS3 TWO ALD]M5 & F\R COMMON]S SIT TWICE A WEEK TO HE> ALL CAUSES ( DEBT NOT EXCE$+ ! VALUE ( =TY %ILL+S2 :I* !Y EXAM9E 9 A SUMM>Y WAY1 BY ! OA? ( ! P>TIES OR O!R WITNESSES1 & MAKE SU* ORD] !RE9 AS IS CONSONANT TO EQUITY & GOOD CONSCI5CE4 "9 "9 "9 ,DIV]SE TRAD+ T[NS & O!R DI/RICTS HAVE OBTA9$ ACTS ( ,P>LIAM5T1 = E/ABLI%+ 9 !M C\RTS ( CONSCI5CE UPON NE>LY ! SAME PLAN AS ?AT 9 ! CITY ( ,LONDON4  

 0,! ANXI\S DESIRE ?AT HAS BE5 %[N TO OBTA9 !SE SEV]AL ACTS1 PROVES CLE>LY ?AT ! NATION1 9 G5]AL1 IS TRULY S5SIBLE ( ! GREAT 9CONV5I5CE >IS+ FROM ! DISUSE ( ! ANCI5T C\NTY & HUNDR$ C\RTS1 :]E9 CAUSES ( ?IS SMALL VALUE W]E ALWAYS =M]LY DECID$ ) V]Y LITTLE TR\BLE & EXP5SE TO ! P>TIES4 ,BUT IT IS TO BE FE>$ ?AT ! G5]AL REM$Y1 :I* ( LATE HA? BE5 PR9CIPALLY APPLI$ TO ?IS 9CONV5I5CE1 7! ]ECT+ !SE NEW JURISDICTIONS17 MAY ITSELF BE ATT5D$ 9 TIME ) V]Y ILL CONSEQU5CES2 AS ! ME?OD ( PROCE$+ !RE9 IS 5TIRELY 9 D]OGATION ( ! COMMON LAW2 & !IR L>GE DISCRETION>Y P[]S CREATE A PETTY TYRANNY 9 A SET ( /&+ COMMISSION]S2 & AS ! DISUSE ( ! TRIAL BY JURY MAY T5D TO E/RANGE ! M9DS ( ! PEOPLE FROM ?AT VALUABLE PR]OGATIVE ( ,5GLI%M51 :I* HAS ALREADY BE5 MORE ?AN SUFFICI5TLY EXCLUD$ 9 MANY 9/ANCES4 ,H[ MU* RA!R IS IT TO BE WI%$ ?AT ! PROCE$+S 9 ! C\NTY & HUNDR$ C\RTS C\LD BE AGA9 REVIV$1 )\T BURD5+ IS ! FREEHOLD]S ) TOO FREQU5T & T$I\S ATT5DANCES2 & AT ! SAME TIME REMOV+ ! DELAYS ?AT HAVE 9S5SIBLY CREPT 9TO !IR PROCE$+S1 & ! P[] ?AT EI!R P>TY HAS ( TRANSF]R+ AT PLEASURE !IR SUITS TO ! C\RTS AT ,WE/M9/]6 ,& WE MAY1 ) SATISFACTION1 OBS]VE1 ?AT ?IS EXP]IM5T HAS BE5 ACTUALLY TRI$1 & HAS SUCCE$$ 9 ! POPUL\S C\NTY ( ,MIDDLESEX1 :I* MI<T S]VE AS AN EXAMPLE = O!RS4 ,= BY /ATUTE #bc ,GEO4 ,I,I41 *4 #c#c1 IT IS 5ACT$3  

 #a4 ,?AT A SPECIAL C\NTY C\RT %ALL BE HELD AT LEA/ ONCE 9 A MON?1 9 EV]Y HUNDR$ ( ! C\NTY ( ,MIDDLESEX1 BY ! C\NTY CL]K4  

 #b4 ,?AT TWELVE FREEHOLD]S ( ?AT HUNDR$1 QUALIFI$ TO S]VE ON JURIES1 & /RUCK BY ! %]IFF1 %ALL BE SUMMON$ TO APPE> AT SU* C\RT BY ROTATION2 SO AS NONE %ALL BE SUMMON$ (T5] ?AN ONCE A YE>4  

 #c4 ,?AT 9 ALL CAUSES NOT EXCE$+ ! VALUE ( =TY %ILL+S1 ! C\NTY CL]K & TWELVE SUITORS 7JURORS7 %ALL PROCE$ 9 A SUMM>Y WAY1 EXAM9+ ! P>TIES & WITNESSES ON OA?1 )\T ! =MAL PROCESS ANCI5TLY US$2 & %ALL MAKE SU* ORD] !RE9 AS !Y %ALL JUDGE AGREEABLE TO CONSCI5CE40 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #h#a-#h#c4  

 ,:AT >E !SE BUT C\RTS ( CONSCI5CE8 ,& YET ,BLACK/ONE TELLS US !Y >E A REVIVAL ( ! ANCI5T HUNDR$ & C\NTY C\RTS4 ,& :AT DOES ?IS FACT PROVE1 BUT ?AT ! ANCI5T COMMON LAW C\RTS1 9 :I* JURIES SAT1 W]E M]E C\RTS ( CONSCI5CE8  

 ,IT IS P]FECTLY EVID5T ?AT 9 ALL !SE C\RTS ! JURORS W]E ! JUDGES1 & DET]M9$ ALL QUE/IONS ( LAW = !MSELVES2 BECAUSE ! ONLY ALT]NATIVE TO ?AT SUPPOSITION IS1 ?AT ! JURORS LOOK !IR LAW FROM %]IFF1 & /EW>DS1 ( :I* !RE IS NOT ! LEA/ EVID5CE 9 HI/ORY1 NOR ! LEA/ PROBABILITY 9 REASON4 ,IT IS EVID5T1 ALSO1 ?AT !Y JUDG$ 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! LAWS ( ! K+1 = ! REASONS BE=E GIV51 VIZ41 ?AT ! AU?ORITY ( ! K+ WAS HELD 9 V]Y LITTLE E/EEM2 &1 SECONDLY1 ?AT ! LAWS ( ! K+ 7NOT BE+ PR9T$1 & ! PEOPLE BE+ UNABLE TO READ !M IF !Y HAD BE5 PR9T$7 MU/ HAVE BE5 9 A GREAT MEASURE UNKN[N TO !M1 & C\LD HAVE BE5 RECEIV$ BY !M ONLY ON ! AU?ORITY ( ! %]IFF1 BAILIFF1 OR /EW>D4 ,IF LAWS W]E TO BE RECEIV$ BY !M ON ! AU?ORITY ( !SE (FIC]S1  ! LATT] W\LD HAVE IMPOS$ SU* LAWS UPON ! PEOPLE AS !Y PLEAS$4  

 ,!SE C\RTS1 ?AT HAVE N[ BE5 DESCRIB$1 W]E CONT9U$ 9 FULL P[] LONG AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 NO ALT]ATION BE+ MADE 9 !M BY ?AT 9/RUM5T1 NOR 9 ! MODE ( ADM9I/]+ JU/ICE 9 !M4  

 ,!RE IS NO EVID5CE :ATEV]1 SO F> AS ,I AM AW>E1 ?AT ! JURIES HAD ANY LESS P[] 9 ! C\RTS HELD BY ! K+'S JU/ICES1 ?AN 9 ?OSE HELD BY & /EW>DS2 & !RE IS NO PROBABILITY :ATEV] ?AT !Y HAD4 ,ALL ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! =M] C\RTS & ! LATT] UND\BT$LY WAS1 ?AT1 9 ! =M]1 ! JURIES HAD ! B5EFIT ( ! ADVICE & ASSI/ANCE ( ! JU/ICES1 :I* W\LD1 ( C\RSE1 BE CONSID]$ VALUABLE 9 DIFFICULT CASES1 ON ACC\NT ( ! JU/ICES BE+ REG>D$ AS MORE LE>N$1 NOT ONLY 9 ! LAWS ( ! K+1 BUT ALSO 9 ! COMMON LAW1 OR 0LAW ( ! L&40  

 ,! CONCLUSION1 !RE=E1 ,I ?9K1 9EVITABLY MU/ BE1 ?AT NEI!R ! LAWS ( ! K+1 NOR ! 9/RUCTIONS ( HIS JU/ICES1 HAD ANY AU?ORITY OV] JURORS BEYOND :AT ! LATT] SAW FIT TO ACCORD TO !M4 ,& ?IS VIEW IS CONFIRM$ BY ?IS REM>K ( ,HALLAM1 ! TRU? ( :I* ALL WILL ACKN[L$GE3  

 0,! RULES ( LEGAL DECISION1 AMONG A RUDE PEOPLE1 >E ALWAYS V]Y SIMPLE2 NOT S]V+ MU* TO GUIDE1 F> LESS TO CONTROL ! FEEL+S ( NATURAL EQUITY40 --- #b ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 *4 #h1 P>T #b1 P4 #d#f#e4  

 ,IT IS EVID5T ?AT IT WAS 9 ?IS WAY1 BY ! FREE & CONCURR5T JUDGM5TS ( JURIES1 ANG & 5FOYC+ C]TA9 LAWS & RULES ( CONDUCT1 CORRESPOND+ TO !IR NOTIONS ( RI<T & JU/ICE1 ?AT ! LAWS & CU/OMS1 :I*1 = ! MO/ P>T1 MADE UP ! COMMON LAW1 & W]E CALL$1 AT ?AT DAY1 0! GOOD LAWS1 & GOOD CU/OMS10 & 0! LAW ( ! L&10 W]E E/ABLI%$4 ,H[ O!RWISE C\LD !Y EV] HAVE BECOME E/ABLI%$1 AS ,BLACK/ONE SAYS !Y W]E1 0BY LONG & IMMEMORIAL USAGE1 & BY !IR UNIV]SAL RECEPTION ?R\<\T ! K+DOM10#e#c :51 AS ! ,MIRROR SAYS1 0JU/ICE WAS SO DONE1 ?AT EV]YONE SO JUDG$ HIS NEI<BOR1 BY SU* JUDGM5T AS A MAN C\LD NOT ELSE:]E RECEIVE 9 ! LIKE CASES1 UNTIL SU* TIMES AS ! CU/OMS ( ! REALM W]E PUT 9 WRIT+ & C]TA9LY PUBLI%$80  

 ,! FACT ?AT1 9 ?AT D>K AGE1 SO MANY ( ! PR9CIPLES ( NATURAL EQUITY1 AS ?OSE !N EMBRAC$ 9 ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 %\LD HAVE BE5 SO UNI=MLY RECOGNIZ$ & 5=C$ BY JURIES1 AS TO HAVE BECOME E/ABLI%$ BY G5]AL CONS5T AS 0! LAW ( ! L&20 & ! FUR!R FACT ?AT ?IS 0LAW ( ! L&0 WAS HELD SO SACR$ ?AT EV5 ! K+ C\LD NOT LAWFULLY 9FR+E OR ALT] IT1 BUT WAS REQUIR$ TO SWE> TO MA9TA9 IT1 >E BEAUTIFUL & IMPRESSIVE ILLU/RATIONS ( ! TRU? ?AT M5'S M9DS1 EV5 9 ! COMP>ATIVE 9FANCY ( O!R KN[L$GE1 HAVE CLE> & CO9CID5T IDEAS ( ! ELEM5T>Y PR9CIPLES1 & ! P>AM\NT OBLIGATION1 ( JU/ICE4 ,! SAME FACTS ALSO PROVE ?AT ! COMMON M9D1 & ! G5]AL1 OR1 P]HAPS1 RA!R1 ! UNIV]SAL CONSCI5CE1 AS DEVELOP$ 9 ! UNTRAMMEL$ JUDGM5TS ( JURIES1 MAY BE SAFELY RELI$ UPON = ! PRES]VATION ( 9DIVIDUAL RI<TS 9 CIVIL SOCIETY2 &1 ?AT !RE IS NO NECESSITY OR EXCUSE = ?AT DELUGE ( >BITR>Y LEGISLATION1 ) :I* ! PRES5T AGE IS OV]:ELM$1 UND] ! PRETEXT ?AT UNLESS LAWS BE MADE1 ! LAW WILL NOT BE KN[N2 A PRETEXT1 BY ! WAY1 ALMO/ UNIV]SALLY US$ = OV]TURN+1 9/EAD ( E/ABLI%+1 ! PR9CIPLES ( JU/ICE4  

 ,S,E,C,T,I,O,N ,I,I,I4 ,! ,OA?S ( ,JURORS  
  

 ,! OA?S ?AT HAVE BE5 ADM9I/]$ TO JURORS1 9 ,5GL&1 & :I* >E !IR LEGAL GUIDE TO !IR DUTY1 ALL 7SO F> AS ,I HAVE ASC]TA9$ !M7 CORROBORATE ! IDEA ?AT ! JURORS >E TO TRY ALL CASES ON !IR 9TR9SIC M]ITS1 9DEP5D5TLY ( ANY LAWS ?AT !Y DEEM UNJU/ OR OPPRESSIVE4 ,IT IS PROBABLE ?AT AN OA? WAS NEV] ADM9I/]$ TO A JURY 9 ,5GL&1 EI!R 9 A CIVIL OR CRIM9AL CASE1 TO TRY IT ACCORD+ TO LAW4  

 ,! E>LIE/ OA? ?AT ,I HAVE F\ND PRESCRIB$ BY LAW TO BE ADM9I/]$ TO JURORS IS 9 ! LAWS ( ,E!LR$1 7AB\T ! YE> #a#a#e17 :I* REQUIRE ?AT ! JURORS 0%ALL SWE>1 ) !IR H&S UPON A HOLY ?+1 ?AT !Y WILL CONDEMN NO MAN ?AT IS 9NOC5T1 NOR ACQUIT ANY ?AT IS GUILTY40 --- #d ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#b4 #b ,TURN]'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,ANGLO-,SAXONS1 #a#e#e4 ,WILK9S' ,LAWS ( ! ,ANGLO-,SAXONS1 #a#a#g4 ,SPELMAN'S ,GLOSS>Y1 WORD ,JURATA4  

 ,BLACK/ONE ASSUMES ?AT ?IS WAS ! OA? ( ! GR& JURY 7#d ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#b72 BUT !RE WAS BUT ONE JURY AT ! TIME ?IS OA? WAS ORDA9$4 ,! 9/ITUTION ( TWO JURIES1 GR& & PETIT1 TOOK PLACE AFT] ! ,NORMAN ,CONQUE/4  

 ,HUME1 SPEAK+ ( ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE 9 ! TIME ( ,ALFR$1 SAYS ?AT1 9 EV]Y HUNDR$1  

 0,TWELVE FREEHOLD]S W]E *OS51 :O1 HAV+ SWORN1 TOGE!R ) ! HUNDR$]1 OR PRESID+ MAGI/RATE ( ?AT DIVISION1 TO ADM9I/] IMP>TIAL JU/ICE1 PROCE$$ TO ! EXAM9ATION ( ?AT CAUSE :I* WAS SUBMITT$ TO !IR JURISDICTION40 --- ,HUME1 *4 #b4  

 ,BY A LAW ( ,H5RY ,I,I41 9 #a#a#f#d1 IT WAS DIRECT$ ?AT ! %]IFF 0FACIET JUR>E DUODECIM DIES HOM9ES DE VIC9ETO SEU DE VILLA1 QUOD 9DE V]ITATEM SECUNDUM CONSCI5TIAM SUAM MANIFE/ABUNT10 7%ALL MAKE TWELVE LEGAL M5 FROM ! NEI<BORHOOD TO SWE> ?AT !Y WILL MAKE KN[N ! TRU? ACCORD+ TO !IR CONSCI5CE47 ---,CRABBE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI% ,LAW1 #a#a#i4 #a ,REEVES1 #h#g4 ,WILK9S1 #c#b#a-#c#b#c4  

 ,GLANVILLE1 :O WROTE )9 ! HALF C5TURY PREVI\S TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 SAYS3  

 0,EA* ( ! KNI<TS SUMMON$ = ?IS PURPOSE 7AS JURORS7 \<T TO SWE> ?AT HE WILL NEI!R UTT] ?AT :I* IS FALSE1 NOR KN[+LY CONCEAL ! TRU?40 --- ,BEAMES' ,GLANVILL5LE1 #f#e4  

 ,REEVE CALLS ! TRIAL BY JURY 0! TRIAL TWELVE M5 SWORN TO SPEAK ! TRU?40 --- #a ,REEVE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI% ,LAW1 #h#g4  

 ,H5RY SAYS ?AT ! JURORS 0TOOK A SOLEMN OA?1 ?AT !Y W\LD FAI?FULLY DIS*>GE ! DUTIES ( !IR (FICE1 & NOT SUFF] AN 9NOC5T MAN TO BE CONDEMN$1 NOR ANY GUILTY P]SON TO BE ACQUITT$40 --- #c ,H5RY'S ,HI/4 ( ,GREAT ,BRITA91 #c#d#f4  

 ,! ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES1 7WRITT5 )9 A C5TURY AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA17 9 ! *APT] ON ! ABUSES ( ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 SAYS3  

 0,IT IS ABUSE TO USE ! WORDS1 TO !IR KN[L$GE1 9 !IR OA?S1 TO MAKE ! JURORS SPEAK UPON ?\<TS1 S9CE ! *IEF WORD ( !IR OA?S BE ?AT !Y SPEAK ! TRU?40 --- P4 #b#d#i4  

 ,SMI?1 WRIT+ 9 ! TIME ( ,ELISABE?1 SAYS ?AT1 9 CIVIL SUITS1 ! JURY 0BE SWORN TO DECL>E ! TRU? ( ?AT ISSUE ACCORD+ TO ! EVID5CE1 & !IR CONSCI5CE40 --- ,SMI?'S ,COMMOMWEAL? ( ,5GL&1 $ITION ( #a#f#b#a1 P4 #g#c4  

 ,9 CRIM9AL TRIALS1 HE SAYS3  

 0,! CL]K GIVE? ! JUROR AN OA? TO GO UPRI<TLY BETWIXT ! PR9CE & ! PRISON]40 --- ,DITTO1 P4 #i4#e#d  

 ,HALE SAYS3  

 0,!N TWELVE1 & NO LESS1 ( SU* AS >E 9DIFF]5T & >E RETURN$ UPON ! PR9CIPAL PANEL1 OR ! TALES1 >E SWORN TO TRY ! SAME ACCORD+ TO ! EVID5CE40 --- #b ,HALE'S ,HI/ORY' ( ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 #a#d#a4  

 ,IT APPE>S FROM ,BLACK/ONE ?AT1 EV5 AT ?IS DAY1 NEI!R 9 CIVIL NOR CRIM9AL CASES1 >E JURORS 9 ,5GL& SWORN TO TRY CAUSES ACCORD+ TO LAW4 ,HE SAYS ?AT 9 CIVIL SUITS ! JURY >E  

 0,SWORN WELL & TRULY TO TRY ! ISSUE BETWE5 ! P>TIES1 & A TRUE V]DICT TO GIVE ACCORD+ TO ! EVID5CE40 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#f#e4  

 0,! ISSUE0 TO BE TRI$ IS :E!R ,A [ES ,B ANY?+1 & IF SO1 H[ MU*8 OR :E!R ,A HAS 9 HIS POSSESSION ANY?+ ?AT BELONGS TO ,B2 OR :E!R ,A HAS WRONG$ ,B1 & \<T TO MAKE COMP5SATION2 & IF SO1 H[ MU*8  

 ,NO /ATUTE PASS$ BY A LEGISLATURE1 SIMPLY AS A LEGISLATURE1 CAN ALT] EI!R ( !SE 0ISSUES0 9 H>DLY ANY CONCEIVABLE CASE1 P]HAPS 9 NONE4 ,NO UNJU/ LAW C\LD EV] ALT] !M 9 ANY4 ,!Y >E ALL M]E QUE/IONS ( NATURAL JU/ICE1 :I* LEGISLATURES HAVE NO P[] TO ALT]1 & ) :I* !Y HAVE NO RI<T TO 9T]F]E1 FUR!R ?AN TO PROVIDE = HAV+ !M SETTL$ BY ! MO/ COMPET5T & IMP>TIAL TRIBUNAL ?AT IT IS PRACTICABLE TO HAVE1 & !N = HAV+ ALL JU/ DECISIONS 5=C$4 ,& ANY TRIBUNAL1 :E!R JUDGE OR JURY1 ?AT ATTEMPTS TO TRY !SE ISSUES1 HAS NO MORE MORAL RI<T TO BE SW]V$ FROM ! L9E ( JU/ICE1 BY ! WILL ( A LEGISLATURE1 ?AN BY ! WILL ( ANY O!R BODY ( M5 :ATEV]4 ,& ?IS OA? DOES NOT REQUIRE OR P]MIT A JURY TO BE SO SW]V$4  

 ,9 CRIM9AL CASES1 ,BLACK/ONE SAYS ! OA? ( ! JURY 9 ,5GL& IS3  

 0,WELL & TRULY TO TRY1 & TRUE DELIV]ANCE MAKE1 BETWE5 \R SOV]EIGN LORD1 ! K+1 & ! PRISON] :OM !Y HAVE 9 *>GE1 & A TRUE V]DICT TO GIVE1 ACCORD+ TO ! EVID5CE40 --- #d ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#e#e4  

 0,! ISSUE0 TO BE TRI$1 9 A CRIM9AL CASE1 IS 0GUILTY10 OR 0NOT GUILTY40 ,! LAWS PASS$ BY A LEGISLATURE CAN R>ELY1 IF EV]1 HAVE ANY?+ TO DO ) ?IS HEISSUE4 0,GUILT0 IS AN 9TR9SIC QUALITY ( ACTIONS1 & CAN NEI!R BE CREAT$1 DE/ROY$1 NOR *ANG$ BY LEGISLATION4 ,& NO TRIBUNAL ?AT ATTEMPTS TO TRY ?IS ISSUE CAN HAVE ANY MORAL RI<T TO DECL>E A MAN GUILTY1 = AN ACT ?AT IS 9TR9SICALLY 9NOC5T1 AT ! BIDD+ ( A LEGISLATURE1 ANY MORE ?AN AT ! BIDD+ ( ANYBODY ELSE4 ,& ?IS OA? DOES NOT REQUIRE OR P]MIT A JURY TO DO SO4  

 ,! WORDS1 0ACCORD+ TO ! EVID5CE10 HAVE D\BTLESS BE5 9TRODUC$ 9TO ! ABOVE OA?S 9 MOD]N TIMES4 ,!Y >E UNQUE/IONABLY 9 VIOLATION ( ! ,COMMON LAW1 & ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 IF BY !M BE MEANT SU* EVID5CE ONLY AS ! GOV]NM5T SEES FIT TO ALL[ TO GO TO ! JURY4 ,IF ! GOV]NM5T CAN DICTATE ! EVID5CE1 & REQUIRE ! JURY TO DECIDE ACCORD+ TO ?AT EVID5CE1 IT NECESS>ILY DICTATES ! CONCLUSION TO :I* !Y MU/ >RIVE4 ,9 ?AT CASE ! TRIAL IS REALLY A TRIAL BY ! GOV]NM5T1 & NOT BY ! JURY4 ,! JURY CANNOT TRY AN ISSUE1 UNLESS !Y DET]M9E :AT EVID5CE %ALL BE ADMITT$4 ,! ANCI5T OA?S1 IT WILL BE OBS]V$1 SAY NO?+ AB\T 0ACCORD+ TO ! EVID5CE40 ,!Y OBVI\SLY TAKE IT = GRANT$ ?AT ! JURY TRY ! :OLE TECASE2 & ( C\RSE ?AT !Y DECIDE :AT EVID5CE %ALL BE ADMITT$4 ,IT W\LD BE 9TR9SICALLY AN IMMORAL & CRIM9AL ACT = A JURY TO DECL>E A MAN GUILTY1 OR TO DECL>E ?AT ONE MAN [$ MONEY TO ANO!R1 UNLESS ALL ! EVID5CE W]E ADMITT$1 :I* !Y ?\<T \<T TO BE ADMITT$1 = ASC]TA9+ ! TRU?4#e#e  

 ,GR& ,JURY4 ---,IF JURORS >E B\ND TO 5=CE ALL LAWS PASS$ BY ! LEGISLATURE1 IT IS A V]Y REM>KABLE FACT ?AT ! OA? ( GR& JURIES DOES NOT REQUIRE !M TO BE GOV]N$ BY ! LAWS 9 F9D+ 9DICTM5TS4 ,!RE HAVE BE5 V>I\S =MS ( OA? ADM9I/]$ TO GR& JURORS2 BUT BY NONE ( !M ?AT ,I RECOLLECT EV] TO HAVE SE51 EXCEPT ?OSE ( ! ,/ATES ( ,CONNECTICUT & ,V]MONT1 >E !Y SWORN TO PRES5T M5 ACCORD+ TO LAW4 ,! ,5GLI% =M1 AS GIV5 9 ! ESSAY ON ,GR& ,JURIES1 WRITT5 NE> TWO HUNDR$ YE>S AGO1 & SUPPOS$ TO HAVE BE5 WRITT5 BY ,LORD ,SOM]S1 IS AS FOLL[S3  

 0,Y\ %ALL DILIG5TLY 9QUIRE1 & TRUE PRES5TM5T MAKE1 ( ALL SU* >TICLES1 MATT]S1 & ?+S1 AS %ALL GIV5 Y\ 9 *>GE1 & ( ALL O!R MATT]S & ?+S AS %ALL COME TO Y\R KN[L$GE T\*+ ?IS PRES5T S]VICE4 ,! K+'S C\NCIL1 Y\R FELL[S1 & Y\R [N1 Y\ %ALL KEEP SECRET4 ,Y\ %ALL PRES5T NO P]SON = HATR$ OR MALICE2 NEI!R %ALL Y\ LEAVE ANY ONE UNPRES5T$ = FAVOR1 OR AFFECTION1 = LOVE OR GA91 OR ANY HOPES !RE(2 BUT 9 ALL ?+S Y\ %ALL PRES5T ! TRU?1 ! :OLE TRU?1 & NO?+ BUT ! TRU?1 TO ! BE/ ( Y\R KN[L$GE4 ,SO HELP Y\ ,GOD40  

 ,?IS =M ( OA? IS D\BTLESS QUITE ANCI5T1 = ! ESSAY SAYS 0\R ANCE/ORS APPO9T$0 IT4 --- ,SEE ,ESSAY1 P4 #c#c-#c#d4  

 ,ON ! OBLIGATIONS ( ?IS OA?1 ! ESSAY SAYS3  

 0,IF IT BE ASK$ H[1 OR 9 :AT MANN]1 ! 7GR&7 JURIES %ALL 9QUIRE1 ! ANSW] IS READY1 ACCORD+ TO ! BE/ ( UND]/&+S4 ,!Y ONLY1 NOT ! JUDGES1 >E SWORN TO SE>* DILIG5TLY TO F9D \T ALL TREASONS1 @&C41 )9 !IR *>GE1 & !Y MU/ & \<T TO USE !IR [N DISCRETION 9 ! WAY & MANN] ( !IR 9QUIRY4 ,NO DIRECTIONS CAN LEGALLY BE IMPOS$ UPON !M BY ANY C\RT OR JUDGES2 AN HONE/ JURY WILL ?ANKFULLY ACCEPT GOOD ADVICE FROM JUDGES1 AS !IR ASSI/ANTS2 BUT !Y >E B\ND BY !IR OA?S TO PRES5T ! TRU?1 ! :OLE TRU?1 & NO?+ BUT ! TRU?1 TO ! BE/ ( !IR [N1 NOT ! JUDGE'S1 KN[L$GE4 ,NEI!R CAN !Y1 )\T BREA* ( ?AT OA?1 RESIGN !IR CONSCI5CES1 OR BL9DLY SUBMIT TO ! DICTATES ( O!RS2 & !RE=E \<T TO RECEIVE OR REJECT SU* ADVICES1 AS !Y JUDGE !M GOOD OR BAD4 "9 "9 ,NO?+ CAN BE MORE PLA9 & EXPRESS ?AN ! WORDS ( ! OA? >E TO ?IS PURPOSE4 ,! JURORS NE$ NOT SE>* ! LAW BOOKS1 NOR TUMBLE OV] HEAPS ( OLD RECORDS1 = ! EXPLANATION ( !M4 ,\R GREATE/ LAWY]S MAY FROM H5CE LE>N MORE C]TA9LY \R ANCI5T LAW 9 ?IS CASE1 ?AN FROM ALL ! BOOKS 9 !IR /UDIES4 ,! LANGUAGE :]E9 ! OA? IS P5N$ IS KN[N & UND]/OOD BY EV]Y MAN1 & ! WORDS 9 IT HAVE ! SAME SIGNIFICATION AS !Y HAVE :]ESOEV] ELSE !Y >E US$4 ,! JUDGES1 )\T ASSUM+ TO !MSELVES A LEGISLATIVE P[]1 CANNOT PUT A NEW S5SE UPON !M1 O!R ?AN ACCORD+ TO !IR G5U9E1 COMMON MEAN+4 ,!Y CANNOT MAGI/]IALLY IMPOSE !IR OP9IONS UPON ! JURY1 & MAKE !M =SAKE ! DIRECT WORDS ( !IR OA?1 TO PURSUE !IR GLOSSES4 ,! GR& 9QUE/ >E B\ND TO OBS]VE ALIKE /RICTLY EV]Y P>T ( !IR OA?1 & TO USE ALL JU/ & PROP] WAYS :I* MAY 5ABLE !M TO P]=M IT2 O!RWISE IT W]E TO SAY1 ?AT AFT] M5 HAD SWORN TO 9QUIRE DILIG5TLY AFT] ! TRU?1 ACCORD+ TO ! BE/ ( !IR KN[L$GE1 !Y W]E B\ND TO =SAKE ALL ! NATURAL & PROP] MEANS :I* !IR UND]/&+S SUGGE/ = ! DISCOV]Y ( IT1 IF IT BE COMM&$ BY ! JUDGES40 --- ,LORD ,SOM]S' ,ESSAY ON ,GR& ,JURIES1 P4 #c#h4  

 ,:AT IS H]E SAID SO PLA9LY & =CIBLY ( ! OA? & OBLIGATIONS ( GR& JURIES1 IS EQUALLY APPLICABLE TO ! OA? & OBLIGATIONS ( PETIT JURIES4 ,9 BO? CASES ! SIMPLE OA?S ( ! JURORS1 & NOT ! 9/RUCTIONS ( ! JUDGES1 NOR ! /ATUTES ( K+S NOR LEGISLATURES1 >E !IR LEGAL GUIDES TO !IR DUTIES4#e#f  

 ,S,E,C,T,I,O,N ,I,V4 ,! ,RI<T ( ,JURIES TO FIX ,S5T5CE4  
  

 ,! NATURE ( ! COMMON LAW C\RTS EXI/+ PRIOR TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 SU* AS ! C\NTY C\RTS1 ! HUNDR$ C\RTS1 ! C\RT LEET1 & ! C\RT-B>ON1 ALL PROVE1 :AT HAD ALREADY BE5 PROV$ FROM ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ?AT1 9 JURY TRIALS1 ! JURIES FIX$ ! S5T5CE2 BECAUSE1 9 ?OSE C\RTS1 !RE WAS NO ONE BUT ! %]IFF1 BAILIFF1 OR /EW>D2 & NO ONE WILL PRET5D ?AT IT WAS FIX$ BY !M4 ,! JURIES UNQUE/IONABLY GAVE ! 0JUDGM5T0 9 BO? CIVIL & CRIM9AL CASES4  

 ,! JURIES W]E TO FIX ! S5T5CE UND] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 IS ALSO %[N BY /ATUTES SUBSEQU5T TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA4  

 ,A /ATUTE PASS$ FIFTY-ONE YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 SAYS ?AT A BAK]1 DEFAULT 9 ! WIE<T ( HIS BREAD1 0DEBEAT AM]CI>I VEL SUBIRE JUDICIUM PILLORAE10 --- ?AT IS1 0\<T TO BE AMA]C$1 OR SUFF] ! S5T5CE ( ! PILLORY40 ,& ?AT A BREW]1 = 0SELL+ ALE1 CONTR>Y TO ! ASSIZE10 0DEBEAT AM]CI>I1 VEL PATI JUDICIUM TUMBRELLI20 ?AT IS1 0\<T TO BE AM]C$1 OR SUFF] JUDGM5T ( ! TUMBRELL40 --- #ea ,H5RY ,I,I,I41 /4 #f4 7#a#b#f#f47  

 ,IF ! K+ 7! LEGISLATIVE P[]7 HAD HAD AU?ORITY TO FIX ! PUNI%M5TS ( !SE (F5SES IMP]ATIVELY1 HE W\LD NATURALLY SAID !SE (F5D]S %ALL BE AM]C$1 & %ALL SUFF] JUDGM5T ( ! PILLORY & TUMBREL1 9/EAD ( ?US SIMPLY EXPRESS+ ! OP9ION ?AT !Y \<T TO BE PUNI%$ 9 ?AT MANN]4  

 ,! /ATUTE ( ,WE/M9I/]1 PASS$ SIXTY YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 PROVIDES ?AT1  

 0,NO CITY1 BOR\<1 NOR T[N1 NOR ANY MAN1 BE AM]C$1 )\T REASONABLE CAUSE1 & ACCORD+ TO ! QUANTITY ( ! TRESPASS2 ?AT IS TO SAY1 EV]Y FREEMAN SAV+ HIS FREEHOLD1 A M]*ANT SAV+ HIS M]*&ISE1 A VILLE9 HIS WAYNAGE1 & ?AT BY HIS OR !IR PE]S40 --- #c ,$W>D ,I1 *4 #f4 7#a#b#g#e47  

 ,! SAME /ATUTE 7*4 #a#h7 PROVIDES FUR!R1 ?AT1  

 0,=ASMU* AS ! COMMON F9E & AM]CEM5T ( ! :OLE C\NTY 9 ,EYRE ( ! JU/ICES = FALSE JUDGM5TS1 OR = O!R TRESPASS1 IS UNJU/LY ASSESS$ BY %]IFFS & B>ETORS 9 ! %IRES1 SO ?AT ! SUM IS MANY TIMES 9CREAS$1 & ! P>CELS O!RWISE ASSESS$ ?AN !Y \<T TO BE1 TO ! DAMAGE ( ! PEOPLE1 :I* BE MANY TIMES PAID TO ! %]IFFS & B>ETORS1 :I* DO NOT ACQUIT ! PAY]S2 IT IS PROVID$1 & ! K+ WILLS1 ?AT FROM H5CE=? SU* SUMS %ALL BE ASSESS$ BE=E ! JU/ICES 9 ,EYRE1 A=E !IR DEP>TURE1 BY ! OA? ( KNI<TS & O!R HONE/ M51 UPON ALL SU* AS \<T TO PAY2 & ! JU/ICES %ALL CAUSE ! P>CELS TO BE PUT TO !IR E/REATS1 :I* %ALL BE DELIV]$ UP UNTO ! EX*EQU]1 & NOT ? :OLE SUM40 --- ,/4 #c ,$W>D ,I1 *4 #a#h1 7#a#b#g#e47#e#g  

 ,! FOLL[+ /ATUTE PASS$ 9 #a#c#d#a1 ONE HUNDR$ & TW5TY-FIVE YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 PROVID+ = ! TRIAL ( PE]S ( ! REALM1 & ! K+'S M9I/]S1 CONTA9S A RECOGNITION ( ! PR9CIPLE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ?AT ! JURY >E TO FIX ! S5T5CE4  

 0,:]EAS BE=E ?IS TIME ! PE]S ( ! L& HAVE BE5 >RE/$ & IMPRISON$1 & !IR TEMPORALITIES1 L&S1 & T5EM5TS1 GOODS & CATTELS1 ASSEIZ$ 9 ! K+'S H&S1 & SOME PUT TO DEA? )\T JUDGM5T ( !IR PE]S3 ,IT IS ACCORD$ & ASS5T$1 ?AT NO PE] ( ! L&1 (FIC]1 NOR O!R1 BECAUSE ( HIS (FICE1 NOR ( ?+S T\*+ HIS (FICE1 NOR BY ANY O!R CAUSE1 %ALL BE BE BR\<T 9 JUDGM5T TO LOSE HIS TEMPORALITIES1 L&S1 T5EM5TS1 GOODS & CATTELS1 NOR TO BE >RE/$1 IMPRISON$1 \TLAW$1 EXIL$1 NOR =EJUDG$1 NOR PUT TO ANSW]1 NOR BE JUDG$1 BUT BY AW>D 7S5T5CE7 ( ! SAID PE]S 9 ,P>LIAM5T40 --- #ae ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 /4 #a1 SEC4 #b4  

 ,SECTON #d ( ! /ATUTE PROVIDES1  

 0,?AT 9 EV]Y ,P>LIAM5T1 AT ! ?IRD DAY ( EV]Y ,P>LIAM5T1 ! K+ %ALL TAKE 9 HIS H&S ! (FICES ( ALL ! M9I/]S A=ESAID10 7?AT IS1 0! *ANCELLOR1 TREASUR]1 B>ONS1 & *ANCELLOR ( ! EX*EQU]1 ! JU/ICES ( ONE B5* & ( ! O!R1 JU/ICES ASSIGN$ 9 ! C\NTRY1 /EW>T & *AMB]LA9 ( ! K+'S H\SE1 KEEP] ( ! PRIVY SEAL1 TREASUR] ( ! W>DROBE1 CONTROLL]S1 & !Y ?AT BE *IEF DEPUT$ TO ABIDE NI< BY ! K+'S SON1 ,DUKE ( ,CORNWALL107 0& SO !Y %ALL ABIDE F\R OR FIVE DAYS2 EXCEPT ! (FICES ( JU/ICES ( ! ONE PLACE OR ! O!R1 JU/ICES ASSIGN$1 B>ONS ( EX*EQU]2 SO ALWAYS ?AT !Y & ALL O!R M9I/]S BE PUT TO ANSW] TO EV]Y COMPLA9T2 & IF DEFAULT BE F\ND 9 ANY ( ! SAID M9I/]S1 BY COMPLA9T OR O!R MANN]1 & ( ?AT ATTTA9T$ 9 ,P>LIAM5T1 HE %ALL BE PUNI%$ BY JUDGM5T ( ! PE]S1 & PUT \T ( HIS (FICE1 & ANO!R CONV5I5T PUT 9 HIS PLACE4 ,& UPON ! SAME \R SAID SOV]EIGN LORD ! K+ %ALL DO 7CAUSE7 TO BE PRON\NC$ & MADE EXECUTION )\T DELAY1 ACCORD+ TO ! JUDGM5T 7S5T5CE7 ( ! SAID PE]S 9 ! ,P>LIAM5T40  

 ,H]E IS AN ADMISSION ?AT ! PE]S W]E TO FIX ! S5T5CE1 OR JUDGM5T1 & ! K+ PROMISES TO MAKE EXECUTION 0ACCORD+ TO0 ?AT S5T5CE4  

 ,AN ?IS APPE>S TO BE ! LAW1 UND] :I* PE]S ( ! REALM & ! GREAT (FIC]S ( ! CR[N W]E TRI$ & S5T5C$1 = F\R HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ITS PASSAGE1 &1 = AU<T ,I KN[1 UNTIL ?IS DAY4  

 ,! FIR/ CASE GIV5 9 ,H>GRAVE'S COLLECTION ( ,5GLI% ,/ATE ,TRIALS1 IS ?AT ( ,ALEX&] ,NEVIL1 ,>*BI%OP ( ,YORK1 ,ROB]T ,V]E1 ,DUKE ( ,IREL&1 ,MI*AEL DE LA ,POLE1 ,E>L ( ,SUFFOLK1 & ,ROB]T ,TRESLIAN1 ,LORD ,*IEF ,JU/ICE ( ,5GL&1 ) SEV]AL O!RS1 CONVICT$ ( TREASON1 BE=E 0! ,LORDS ( ,P>LIAM5T10 9 #a#c#h#h4 ,! S5T5CES 9 !SE CASES W]E ADJUDG$ BY ! 0,LORDS ( ,P>LIAM5T10 9 ! FOLL[+ T]MS1 AS !Y >E REPORT$4  

 0,:]E=E ! SAID ,LORDS ( ,P>LIAM5T1 !RE PRES5T1 AS JUDGES 9 ,P>LIAM5T1 9 ?IS CASE1 BY ASS5T ( ! K+1 PRON\NC$ !IR S5T5CE1 & DID ADJUDGE ! SAID >*BI%OP1 DUKE1 & E>L1 ) ,ROB]T ,TRESILIAN1 SO APPEAL$1 AS A=ESAID1 TO BE GUILTY1 & CONVICT$ ( TREASON1 & TO BE DRAWN & HANG$1 AS TRAITORS & 5EMIES TO ! K+ & K+DOM2 & ?AT !IR HEIRS %\LD BE DIS9H]IT$ =EV]1 & !IR L&S & T5EM5TS1 GOODS & *ATTELS1 =FEIT$ TO ! K+1 & ?AT ! TEMPORALITIES ( ! ,>*BI%OP ( ,YORK %\LD BE TAK5 9TO ! K+'S H&S40  

 ,ALSO1 9 ! SAME CASE1 ,SIR ,JOHN ,HOLT1 ,SIR ,WILLIAM ,BUR<1 ,SIR ,JOHN ,C>Y1 ,SIR ,ROG] ,FUL?ORPE1 & ,JOHN ,LOCTON1 0W]E BY ! LORDS TEMPORAL1 BY ! ASS5T ( ! K+1 ADJUDG$ TO BE DRAWN & HANG$1 AS TRAITORS1 !IR HEIRS DIS9H]IT$1 & !IR L&S & T5EM5TS1 GOODS & *ATTELS1 TO BE =FEIT$ TO ! K+40  

 ,ALSO1 9 ! SAME CASE1 ,JOHN ,BLAKE1 0( C\NCIL = ! K+10 & ,?OMAS ,USKE1 UND] %]IFF ( ,MIDDLESEX1 HAV+ BE5 CONVICT$ ( TREASON1  

 0,! LORDS AW>D$1 BY ASS5T ( ! K+1 ?AT !Y %\LD BO? BE HANG$ & DRAWN AS TRAITORS1 AS OP5 5EMIES TO ! K+ & K+DOM1 & !IR HEIRS DIS9H]IT$ =EV]1 & !IR L&S1 & T5EM5TS1 GOODS & *ATTELS1 =FEIT$ TO ! K+40  

 ,ALSO1 0,SIMON ,BURLEI<1 ! K+'S *AMB]LA910 BE+ CONVICT$ ( TREASON1 0BY JO9T CONS5T ( ! K+ & ! LORDS1 S5T5CE WAS PRON\NC$ AGA9/ ! SAID ,SIMON ,BURLEI<1 ?AT HE %\LD BE DRAWN FROM ! T[N TO ,TYBURN1 & !RE BE HANG$ TILL HE BE DEAD1 & !N HAVE HIS HEAD /RUCK FROM HIS BODY40  

 ,ALSO1 0,JOHN ,BEAU*AMP1 /EW>D ( ! H\SEHOLD TO ! K+1 ,JAMES ,B]OV]SE1 & ,JOHN ,SALISBURY1 KNI<TS1 G5TLEM5 ( ! PRIVY *AMB]1 W]E 9 LIKE MANN] CONDEMN$40 --- #a ,H>GRAVE'S ,/ATE ,TRIALS1 FIR/ CASE4  

 ,H]E ! S5T5CES W]E ALL FIX$ BY ! PE]S1 ) ! ASS5T ( ! K+4 ,BUT ?AT ! K+ %\LD BE CONSULT$1 & ( HIS ASS5T OBTA9$ TO ! S5T5CE PRON\NC$ BY ! PE]S1 DOES NOT IMPLY ANY DEFICI5CY ( P[] ON !IR P>T TO FIX ! S5T5CE 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! K+4 ,!RE >E OBVI\S REASONS :Y !Y MI<T *OOSE TO CONSULT ! K+1 & OBTA9 HIS APPROBATION ( ! S5T5CE !Y W]E AB\T TO IMPOSE1 )\T SUPPOS+ ANY LEGAL NECESSITY = !IR SO DO+4  

 ,SO F> AS WE CAN GA!R FROM ! REPORTS ( /ATE TRIALS1 PE]S ( ! REALM HATW]E USUALLY S5T5C$ BY ?OSE :O TRI$ !M1 ) ! ASS5T ( ! K+4 ,BUT 9 SOME 9/ANCES NO M5TION IS MADE ( ! ASS5T ( ! K+1 AS 9 ! CASE ( 0,LIONEL1 ,E>L ( ,MIDDLESEX1 ,LORD ,HI< ,TREASUR] ( ,5GL&10 9 #a#f#b#d1 7F\R HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA17 :]E ! S5T5CE WAS AS FOLL[S3  

 0,?IS ,HI< ,C\RT ( ,P>LIAM5T DO? ADJUDGE1 ?AT ,LIONEL1 ,E>L ( DDLESEX1 N[ ,LORD ,TREASUR] ( ,5GL&1 %ALL LOSE ALL HIS (FICES :I* HE HOLDS 9 ?IS K+DOM1 & %ALL1 H]EAFT]1 BE MADE 9CAPABLE ( ANY (FICE1 PLACE1 OR EMPLOYM5T 9 ! /ATE & COMMONWEAL?4 ,?AT HE %ALL BE IMPRISON$ 9 ! T[] ( ,LONDON1 DUR+ ! K+'S PLEASURE4 ,?AT HE %ALL PAY UNTO \R SOV]EIGN LORD ! K+ A F9E ( #e1 P\NDS4 ,?AT HE %ALL NEV] SIT 9 ,P>LIAM5T ANY MORE1 & ?AT HE %ALL NEV] COME )9 ! V]GE ( ! C\RT40 --- #b ,H[ELL'S ,/ATE ,TRIALS1 #a#b#e4  

 ,H]E WAS A PE] ( ! REALM1 & A M9I/] ( ! K+1 ( ! HI<E/ GRADE2 & IF IT W]E EV] NECESS>Y TO OBTA9 ! ASS5T ( ! K+ TO S5T5CES PRON\NC$ BY ! PE]S1 IT W\LD UNQUE/IONABLY HAVE BE5 OBTA9$ 9 ?IS 9/ANCE1 & HIS ASS5T W\LD HAVE APPE>$ 9 ! S5T5CE4  

 ,LORD ,BACON WAS S5T5C$ BY ! ,H\SE ( ,LORDS1 7#a#f#b17 NO M5TION BE+ MADE ( ! ASS5T ( ! K+4 ,! S5T5CE IS 9 !SE WORDS3  

 0,&1 !RE=E1 ?IS ,HI< ,C\RT DO? ADJUDGE1 ,?AT ! ,LORD ,VISC\NT ,/4 ,ALBANS1 ,LORD ,*ANCELLOR ( ,5GL&1 %ALL UND]GO F9E & RANSOM ( #d1 P\NDS4 ,?AT HE %ALL BE IMPRISON$ 9 ! T[] DUR+ ! K+'S PLEASURE4 ,?AT HE %ALL =EV] BE 9CAPABLE ( ANY (FICE1 PLACE1 OR EMPLOYM5T 9 ! /ATE OR COMMONWEAL?4 ,?AT HE %ALL NEV] SIT 9 ,P>LIAM5T1 NOR COME )9 ! V]GE ( ! C\RT40  

 ,& :5 IT WAS DEM&$ ( HIM1 BE=E S5T5CE1 :E!R IT W]E HIS H& ?AT WAS SUBSCRIB$ TO HIS CONFESSION1 & :E!R HE W\LD /& TO IT2 HE MADE ! FOLL[+ ANSW]1 :I* IMPLIES ?AT ! LORDS W]E ! ONES TO DET]M9E HIS S5T5CE4  

 0,MY LORDS1 IT IS MY ACT1 MY H&1 MY HE>T4 ,I BESEE* Y\R LORDS TO BE M]CIFUL TO A BROK5 RE$40 --- #a ,H>GRAVE'S ,/ATE ,TRIALS1 #c#h#f-#g4  

 ,! S5T5CE AGA9/ ,*>LES ! ,FIR/1 7#a#f#d#h17 AFT] RECIT+ ! GR\NDS ( HIS CONDEMNATION1 CONCLUDES 9 ?IS =M3  

 0,= ALL :I* TREASONS & CRIMES1 ?IS C\RT DO? ADJUDGE1 ?AT HE1 ! SAID ,*>LES ,/U>T1 AS A TYRANT1 TRAITOR1 MURD]]1 & PUBLIC 5EMY TO ! GOOD PEOPLE ( ?IS NATION1 %ALL BE PUT TO DEA? BY ! SEV]+ HIS HEAD FROM HIS BODY40  

 ,! REPORT !N ADDS3  

 0,?IS S5T5CE BE+ READ1 ! PRESID5T 7( ! C\RT7 SPAKE AS FOLL[E?3 ,?IS S5T5CE N[ READ & PUBLI%$1 IS ! ACT1 S5T5CE1 JUDGM5T & RESOLUTION ( ! :OLE C\RT4'0 --- #a ,H>GRAVE'S ,/ATE ,TRIALS1 #a#c#g4  

 ,UNLESS IT HAD BE5 ! RECEIV$ 0LAW ( ! L&0 ?AT ?OSE :O TRI$ A MAN %\LD FIX HIS S5T5CE1 IT W\LD HAVE REQUIR$ AN ACT ( ,P>LIAM5T TO FIX ! S5T5CE ( ,*>LES1 & HIS S5T5CE W\LD HAVE BE5 DECL>$ TO BE 0! S5T5CE ( ! LAW10 9/EAD ( 0! ACT1 S5T5CE1 JUDGM5T1 & RESOLUTION ( ! C\RT40  

 ,BUT ! REPORT ( ! PROCE$+S 9 0! TRIAL ( ,?OMAS1 ,E>L ( ,MACCLESFIELD1 ,LORD ,HI< ,*ANCELLOR ( ,GREAT ,BRITA91 BE=E ! ,H\SE ( ,LORDS1 = HI< CRIMES & MISDEMEANORS10 9 #a#g#b#e1 IS SO FULL ON ?IS PO9T1 & %[S SO CLE>LY ?AT IT RE/$ :OLLY ) ! LORDS TO FIX ! S5T5CE1 & ?AT ! ASS5T ( ! K+ WAS :OLLY UNNECESS>Y1 ?AT ,I GIVE ! REPORT SOME:AT AT L5G?4  

 ,AFT] BE+ F\ND GUILTY1 ! E>L ADDRESS$ ! LORDS1 = A MITIGATION ( S5T5CE1 AS FOLL[S3  

 0 ',I AM N[ TO EXPECT Y\R LORD%IPS' JUDGM5T2 & ,I HOPE ?AT Y\ WILL BE PLEAS$ TO CONSID] ?AT ,I HAVE SUFF]$ NO SMALL MATT] ALREADY 9 ! TRIAL1 9 ! EXP5SE ,I HAVE BE5 AT1 ! FATIGUE1 & :AT ,I HAVE SUFF]$ O!RWAYS4 "9 "9 ,I HAVE PAID BACK #a1#h P\NDS ( ! MONEY ALREADY2 ,I HAVE LO/ MY (FICE2 ,I HAVE UND]GONE ! C5SURE ( BO? H\SES ( ,P>LIAM5T1 :I* IS 9 ITSELF A SEV]E PUNI%M5T1' 0 @&C41 @&C4  

 ,ON BE+ 9T]RUPT$1 HE PROCE$$3  

 0 ',MY LORDS1 ,I SUBMIT :E!R ?IS BE NOT PROP] 9 MITIGATION ( Y\R LORD%IPS' S5T5CE2 BUT :E!R IT BE OR NOT1 ,I LEAVE MYSELF TO Y\R LORD%IPS' JU/ICE & M]CY2 ,I AM SURE NEI!R ( !M WILL BE WANT+1 & ,I 5TIRELY SUBMIT4' "9 "9  

 0,!N ! SAID E>L1 AS ALSO ! MANAG]S1 W]E DIRECT$ TO )DRAW2 & ! ,H\SE 7( ,LORDS7 ORD]$ ,?OMAS1 ,E>L ( ,MACCLESFIELD1 TO BE COMMITT$ TO ! CU/ODY ( ! G5TLEMAN U%] ( ! BLACK ROD2 & !N PROCE$$ TO ! CONSID]ATION ( :AT JUDGM5T1 7?AT IS1 S5T5CE1 = HE HAD ALREADY BE5 F\ND GUILTY17 0TO GIVE UPON ! IMPEA*M5T AGA9/ ! SAID E>L40 "9 "9  

 0,! NEXT DAY1 ! ,COMMONS1 ) !IR SPEAK]1 BE+ PRES5T AT ! B> ( ! ,H\SE 7( ,LORDS71 "9 "9 ! SPEAK] ( ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS SAID AS FOLL[S3  

 0 ',MY LORDS1 ! KNI<TS1 CITIZ5S1 & BURGESSES 9 ,P>LIAM5T ASSEMBL$1 9 ! NAME ( !MSELVES1 & ( ALL ! COMMONS ( ,GREAT ,BRI91 DID AT ?IS B> IMPEA* ,?OMAS1 ,E>L ( ,MACCLESFIELD1 ( HI< CRIMES & MISDEMEANORS1 & DID EXHIBIT >TICLES ( IMPEA*M5T AGA9/ HIM1 & HAVE MADE GOOD !IR *>GE4 ,I DO1 !RE=E1 9 ! NAME ( ! KNI<TS1 CITIZ5S1 & BURGESSES1 9 ,P>LIAM5T ASSEMBL$1 & ( ALL ! COMMONS ( ,GREAT ,BRITA91 DEM& JUDGM5T 7S5T5CE7 ( Y\R LORD%IPS AGA9/ ,?OMAS1 ,E>L ( ,MACCLESFIELD1 = ! HI< CRIMES & MISDEMEANORS4'  

 0,!N ! ,LORD ,*IEF ,JU/ICE ,K+1 ,SPEAK] ( ! ,H\SE ( ,LORDS1 SAID3 ',MR4 ,SPEAK]1 ! ,LORDS >E N[ READY TO PROCE$ TO JUDGM5T 9 ! CASE BY Y\ M5TION$4  

 0 ',?OMAS1 ,E>L ( ,MACCLESFIELD1 ! ,LORDS HAVE UNANIM\SLY F\ND Y\ GUILTY ( HI< CRIMES & MISDEMEANORS1 *>G$ ON Y\ BY ! IMPEA*M5T ( ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS1 & DO N[1 ACCORD+ TO LAW1 PROCE$ TO JUDGM5T AGA9/ Y\1 :I* ,I AM ORD]$ TO PRON\NCE4 ,!IR LORD%IPS' JUDGM5T IS1 & ?IS HI< C\RT DO? ADJUDGE1 ?AT Y\1 ,?OMAS1 ,E>L ( ,MACCLESFIELD1 BE F9$ 9 ! SUM ( ?IRTY ?\S& P\NDS UNTO \R SOV]EIGN LORD ! K+2 & ?AT Y\ %ALL BE IMPRISON$ 9 ! T[] ( ,LONDON1 & !RE KEPT 9 SAFE CU/ODY1 UNTIL Y\ %ALL PAY ! SAID F9E4' 0 --- #f ,H>GRAVE'S ,/ATE ,TRIALS1 #g#f#b-#c-#d4  

 ,?IS CASE %[S ?AT ! PR9CIPLE ( ,MANA ,C>TA1 ?AT A MAN %\LD BE S5T5C$ ONLY BY HIS PE]S1 WAS 9 =CE1 & ACT$ UPON AS LAW1 9 ,5GL&1 SO LATELY AS #a#g#b#e71 7FIVE HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA17 SO F> AS IT APPLI$ TO A PE] ( ! REALM4 

 ,BUT ! SAME PR9CIPLE1 ON ?IS PO9T1 ?AT APPLIES TO A PE] ( ! REALM1 APPLIES TO EV]Y FREEMAN4 ,! ONLY DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! TWO IS1 ?AT ! PE]S ( ! REALM HAVE HAD 9FLU5CE 5\< TO PRES]VE !IR CON/ITUTIONAL RI<TS2 :ILE ! CON/ITUTIONAL RI<TS ( ! PEOPLE HAVE BE5 TRAMPL$ UPON & R5D]$ OBSOLETE BY ! USURPATION & CORRUPTION ( ! GOV]NM5T & ! C\RTS4  

 ,S,E,C,T,I,O,N ,V4 ,! ,OA?S ( ,JUDGES  

 ,AS FUR!R PRO( ?AT ! LEGISLATION ( ! K+1 :E!R 5ACT$ ) OR ,I)\T ! ASS5T & ADVICE ( HIS P>LIAM5TS1 WAS ( NO AU?ORITY UNLESS IT W]E CONSI/5T ) ! COMMON LAW1 & UNLESS JURIES & JUDGES SAW FIT TO 5=CE T IT MAY BE M5TION$ ?AT IT IS PROBABLE ?AT NO JUDGE 9 ,5GL& WAS EV] SWORN TO OBS]VE ! LAWS 5ACT$ EI!R BY ! K+ ALONE1 OR BY ! K+ ) ! ADVICE & CONS5T ( P>LIAM5T4  

 ,! JUDGES W]E SWORN TO 0DO EQUAL LAW1 & EXECUTION ( RI<T1 TO ALL ! K+'S SUBJECTS1 RI* & POOR1 )\T HANG REG>D TO ANY P]SON20 & ?AT !Y WILL 0D5Y NO MAN COMMON RI<T20#e#h BUT !Y W]E NOT SWORN TO OBEY OR EXECUTE ANY /ATUTES ( ! K+1 OR ( ! K+ & P>LIAM5T4 ,9DE$1 !Y >E VIRTUALLY SWORN NOT TO OBEY ANY /ATUTES ?AT >E AGA9/ 0COMMON RI<T10 OR CONTR>Y TO 0! COMMON LAW10 OR 0LAW ( ! L&20 BUT TO 0C]TIFY ! K+ !RE(0 --- ?AT IS1 NOTIFY HIM ?AT HIS /ATUTES >E AGA9/ ! COMMON LAW2 --- & !N PROCE$ TO EXECUTE ! COMMON LAW1 NOT)/&+ SU* LEGISLATION TO ! CONTR>Y4 ,! WORDS ( ! OA? ON ?IS PO9T >E !SE3  

 0,?AT YE D5Y NO MAN COMMON RI<T BY 7VIRTUE (7 ! K+'S LETT]S1 NO NONE O!R MAN'S1 NOR = NONE O!R CAUSE2 & 9 CASE ANY LETT]S COME TO Y\ CONTR>Y TO ! LAW1 7?AT IS1 ! COMMON LAW1 AS WILL BE SE5 ON REF]5CE TO ! 5TIRE OA? GIV5 9 ! NOTE17 ?AT YE DO NOT+ BY SU* LETT]S1 BUT C]TIFY ! K+ !RE(1 & PROCE$ TO EXECUTE ! LAW1 7?AT IS1 ! COMMON LAW17 NOT)/&+ ! SAME LETT]S4  

 ,:5 IT IS CONSID]$ ?AT ! K+ WAS ! SOLE LEGISLATIVE P[]1 & ?AT HE EX]CIS$ ?IS P[]1 TO A GREAT EXT5T1 BY ORD]S 9 C\NCIL1 & BY WRITS & 0LETT]S0 ADDRESS$ (T5TIMES TO SOME %]IFF1 OR O!R P]SON1 & ?AT HIS COMM&S1 :5 COMMUNICAT$ TO HIS JU/ICES1 OR ANY O!R P]SON1 0BY LETT]S10 OR WRITS1 UND] SEAL1 HAD AS MU* LEGAL AU?ORITY AS LAWS PROMULGAT$ 9 ANY O!R =M :ATEV]1 IT WILL BE SE5 ?AT ?IS OA? ( ! JU/ICES ABSOLUTELY REQUIR$ ?AT !Y DISREG>D ANY LEGISLATION ?AT WAS CONTR>Y TO 0COMMON RI<T10 OR 0! COMMON LAW10 & NOTIFY ! K+ ?AT IT WAS CONTR>Y TO COMMON RI<T1 OR ! COMMON LAW1 & !N PROCE$ TO EXECUTE ! COMMON LAW1 NOT)/&+ SU* LEGISLATION4#e#i  

 ,IF !RE C\LD BE ANY D\BT ?AT SU* WAS ! MEAN+ ( ?IS OA?1 ?AT D\BT W\LD BE REMOV$ BY A /ATUTE PASS$ BY ! K+ TWO YE>S AFT]W>DS1 :I* FULLY EXPLA9S ?IS OA?1 AS FOLL[S3  

 0,$W>D1 BY ! ,GRACE ( ,GOD1 @&C41 TO ! ,%]IFF ( ,/AF=D1 GREET+3 ,BECAUSE ?AT BY DIV]SE COMPLA9TS MADE TO US1 WE HAVE P]CEIV$ ?AT ! LAW ( ! L&1 :I* WE BY \R OA? >E B\ND TO MA9TA91 IS ! LESS WELL KEPT1 & ! EXECUTION ( ! SAME DI/URB$ MANY TIMES BY MA9T5ANCE & PROCUREM5T1 AS WELL 9 ! C\RT AS 9 ! C\NTRY2 WE GREATLY MOV$ ( CONSCI5CE 9 ?IS MATT]1 & = ?IS CAUSE DESIR+ AS MU* = ! PLEASURE ( ,GOD1 & EASE & QUIETNESS ( \R SUBJECTS1 AS TO SAVE \R CONSCI5CE1 & = TO SAVE & KEEP \R SAID OA?1 BY ! ASS5T ( ! GREAT M5 & O!R WISE M5 ( \R C\NCIL1 WE HAVE ORDA9$ !SE ?+S FOLL[+3  

 0,FIR/1 WE HAVE COMM&$ ALL \R JU/ICES1 ?AT !Y %ALL FROM H5CE=? DO EQUAL LAW & EXECUTION ( RI<T TO ALL \R SUBJECTS1 RI* & POOR1 )\T HAV+ REG>D TO ANY P]SON1 & )\T OMITT+ TO DO RI<T = ANY LETT]S OR COMM&M5TS :I* MAY COME TO !M FROM US1 OR FROM ANY O!R1 OR BY ANY O!R CAUSE4 ,& IF ?AT ANY LETT]S1 WRITS1 OR COMM&M5TS COME TO ! JU/ICES1 OR TO O!R DEPUT$ TO DO LAW & RI<T ACCORD+ TO ! USAGE ( ! REALM1 9 DI/URBANCE ( ! LAW1 OR ( ! EXECUTION ( ! SAME1 OR ( RI<T TO ! P>TIES1 ! JU/ICES & O!R A=ESAID %ALL PROCE$ & HOLD !IR C\RTS & PROCESSES1 :]E ! PLEAS & MATT]S BE DEP5D+ BE=E !M1 AS IF NO SU* LETT]S1 WRITS1 OR COMM&M5TS W]E COME TO !M2 & !Y %ALL C]TIFY US & \R C\NCIL ( SU* COMM&M5TS :I* BE CONTR>Y TO ! LAW1 7?AT IS1 0! LAW ( ! L&10 OR COMMON LAW17 AS A=E IS SAID40#f ,& TO ! 9T5T ?AT \R JU/ICES %ALL DO EV5 RI<T TO ALL PEOPLE 9 ! MANN] A=ESAID1 )\T MORE FAVOR %[+ TO ONE ?AN TO ANO!R1 WE HAVE ORDA9$ & CAUS$ \R SAID JU/ICES TO BE SWORN1 ?AT !Y %ALL NOT FROM H5CE=?1 AS LONG AS !Y %ALL BE 9 ! (FICE ( JU/ICE1 TAKE FEE NOR ROBE ( ANY MAN1 BUT ( \RSELF1 & ?AT !Y %ALL TAKE NO GIFT NOR REW>D BY !MSELVES1 NOR BY O!R1 PRIVILY NOR AP]TLY ( ANY MAN ?AT HA? TO DO BE=E !M BY ANY WAY1 EXCEPT MEAT & DR9K1 & ?AT ( SMALL VALUE2 & ?AT !Y %ALL GIVE NO C\NSEL TO GREAT M5 OR SMALL1 9 CASE :]E WE BE P>TY1 OR :I* DO OR MAY T\* US 9 ANY PO9T1 UPON PA9 TO BE AT \R WILL1 BODY1 L&S1 & GOODS1 TO DO !RE( AS %ALL PLEASE US1 9 CASE !Y DO CONTR>Y4 ,& = ?IS CAUSE WE HAVE 9CREAS$ ! FEES ( ! SAME1 \R JU/ICES1 9 SU* MANN] AS \<T REASONABLY TO SUFFICE !M40 --- #b ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 *4 #a4 7#a#c#d#f47  

 ,O!R /ATUTES ( SIMIL> T5OR HAVE BE5 5ACT$1 AS FOLL[S3  

 0,IT IS ACCORD$ & E/ABLI%$1 ?AT IT %ALL NOT BE COMM&$ BY ! GREAT SEAL1 NOR ! LITTLE SEAL1 TO DI/URB OR DELAY COMMON RI<T2 & ?\< SU* COMM&M5TS DO COME1 ! JU/ICES %ALL NOT !RE=E LEAVE 7OMIT7 TO DO RI<T 9 ANY PO9T40 --- ,/4 #b ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 *4 #h4 7#a#c#b#h47  

 0,?AT BY COMM&M5T ( ! GREAT SEAL1 OR PRIVY SEAL1 NO PO9T ( ?IS /ATUTE %ALL BE PUT 9 DELAY2 NOR ?AT ! JU/ICES ( :ATSOEV] PLACE IT BE %ALL LET 7OMIT7 TO DO ! COMMON BY COMM&M5T1 :I* %ALL COME TO !M UND] ! GREAT SEAL1 OR ! PRIVY SEAL40 --- #ad ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 /4 #a1 *4 #a#d4 7#a#c#d47  

 0,IT IS ORDA9$ & E/ABLI%$1 ?AT NEI!R LETT]S ( ! SIGNET1 NOR ( ! K+'S PRIVY SEAL1 %ALL BE FROM H5CE=? S5T 9 DAMAGE OR PREJUDICE ( ! REALM1 NOR 9 DI/URBANCE ( ! LAW0 7! COMMON LAW74 --- #aa ,RI*>D ,I,I41 *4 #a4 7#a#c#h#g47  

 ,IT IS P]FECTLY APP>5T FROM !SE /ATUTES1 & FROM ! OA? ADM9I/]$ TO ! JU/ICES1 ?AT IT WAS A MATT] FREELY CONFESS$ BY ! K+ HIMSELF1 ?AT HIS /ATUTES W]E ( NO VALIDITY1 IF CONTR>Y TO ! COMMON LAW1 OR 0COMMON RI<T40  

 ,! OA? ( ! JU/ICES1 BE=E GIV51 IS1 ,I PRESUME1 ! SAME ?AT HAS BE5 ADM9I/]$ TO JUDGES 9 ,5GL& FROM ! DAY :5 IT WAS FIR/ PRESCRIB$ TO !M1 7#a#c#d#d17 UNTIL N[4 ,I DO NOT F9D FROM ! ,5GLI% /ATUTES ?AT ! OA? HAS EV] BE5 *ANG$4 ,! ,ESSAY ON ,GR& ,JURIES1 BE=E REF]R$ TO1 & SUPPOS$ TO HAVE BE5 WRITT5 BY ,LORD ,SOM]S1 M5TIONS ?IS OA? 7PAGE #g#c7 AS BE+ /ILL ADM9I/]$ TO JUDGES1 ?AT IS1 9 ! TIME ( ,*>LES ,I,I41 MORE ?AN ?REE HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ! OA? WAS FIR/ ORDA9$4 ,IF ! OA? HAS NEV] BE5 *ANG$1 IT FOLL[S ?AT JUDGES HAVE NOT ONLY NEV] BE5 SWORN TO SUPPORT ANY /ATUTES :ATEV] ( ! K+1 OR ( P>LIAM5T1 BUT ?AT1 = FIVE HUNDR$ YE>S PA/1 !Y ACTUALLY HAVE BE5 SWORN TO TREAT AS 9VALID ALL /ATUTES ?AT W]E CONTR>Y TO ! COMMON LAW4  

 ,S,E,C,T,I,O,N ,V,I4 ,! ,CORONATION ,OA?4  

 ,?AT ! LEGISLATION ( ! K+ WAS ( NO AU?ORITY OV] A JURY1 IS FUR!R PROV$ BY ! OA? TAK5 BY ! K+S AT !IR CORONATION4 ,?IS OA? SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 SUB/ANTIALLY ! SAME1 FROM ! TIME ( ! ,SAXON K+S1 D[N TO ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 AS WILL BE SE5 FROM ! AU?ORITIES H]EAFT] GIV54  

 ,! PURPORT ( ! OA? IS1 ?AT ! K+ SWE>S TO MA9TA9 ! LAW ( ! L& --- ?AT IS1 ! COMMON LAW4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 BE SWE>S 0TO CONC$E & PRES]VE TO ! ,5GLI% PEOPLE ! LAWS & CU/OMS CONC$$ TO !M BY ! ANCI5T1 JU/1 & PI\S ,5GLI% K+S1 "9 "9 & ESPECIALLY ! LAWS1 CU/OMS1 & LIB]TIES CONC$$ TO ! CL]GY & PEOPLE BY ! ILLU/RI\S K+ ,$W>D20 "9 "9 & 0! JU/ LAWS & CU/OMS :I* ! COMMON PEOPLE HAVE *OS51 7QUAS VULGUS ELEGIT740  

 ,!SE >E ! SAME LAWS & CU/OMS :I* W]E CALL$ BY ! G5]AL NAME ( 0! LAW ( ! L&10 OR 0! COMMON LAW10 &1 ) SOME SLI<T ADDITIONS1 W]E EMBODI$ 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA4  

 ,?IS OA? NOT ONLY =BIDS ! K+ TO 5ACT ANY /ATUTES CONTR>Y TO ! COMMON LAW1 BUT IT PROVES ?AT HIS /ATUTES C\LD BE ( NO AU?ORITY OV] ! CONSCI5CES ( A JURY2 S9CE1 AS HAS ALREADY BE5 SUFFICI5TLY %[N1 IT WAS ONE P>T ( ?IS V]Y COMMON LAW ITSELF1 --- ?AT IS1 ( ! ANCI5T 0LAWS1 CU/OMS1 & LIB]TIES1 M5TION$ 9 ! OA?1 --- ?AT JURIES %\LD JUDGE ( ALL QUE/IONS ?AT CAME BE=E !M1 ACCORD+ TO !IR [N CONSCI5CES1 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! LEGISLATION ( ! K+4  

 ,IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE ?AT ?IS RI<T ( ! JURY C\LD SUBSI/ CONSI/5TLY ) ANY RI<T1 ON ! P>T ( ! K+1 TO IMPOSE ANY AU?ORITATIVE LEGISLATION UPON !M4 ,HIS OA?1 !RE=E1 TO MA9TA9 ! LAW ( ! L&1 OR ! ANCI5T 0LAWS1 CU/OMS1 & LIB]TIES10 WAS EQUIVAL5T TO AN OA? ?AT HE W\LD NEV] ASSUME TO IMPOSE LAWS UPON JURIES1 AS IMP]ATIVE RULES ( DECISION1 OR TAKE FROM !M ! RI<T TO TRY ALL CASES ACCORD+ TO !IR [N CONSCI5CES4 ,IT IS ALSO AN ADMISSION ?AT HE HAD NO CON/ITUTIONAL P[] TO DO SO1 IF HE %\LD EV] DESIRE IT4 ,?IS OA?1 !N1 IS CONCLUSIVE PRO( ?AT HIS LEGISLATION WAS ( NO AU?ORITY ) A JURY1 & ?AT !Y W]E UND] NO OBLIGATION :ATEV] TO 5=CE IT UNLESS IT CO9CID$ ) !IR [N IDEAS ( JU/ICE4  

 ,! ANCI5T CORONATION OA? IS PR9T$ ) ! ,/ATUTES ( ! ,REALM1 VOL4 I41 P4 #a#f#h1 & IS AS FOLL[S3#f#a  

 ,T,R,A,N,S,L,A,T,I,O,N4  

 0,FROM ( ! ,OA? ( ! ,K+ ( ,5GL&1 ON HIS ,CORONATION4  

 7,! ,>*BI%OP ( ,CNT]BURY1 TO :OM1 ( RI<T & CU/OM ( ! ,*UR* ( ,CANT]BURY1 ANCI5T & APPROV$1 IT P]TA9S TO ANO9T & CR[N ! K+S ( ,5GL&1 ON ! DAY ( ! CORONATION ( ! K+1 & BE=E ! K+ IS CR[N$1 %ALL PROP\ND ! UND]WRITT5 QUE/IONS TO ! K+47  

 ,! LAWS & CU/OMS1 CONC$$ TO ! ,5GLI% PEOPLE BY ! ANCI5T1 JU/1 & PI\S ,5GLI% K+S1 WILL Y\ CONC$E & PRES]VE TO ! SAME PEOPLE1 ) ! CONFIRMATION ( AN OA?8 & ESPECIALLY ! LAWS1 CU/OMS1 & LIB]TIES CONC$$ TO ! CL]GY & PEOPLE BY ! ILLU/RI\S K+ ,$W>D8  

 7,& ! K+ %ALL ANSW]17 ,I DO CONC$E1 & WILL PRES]VE !M1 & CONFIRM !M BY MY OA?4  

 ,WILL Y\ PRES]VE TO ! *UR* ( ,GOD1 ! CL]GY1 & ! PEOPLE1 5TIRE PEACE & H>MONY 9 ,GOD1 ACCORD+ TO Y\R P[]S8  

 7,& ! K+ %ALL ANSW]17 ,I WILL4  

 ,9 ALL Y\R JUDGM5TS1 WILL Y\ CAUSE EQUAL & RI<T JU/ICE & DISCRETION TO BE DONE1 9 M]CY & TRU?1 ACCORD+ TO Y\R P[]S8  

 7,& ! K+ %ALL ANSW]17 ,I WILL4  

 ,DO Y\ CONC$E ?AT ! LAWS & CU/OMS1 :I* ! COMMON PEOPLE HAVE *OS51 %ALL BE PRES]V$2 & DO Y\ PROMISE ?AT !Y %ALL BE ,IPROTECT$ BY Y\1 & /R5G!N$ TO ! HONOR ( ,GOD1 ACCORD+ TO Y\R P[]S8  

 7,& ! K+ %ALL ANSW]17 ,I CONC$E & PROMISE4  

 ,! LANGUAGE US$ 9 ! LA/ ( !SE QUE/IONS1 0,DO Y\ CONC$E ?AT ! JU/ LAWS & CU/OMS1 :I* ! COMMON PEOPLE HAVE *OS51 7QUAS VULGUS ELEGIT17 %ALL BE PRES]V$80 @&C41 IS WOR?Y ( ESPECIAL NOTICE1 AS %[+ ?AT ! LAWS1 :I* W]E TO BE PRES]V$1 W]E NOT NECESS>ILY ALL ! LAWS :I* ! K+S 5ACT$1 BUT ONLY SU* ( !M AS ! COMMON PEOPLE HAD SELECT$ OR APPROV$4  

 ,& H[ HAD ! COMMON PEOPLE MADE KN[N !IR APPROBATION OR SELECTION ( !SE LAWS8 ,PLA9LY1 9 NO O!R WAY ?AN ?IS --- ?AT ! JURIES COMPOS$ ( ! COMMON PEOPLE HAD VOLUNT>ILY 5=C$ !M4 ,! COMMON PEOPLE HAD NO O!R LEGAL =M ( MAK+ KN[N !IR APPROBATION ( P>TICUL> LAWS4  

 ,! WORD 0CONC$E10 TOO1 IS AN IMPORTANT WORD4 ,9 ! ,5GLI% /ATUTES IT IS USUALLY TRANSLAT$ GRANT --- AS IF ) AN 9T5TION TO 9DICATE ?AT 0! LAWS1 CU/OMS1 & LIB]TIES0 ( ! ,5GLI% PEOPLE W]E M]E PRIVILEGES1 GRANT$ TO !M BY ! K+2 :]EAS IT %\LD BE TRANSLAT$ CONC$E1 TO 9DICATE SIMPLY AN ACKN[L$GM5T1 ON ! P>T ( ! K+1 ?AT SU* W]E ! LAWS1 CU/OMS1 & LIB]TIES1 :I* HAD BE5 *OS5 & E/ABLI%$ BY ! PEOPLE !MSELVES1 & ( RI<T BELONG$ TO !M1 & :I* HE WAS B\ND TO RESPECT4  

 ,I WILL N[ GIVE SOME AU?ORITIES TO %[ ?AT ! =EGO+ OA? HAS1 9 SUB/ANCE1 BE5 ! CORONATION OA? FROM ! TIMES ( ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR1 7#a#f#f17 D[N TO ! TIME ( ,JAMES ! ,FIR/1 & PROBABLY UNTIL #a#f#h#h4  

 ,IT WILL BE NOTIC$1 9 ! QUOTATION FROM ,KELHAM1 ?AT HE SAYS ?IS OA? 7OR ! OA? ( ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR7 IS 09 S5SE & SUB/ANCE ! V]Y SAME ) ?AT :I* ! ,SAXON K+S US$ TO TAKE AT !IR CORONATIONS40  

 ,HALE SAYS3  

 0,YET ! ,5GLI% W]E V]Y ZEAL\S = !M10 7?AT IS1 = ! LAWS ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR17 0NO LESS OR O!RWISE ?AN !Y >E AT ?IS TIME = ! ,GREAT ,*>T]2 9SOMU* ?AT !Y W]E NEV] SATISFI$ TILL ! SAID LAWS W]E RE9=C$1 & M+L$1 = ! MO/ P>T1 ) ! CORONATION OA? ( K+ ,WILLIAM ,I41 & SOME ( HIS SUCCESSORS40 --- #a ,HALE'S ,HI/ORY ( ,COMMON ,LAW1 #a#e#g4  

 ,ALSO1 0,WILLIAM1 ON HIS CORONATION1 HAD SWORN TO GOV]N BY ! LAWS ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR1 SOME ( :I* HAD BE5 R$UC$ 9TO WRIT+1 BUT ! GREAT] P>T CONSI/$ ( ! IMMEMORIAL CU/OMS ( ! REALM40 --- ,DITTO1 P4 #b#b1 NOTE ,L4  

 ,KELHAM SAYS3  

 0,?US /OOD ! LAWS ( ,5GL& AT ! 5TRY ( ,WILLIAM ,I41 & IT SEEMS PLA9 ?AT ! LAWS1 COMMONLY CALL$ ! LAWS ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR1 W]E AT ?AT TIME ! /&+ LAWS ( ! K+DOM1 & CONSID]$ ! GREAT RULE ( !IR RI<TS & LIB]TIES2 & ?AT ! ,5GLI% W]E SO ZEAL\S = !M1 0?AT !Y W]E NEV] SATISFI$ TILL ! SAID LAWS W]E RE9=C$1 & M+L$1 = ! MO/ P>T1 ) ! CORONATION OA?40 ,ACCORD+LY1 WE F9D ?AT ?IS GREAT CONQU]OR1 AT HIS CORONATION ON ! ,*RI/MAS DAY SUCCE$+ HIS VICTORY1 TOOK AN OA? AT ! ALT> ( ,/4 ,PET]1 ,WE/M9/]1 9 S5SE & SUB/ANCE ! V]Y SAME ) ?AT :I* ! ,SAXON K+S US$ TO TAKE AT !IR CORONATIONS4 "9 "9 ,& AT ,B>KHAM/EAD1 9 ! F\R? YE> ( HIS REIGN1 9 ! PRES5CE ( ,LANFRANC1 ,>*BI%OP ( ,CANT]BURY1 = ! QUIET+ ( ! PEOPLE1 HE SWORE ?AT HE W\LD OR 9VIOLABLY OBS]VE ! GOOD & APPROV$ ANCI5T LAWS :I* HAD BE5 MADE BY ! DEV\T & PI\S K+S ( ,5GL&1 HIS ANCE/ORS1 & *IEFLY BY ,K+ ,$W>D2 & WE >E TOLD ?AT ! PEOPLE !N DEP>T$ 9 GOOD HUMOR4 --- ,KELHAM'S ,PRELIM9>Y ,DISC\RSE TO ! ,LAWS ( ,WILLIAM ! ( ,CONQU]OR4 ,SEE1 ALSO1 #a ,HALE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 #a#h#f4  

 ,CRABBE SAYS ?AT ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR 0SOLEMNLY SWORE ?AT HE W\LD OBS]VE ! GOOD & APPROV$ LAWS ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR40 --- ,CRABBE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI% ,LAW1 P4#d#c4  

 ,! SUCCESSORS ( ,WILLIAM1 UP TO ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 PROBABLY ALL TOOK ! SAME OA?1 ACCORD+ TO ! CU/OM ( ! K+DOM2 AL?\< !RE MAY BE NO HI/ORICAL ACC\NTS EXTANT ( ! OA? ( EA* SEP>ATE K+4 ,BUT HI/ORY TELLS US SPECIALLY ?AT ,H5RY ,I41 ,/EPH51 & ,H5RY ,I,I41 CONFIRM$ !SE ANCI5T LAWS & CU/OMS4 ,IT APPE>S1 ALSO1 ?AT ! B>ONS DESIR$ ( ,JOHN 7:AT HE AFT]W>DS GRANT$ BY ,MAGNA ,C>TA7 0?AT ! LAWS & LIB]TIES ( ,K+ ,$W>D1 ) O!R PRIVILEGES GRANT$ TO ! K+DOM & *UR* ( ,5GL&1 MI<T BE CONFIRM$1 AS !Y W]E CONTA9$ 9 ! *>T]S ( ,H5RY ! ,FIR/2 FUR!R ALLEG+1 ?AT AT ! TIME ( HIS ABSOLUTION1 HE PROMIS$ BY HIS OA? TO OBS]VE !SE V]Y LAWS & LIB]TIES40 --- ,E*>D'S ,HI/ORY ( ,5GL&1 P4 #a#e-#f4  

 ,IT W\LD APPE>1 FROM ! FOLL[+ AU?ORITIES1 ?AT S9CE ,MAGNA ,C>TA ! =M ( ! CORONATION OA? HAS BE5 0TO MA9TA9 ! LAW ( ! L&10 --- MEAN+ ?AT LAW AS EMBODI$ 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,OR P]HAPS IT IS MORE PROBABLE ?AT ! ANCI5T =M HAS BE5 /ILL OBS]V$1 BUT ?AT1 AS ITS SUB/ANCE & PURPORT W]E 0TO MA9TA9 ! LAW ( ! L&10 ?IS LATT] =M ( EXPRESSION HAS BE5 US$1 9 ! 9/ANCES H]E CIT$1 FROM MOTIVES ( BREVITY & CONV5I5CE4 ,?IS SUPPOSITION IS ! MORE PROBABLE1 FROM ! FACT ?AT ,I F9D NO /ATUTE PRESCRIB+ A *ANGE 9 ! =M ( ! OA? UNTIL #a#f#h#h4  

 ,?AT ,MAGNA ,C>TA WAS CONSID]$ AS EMBODY+ 0! LAW ( ! L&10 OR 0COMMON LAW10 IS %[N BY A /ATUTE PASS$ BY ,$W>D ,I41 :]E9 HE 0GRANTS10 OR CONC$ES1  

 0,?AT ! ,*>T] ( ,LIB]TIES & ! ,*>T] ( ! ,=E/ "9 "9 %ALL BE KEPT 9 EV]Y PO9T1 )\T BREA*1 "9 "9 & ?AT \R JU/ICES1 %]IFFS1 MAYORS1 & O!R M9I/]S1 :I*1 UND] US1 HAVE ! LAWS ( \R L&#f#b TO GUIDE1 %ALL ALL[ ! SAID *>T]S PLEAD$ BE=E !M 9 JUDGM5T1 9 ALL !IR PO9TS1 ?AT IS1 TO WIT1 ! ,GREAT ,*>T] AS ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 & ! ,*>T] ( ! ,=E/ = ! WEAL? ( ! REALM4  

 0,& WE WILL1 ?AT IF ANY JUDGM5T BE GIV5 FROM H5CE=?1 CONTR>Y TO ! PO9TS ( ! *>T]S A=ESAID1 BY ! JU/ICES1 OR BY ANY O!R \R M9I/]S ?AT HOLD PLEA BE=E !M AGA9/ ! PO9TS ( ! *>T]S1 IT %ALL BE UNDONE1 & HOLD5 = NAU<T40 --- #be ,$W>D ,I1 *4 #a & #b4 7#a#b#i#g47  

 ,BLACK/ONE ALSO SAYS3  

 0,IT IS AGRE$ BY ALL \R HI/ORIANS ?AT ! ,GREAT ,*>T] ( ,K+ ,JOHN WAS1 = ! MO/ P>T1 COMPIL$ FROM ! ANCI5T CU/OMS ( ! REALM1 OR ! LAWS ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR2 BY :I* !Y USUALLY MEAN ! OLD COMMON LAW :I* WAS E/ABLI%$ UND] \R ,SAXON PR9CES40 --- ,BLACK/ONE'S ,9TRODUCTION TO ! ,*>T]S4 ,SEE ,BLACK/ONE'S ,LAW ,TRACTS1 #b#h#i4  

 ,CRABBE SAYS3  

 0,IT IS ADMITT$1 ON ALL H&S1 ?AT IT 7,MAGNA ,C>TA7 CONTA9S NO?+ BUT :AT WAS CONFIRMATORY ( ! COMMON LAW1 & ! ANCI5T USAGES ( ! REALM1 & IS1 PROP]LY SPEAK+1 ONLY AN 5L>GEM5T ( ! *>T] ( ,H5RY ,I41 & HIS SUCCESSORS40 --- ,CRABBE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI% ,LAW1 P4 #a#b#g4  

 ,?AT ! CORONATION OA? ( ! K+S SUBSEQU5T TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA WAS1 9 SUB/ANCE1 IF NOT 9 =M1 0TO MA9TA9 ?IS LAW ! L&1 OR COMMON LAW10 IS %[N BY A /ATUTE ( ,$W>D ,?IRD1 COMM5C+ AS FOLL[S3  

 0,$W>D1 BY ! ,GRACE ( ,GOD1 @&C41 @&C41 TO ! ,%]IFF ( ,/AF=D1 ,GREET+3 ,BECAUSE ?AT BY DIV]SE COMPLA9TS MADE TO US1 WE HAVE P]CEIV$ ?AT ! LAW ( ! L&1 :I* WE BY OA? >E B\ND TO MA9TA910 @&C4 --- ,/4 #b ,$W>D ,I,I,I4 7#a#c#d#f47  

 ,! FOLL[+ EXTRACT FROM ,LORD ,SOM]S' TRACT ON ,GR& ,JURIES %[S ?AT ! CORONATION OA? CONT9U$ ! SAME AS LATE AS #a#f#a#f1 7F\R HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA47 ,HE SAYS3  

 0,K+ ,JAMES1 9 HIS SPEE* TO ! JUDGES1 9 ! ,/> ,*AMB]1 ,ANNO #a#f#a#f1 TOLD !M1 ',?AT HE HAD1 AFT] MANY YE>S1 RESOLV$ TO R5EW HIS OA?1 MADE AT HIS CORONATION1 CONC]N+ JU/ICE1 & ! PROMISE !RE9 CONTA9$ = MA9TA9+ ! LAW ( ! L&4' ,&1 9 ! NEXT PAGE SAVE ONE1 SAYS1 ',I WAS SWORN TO MA9TA9 ! LAW ( ! L&1 & !RE=E HAD BE5 P]JUR$ IF ,I HAD BROK5 IT4 ,GOD IS MY JUDGE1 ,I NEV] 9T5D$ IT4'0 --- ,SOMM]S ON ,GR& ,JURIES1 P4 #h#b4  

 ,9 #a#f#h#h1 ! CORONATION OA? WAS *ANG$ BY ACT ( ,P>LIAM5T1 & ! K+ WAS MADE TO SWE>3  

 0,TO GOV]N ! PEOPLE ( ?IS K+DOM ( ,5GL&1 & ! DOM9IONS !RETO BELONG+1 ACCORD+ TO ! /ATUTES 9 ,P>LIAM5T AGRE$ ON1 & ! LAWS & CU/OMS ( ! SAME40 --- ,/4 #a ,WILLIAM & ,M>Y1 *4 #f4 7#a#f#h#h47   

 ,! EFFECT & LEGALITY ( ?IS OA? WILL H]EAFT] BE CONSID]$4 ,= ! PRES5T IT IS SUFFICI5T TO %[1 AS HAS BE5 ALREADY SUFFICI5TLY DONE1 ?AT FROM ! ,SAXON TIMES UNTIL AT LEA/ AS LATELY AS #a#f#a#f1 ! CORONATION OA? HAS BE51 9 SUB/ANCE1 TO MA9TA9 ! LAW ( ! L&1 OR ! COMMON LAW1 MEAN+ !REBY ! ANCI5T ,SAXON CU/OMS1 AS EMBODI$ 9 ! LAWS ( ,AFFR$1 ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR1 & F9ALLY 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA4  

 ,IT MAY H]E BE REPEAT$ ?AT ?IS OA? PLA9LY PROVES ?AT ! /ATUTES ( ! K+ W]E ( NO AU?ORITY OV] JURIES1 IF 9CONSI/5T ) !IR IDEAS ( RI<T2 BECAUSE IT WAS ONE P>T ( ! COMMON LAW ?AT JURIES %\LD TRY ALL CAUSES ACCORD+ TO !IR [N CONSCI5CES1 ANY LEGISLATION ( ! K+ TO ! CONTR>Y NOT)/&+4#f#c 

,*,A,P,T,] ,I,V ,! ,R,I,<,T,S ,& ,D,U,T,I,E,S ,( ,J,U,R,I,E,S ,9 ,C,I,V,I,L ,S,U,I,T,S  

 ,! EVID5CE ALREADY GIV5 9 ! PREC$+ *APT]S PROVES ?AT ! RI<TS & DUTIES ( JURORS1 9 CIVIL SUITS1 W]E ANCI5TLY ! SAME AS 9 CRIM9AL ONES2 ?AT ! LAWS ( ! K+ W]E ( NO OBLIGATION UPON ! CONSCI5CES ( ! JURORS1 ANY FUR!R ?AN ! LAWS W]E SE5 BY !M TO BE JU/2 ?AT V]Y FEW LAWS W]E 5ACT$ APPLICABLE TO CIVIL SUITS2 ?AT :5 A NEW LAW WAS 5ACT$1 ! NATURE ( IT C\LD HAVE BE5 KN[N TO ! JURORS ONLY BY REPORT1 & WAS V]Y LIKELY NOT TO BE KN[N TO !M AT ALL2 ?AT NE>LY ALL ! LAW 9VOLV$ 9 CIVIL SUITS WAS UNWRITT52 ?AT !RE WAS USUALLY NO ONE 9 ATT5DANCE UPON JURIES :O C\LD POSSIBLY 5LI<T5 !M1 UNLESS IT W]E %]IFFS1 /EW>DS1 & BAILIFFS1 :O W]E UNQUE/IONABLY TOO IGNORANT & UNTRU/WOR?Y TO 9/RUCT !M AU?ORITATIVELY2 ?AT ! JURORS MU/ !RE=E NECESS>ILY HAVE JUDG$ = !MSELVES ( ! :OLE CASE2 & ?AT1 AS A G5]AL RULE1 !Y C\LD JUDGE ( IT BY NO LAW BUT ! LAW ( NATURE1 OR ! PR9CIPLES ( JU/ICE AS !Y EXI/$ 9 !IR [N M9DS4  

 ,! ANCI5T OA? ( JURORS 9 CIVIL SUITS1 VIZ41 ?AT 0!Y W\LD MAKE KN[N ! TRU? ACCORD+ TO !IR CONSCI5CES10 IMPLIES ?AT ! JURORS W]E ABOVE ! AU?ORITY ( ALL LEGISLATION4 ,! MOD]N OA?1 9 ,5GL&1 VIZ4VIZ41 ?AT !Y 0WILL WELL & TRULY TRY' ! ISSUE BETWE5 ! P>TIES1 & A TRUE V]DICT GIVE1 ACCORD+ TO ! EVID5CE10 IMPLIES ! SAME ?+4 ,IF ! LAWS ( ! K+ HAD BE5 B9D+ UPON A JURY1 !Y W\LD HAVE BE5 SWORN TO TRY ! CASES ACCORD+ TO LAW1 OR ACCORD+ TO ! LAWS4  

 ,! ANCI5T WRITS1 9 CIVIL SUITS1 AS GIV5 9 ,GLANVILLE1 7)9 ! HALF C5TURY BE=E ,MAGNA ,C>TA17 TO WIT10 ,SUMMON TWELVE FREE & LEGAL M51 7OR SOMETIMES TWELVE KNI<TS17 TO BE 9 C\RT1 PREP>$ UPON !IR OA?S TO DECL>E :E!R ,A OR BY HAVE ! GREAT] RI<T TO ! L& 9 QUE/ION10 9DICATE ?AT ! JURORS JUDG$ ( ! :OLE MATT] ON !IR CONSCI5CES ONLY4  

 ,! LANGUAGE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ALREADY DISCUSS$1 E/ABLI%ES ! SAME PO9T2 =1 AL?\< SOME ( ! WORDS1 SU* AS 0\TLAW$10 & 0EXIL$10 W\LD APPLY ONLY TO CRIM9AL CASES1 NE>LY ! :OLE *APT] APPLIES AS WELL TO CIVIL AS TO CRIM9AL SUITS4 ,= EXAMPLE1 H[ C\LD ! PAYM5T ( A DEBT EV] BE 5=C$ AGA9/ AN UNWILL+ DEBTOR1 IF HE C\LD NEI!R BE 0>RE/$1 IMPRISON$1 NOR DEPRIV$ ( HIS FREEHOLD10 & IF ! K+ C\LD NEI!R PROCE$ AGA9/ HIM1 NOR S5D ANY ONE AGA9/ HIM1 BY =CE OR >MS08 ,YET ,MAGNA ,C>TA AS MU* =BIDS ?AT ANY ( !SE ?+S %ALL BE DONE AGA9/ A DEBTOR1 AS AGA9/ A CRIM9AL1 EXCEPT ACCORD+ TO1 OR 9 EXECUTION (1 0A JUDGM5T ( -HIS PE]S1 OR ! LAW ( ! L&10 --- PROVISION :I*1 IT HAS BE5 %[N1 GAVE ! JURY ! FREE & ABSOLUTE RI<T TO GIVE OR )HOLD 0JUDGM5T0 ACCORD+ TO !IR CONSCI5CES1 IRRESPECTIVE ( ALL LEGISLATION4  

 ,! FOLL[+ PROVISIONS1 9 ! ,MAGNA ,C>TA ( ,JOHN1 ILLU/RATE ! CU/OM ( REF]R+ ! MO/ IMPORTANT MATT]S ( A CIVIL NATURE1 EV5 :]E K+ WAS A P>TY1 TO ! DET]M9ATION ( ! PE]S1 OR ( TWELVE M51 ACT+ BY NO RULES BUT !IR [N CONSCI5CES4 ,!SE EXAMPLES AT LEA/ %[ ?AT !RE IS NO?+ IMPROBABLY OR UNNATURAL 9 ! IDEA ?AT JURIES %\LD TRY ALL CIVIL SUITS ACCORD+ TO !IR [N JUDGM5TS1 9DEP5D5TLY ( ALL LAWS ( ! K+4  

 ,*AP4 #f#e4 0,IF WE HAVE DISSEIZ$ OR DISPOSSESS$ ! ,WEL% ( ANY L&S1 LIB]TIES1 OR O!R ?+S1 )\T ! LEGAL JUDGM5T ( !IR PE]S1 !Y %ALL BE IMM$IATELY RE/OR$ TO !M4 ,& IF ANY DISPUTE >ISES UPON ?IS HEAD1 ! MATT] %ALL BE DET]M9$ 9 ! ,M>*ES1#f#d BY ! JUDGM5T ( !IR PE]S10 @&C4  

 ,*AP4 #f#h4 0,WE %ALL TREAT ) ,ALEX&]1 K+ ( ,SCOTS1 CONC]N+ ! RE/OR+ ( HIS SI/]S1 & HO/AGES1 & RI<T & LIB]TIES1 9 ! SAME =M & MANN] AS WE %ALL DO TO ! RE/ ( \R B>ONS ( ,5GL&2 UNLESS BY ! 5GAGEM5TS1 :I* HIS FA!R ,WILLIAM1 LATE ,K+ ( ,SCOTS1 HA? 5T]$ 9TO ) US1 IT \<T TO BE O!RWISE2 & ?IS %ALL BE LEFT TO ! DET]M9ATION ( HIS PE]S 9 \R C\RT40  

 ,*AP4 #e#f4 0,ALL EVIL CU/OMS CONC]N+ =E/S1 W>R5S1 & =E/]S1 W>R5]S1 %]IFFS1 & !IR (FIC]S1 RIV]S & !IR KEEP]S1 %ALL =?) BE 9QUIR$ 9TO 9 EA* C\NTY1 BY TWELVE KNI<TS ( ! SAME %IRE1 *OS5 BY ! MO/ CR$ITABLE P]SONS 9 ! SAME C\NTY1 & UPON OA?2 & )9 =TY DAYS AFT] ! SAID 9QUE/1 BE UTT]LY ABOLI%$ SO AS NEV] TO BE RE/OR$4  

 ,!RE IS SUB/ANTIALLY ! SAME REASON :Y A JURY \<T TO JUDGE ( ! JU/ICE ( LAWS1 & HOLD ALL UNJU/ LAWS 9VALID1 9 CIVIL SUITS1 AS 9 CRIM9AL ONES4 ,?AT REASON IS ! NECESSITY ( GU>D+ AGA9/ ! TYRANNY ( ! GOV]NM5T4 ,NE>LY ! SAME OPPRESSIONS CAN BE PRACTIC$ 9 CIVIL SUITS AS 9 CRIM9AL ONES4 ,= EXAMPLE1 9DIVIDUALS MAY BE DEPRIV$ ( !IR LIB]TY1 & ROBB$ ( !IR PROP]TY1 BY JUDGM5TS R5D]$ 9 CIVIL SUITS1 AS WELL AS 9 CRIM9AL ONES4 ,IF ! LAWS ( ! K+ W]E IMP]ATIVE UPON A JURY 9 CIVIL SUITS1 ! K+ MI<T 5ACT LAWS GIV+ ONE MAN'S PROP]TY TO ANO!R1 OR CONFISCAT+ IT TO ! K+ HIMSELF1 & AU?ORIZ+ CIVIL SUIT TO OBTA9 POSSESSION ( IT4 ,?US A MAN MI<T BE ROBB$ ( HIS PROP]TY AT ! >BITR>Y PLEASURE ( ! K+4 ,9 FACT1 ALL ! PROP]TY ( ! K+DOM W\LD BE PLAC$ AT ! >BITR>Y DISPOSAL ( ! K+1 ?R\< ! JUDGM5TS ( JURIES 9 CIVIL SUITS1 IF ! LAWS ( ! K+ W]E IMP]ATIVE UPON A JURY 9 SU* SUITS4#f#e  

 ,FUR!RMORE1 IT W\LD BE ABSURD & 9CONSI/5T TO MAKE A JURY P>AM\NT TO LEGISLATION 9 CRIM9AL SUITS1 & SUBORD9ATE TO IT 9 CIVIL SUITS2 BECAUSE AN 9DIVIDUAL1 BY RESI/+ ! EXECUTION ( A CIVIL JUDGM5T1 F\ND$ AN UNJU/ LAW1 C\LD GIVE RISE TO A CRIM9AL SUIT1 9 :I* ! JURY W\LD B\ND TO HOLD ! SAME LAW 9VALID4 ,SO ?AT1 IF AN UNJU/ LAW W]E B9D+ UPON A JURY 9 CIVIL SUITS1 A DEF5DANT1 BY RESI/+ ! EXECUTION ( ! JUDGM5T1 C\LD1 9 EFFECT1 CONV]T ! CIVIL ACTION 9TO A CRIM9AL ONE1 9 :I* ! JURY W\LD BE P>AM\NT TO ! SAME LEGISLATION1 TO :I*1 9 ! CIVIL SUIT1 !Y W]E SUBORD9ATE4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 9 ! CRIM9AL SUIT1 ! JURY W\LD BE OBLIG$ TO JU/IFY ! DEF5DANT 9 RESI/+ A LAW1 :I*1 9 ! CIVIL SUIT1 !Y HAD SAID HE WAS B\ND TO SUBMIT TO4  

 ,TO MAKE ?IS PO9T PLA9 TO ! MO/ COMMON M9D --- SUPPOSE A LAW BE 5ACT$ ?AT ! PROP]TY ( ,A %ALL BE GIV5 TO ,B4 BY BR+S A CIVIL ACTION TO OBTA9 POSSESSION ( IT4 ,IF ! JURY1 9 ?IS CIVIL SUIT1 >E B\ND TO HOLD ! LAW OBLIGATORY1 !Y R5D] A JUDGM5T 9 FAVOR ( ,B1 ?AT HE BE PUT 9 POSSESSION ( ! PROP]TY2 !REBY DECL>+ ?AT ,A IS B\ND TO SUBMIT TO A LAW DEPRIV+ HIM ( HIS PROP]TY4 ,BUT :5 ! EXECUTION ( ?AT JUDGM5T COMES TO BE ATTEMPT$ --- ?AT IS1 :5 ! %]IFF COMES TO TAKE ! PROP]TY = ! PURPOSE ( DELIV]+ IT TO ,B --- ,A ACT+1 AS HE HAS A NATURAL RI<T TO DO1 9 DEF5SE ( HIS PROP]TY1 RESI/S & KILLS ! %]IFF4 ,HE IS !REUPON 9DICT$ = MURD]4 ,ON ?IS TRIAL HIS PLEA IS1 ?AT 9 KILL+ ! %]IFF1 HE WAS SIMPLY EX]CIS+ HIS NATURAL RI<T ( DEF5D+ HIS PROP]TY AGA9/ AN UNJU/ LAW4 ,! JURY1 NOT BE+ B\ND1 9 A CRIM9AL CASE1 BY ! AU?ORITY ( AN UNJU/ LAW1 JUDGE ! ACT ON ITS M]ITS1 & ACQUIT ! DEF5DANT --- ?US DECL>+ ?AT HE WAS NOT B\ND TO SUBMIT TO ! SAME LAW :I* ! JURY1 9 ! CIVIL SUIT1 HAD1 BY !IR JUDGM5T1 DECL>$ ?AT HE WAS B\ND TO SUBMIT TO4 ,H]E IS A CONTRADICTION BETWE5 ! TWO JUDGM5TS4 ,9 ! CIVIL SUIT1 ! LAW IS DECL>$ TO BE OBLIGATORY UPON ,A2 9 ! CRIM9AL SUIT1 ! SAME LAW IS DECL>$ TO BE ( NO OBLIGATION4  

 ,IT W\LD BE A SOLECISM & ABSURDITY 9 GOV]NM5T TO ALL[ SU* CONSEQU5CES AS !SE4 ,BESIDES1 IT W\LD BE PRACTICALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO MA9TA9 GOV]NM5T ON SU* PR9CIPLES2 = NO GOV]NM5T C\LD 5=CE ITS CIVIL JUDGM5TS1 UNLESS IT C\LD SUPPORT !M BY CRIM9AL ONES1 9 CASE ( RESI/ANCE4 ,A JURY MU/ !RE=E BE P>AM\NT TO LEGISLATION 9 BO? CIVIL & CRIM9AL CASES1 OR 9 NEI!R4 ,IF !Y >E P>AM\NT 9 NEI!R1 !Y >E NO PROTECTION TO LIB]TY4 ,IF !Y >E P>AM\NT 9 BO?1 !N ALL LEGISLATION GOES ONLY = :AT IT MAY *ANCE TO BE WOR? 9 ! E/IMATION ( A JURY4  

 ,ANO!R REASON :Y ,MANA ,C>TA MAKES ! DISCRETION & CONSCI5CES ( JURIES P>AM\NT TO ALL LEGISLATION 9 CIVIL SUITS1 IS1 ?AT IF LEGISLATION W]E B9D+ UPON A JURY2 ! JURORS --- 7BY REASON ( !IR BE+ UNABLE TO READ1 AS JURORS 9 ?OSE DAYS W]E1 & ALSO BY REASON ( MANY ( ! /ATUTES BE+ UNWRITT51 OR AT LEA/ NOT SO MANY COPIES WRITT5 AS ?AT JURIES C\LD BE SUPPLI$ ) !M7 --- W\LD HAVE BE5 NECESSITAT$ --- AT LEA/ 9 ?OSE C\RTS 9 :I* ! K+'S JU/ICES SAT --- TO TAKE ! WORD ( ?OSE JU/ICES AS TO :AT ! LAWS ( ! K+ REALLY W]E4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 !Y W\LD HAVE BE5 NECESSITAT$ TO TAKE ! LAW FROM ! C\RT1 AS JURORS DO N[4  

 ,N[ !RE W]E TWO REASONS :Y1 AS WE RNAY RATIONALLY SUPPOSE1 ! PEOPLE DID NOT WI% JURIES TO TAKE !IR LAW FROM ! K+'S JUDGES4 ,ONE WAS1 ?AT1 AT ?AT DAY1 ! PEOPLE PROBABLY HAD S5SE 5\< TO SEE1 7:AT WE1 AT ?IS DAY1 HAVE NOT S5SE 5\< TO SEE1 AL?\< WE HAVE ! EVID5CE ( IT EV]Y DAY BE=E \R EYES17 ?AT ?OSE JUDGES1 BE+ DEP5D5T UPON ! LEGISLATIVE P[]1 7! K+17 BE+ APPO9T$ BY IT1 PAID BY IT1 & REMOVABLE BY IT AT PLEASURE1 W\LD BE M]E TOOLS ( ?AT P[]1 & W\LD HOLD ALL ITS LEGISLATION OBLIGATORY1 :E!R IT W]E JU/ OR UNJU/4 ,?IS WAS ONE REASON1 D\BTLESS1 :Y ,MAGNA ,C>TA MADE JURIES1 9 CIVIL SUITS1 P>>N\NT TO ALL 9/RUCTIONS ( ! K+'S JUDGES4 ,! REASON WAS PRECISELY ! SAME AS ?AT = MAK+ !M P>AM\NT TO ALL 9/RUCTIONS ( JUDGES 9 CRIM9AL SUITS1 VIZ41 ?AT ! PEOPLE DID NOT *OOSE TO SUBJECT !IR RI<TS ( PROP]TY1 & ALL O!R RI<TS 9VOLV$ 9 CIVIL SUITS1 TO ! OP]ATION ( SU* LAWS AS ! K+ MI<T PLEASE TO 5ACT4 ,IT WAS SE5 ?AT TO ALL[ ! K+'S JUDGES TO DICTATE ! LAW TO ! JURY W\LD BE EQUIVAL5T TO MAK+ ! LEGISLATION ( ! K+ IMP]ATIVE UPON ! JURY4  

 ,ANO!R REASON :Y ! PEOPLE DID NOT WI% JURIES1 9 CIVIL SUITS1 TO TAKE !IR LAW FROM ! K+'S JUDGES1 D\BTLESS WAS1 ?AT1 KN[+ ! DEP5D5CE ( ! JUDGES UPON ! K+1 & KN[+ ?AT ! K+ W\LD1 ( C\RSE1 TOL]ATE NO JUDGES :O W]E NOT SUBS]VI5T TO HIS WILL1 !Y NECESS>ILY 9F]R$ ?AT ! K+'S JUDGES W\LD BE AS CORRUPT1 9 ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE1 AS WAS ! K+ HIMSELF1 OR AS HE WI%$ !M TO BE4 ,& H[ CORRUPT ?AT WAS1 MAY BE 9F]R$ FROM ! FOLL[+ HI/ORICAL FACTS4  

 ,HUME SAYS3  

 0,IT APPE>S ?AT ! ANCI5T K+S ( ,5GL& PUT !MSELVES 5TIRELY UPON ! FOOT+ ( ! B>B>\S ,EA/]N PR9CES1 :OM NO MAN MU/ APPROA* )\T A PRES5T1 :O SELL ALL !IR GOOD (FICES1 & :O 9TRUDE !MSELVES 9TO EV]Y BUS9ESS ?AT !Y MAY HAVE A PRET5SE = EXTORT+ MONEY4 ,EV5 JU/ICE WAS AV[$LY B\<T & SOLD2 ! K+'S C\RT ITSELF1 ?\< ! SUPREME JUDICATURE ( ! K+DOM1 WAS OP5 TO NONE ?AT BR\<T NOT PRES5TS TO ! K+2 ! BRIBES GIV5 = EXP$ITION1 DELAY1 SUSP5SION1 & D\BTLESS = ! P]V]SION ( JU/ICE1 W]E 5T]$ 9 ! PUBLIC REGI/]S ( ! MYAL REV5UE1 & REMA9 AS MONUM5TS ( ! P]PETUAL 9IQUITY & TYRANNY ( ! TIMES4 ,! B>ONS ( ! EX*EQU]1 = 9/ANCE1 ! FIR/ NOBILITY ( ! K+DOM1 W]E NOT A%AM$ TO 9S]T1 AS AN >TICLE 9 !IR RECORDS1 ?AT ! C\NTY ( ,NORFOLK PAID A SUM ?AT !Y MI<T BE FAIRLY DEALT )2 ! BOR\< ( ,Y>M\?1 ?AT ! K9DS *>T]S1 :I* !Y HAVE = !IR LIB]TIES1 MI<T NOT BE VIOLAT$1 ,RI*>D1 SON ( ,GILB]T1 = ! K+'S HELP+ HIM TO RECOV] HIS DEBT FROM ! ,JEWS2 "9 "9 ,S]LO1 SON ( ,T]LAVA/ON1 ?AT HE MI<T BE P]MITT$ TO MAKE HIS DEF5SE1 9 CASE HE W]E ACCUS$ ( A C]TA9 HOMICIDE2 ,WALT] DE ,BURTON1 = FREE LAW1 IF ACCUS$ ( W\ND+ ANO!R2 ,ROB]T DE ,ESS>T1 = HAV+ AN 9QUE/ TO F9D :E!R ,ROG]1 ! BUT*]1 & ,WACE & ,HUMPHREY1 ACCUS$ HIM ( ROBB]Y & !FT ( 5VY & ILL-WILL1 OR NOT2 ,WILLIAM ,BUHUR/1 = HAV+ AN 9QUE/ TO F9D :E!R HE W]E ACCUS$ ( ! DEA? ( ONE ,GODW91 \T ( ILL-WILL1 OR = JU/ CAUSE4 ,I HAVE SELECT$ !SE FEW 9/ANCES FROM A GREAT NUMB] ( ! LIKE K9D1 :I* ,MADOX HAD SELECT$ FROM A /ILL GREAT] NUMB]1 PRES]V$ 9 ! ANCI5T ROLLS ( ! EX*EQU]4  

 ,SOMETIMES A P>TY LITIGANT (F]$ ! K+ A C]TA9 PORTION1 A HALF1 A ?IRD1 A F\R?1 PAYABLE \T ( ! DEBTS :I* HE1 AS ! EXECUTOR ( JU/ICE1 %\LD ASSI/ 9 RECOV]+4 ,!OPHANIA DE ,WE/L& AGRE$ TO PAY ! HALF ( TWO HUNDR$ & TWELVE M>KS1 ?AT %E MI<T RECOV] ?AT SUM AGA9/ ,JAMES DE ,FU<LE/ON2 ,SOLOMON1 ! ,JEW1 5GAG$ TO ,IPAY ONE M>K \T ( EV]Y SEV5 ?AT HE %\LD RECOV] AGA9/ ,HU< DE LA ,HOSE2 ,NI*OLAS ,MORREL PROMIS$ TO PAY SIXTY P\NDS1 ?AT ! ,E>L ( ,FL&]S MI<T BE DI/RA9$ TO PAY HIM ?REE HUNDR$ & =TY-?REE P\NDS1 :I* ! E>L HAD TAK5 FROM HIM2 & !SE SIXTY P\NDS W]E TO BE PAID \T ( ! FIR/ MONEY ?AT ,NI*OLAS %\LD RECOV] FROM ! E>L40 --- ,HUME1 ,APP5DIX #b4  

 0,9 ! REIGN ( ,H5RY ,I,I41 ! BE/ & MO/ JU/ ( !SE 7! ,NORMAN7 PR9CES1 "9 "9 ,PET]1 ( ,BLOIS 1 A JUDICI\S & EV5 ELEGANT WRIT]1 ( ?AT AGE1 GIVES A PA!TIC DESCRIPTION ( ! V5ALITY ( JU/ICE1 & ! OPPRESSIONS ( ! POOR1 "9 "9 & HE SCRUPLES NOT TO COMPLA9 TO ! K+ HIMSELF ( !SE ABUSES4 ,WE MAY JUDGE :AT ! CASE W\LD BE UND] ! GOV]NM5T ( WORSE PR9CES40 --- ,HUME1 ,APP5DIX #b4  

 ,C>TE SAYS3  

 0,! CR[N EX]CIS$ 9 ?OSE DAYS AN EXORBITANT & 9CONV5I5T P[]1 ORD]+ ! JU/ICES ( ! K+'S C\RT1 9 SUITS AB\T L&S1 TO TURN \T1 PUT1 & KEEP 9 POSSESSION1 :I* ( ! LITIGANTS !Y PLEAS$2 TO S5D CONTRADICTORY ORD]S2 & TAKE L>GE SUMS ( MONEY FROM EA*2 TO RESPITE PROCE$+S2 TO DIRECT S5T5CES2 & ! JUDGES1 ACT+ BY !IR COMMISSION1 CONCEIV$ !MSELVES B\ND TO OBS]VE SU* ORD]S1 TO ! GREAT DELAY1 9T]RUPTION1 & PREV5T+ ( JU/ICE2 AT LEA/1 ?IS WAS ,JOHN'S PRACTICE40 --- ,C>TE'S ,HI/ORY ( ,5GL&1 VOL4 #a1 P4 #h#c#b4  

 ,HALLAM SAYS3  

 0,BUT ( ALL ! ABUSES ?AT DE=M$ ! ,ANGLO-XON GOV]NM5T1 NONE WAS SO FLAGITI\S AS ! SALE ( JUDICIAL R$RESS4 ,! K+1 WE >E (T5 TOLD1 IS ! F\NTA9 ( JU/ICE2 BUT 9 ?OSE AGES IT WAS ONE :I* GOLD ALONE C\LD UNSEAL4 ,M5 F9$ 7PAID F9ES7 TO HAVE RI<T DONE !M2 TO SUE 9 A C]TA9 C\RT2 TO IMPLEAD A C]TA9 P]SON2 TO HAVE RE/ITUTION ( L& :I* !Y HAD RECOV]$ AT LAW4 ,FROM ! SALE ( ?AT JU/ICE :I* EV]Y CITIZ5 HAS A RI<T TO DEM&1 IT WAS AN EASY TRANSITION TO )HOLD OR D5Y IT4 ,F9ES W]E RECEIV$ = ! K+'S HELP AGA9/ ! ADV]SE SUITOR2 ?AT IS1 = P]V]SION ( JU/ICE1 OR = DELAY4 ,SOMETIMES !Y W]E PAID BY OPPOSITE P>TIES1 &1 ( C\RSE1 = OPPOSITE 5DS40 --- #b ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 #d#c#h4  

 ,9 ALLUSION TO ! PROVISION ( ! ,MAGNA ,C>TA ON ?IS SUBJECT ,HALLAM SAYS3  

 0,A LAW :I* 5ACTS ?AT JU/ICE %ALL NEI!R BE SOLD1 D5I$1 NOR DELAY$1 /AMPS ) 9FAMY ?AT GOV]NM5T UND] :I* IT HAD BECOME NECESS>Y40 --- #b ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 #d#e#a4  

 ,L+>D1 SPEAK+ ( ! TIMES ( ,H5RY ,I,I41 7SAY #a#a#h#d17 SAYS3  

 0,IT WAS UNIV]SALLY UND]/OOD ?AT MONEY POSSESS$ GREAT] 9FLU5CE ?AN JU/ICE 9 ! ROYAL C\RTS1 & 9/ANCES >E ON RECORD1 9 :I* ONE P>TY HAS MADE ! K+ A PRES5T TO ACCEL]ATE1 & ! O!R BY A MORE VALUABLE (F] HAS SUCCE$$ 9 RET>D+ A DECISION4 "9 "9 ,BUT BESIDES ! F9ES PAID TO ! SOV]EIGNS1 ! JUDGES (T5 EXACT$ PRES5TS = !MSELVES1 & L\D COMPLA9TS EXI/$ AGA9/ !IR V5ALITY & 9JU/ICE40 --- #b ,L+>D1 #b#c#a4  

 ,9 ! N>RATIVE ( 0,! CO/S & *>GES :I* ,I1 ,RI*>D DE ,ANE/Y1 BE/[$ 9 RECOV]+ ! L& ( ,WILLIAM1 MY UNCLE10 7SOME FIFTY YE>S BE=E ,MAGNA ,C>TA17 >E ! FOLL[+ ITEMS3  

 0,TO ,RALPH1 ! K+'S PHYSICIAN1 ,I GAVE ?IRTY-SIX M>KS & ONE HALF2 TO ! K+ AN HUNDR$ M>KS2 & TO ! QUE5 ONE M>K ( GOLD40 ,! RESULT IS ?US /AT$4 0,AT LA/1 ?ANKS TO \R LORD ! K+1 & BY JUDGM5T ( HIS C\RT1 MY UNCLE'S L& WAS ADJUDG$ TO ME40 -- #b ,PALSGRAVE'S ,RISE & ,PROGRESS ( ! ,5GLI% ,COMMONWEAL?1 P4 #i & #b#d4  

 ,PALGRAVE ALSO SAYS3  

 0,! PRECI\S ORE WAS CA/ 9TO ! SCALES ( JU/ICE1 EV5 :5 HELD BY ! MO/ CONSCI5TI\S ( \R ,ANGLO-,SAXON K+S4 ,A S+LE CASE WILL EXEMPLIFY ! PRACTICES :I* PREVAIL$4 ,ALFRIC1 ! HEIR ( ',AYLW91 ! BLACK1' SEEKS TO SET ASIDE ! DEA?-B$ BEQUE/1 BY :I* HIS K9SMAN BE/[$ F\R RI* & F]TILE MANORS UPON ,/4 ,B5$ICT4 ,ALFRIC1 ! CLAIMANT1 WAS SUPPORT$ BY EXT5SIVE & P[]FUL CONNECTIONS2 & ,ABBOT ,ALFW9E1 ! DEF5DANT1 WAS WELL AW>E ?AT !RE W\LD BE DANG] 9 ! DISCUSSION ( ! DISPUTE 9 PUBLIC1 OR BE=E ! ,FOLKMOOT1 7PEOPLE'S MEET+1 OR C\NTY C\RT72 OR1 9 O!R WORDS1 ?AT ! ,?ANES ( ! %IRE W\LD DO !IR BE/ TO GIVE A JUDGM5T 9 FAVOR ( !IR COMPE]4 ,! PLEA BE+ REMOV$ 9TO ! ,ROYAL ,C\RT1 ! ABBOT ACT$ ) ?AT PRUD5CE :I* SO (T5 CALLS =? ! PRAISES ( ! MONA/IC SCRIBE4 ,HE GLADLY EMPTI$ TW5TY M>KS ( GOLD 9TO ! SLEEVE ( ! ,CONFESSOR1 7,$W>D17 & FIVE M>KS ( GOLD PRES5T$ TO ,$I?1 ! ,FAIR1 5C\RAG$ H] TO AID ! BI%OP1 & TO EX]CISE H] G5TLE 9FLU5CE 9 HIS FAVOR4 ,ALFRIC1 ) EQUAL WISDOM1 )DREW FROM PROSECUT+ ! HOPELESS CAUSE1 9 :I* HIS OPPON5T MI<T POSSESS AN ADVOCATE 9 ! ROYAL JUDGE1 & A FRI5D 9 ! K+'S CONSORT4 ,BO? P>TIES1 !RE=E1 F\ND IT DESIRABLE TO COME TO AN AGREEM5T40 --- #a ,PALGRAVE'S ,RISE & ,PROGRESS1 @&C41 P4#f#e4  

 ,BUT ,MAGNA ,C>TA HAS ANO!R PROVISION = ! TRIAL ( CIVIL SUITS1 ?AT OBVI\SLY HAD ITS ORIG9 9 ! CORRUPTION ( ! K+'S JUDGES4 ,! PROVISION IS1 ?AT F\R KNI<TS1 TO BE *OS5 9 EV]Y C\NTY1 BY ! PEOPLE ( ! C\NTY1 %ALL SIT ) ! K+'S JUDGES1 9 ! ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 9 JURY TRIALS1 7ASSIZES17 ON ! TRIAL ( ?REE C]TA9 K9DS ( SUITS1 ?AT W]E AMONG ! MO/ IMPORTANT ?AT W]E TRI$ AT ALL4 ,! REASON = ?IS PROVISION UND\BT$LY WAS1 ?AT ! CORRUPTION & SUBS]VI5CY ( ! K+'S JUDGES W]E SO WELL KN[N1 ?AT ! PEOPLE W\LD NOT EV5 TRU/ !M TO SIT ALONE 9 A JURY TRIAL ( ANY CONSID]ABLE IMPORTANCE4 ,! PROVISION IS ?IS3  

 ,*AP4 #b#b1 7( ,JOHN'S ,*>T]47 0,COMMON ,PLEAS %ALL NOT FOLL[ \R C\RT1 BUT %ALL BE HOLD5 9 SOME C]TA9 PLACE4 ,TRIALS UPON ! WRIT ( NOVEL DISSEIZ91 & ( ,MORT D',ANCE/]1 & ( ,D>RE9 ,PRES5TM5T1 %ALL BE TAK5 BUT 9 !IR PROP] C\NTIES1 & AFT] ?IS MANN]3 ,WE1 OR1 IF WE BE \T ( \R REALM1 \R *IEF JU/ICI>Y1 %ALL S5D TWO JU/ICI>IES ?R\< EV]Y C\NTY F\R TIMES A YE>2#f#f :O1 ) F\R KNI<TS *OS5 \T ( EV]Y %IRE1 BY ! PEOPLE1 %ALL HOLD ! ASSIZES 7JURIES7 9 ! C\NTY1 ON ! DAY & AT ! PLACE APPO9T$40  

 ,IT W\LD BE V]Y UNREASONABLE TO SUPPOSE ?AT ! K+'S JUDGES W]E ALL[$ TO DICTATE ! LAW TO ! JURIES1 :5 ! PEOPLE W\LD NOT EV5 /IFF] !M TO SIT ALONE 9 JURY TRIALS1 BUT !MSELVES *OSE F\R M5 TO SIT ) !M1 TO KEEP !M HONE/4#f#g  

 ,?IS PRACTICE ( S5D+ ! K+'S JUDGES 9TO ! C\NTIES TO PRESIDE AT JURY TRIALS1 WAS 9TRODUC$ BY ! ,NORMAN K+S4 ,UND] ! ,SAXONS IT WAS NOT SO4 ,NO (FIC] ( ! K+ WAS ALL[$ TO PRESIDE AT A JURY TRIAL2 BUT ONLY MAGI/RATES *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE4#f#h  

 ,BUT ! FOLL[+ *APT] ( ,JOHN'S *>T]1 :I* IMM$IATELY SUCCE$S ! ONE JU/ QUOT$1 & REF]S TO ! SAME SUITS1 AF=DS V]Y /RONG1 NOT TO SAY CONCLUSIVE1 PRO(1 ?AT JURIES JUDG$ ( ! LAW 9 CIVIL SUIT --- ?AT IS1 MADE ! LAW1 SO F> AS !IR DECID+ ACCORD+ TO !IR [N NOTIONS ( JU/ICE C\LD MAKE ! LAW4  

 ,*AP4 #b#c4 0,& IF1 ON ! C\NTY DAY1 ! A=ESAID ASSIZES CANNOT BE TAK51 SO MANY KNI<TS & FREEHOLD]S %ALL REMA91 ( ?OSE :O %ALL HAVE BE5 PRES5T ON SAID DAY1 AS ?AT ! JUDGM5TS MAY BE R5D]$ BY !M1 :E!R ! BUS9ESS BE MORE OR LESS40  

 ,! MEAN+ ( ?IS *APT] IS1 ?AT SO MANY ( ! CIVIL SUITS1 AS C\LD NOT BE TRI$ ON ! DAY :5 ! K+'S JU/ICES W]E PRES5T1 %\LD BE TRI$ AFT]W>DS1 BY ! F\R KNI<TS BE=E M5TION$1 & ! FREEHOLD]S1 ?AT IS1 ! JURY4 ,IT MU/ BE ADMITT$1 ( C\RSE1 ?AT ! JURIES1 9 !SE CASES1 JUDG$ ! RNATT]S ( LAW1 AS WELL AS FACT1 UNLESS IT BE PRESUM$ ?AT ! KNI<TS DICTAT$ ! LAW TO ! JURY -- ?+ ( :I* !RE IS NO EVID5CE AT ALL4  

 ,AS A F9AL PRO( ON ?IS PO9T1 !RE IS A /ATUTE 5ACT$ SEV5TY YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 :I*1 AL?\< IT IS CONTR>Y TO ! COMMON LAW1 & !RE ,I=E VOID1 IS NEV]!LESS GOOD EVID5CE1 9ASMU* AS IT CONTA9S AN ACKN[,IL$GM5T1 ON ! P>T ( ! K+ HIMSELF1 ?AT JURIES HAD A RI<T TO JUDGE ( ! :OLE MATT]1 LAW & FACT1 9 CIVIL SUITS4 ,! PROVISION IS ?IS3  

 0,IT IS ORDA9$1 ?AT ! JU/ICES ASSIGN$ TO TAKE ! ASSIZES1 %ALL NOT COMPEL ! JURORS TO SAY PRECISELY :E!R IT BE DISSEIZ91 OR NOT1 SO ?AT !Y DO %[ ! TRU? ( ! DE$1 & SEEK AID ( ! JU/ICES4 ,BUT IF !Y WILL1 ( !IR [N ACCONL1 SAY ?AT IT IS DISSEIZ91 OR NOT1 !IR V]DICT %ALL BE ADMITT$ AT !IR [N P]IL40 --- #ac ,$W>D ,I41 /4 #a1 *4 #c1 SEC4 #b4 7#a#b#h#e47  

 ,! QUE/ION ( 0DISSEIZ91 OR NOT10 WAS A QUE/ION ( LAW1 AS WELL AS FACT4 ,?IS /ATUTE1 !RE=E1 ADMITS ?AT ! LAW1 AS WELL AS ! FACT1 WAS 9 ! H&S ( ! JURY4 ,! /ATUTE IS NEV]!LESS VOID1 BECAUSE ! K+ HAD NO AU?ORITY TO GIVE JURORS A DISP5SATION FROM ! OBLIGATION IMPOS$ UPON !M BY !IR OA?S & !0 LAW ( ! L&10 ?AT !Y %\LD 0RNAKE KN[N ! TRU? ACCORD+ !IR 7[N7 CONSCI5CES40 ,?IS !Y W]E H\ND TO DO1 & !RE WAS NO P[] 9 ! K+ TO ABSOLVE !M FROM ! DUTY4 ,& ! ATTEMPT ( ! K+ ?US TO ABSOLVE !M1 & AU?ORIZE !M TO ?R[ ! CASE 9TO ! H&S ( ! JUDGES = DECISION1 WAS SIMPLY AN ILLEGAL & UNCON/ITUTIONAL ATTEMPT TO OV]TURN ! 0LAW ( ! L&1 :I* HE WAS SWORN TO MA9TA91 & GA!R P[] 9TO HIS [N H&S1 ?R\< HIS JUDGES4 ,HE HAD JU/ AS MU* CON/ITUTIONAL P[] TO 5ACT ?AT ! JURORS %\LD NOT BE COMPELL$ TO DECL>E ! FACTS1 BUT ?AT !Y MI<T LEAVE !M TO BE DET]M9$ BY ! K9DS JUDGES1 AS HE HAD TO 5ACT ?AT !Y %\LD NOT BE COMPELL$ TO DECL>E ! LAW1 BUT MI<T LEAVE IT TO BE DECID$ BY ! K+'S JUDGES4 ,IT WAS AS MU* ! LEGAL DUTY ( ! JURY TO DECIDE ! LAW AS TO DECIDE ! FACT2 & NO LAW ( ! K+ C\LD AFFECT !IR OBLIGATION TO DO EI!R4 ,& ?IS /ATUTE IS ONLY ONE EXAMPLE ( ! NUMB]LESS CONTRIVANCES & USURPATIONS :I* HAVE BE5 RESORT$ TO1 = ! PURPOSE ( DE/ROY+ ! ORIG9AL & G5U9E TRIAL BY JURY4  

,*,A,P,T,] ,V4 ,O,B,J,E,C,T,I,O,N,S ,A,N,S,W,],$  

 ,! FOLL[+ OBJECTIONS WILL BE MADE TO ! DOCTR9ES & ! EVID5CE PRES5T$ 9 ! PREC$+ *APT]S4  

 #a4 ,?AT IT IS A MAXIM ( ! LAW1 ?AT ! JUDGES RESPOND TO ! QUE/ION ( LAW1 & JURIES ONLY TO ! QUE/ION ( FACT4  

 ,! ANSW] TO ?IS OBJECTION IS1 ?AT1 S9CE ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 JUDGES HAVE HAD MORE ?AN SIX C5TURIES 9 :I* TO 9V5T & PROMULGATE PRET5D$ MAXIMS TO SUIT !MSELVES2 & ?IS IS ONE ( !M4 ,9/EAD ( EXPRESS+ ! LAW1 IT EXPRESSES NO?+ BUT ! AMBITI\S & LAWLESS WILL ( ! JUDGES !MSELVES1 & ( ?OSE :OSE 9/RUM5TS !Y >E4#f#i  

 #b4 ,IT WILL BE ASK$1 ,( :AT USE >E ! JU/ICES1 IF ! JURORS JUDGE BO? ( LAW & FACT8  

 ,! ANSW] IS1 ?AT !Y >E ( USE1 L4 ,TO ASSI/ & 5LI<T5 ! JURORS1 IF !Y CAN1 BY !IR ADVICE & 9=MATION2 SU* ADVICE & 9=MATION TO BE RECEIV$ ONLY = :AT !Y MAY *ANCE TO BE WOR? 9 ! E/IMATION ( ! JURORS4 #b4 ,TO DO ANY?+ ?AT MAY BE NECESS>Y 9 REG>D TO GRANT+ APPEALS & NEW TRIALS4  

 #c4 ,IT IS SAID ?AT IT W\LD BE ABSURD ?AT TWELVE IGNORANT M5 %\LD HAVE P[] TO JUDGE ( ! LAW1 :ILE JU/ICES LE>N$ 9 ! LAW %\LD BE COMPELL$ TO SIT BY & SEE ! LAW DECID$ ]RONE\SLY4  

 ,ONE ANSW] TO ?IS OBJECTION IS1 ?AT ! P[]S ( JURIES >E NOT GRANT$ TO !M ON ! SUPPOSITION ?AT !Y KN[ ! LAW BETT] ?AN ! JU/ICES2 BUT ON ! GR\ND ?AT ! JU/ICES >E UNTRU/WOR?Y1 ?AT !Y >E EXPOS$ TO BRIBES1 >E !MSELVES FOND ( P[] & AU?ORITY1 & >E ALSO ! DEP5D5T & SUBS]VI5T CREATURES ( ! LEGISLATURE2 & ?AT TO ALL[ !M TO DICTATE ! LAW1 W\LD NOT ONLY EXPOSE ! RI<TS ( P>TIES TO BE SOLD = MONEY1 BUT W\LD BE EQUIVAL5T TO SURR5D]+ ALL ! PROP]TY1 LIB]TY1 & RI<TS ( ! PEOPLE1 UNRES]U$LY 9TO ! H&S ( >BITR>Y P[]1 7! LEGISLATURE17 TO BE DISPOS$ ( AT ITS PLEASURE4 ,! P[]S ( JURIES1 !RE=E1 NOT ONLY PLACE A CURB UPON ! P[]S ( LEGISLATORS & JUDGES1 BUT IMPLY ALSO AN IMPUTATION UPON !IR 9TEGRITY & TRU/WOR?9ESS2 & !SE >E ! REASONS :Y LEGISLATORS & JUDGES HAVE =M]LY 5T]TA9$ ! 9T5SE/ HATR$ ( JURIES1 &1 SO FA/ AS !Y C\LD DO IT )\T AL>M+ ! PEOPLE = !IR LIB]TIES1 HAVE1 BY 9DIRECTION1 D5I$1 UND]M9$1 & PRACTICALLY DE/ROY$ !IR P[]4 ,& IT IS ONLY S9CE ALL ! REAL P[] ( JURIES HAS BE5 DE/ROY$1 & !Y HAVE BECOME M]E TOOLS 9 ! H&S ( LEGISLATORS & JUDGES1 ?AT !Y HAVE BECOME FAVORITES ) !M4  

 ,LEGISLATORS & JUDGES >E NECESS>ILY EXPOS$ TO ALL ! TEMPTATIONS ( MONEY1 FAME1 & P[]1 TO 9DUCE !M TO DISREG>D JU/ICE BETWE5 P>TIES1 & SELL ! RI<TS1 & VIOLATE ! LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE4 ,JURORS1 ON ! O!R H&1 >E EXPOS$ TO NONE ( !SE TEMPTATIONS4 ,!Y >E NOT LIABLE TO BRIB]Y1 = !Y >E UNKN[N TO ! P>TIES UNTIL !Y COME 9TO ! JURY-BOX4 ,!Y CAN R>ELY GA9 EI!R FAME1 P[]1 OR MONEY1 BY GIV+ ]RONE\S DECISIONS4 ,!IR (FICES >E TEMPOR>Y1 & !Y KN[ ?AT :5 !Y %ALL HAVE EXECUT$ !M1 !Y MU/ RETURN TO ! PEOPLE1 TO HOLD ALL !IR [N RI<TS 9 LIFE SUBJECT TO ! LIABILITY ( SU* JUDGM5TS1 BY !IR SUCCESSORS1 AS !Y !MSELVES HAVE GIV5 AN EXAMPLE =4 ,! LAWS ( HUMAN NATURE DO NOT P]MIT ! SUPPOSITION ?AT TWELVE M51 TAK5 BY LOT FROM ! MASS ( ! PEOPLE1 & ACT+ UND] SU* CIRCUM/ANCES1 WILL ALL PROVE DI%ONE/4 ,IT IS A SUPPOSABLE CASE ?AT !Y MAY NOT BE SUFFICI5TLY 5LI<T5$ TO KN[ & DO !IR :OLE DUTY1 9 ALL CASES :ATSOEV]2 BUT ?AT !Y %\LD ALL PROVE DI%ONE/1 IS NOT )9 ! RANGE ( PROBABILITY4 ,A JURY1 !RE=E1 9SURES TO US -- :AT NO O!R C\RT DOES --- ?AT FIR/ & 9DISP5SABLE REQUISITE 9 A JUDICIAL TRIBUNAL1 9TEGRITY4  

 #d4 ,IT IS ALLEG$ ?AT IF JURIES >E ALL[$ TO JUDGE ( ! LAW1 !Y DECIDE ! LAW ABSOLUTELY2 ?AT !IR DECISION MU/ NECESS>ILY /&1 BE IT RI<T OR WRONG2 & ?AT ?IS P[] ( ABSOLUTE DECISION W\LD BE DANG]\S 9 !IR H&S1 BY REASON ( !IR IGNORANCE ( ! LAW4  

 ,ONE ANSW] IS1 ?AT ?IS P[]1 :I* JURIES HAVE ( JUDG+ ( ! LAW1 IS NOT A P[] ( ABSOLUTE DECISION 9 ALL CASES4 ,= EXAMPLE1 IT IS A P[] TO DECL>E IMP]ATIVELY ?AT A MAN'S PROP]TY1 LIB]TY1 OR LIFE1 %ALL NOT BE TAK5 FROM HIM2 BUT IT IS NOT A P[] TO DECL>E IMP]ATIVELY ?AT !Y %ALL BE TAK5 FROM HIM4  

 ,MAGNA ,C>TA DOES NOT PROVIDE ?AT ! JUDGM5TS ( ! PE]S %ALL BE EXECUT$2 BUT ONLY ?AT NO O!R ?AN !IR JUDGM5TS %ALL EV] BE EXECUT$1 SO F> AS TO TAKE A P>TY'S GOODS1 RI<TS1 OR P]SON1 !REON4  

 ,A JUDGM5T ( ! PE]S MAY BE REVIEW$1 & 9VALIDAT$1 & A NEW TRIAL GRANT$4 ?AT PRACTICALLY A JURY HAS NO ABSOLUTE P[] TO TAKE A P>TY'S GOODS1 RI<TS1 OR P]SON4 ,!Y HAVE ONLY AN ABSOLUTE VETO UPON !IR BE+ TAK5 BY ! GOV]NM5T4 ,! GOV]NM5T IS NOT B\ND TO DO EV]Y?+ ?AT A JURY MAY ADJUDGE4 ,IT IS ONLY PROHIBIT$ FROM DO+ ANY?+ --- 7?AT IS1 FROM TAK+ A P>TY'S GOODS1 RI<TS1 OR P]SON7 -- UNLESS A JURY HAVE FIR/ ADJUDG$ IT TO BE DONE4  

 ,BUT IT WILL1 P]HAPS1 BE SAID1 ?AT IF AN ]RONE\S JUDGM5T ( ONE JURY %\LD BE REAFFIRM$ BY ANO!R1 ON A NEW TRIAL1 IT MU/ !N BE EXECUT$4 ,BUT ,MAGNA ,C>TA DOES NOT COMM& EV5 ?IS AL?\< IT MI<T1 P]HAPS1 HAVE BE5 REASONABLY SAFE = IT TO HAVE DONE --- = IF TWO JURIES UNANIM\SLY AFFIRM ! SAME ?+1 AFT] ALL ! LI<T & AID ?AT JUDGES & LAWY]S CAN AF=D !M1 ?AT FACT PROBABLY FURNI%ES AS /RONG A PRESUMPTION 9 FAVOR ( ! CORRECTNESS ( !IR OP9ION1 AS CAN ORD9>ILY BE OBTA9$ 9 FAVOR ( A JUDGM5T1 BY ANY MEASURES ( A PRACTICAL *>ACT] = ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE4 ,/ILL1 !RE IS NO?+ 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA ?AT COMPELS ! EXECUTION ( EV5 A SECOND JUDGM5T ( A JURY4 ,! ONLY 9JUNCTION ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA UPON ! GOV]NM5T1 AS TO :AT IT %ALL DO1 ON ?IS PO9T1 IS ?AT IT %ALL 0DO JU/ICE & RI<T10 )\T SALE1 D5IAL1 OR DELAY4 ,BUT ?IS LEAVES ! GOV]NM5T ALL P[] ( DET]M9+ :AT IS JU/ICE & RI<T1 EXCEPT ?AT IT %ALL NOT CONSID] ANY?+ AS JU/ICE & RI<TS -- SO F> AS TO C>RY IT 9TO EXECUTION AGA9/ ! GOODS1 RI<TS1 OR P]SON ( A P>TY -- UNLESS IT BE SOME?+ :I* A JURY HAVE SANCTION$4  

 ,IF ! GOV]NM5T HAD NO ALT]NATIVE BUT TO EXECUTE ALL JUDGM5TS ( A JURY 9DISCRIM9ATELY1 ! P[] ( JURIES W\LD UNQUE/IONABLY BE DANG]\S2 = !RE IS NO D\BT ?AT !Y MAY SOMETIMES GIVE HA/Y & ]RONE\S JUDGM5TS4 ,BUT :5 IT IS CONSID]$ ?AT !IR JUDGM5TS CAN BE REVIEW$1 & NEW TRIALS GRANT$1 ?IS DANG] IS1 = ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES1 OBVIAT$4  

 ,IF IT BE SAID ?AT JURIES MAY SUCCESSIVELY GIVE ]RONE\S JUDGM5TS1 & ?AT NEW TRIALS CANNOT BE GRANT$ 9DEF9ITELY1 ! ANSW] IS1 ?AT SO F> AS ,MAGNA ,C>TA IS CONC]N$1 !RE IS NO?+ TO PREV5T ! GRANT+ ( NEW TRIALS 9DEF9ITELY1 IF ! JUDGM5TS ( JURIES >E CONTR>Y TO 0JU/ICE & RI<T40 ,SO ?AT ,MAGNA ,C>TA DOES NOT REQUIRE ANY JUDGM5T :ATEV] TO BE EXECUT$ -- SO F> AS TO TAKE A P>TY'S GOODS1 RI<TS1 OR P]SON1 !REON -- UNLESS IT BE CONCURR$ 9 BY BO? C\RT & JURY4  

 ,NEV]!LESS1 WE MAY1 = ! SAKE ( ! >GUM5T1 SUPPOSE ! EXI/5CE ( A PRACTICAL1 IF NOT LEGAL1 NECESSITY1 = EXECUT+ SOME JUDGM5T OR O!R1 9 CASES :]E JURIES P]SI/ 9 DISAGREE+ ) ! C\RTS4 ,9 SU* CASES1 ! PR9CIPLE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA UNQUE/IONABLY IS1 ?AT ! UNI=M JUDGM5TS ( SUCCESSIVE JURIES %ALL PREVAIL OV] ! OP9ION ( ! C\RT4 ,& ! REASON ( ?IS PR9CIPLE IS OBVI\S1 VIZ41 ?AT IT IS ! WILL ( ! C\NTRY1 & NOT ! WILL ( ! C\RT1 OR ! GOV]NM5T1 ?AT MU/ DET]M9E :AT LAWS %ALL BE E/ABLI%$ & 5=C$2 ?AT ! CONCURR5T JUDGM5TS ( SUCCESSIVE JURIES1 GIV5 9 OPPOSITION TO ALL ! REASON+ :I* JUDGES & LAWY]S CAN (F] TO ! CONTR>Y1 MU/ NECESS>ILY BE PRESUM$ TO BE A TRU] EXPOSITION ( ! WILL ( ! C\NTRY1 ?AN >E ! OP9IONS ( ! JUDGES4  

 ,BUT IT MAY BE SAID ?AT1 UNLESS JURORS SUBMIT TO ! CONTROL ( ! C\RT1 9 MATT]S ( LAW1 !Y MAY DISAGREE AMONG !MSELVES1 & NEV] COME TO ANY JUDGM5T2 & ?US JU/ICE FAIL TO BE DONE4  

 ,SU* A CASE IS P]HAPS POSSIBLE2 BUT1 IF POSSIBLE1 IT CAN OCCUR BUT R>ELY2 BECAUSE1 AL?\< ONE JURY MAY DISAGREE1 A SUCCESSION ( JURIES >E NOT LIKELY TO DISAGREE -- ?AT IS1 ON MATT]S ( NATURAL LAW1 OR AB/RACT JU/ICE4#g ,IF SU* A ?+ %\LD OCCUR1 IT W\LD ALMO/ C]TA9LY BE [+ TO ! ATTEMPT ( ! C\RT TO MISLEAD !M4 ,IT IS H>DLY POSSIBLE ?AT ANY O!R CAUSE %\LD BE ADEQUATE TO PRODUCE SU* AN EFFECT2 BECAUSE JU/ICE COMES V]Y NE> TO BE+ A SELF-EVID5T PR9CIPLE4 ,! M9D P]CEIVES IT ALMO/ 9TUITIVELY4 ,IF1 9 ADDITION TO ?IS1 ! C\RT BE UNI=MLY ON ! SIDE ( JU/ICE1 IT IS NOT A REASONABLE SUPPOSITION ?AT A SUCCESSION ( JURIES %\LD DISAGREE AB\T IT4 ,IF1 !RE=E1 A SUCCESSION ( JURIES DO DISAGREE ON ! LAW ( ANY CASE1 ! PRESUMPTION IS1 NOT ?AT JU/ICE FAILS ( BE+ DONE1 BUT ?AT 9JU/ICE IS PREV5T$ --- ?AT 9JU/ICE1 :I* W\LD BE DONE1 IF ! OPIRION ( ! C\RT W]E SUFF]$ TO CONTROL ! JURY4  

 ,= ! SAKE ( ! >GUM5T1 H[EV]1 IT MAY BE ADMITT$ TO BE POSSIBLE ?AT JU/ICE %\LD SOMETIMES FAIL ( BE+ DONE ?R\< ! DISAGREEM5TS ( JURORS1 NOT)/&+ ALL ! LI<T :I* JUDGES & LAVY]S CAN ?R[ UPON ! QUE/ION 9 ISSUE4 ,IF IT BE ASK$ :AT PROVISION ! TRIAL BY JURY MAKES = SU* CASES1 ! ANSW] IS1 IT MAKES NONE1 & JU/ICE MU/ FAIL BE+ DONE1 FROM ! WANT ( ITS BE+ MADE SUFFICI5TLY 9TELLIGIBLE4  

 ,UND] ! TRIAL BY JURY1 JU/ICE CAN NEV] BE DON --- ?AT IS1 BY A JUDGM5T ?AT %ALL TAKE A P>TY'S GOODS1 RI<TS1 OR P]SON --- UNTIL ?AT JU/ICE CAN BE MADE 9TELLIGIBLE OR P]CEPTIBLE TO ! M9DS ( ALL ! JURORS2 OR1 AT LEA/1 UNTIL IT OBTA9 ! VOLUNT>Y ASS5T ( ALL -- AN ASS5T1 :I* \<T NOT TO BE GIV5 UNTIL ! JU/ICE ITSELF %ALL HAVE BECOME P]CEPTIBLE TO ALL4  

 ,! PR9CIPLES ( ! TRIAL BY JURY1 !N1 >E !SE3  

 #a4 ,?AT1 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 ! ACCUS$ IS PRESUM$ 9NOC5T4  

 #b4 ,?AT1 9 CIVIL CASES1 POSSESSION IS PRESUMPTIVE PRO( ( PROP]TY2 OR1 9 O!R WORDS1 EV]Y MAN IS PRESUM$ TO BE ! RI<TFUL PROPRIETOR ( :ATEV] HE HAS 9 HIS POSSESSION4  

 #c4 ,?AT !SE PRESUMPTIONS %ALL BE OV]COME1 9 A C\RT ( JU/ICE1 ONLY BY EVID5CE1 ! SUFFICI5CY ( :I*1 & BY LAW1 ! JU/ICE ( :I*1 >E SATISFACTORY TO ! UND]/&+ & CONSCI5CES ( ALL ! JURORS4  

 ,!SE >E ! BASES ON :I* ! TRIAL BY JURY PLACES ! PROP]TY1 LIB]TY1 & RI<TS ( EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL4  

 ,BUT SOME ONE WILL SAY1 IF !SE >E ! PR9CIPLES ( ! TRIAL BY JURY1 !N IT IS PLA9 ?AT JU/ICE MU/ (T5 FAIL TO BE DONE4 ,ADMITT+1 = ! SAKE ( ! >GUM5T1 ?AT ?IS MAY BE TRUE1 ! COMP5SATION = IT IS1 ?AT POSITIVE 9JU/ICE WILL ALSO (T5 FAIL TO BE DONE2 :]EAS O!RWISE IT W\LD BE DONE FREQU5TLY4 ,! V]Y PRECAUTIONS US$ TO PREV5T 9JU/ICE BE+ DONE1 MAY (T5 HAVE ! EFFECT TO PREV5T JU/ICE BE+ DONE4 ,BUT >E WE1 !RE=E1 TO TAKE NO PRECAUTIONS AGA9/ 9JU/ICE8 ,BY NO MEANS1 ALL WILL AGREE4 ,! QUE/ION !N >ISE --- ,DOES ! TRIAL BY JURY1 AS H]E EXPLA9$1 9VOLVE SU* EXTREME & UNNECESS>Y PRECAUTIONS AGA9/ 9JU/ICE1 AS TO 9T]POSE UNNECESS>Y OB/ACLES TO ! DO+ ( JU/ICE8 ,M5 ( DIFF]5T M9DS MAY V]Y LIKELY ANSW] ?IS QUE/ION DIFF]5TLY1 ACCORD+ AS !Y HAVE MORE OR LESS CONFID5CE 9 ! WISDOM & JU/ICE ( LEGISLATORS1 ! 9TEGRITY & 9DEP5D5CE ( JUDGES1 & ! 9TELLIG5CE ( JURORS4 ,?IS MU*1 H[EV]1 MAY BE SAID 9 FAVOR ( !SE PRECAUTIONS1 VIZ41 ?AT ! HI/ORY ( ! PA/1 AS WELL AS \R CON/ANT PRES5T EXP]I5CE1 PROVE H[ MU* 9JU/ICE MAY1 & C]TA9LY WILL1 BE DONE1 SY/EMATICALLY & CONT9UALLY1 = ! WANT ( !SE PRECAUTIONS -- ?AT IS1 :ILE ! LAW IS AU?ORITATIVELY MADE & EXP\ND$ BY LEGISLATORS & JUDGES4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 WE HAVE NO SU* EVID5CE ( H[ MU* JU/ICE MAY FAIL TO BE DONE1 BY REASON ( !SE PRECAUTIONS -- ?AT IS1 BY REASON ( ! LAW BE+ LEFT TO ! JUDGM5TS & CONSCI5CES ( JURORS4 ,WE CAN DET]M9E ! =M] PO9T --- ?AT IS1 H[ MU* POSITIVE 9JU/ICE IS DONE UND] ! FIR/ ( !SE TWO SY/EMS --- BECAUSE ! SY/EM IS 9 FULL OP]ATION2 BUT WE CANNOT DET]M9E H[ MU* JU/ICE W\LD FAIL TO BE DONE UND] ! LATT] SY/EM1 BECAUSE WE HAVE1 9 MOD]N TIMES1 HAD NO EXP]I5CE ( ! USE ( ! PRECAUTIONS !MSELVES4 ,9 ANCI5T TIMES1 :5 !SE PRECAUTIONS W]E NOM9ALLY 9 =CE1 SU* WAS ! TYRANNY ( K+S1 & SU* ! POV]TY1 IGNORANCE1 & ! 9ABILITY ( CONC]T & RESI/ANCE1 ON ! P>T ( ! PEOPLE1 ?AT ! SY/EM HAD NO FULL OR FAIR OP]ATION4 ,IT1 NEV]!LESS1 UND] ALL !SE DISADVANTAGES1 IMPRESS$ ITSELF UPON ! UND]/&+S1 & EMB$D$ ITSELF 9 ! HE>TS1 ( ! PEOPLE1 SO AS NO O!R SY/EM ( CIVIL LIB]TY HAS EV] DONE4  

 ,BUT ?IS VIEW ( ! TWO SY/EMS COMP>ES ONLY ! 9JU/ICE DONE1 & ! JU/ICE OMITT$ TO BE DONE1 9 ! 9DIVIDUAL CASES ADJUDG$1 )\T LOOK+ BEYOND !M4 ,& SOME P]SONS MI<T1 ON FIR/ ?\<T1 >GUE ?AT1 IF JU/ICE FAIL$ ( BE+ DONE UND] ! ONE SY/EM1 (T5] ?AN POSITIVE 9JU/ICE W]E DONE UND] ! O!R1 ! BALANCE WAS 9 FAVOR ( ! LATT] SY/EM4 ,BUT SU* A WEI<+ ( ! TWO SY/EMS AGA9/ EA* O!R GIVES NO TRUE IDEA ( !IR COMP>ATIVE M]ITS OR DEM]ITS2 =1 POSSIBLY1 9 ?IS VIEW ALONE1 ! BALANCE W\LD NOT BE V]Y GREAT 9 FAVOR ( EI!R4 ,TO COMP>E1 OR RA!R TO CONTRA/1 ! TWO1 WE MU/ CONSID] ?AT1 UND] ! JURY SY/EM1 ! FAILURES TO DO JU/ICE W\LD BE ONLY R>E & EXCEPTIONAL CASES2 & W\LD BE [+ EI!R TO ! 9TR9SIC DIFFICULTY ( ! QUE/IONS1 OR TO ! FACT ?AT ! P>TIES HAD TRANSACT$ !IR BUS9ESS 9 A MANN] UN9TELLIGIBLE TO ! JURY1 & ! EFFECTS W\LD BE CONF9$ TO ! 9DIVIDUAL OR 9DIVIDUALS 9T]E/$ 9 ! P>TICUL> SUITS4 ,NO P]MAN5T LAW W\LD BE E/ABLI%$ !REBY DE/RUCTIVE ( ! RI<TS ( ! PEOPLE 9 O!R LIKE CASES4 ,& ! PEOPLE AT L>GE W\LD CONT9UE TO 5JOY ALL !IR NATURAL RI<TS AS BE=E4 ,BUT UND] ! O!R SY/EM1 :5EV] AN UNJU/ LAW IS 5ACT$ BY ! LEGISLATURE1 & ! JUDGE IMPOSES IT UPON ! JURY AS AU?ORITATIVE1 & !Y GIVE A JUDGM5T 9 ACCORDANCE !RE)1 ! AU?ORITY ( ! LAW IS !REBY E/ABLI%$1 & ! :OLE PEOPLE >E ?US BR\<T UND] ! YOKE ( ?AT LAW2 BECAUSE !Y !N UND]/& ?AT ! LAW WILL BE 5=C$ AGA9/ !M 9 FUTURE1 IF !Y PRESUME TO EX]CISE !IR RI<TS1 OR REFUSE TO COMPLY ) ! EXACTIONS ( ! LAW4 ,9 ?IS MANN] ALL UNJU/ LAWS >E E/ABLI%$1 & MADE OP]AHVE AGA9/ ! RI<TS ( ! PEOPLE4  

 ,! DIFF]5CE1 !N1 BETWE5 ! TWO SY/EMS IS ?IS3 ,UND] ! ONE SY/EM1 A JURY1 AT DI/ANT 9T]VALS1 W\LD 7NOT 5=CE ANY POSITIVE 9JU/ICE1 BUT ONLY7 FAIL ( 5=C+ JU/ICE1 9 A D>K & DIFFICULT CASE1 OR 9 CONSEQU5CE ( ! P>TIES NOT HAV+ TRANSACT$ !IR BUS9ESS 9 A MANN] 9TELLIGIBLE TO A JURY2 & ! PLA9TIFF W\LD ?US FAIL ( OBTA9+ :AT WAS RI<TFULLY DUE HIM4 ,& !RE ! MATT] W\LD 5D1 = EVIL1 ?\< NOT = GOOD2 = !NCE=? P>TIES1 W>N$ ( ! DANG] ( LOS+ !IR RI<TS1 W\LD BE C>EFUL TO TRANSACT !IR BUS9ESS 9 A MORE CLE> & 9TELLIGIBLE MANN]4 ,UND] ! O!R SY/EM --- ! SY/EM ( LEGISLATIVE & JUDICIAL AU?ORITY --- POSITIVE 9JU/ICE IS NOT ONLY DONE 9 EV]Y SUIT >IS+ UND] UNJU/ LAWS1 --- ?AT IS1 M5'S PROP]TY1 LIB]TY1 OR LIVES >E NOT ONLY UNJU/LY TAK5 ON ?OSE P>TICUL> JUDGM5TS1 --- BUT ! RI<TS ( ! :OLE PEOPLE >E /RUCK D[N BY ! AU?ORITY ( ! LAWS ?US 5=C$1 & A WIDE-SWEEP+ TYRANNY AT ONCE PUT 9 OP]ATION4  

 ,BUT !RE IS ANO!R AMPLE & CONCLUSIVE ANSW] TO ! >GUM5T ?AT JU/ICE W\LD (T5 FAIL TO BE DONE1 IF JURORS W]E ALL[$ TO BE GOV]N$ BY !IR [N CONSCI5CES1 9/EAD ( ! DIRECTION ( ! JU/ICES1 9 MATT]S ( LAW4 ,?AT ANSW] IS ?IS3  

 ,LEGITIMATE GOV]NM5T CAN BE =M$ ONLY BY ! VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION ( ALL :O CONTRIBUTE TO ITS SUPPORT4 ,AS A VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION1 IT CAN HAVE = ITS OBJECTS ONLY ?OSE ?+S 9 :I* ! MEMB]S ( ! ASSOCIATION >E ALL AGRE$4 ,IF1 !RE=E1 !RE BE ANY JU/ICE1 9 REG>D TO :I* ALL ! P>TIES TO ! GOV]NM5T >E NOT AGRE$1 ! OBJECTS ( ! ASSOCIATION DO NOT EXT5D TO IT4#g#a  

 ,IF ANY ( ! MEMB]S WI% MORE ?AN ?IS1 -- IF !Y CLAIM TO HAVE ACQUIR$ A MORE EXT5D$ KN[L$GE ( JU/ICE ?AN IS COMMON TO ALL1 & WI% TO HAVE !IR PRET5D$ DISCOV]IES C>RI$ 9TO EFFECT1 9 REF]5CE TO !MSELVES1 -- !Y MU/ EI!R =M A SEP>ATE ASSOCIATION = ?AT PURPOSE1 OR BE CONT5T TO WAIT UNTIL !Y CAN MAKE !IR VIEWS 9TELLIGIBLE TO ! PEOPLE AT L>GE4 ,!Y CANNOT CLAIM OR EXPECT ?AT ! :OLE PEOPLE %ALL PRACTICE ! FOLLY ( TAK+ ON TRU/ !IR PRET5D$ SUP]IOR KN[L$GE1 & ( COMMITT+ BL9DLY 9TO !IR H&S ALL !IR [N 9T]E/S1 LIB]TIES1 & RI<TS1 TO BE DISPOS$ ( ON PR9CIPLES1 ! JU/NESS ( :I* ! PEOPLE !MSELVES CANNOT COMPREH5D4  

 ,A GOV]NM5T ( ! :OLE1 !RE=E1 MU/ NECESS>ILY CONF9E ITSELF TO ! ADM9I/RATION ( SU* PR9CIPLES ( LAW AS ALL ! PEOPLE1 :O CONTRIBUTE TO ! SUPPORT ( ! GOV]NM5T1 CAN COMPREH5D & SEE ! JU/ICE (4 ,& IT CAN BE CONF9$ )9 ?OSE LIMITS ONLY BY ALL[+ ! JURORS1 :O REPRES5T ALL ! P>TIES TO ! COMPACT1 TO JUDGE ( ! LAW1 & ! JU/ICE ( ! LAW1 9 ALL CASES :ATSOEV]4 ,& IF ANY JU/ICE BE LEFT UNDONE1 UND] !SE CIRCUM/ANCES1 IT IS A JU/ICE = :I* ! NATURE ( ! ASSOCIATION DOES NOT PROVIDE1 :I* ! ASSOCIATION DOES NOT UND]TAKE TO DO1 & :I*1 AS AN ASSOCIATION1 IT IS UND] NO OBLIGATION TO DO4  

 ,! PEOPLE AT L>GE1 ! UNLE>N$ & COMMON PEOPLE1 HAVE C]TA9LY AN 9DISPUTABLE RI<T TO ASSOCIATE = ! E/ABLI%M5T & MA9T5ANCE ( SU* A GOV]NM5T AS !Y !MSELVES SEE ! JU/ICE (1 & FEEL ! NE$ (1 = ! PROMOTION ( !IR [N 9T]E/S1 & ! SAFETY ( !IR [N RI<TS1 )\T AT ! SAME TIME SURR5D]+ ALL !IR PROP]TY1 LIB]TY1 & RI<TS 9TO ! H&S ( M51 :O1 UND] ! PRET5SE ( A SUP]IOR & 9COMPREH5SIBLE KN[L$GE ( JU/ICE1 MAY DISPOSE ( SU* PROP]TY1 LIB]TIES1 & RI<TS1 9 A MANN] TO SUIT !IR [N SELFI% & DI%ONE/ PURPOSES4  

 ,IF A GOV]NM5T W]E TO BE E/ABLI%$ & SUPPORT$ SOLELY BY ?AT PORTION ( ! PEOPLE :O LAY CLAIM TO SUP]IOR KN[L$GE1 !RE W\LD BE SOME CONSI/5CY 9 !IR SAY+ ?AT ! COMMON PEOPLE %\LD NOT BE RECEIV$ AS JURORS1 ) P[] TO JUDGE ( ! JU/ICE ( ! LAWS4 ,BUT SO LONG AS ! :OLE PEOPLE 7OR ALL ! MALE ADULTS7 >E PRESUM$ TO BE VOLUNT>Y P>TIES TO ! GOV]NM5T1 & VOLUNT>Y CONTRIBUTORS TO IT SUPPORT1 !RE IS NO CONSI/5CY 9 REFUS+ TO ANY ONE ( !M MORE ?AN TO ANO!R ! RI<T TO SIT AS JUROR1 ) FULL P[] TO DECIDE = HIMSELF :E!R ANY LAW ?AT IS PROPOS$ TO BE 5=C$ 9 ANY P>TICUL> CASE1 BE )9 ! OBJECTS ( ! ASSOCIATION4  

 ,! CONCLUSION1 !RE=E1 IS1 ?AT1 9 A GOV]NM5T =M$ BY VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION1 OR ON ! !ORY ( VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION1 & VOLUNT>Y SUPPORT1 7AS ALL ! ,NOR? ,AM]ICAN GOV]NM5TS >E17 NO LAW CAN RI<TFULLY BE 5=C$ BY ! ASSOCIATION 9 ITS CORPORATE CAPACITY1 AGA9/ ! GOODS1 RI<TS1 OR P]SON ( ANY 9DIVIDUAL1 EXCEPT IT BE SU* AS ALL ! MEMB]S ( ! ASSOCIATION AGREE ?AT IT MAY 5=CE4 ,TO 5=CE ANY O!R LAW1 TO ! EXT5T ( TAK+ A MAN'S GOODS1 RI<TS1 OR P]SON1 W\LD BE MAK+ SOME ( ! P>TIES TO ! ASSOCIATION ACCOMPLICES 9 :AT !Y REG>D AS ACTS ( 9JU/ICE4 ,IT W\LD ALSO BE MAK+ !M CONS5T TO :AT !Y REG>D AS ! DE/RUCTION ( !IR [N RI<TS4 ,!SE >E ?+S :I* NO LEGITIMATE SY/EM OR !ORY ( GOV]NM5T CAN REQUIRE ( ANY ( ! P>TIES TO IT4  

 ,! MODE ADOPT$1 BY ! TRIAL BY JURY1 = ASC]TA9+ :E!R ALL ! P>TIES TO ! GOV]NM5T DO APPROVE ( A P>TICUL> LAW1 IS TO TAKE TWELVE M5 AT R&OM FROM ! :OLE PEOPLE1 & ACCEPT !IR UNANIM\S DECISION AS REPRES5T+ ! OP9IONS ( ! :OLE4 ,EV5 ?IS MODE IS NOT !ORETICALLY ACCURATE2 = !ORETICAL ACCURACY W\LD REQUIRE ?AT EV]Y MAN1 :O WAS A P>TY TO ! GOV]NM5T1 %\LD 9DIVIDUALLY GIVE HIS CONS5T TO ! 5=CEM5T ( EV]Y LAW 9 EV]Y SEP>ATE CASE4 ,BUT SU* A ?+ W\LD BE IMPOSSIBLE 9 PRACTICE4 ,! CONS5T ( TWELVE M5 IS !RE=E TAK5 9/EAD2 )-! PRIVILEGE ( APPEAL1 & 79 CASE ( ]ROR F\ND BY ! APPEAL C\RT7 A NEW TRIAL1 TO GU>D AGA9/ POSSIBLE MI/AKES4 ,?IS SY/EM1 IT IS ASSUM$1 WILL ASC]TA9 ! S5SE ( ! :OLE PEOPLE -- 0! C\NTRY0 ------- ) SUFFICI5T ACCURACY = ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES1 & ) AS MU* ACCURACY AS IS PRACTICABLE )\T TOO GREAT 9CONV5I5CE & EXP5SE4  

 #e4 ,ANO!R OBJECTION ?AT WILL P]HAPS BE MADE TO ALL[+ JURORS TO JUDGE ( ! LAW1 & ! JU/ICE ( ! LAW1 IS1 ?AT ! LAW W\LD BE UNC]TA94  

 ,IF1 BY ?IS OBJECTION1 IT BE MEANT ?AT ! LAW W\LD BE UNC]TA9 TO ! M9DS ( ! PEOPLE AT L>GE1 SO ?AT !Y W\LD NOT KN[ :AT ! JURIES W\LD SANCTION & :AT CONDEMN1 & W\LD NOT !RE=E KN[ PRACTICALLY :AT !IR [N RI<TS & LIB]TIES W]E UND] ! LAW1 ! OBJECTION IS ?OR\<LY BASELESS & FALSE4 ,NO SY/EM ( LAW ?AT WAS EV] DEVIS$ C\LD BE SO 5TIRELY 9TELLIGIBLE & C]TA9 TO ! M9DS ( ! PEOPLE AT L>GE AS ?IS4 ,COMP>$ ) IT1 ! COMPLICAT$ SY/EMS ( LAW ?AT >E COMP\ND$ ( ! LAW ( NATURE1 ( CON/ITUTIONAL GRANTS1 ( 9NUM]ABLE & 9CESSANTLY *ANG+ LEGISLATIVE 5ACTM5TS1 & ( C\NTLESS & CONTRADICTORY JUDICIAL DECISIONS1 ) NO UNI=M PR9CIPLE ( REASON OR JU/ICE RUNN+ ?R\< !M1 >E AMONG ! BL9DE/ ( ALL ! MAZES 9 :I* UNSOPHI/ICAT$ M9DS W]E EV] BEWILD]$ & LO/4 ,! UNC]TA9TY ( ! LAW UND] !SE SY/EMS HAS BECOME A PROV]B4 ,SO GREAT IS ?IS UNC]TA9TY1 ?AT NE>LY ALL M51 LE>N$ AS WELL AS UNLE>N$1 %UN ! LAW AS !IR 5EMY1 9/EAD ( RESORT+ TO IT = PROTECTION4 ,!Y USUALLY GO 9TO C\RTS ( JU/ICE1 SO CALL$1 ONLY AS M5 GO 9TO BATTLE ---- :5 !RE IS NO ALT]NATIVE LEFT = !M4 ,& EV5 !N !Y GO 9TO !M AS M5 GO 9TO D>K LABYR9?S & CAV]NS -- ) NO KN[L$GE ( !IR [N1 BUT TRU/+ :OLLY TO !IR GUIDES4 ,YET1 LESS =TUNATE ?AN O!R ADV5TUR]S1 !Y CAN HAVE LITTLE CONFID5CE EV5 9 !IR GUIDES1 = ! REASON ?AT ! GUIDES !MSELVES KN[ LITTLE ( ! MAZES !Y >E ?READ+4 ,!Y KN[ ! MODE & PLACE ( 5TRANCE2 BUT :AT !Y WILL MEET ) ON !IR WAY1 & :AT WILL BE ! TIME1 MODE1 PLACE1 OR CONDITION ( !IR EXIT2 :E!R !Y WILL EM]GE 9TO A PRISON1 OR NOT2 :E!R :OLLY NAK$ & DE/ITUTE1 OR NOT2 :E!R ) !IR REPUTATIONS LEFT TO !M1 OR NOT2 & :E!R 9 TIME OR ET]NITY2 EXP]I5C$ & HONE/ GUIDES R>ELY V5TURE TO PR$ICT4 ,WAS !RE EV] SU* FATUITY AS ?AT ( A NATION ( M5 MADLY B5T ON BUILD+ UP SU* LABYR9?S AS !SE1 = NO O!R PURPOSE ?AN ?AT ( EXPOS+ ALL !IR RI<TS ( REPUTATION1 PROP]TY1 LIB]TY1 & LIFE1 TO ! HAZ>DS ( BE+ LO/ 9 !M1 9/EAD ( BE+ CONT5T TO LIVE 9 ! LI<T ( ! OP5 DAY ( !IR [N UND]/&+S8  

 ,:AT HONE/1 UNSOPHI/ICAT$ MAN EV] F\ND HIMSELF 9VOLV$ 9 A LAWSUIT1 ?AT HE DID NOT DESIRE1 ( ALL ?+S1 ?AT HIS CAUSE MI<T BE JUDG$ ( ON PR9CIPLES ( NATURAL JU/ICE1 AS ?OSE PR9CIPLES W]E UND]/OOD BY PLA9 M5 LIKE HIMSELF8 ,HE W\LD !N FEEL ?AT HE C\LD =ESEE ! RESULT4 ,!SE PLA9 M5 >E ! M5 :O PAY ! TAXES1 & SUPPORT ! GOV]NM5T4 ,:Y %\LD !Y NOT HAVE SU* AN ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE AS !Y DESIRE1 & CAN UND]/&8  

 ,IF ! JURORS W]E TO JUDGE ( ! LAW1 & ! JU/ICE ( ! LAW1 !RE W\LD BE SOME?+ LIKE C]TA9TY 9 ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE1 & 9 ! POPUL> KN[L$GE ( ! LAW1 & M5 W\LD GOV]N !MSELVES ACCORD+LY4 ,!RE W\LD BE SOME?+ LIKE C]TA9TY1 BECAUSE EV]Y MAN HAS HIMSELF SOME?+ LIKE DEF9ITE & CLE> OP9IONS1 & ALSO KN[S SOME?+ ( ! OP9IONS ( HIS NEI<BORS1 ON MATT]S ( JU/ICE4 ,& HE W\LD KN[ ?AT NO /ATUTE1 UNLESS IT W]E SO CLE>LY JU/ AS TO COMM& ! UNANIM\S ASS5T ( TWELVE M51 :O %\LD BE TAK5 AT R&OM FROM ! :OLE COMMUNITY1 C\LD BE 5=C$ SO AS TO TAKE FROM HIM HIS REPUTATION1 PROP]TY1 LIB]TY1 OR LIFE4 ,:AT GREAT] C]TA9TY CAN M5 REQUIRE OR NE$1 AS TO ! LAWS UND] :I* !Y >E TO LIVE8 ,IF A /ATUTE W]E 5ACT$ BY A LEGISLATURE1 A MAN1 9 ORD] TO KN[ :AT WAS ITS TRUE 9T]PRETATION1 :E!R IT W]E CON/ITUTIONAL1 & :E!R IT W\LD BE 5=C$1 W\LD NOT BE UND] ! NECESSITY ( WAIT+ = YE>S UNTIL SOME SUIT HAD >IS5 & BE5 C>RI$ ?R\< ALL ! /AGES ( JUDICIAL PROCE$+1 TO A F9AL DECISION4 ,HE W\LD NE$ ONLY TO USE HIS [N REASON AS TO ITS MEAN+ & ITS JU/ICE1 & !N TALK ) HIS NEI<BORS ON ! SAME PO9TS4 ,UNLESS HE F\ND !M NE>LY UNANIM\S 9 !IR 9T]PRETATION & APPROBATION ( IT1 HE W\LD CONCLUDE ?AT JURIES W\LD NOT UNITE 9 5=C+ IT1 & ?AT IT W\LD CONSEQU5TLY BE A DEAD LETT]4 ,& HE W\LD BE SAFE 9 COM+ TO ?IS CONCLUSION4  

 ,!RE W\LD BE SOME?+ LIKE C]TA9TY 9 ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE1 & 9 ! POPUL> KN[L$GE ( ! LAW1 = ! FUR!R REASON ?AT !RE W\LD BE LITTLE LEGISLATION1 & M5'S RI<TS W\LD BE LEFT TO /& ALMO/ SOLELY UPON ! LAW ( NATURE1 OR :AT WAS ONCE CALL$ 9 ,5GL& 0! COMMON LAW10 7BE=E SO MU* LEGISLATION & USURPATION HAD BECOME 9CORPORAT$ 9TO ! COMMON LAW17 9 O!R WORDS1 UPON ! PR9CIPLES ( NATURAL JU/ICE4 ,( ! C]TA9TY ( ?IS LAW ( NATURE1 OR ! ANCI5T ,5GLI% COMMON LAW1 ,I MAY BE EXCUS$ = REPEAT+ H]E :AT1 ,I HAVE SAID ON ANO!R OCCASION4  

 0,NATURAL LAW1 SO F> FROM BE+ UNC]TA91 :5 COMP>$ ) /ATUTORY & CON/ITUTIONAL LAW1 IS ! ONLY ?+ ?AT GIVES ANY C]TA9TY AT ALL TO A V]Y L>GE PORTION ( \R /ATUTORY & CON/ITUTIONAL LAW4 ,! REASON IS ?IS4 ,! WORDS 9 :I* /ATUTES & CON/ITUTIONS >E WRITT5 >E SUSCEPTIBLE ( SO MANY DIFF]5T MEAN+S1 MEAN+S WIDELY DIFF]5T FROM1 (T5 DIRECTLY OPPOSITE TO1 EA* O!R1 9 !IR BE>+ UPON M5'S RI<TS1 ?AT1 UNLESS !RE W]E SOME RULE ( 9T]PRETATION = DET]M9+ :I* ( !SE V>I\S & OPPOSITE MEAN+S >E ! TRUE ONES1 !RE C\LD BE NO C]TA9TY AT ALL AS TO ! MEAN+ ( ! /ATUTES & CON/ITUTIONS !MSELVES4 ,JUDGES C\LD MAKE ALMO/ ANY?+ !Y %\LD PLEASE \T ( !M4 ,H5CE ! NECESSITY ( A RULE ( 9T]PRETATION4 ,& ?IS RULE IS1 ?AT ! LANGUAGE ( /ATUTES & CON/ITUTIONS %ALL BE CON/RU$1 AS NE>LY AS POSSIBLE1 CONSI/5TLY ) NATURAL LAW4  

 ,! RULE ASSUMES1 :AT IS TRUE1 ?AT NATURAL LAW IS A ?+ C]TA9 9 ITSELF2 ALSO ?AT IT IS CAPABLE ( BE+ LE>N$4 ,IT ASSUMES1 FUR!RMORE1 ?AT IT ACTUALLY IS UND]/OOD BY ! LEGISLATORS & JUDGES :O MAKE & 9T]PRET ! WRITT5 LAW4 ,( NECESSITY1 !RE=E1 IT ASSUMES FUR!R1 ?AT !Y 7! LEGISLATORS & JUDGES7 >E 9COMPET5T TO MAKE & 9T]PRET ! WRITT5 LAW1 UNLESS !Y PREVI\SLY UND]/& ! NATURAL LAW APPLICABLE TO ! SAME SUBJECT4 ,IT ALSO ASSUMES ?AT ! PEOPLE MU/ UND]/& ! NATURAL LAW1 BE=E !Y CAN UND]/& ! WRITT5 LAW4  

 ,IT IS A PR9CIPLE P]FECTLY FAMILI> TO LAWY]S1 & ONE ?AT MU/ BE P]FECTLY OBVI\S TO EV]Y O!R MAN ?AT WILL REFLECT A MOM5T1 ?AT1 AS A G5]AL RULE1 NO ONE CAN KN[ :AT ! WRITT5 LAW IS1 UNTIL HE KN[S :AT IT \<T TO BE2 ?AT M5 >E LIABLE TO BE CON/ANTLY MISL$ BY ! V>I\S & CONFLICT+ S5SES ( ! SAME WORDS1 UNLESS !Y P]CEIVE ! TRUE LEGAL S5SE 9 :I* ! WORDS \<T TO BE TAK54 ,& ?IS TRUE LEGAL S5SE IS ! S5SE ?AT IS MO/ NE>LY CONSI/5T ) NATURAL LAW ( ANY ?AT ! WORDS CAN BE MADE TO BE>1 CONSI/5TLY ) ! LAWS ( LANGUAGE1 & APPROPRIATELY TO ! SUBJECTS TO :I* !Y >E APPLI$4  

 ,?\< ! WORDS CONTA9 ! LAW1 ! WORDS !MSELVES >E NOT ! LAW4 ,W]E ! WORDS !MSELVES ! LAW1 EA* S+LE WRITT5 LAW W\LD BE LIABLE TO EMBRACE MANY DIFF]5T LAWS1 TO WIT1 AS MANY DIFF]5T LAWS AS !RE W]E DIFF]5T S5SES1 & DIFF]5T COMB9ATIONS ( S5SES1 9 :I* EA* & ALL ! WORDS W]E CAPABLE ( BE+ TAK54  

 ,TAKE1 = EXAMPLE1 ! ,CON/ITUTION ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4 ,BY ADOPT+ ONE OR ANO!R S5SE ( ! S+LE WORD 0FREE10 ! :OLE 9/RUM5T IS *ANG$4 ,YET ! WORD FREE IS CAPABLE ( SOME T5 OR TW5TY DIFF]5T S5SES4 ,SO ?AT1 BY *ANG+ ! S5SE ( ?AT S+LE WORD1 SOME T5 OR TW5TY DIFF]5T CON/ITUTIONS C\LD BE MADE \T ( ! SAME WRITT5 9/RUM5T4 ,BUT !RE >E1 WE WILL SUPPOSE1 A ?\S& O!R WORDS 9 ! CON/ITUTION1 EA* ( :I* IS CAPABLE ( FROM TWO TO T5 DIFF]5T S5SES4 ,SO ?AT1 BY *ANG+ ! S5SE ( ONLY A S+LE WORD AT A TIME1 SEV]AL ?\S&S ( DIFF]5T CON/ITUTIONS W\LD BE MADE4 ,BUT ?IS IS NOT ALL4 ,V>IATIONS C\LD ALSO BE MADE BY *ANG+ ! S5SES ( TWO OR MORE WORDS AT A TIME1 & !SE V>IATIONS C\LD BE RUN ?R\< ALL ! *ANGES & COMB9ATIONS ( S5SES ?AT !SE ?\S& WORDS >E CAPABLE (4 ,WE SEE1 !N1 ?AT IT IS NO MORE ?AN A LIT]AL TRU?1 ?AT \T ( ?AT S+LE 9/RUM5T1 AS IT N[ /&S1 )\T ALT]+ ! LOCATION ( A S+LE WORD1 MI<T BE =M$1 BY CON/RUCTION & 9T]PRETATION1 MORE DIFF]5T CON/ITUTIONS ?AN FIGURES CAN WELL E/IMATE4  

 ,BUT EA* WRITT5 LAW1 9 ORD] TO BE A LAW1 MU/ BE TAK5 ONLY 9 SOME ONE DEF9ITE & DI/9CT S5SE2 & ?AT DEF9ITE & DI/9CT S5SE MU/ BE SELECT$ FROM ! ALMO/ 9F9ITE V>IETY ( S5SES :I* ITS WORDS >E CAPABLE (4 ,H[ IS ?IS SELECTION TO BE MADE8 ,IT CAN BE ONLY BY ! AID ( ?AT P]CEPTION ( NATURAL LAW1 OR NATURAL JU/ICE1 :I* M5 NATURALLY POSSESS4  

 ,SU*1 !N1 IS ! COMP>ATIVE C]TA9TY ( ! NATURAL & ! WRITT5 LAW4 ,NE>LY ALL ! C]TA9TY !RE IS 9 ! LATT]1 SO F> AS IT RELATES TO PR9CIPLES1 IS BAS$ UPON1 & D]IV$ FROM1 ! /ILL GREAT] C]TA9TY ( ! =M]4 ,9 FACT1 NE>LY ALL ! UNC]TA9TY ( ! LAWS UND] :I* WE LIVE1 -- :I* >E A MIXTURE ( NATURAL & WRITT5 LAWS1 >ISES FROM ! DIFFICULTY ( CON/RU+1 OR1 RA!R1 FROM ! FACILITY ( MISCON/RU+1 ! WRITT5 LAW2 :ILE NATURAL LAW HAS NE>LY OR QUITE ! SAME C]TA9TY AS MA!MATICS4 ,ON ?IS PO9T1 ,SIR ,WILLIAM ,JONES1 ONE ( ! MO/ LE>N$ JUDGES ?AT HAVE EV] LIV$1 LE>N$ 9 ,ASIATIC AS WELL AS ,EUROPEAN LAW1 SAYS1 -- & ! FACT %\LD BE KEPT =EV] 9 M9D1 AS ONE ( ! MO/ IMPORTANT ( ALL TRU?S3 0,IT IS PLEAS+ TO REM>K1 ! SIMIL>ITY1 OR1 RA!R1 ! ID5TITY ( ?OSE CONCLUSIONS :I* PURE1 UNBIAS$ REASON1 9 ALL AGES2 & NATIONS1 SELDOM FAILS TO DRAW1 9 SU* JURIDICAL 9QUIRIES AS >E NOT FETT]$ & MANACL$ BY POSITIVE 9/ITUTIONS40#g#b ,9 %ORT1 ! SIMPLE FACT ?AT ! WRITT5 LAW MU/ BE 9T]PRET$ BY ! NATURAL1 IS1 ( ITSELF1 A SUFFICI5T CONFESSION ( ! SUP]IOR C]TA9TY ( ! LATT]4  

 ,! WRITT5 LAW1 !N1 EV5 :]E IT CAN BE CON/RU$ CONSI/5TLY ) ! NATURAL1 9TRODUCES LABOR & OBSCURITY1 9/EAD ( %UTT+ !M \T4 ,& ?IS MU/ ALWAYS BE ! CASE1 BECAUSE WORDS DO NOT CREATE IDEAS1 BUT ONLY RECALL !M2 & ! SAME WORD MAY RECALL MANY DIFF]5T IDEAS4 ,= ?IS REASON1 NE>LY ALL AB/RACT PR9CIPLES CAN BE SE5 BY ! S+LE M9D MORE CLE>LY ?AN !Y CAN BE EXPRESS$ BY WORDS TO ANO!R4 ,?IS IS [+ TO ! IMP]FECTION ( LANGUAGE1 & ! DIFF]5T S5SES1 MEAN+S1 & %ADES ( MEAN+1 :I* DIFF]5T 9DIVIDUALS ATTA* TO ! SAME WORDS1 9 ! SAME CIRCUM/ANCES4#g#c  

 ,:]E ! WRITT5 LAW CANNOT BE CON/RU$ CONSI/5TLY ) ! NATURAL1 !RE IS NO REASON :Y IT %\LD EV] BE 5ACT$ AT ALL4 ,IT MAY1 9DE$1 BE SUFFICI5TLY PLA9 & C]TA9 TO BE EASILY UND]/OOD2 BUT ITS C]TA9TY & PLA9NESS >E BUT A POOR COMP5SATION = ITS 9JU/ICE4 ,D\BTLESS A LAW =BIDD+ M5 TO DR9K WAT]1 ON PA9 ( DEA?1 MI<T BE MADE SO 9TELLIGIBLE AS TO CUT (F ALL DISCUSSION AS TO ITS MEAN+2 BUT W\LD ! 9TELLIGIBL5ESS ( SU* A LAW BE ANY EQUIVAL5T = ! RI<T TO DR9K WAT]8 ,! PR9CIPLE IS ! SAME 9 REG>D TO ALL UNJU/ LAWS4 ,FEW P]SONS C\LD REASONABLY FEEL COMP5SAT$ = ! >BITR>Y DE/RUCTION ( !IR RI<TS1 BY HAV+ ! ORD] = !IR DE/RUCTION MADE KN[N BE=EH&1 9 T]MS SO DI/9CT & UNEQUIVOCAL AS TO ADMIT ( NEI!R MI/AKE NOR EVASION4 ,YET ?IS IS ALL ! COMP5SATION ?AT SU* LAWS (F]4  

 ,:E!R1 !RE=E1 WRITT5 LAWS CORRESPOND )1 OR DIFF] FROM1 ! NATURAL1 !Y >E TO BE CONDEMN$4 ,9 ! FIR/ CASE1 !Y >E USELESS REPETITIONS1 9TRODUC+ LABOR & OBSCURITY4 ,9 ! LATT] CASE1 !Y >E POSITIVE VIOLATIONS ( M5'S RI<TS4 ,!RE W\LD BE SUB/ANTIALLY ! SAME REASON 9 5ACT+ MA!MATICS BY /ATUTE1 ?AT !RE IS 9 5ACT+ NATURAL LAW4 ,:5EV] ! NATURAL LAW IS SUFFICI5TLY C]TA9 TO ALL M5'S M9DS TO JU/IFY ITS BE+ 5ACT$1 IT IS SUFFICI5TLY C]TA9 TO NE$ NO 5ACTM5T4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 UNTIL IT BE ?US C]TA91 !RE IS DANG] ( DO+ 9JU/ICE BY 5ACT+ IT2 IT %\LD1 !RE=E1 BE LEFT OP5 TO BE DISCUSS$ BY ANYBODY :O MAY BE DISPOS$ TO QUE/ION IT1 & TO BE JUDG$ ( BY ! PROP] TRIBUNAL1 ! JUDICI>Y4#g#d  

 ,IT IS NOT NECESS>Y ?AT LEGISLATORS %\LD 5ACT NATURAL LAW 9 ORD] ?AT IT MAY BE KN[N TO ! PEOPLE1 BECAUSE ?AT W\LD BE PRESUM+ ?AT ! LEGISLATORS ALREADY UND]/& IT BETT] ?AN ! PEOPLE1 -- A FACT ( :I* ,I AM NOT AW>E ?AT !Y HAVE EV] H]ET(ORE GIV5 ANY V]Y SATISFACTORY EVID5CE4 ,! SAME S\RCES ( KN[L$GE ON ! SUBJECT >E OP5 TO ! PEOPLE ?AT >E OP5 TO ! LEGISLATORS1 & ! PEOPLE MU/ BE PRESUM$ TO KN[ IT AS WELL AS !Y4  

 ,! OBJECTIONS MADE TO NATURAL LAW1 ON ! GR\ND ( OBSCURITY1 >E :OLLY UNF\ND$4 ,IT IS TRUE1 IT MU/ BE LE>N$1 LIKE ANY O!R SCI5CE2 BUT IT IS EQUALLY TRUE ?AT IT IS V]Y EASILY LE>N$4 ,AL?\< AS ILLIMITABLE 9 ITS APPLICATIONS AS ! 9F9ITE RELATIONS ( M5 TO EA* O!R1 IT IS1 NEV]!LESS1 MADE UP ( SIMPLE ELEM5T>Y PR9CIPLES1 ( ! TRU? & JU/ICE ( :I* EV]Y ORD9>Y M9D HAS AN ALMO/ 9TUITIVE P]CEPTION4 ,IT IS ! SCI5CE ( JU/ICE1 -- & ALMO/ ALL M5 HAVE ! SAME P]CEPTIONS ( :AT CON/ITUTES JU/ICE1 OR ( :AT JU/ICE REQUIRES1 :5 !Y UND]/& ALIKE ! FACTS FROM :I* !IR 9F]5CES >E TO BE DRAWN4 ,M5 LIV+ 9 CONTACT ) EA* O!R1 & HAV+ 9T]C\RSE TOGE!R1 CANNOT AVOID LE>N+ NATURAL LAW1 TO A V]Y GREAT EXT5T1 EV5 IF !Y W\LD4 ,! DEAL+S ( M5 ) M51 !IR SEP>ATE POSSESSIONS1 & !IR 9DIVIDUAL WANTS1 >E CONT9UALLY =C+ UPON !IR M9DS ! QUE/IONS1 -- ,IS ?IS ACT JU/8 OR IS IT UNJU/8 ,IS ?IS ?+ M9E8 OR IS IT HIS8 ,& !SE >E QUE/IONS ( NATURAL LAW2 QUE/IONS1 :I*1 9 REG>D TO ! GREAT MASS ( CASES1 >E ANSW]$ ALIKE BY ! HUMAN M9D EV]Y:]E4  

 ,*ILDR5 LE>N MANY PR9CIPLES ( NATURAL LAW AT A V]Y E>LY AGE4 ,= EXAMPLE3 !Y LE>N ?AT :5 ONE *ILD HAS PICK$ UP AN APPLE OR A FL[]1 IT IS HIS1 & ?AT HIS ASSOCIATES MU/ NOT TAKE IT FROM HIM AGA9/ HIS WILL4 ,!Y ALSO LE>N ?AT IF HE VOLUNT>ILY EX*ANGE HIS APPLE OR FL[] ) A PLAYMATE1 = SOME O!R >TICLE ( DESIRE1 HE HAS !REBY SURR5D]$ HIS RI<T TO IT1 & MU/ NOT RECLAIM IT4 ,!SE >E FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( NATURAL LAW1 :I* GOV]N MO/ ( ! GREATE/ 9T]E/S ( 9DIVIDUALS & SOCIETY2 YET *ILDR5 LE>N !M E>LI] ?AN !Y LE>N ?AT ?REE & ?REE >E SIX1 OR FIVE & FIVE1 T54 ,TALK ( 5ACT+ NATURAL LAW BY /ATUTE1 ?AT IT MAY BE KN[N6 ,IT W\LD H>DLY BE EXTRAVAGANT TO SAY1 ?AT1 9 N9E CASES 9 T51 M5 LE>N IT BE=E !Y HAVE LE>N$ ! LANGUAGE BY :I* WE DESCRIBE IT4 ,NEV]!LESS1 NUM]\S TREATISES >E WRITT5 ON IT1 AS ON O!R SCI5CES4 ,! DECISIONS ( C\RTS1 CONTA9+ !IR OP9IONS UPON ! ALMO/ 5DLESS V>IETY ( CASES ?AT HAVE COME BE=E !M1 >E REPORT$2 & !SE REPORTS >E COND5S$1 CODIFI$1 & DIGE/$1 SO AS TO GIVE1 9 A SMALL COMPASS1 ! FACTS1 & ! OP9IONS ( ! C\RTS AS TO ! LAW RESULT+ FROM !M4 ,& !SE TREATISES1 CODES1 & DIGE/S >E OP5 TO BE READ ( ALL M54 ,& A MAN HAS ! SAME EXCUSE = BE+ IGNORANT ( >I?METIC1 OR ANY O!R SCI5CE1 ?AT HE HAS = BE+ IGNORANT ( NATURAL LAW4 ,HE CAN LE>N IT AS WELL1 IF HE WILL1 )\T ITS BE+ 5ACT$1 AS HE C\LD IF IT W]E4  

 ,IF \R GOV]NM5TS W\LD BUT !MSELVES ADH]E TO NATURAL LAW1 !RE W\LD BE LITTLE OCCASION TO COMPLA9 ( ! IGNORANCE ( ! PEOPLE 9 REG>D TO IT4 ,! POPUL> IGNORANCE ( LAW IS ATTRIBUTABLE MA9LY TO ! 9NOVATIONS ?AT HAVE BE5 MADE UPON NATURAL LAW BY LEGISLATION2 :]EBY \R SY/EM HAS BECOME AN 9CONGRU\S MIXTURE ( NATURAL & /ATUTE LAW1 ) NO UNI=M PR9CIPLE P]VAD+ IT4 ,TO LE>N SU* A SY/EM1 IF SY/EM IT CAN BE CALL$1 & IF LE>N$ IT CAN BE1 IS A MATT] ( V]Y SIMIL> DIFFICULTY TO :AT IT W\LD BE TO LE>N A SY/EM ( MA!MATICS1 :I* %\LD CONSI/ ( ! MA!MATICS ( NATURE1 9T]SP]S$ ) SU* O!R MA!MATICS AS MI<T BE CREAT$ BY LEGISLATION1 9 VIOLATION ( ALL ! NATURAL PR9CIPLES ( NUMB]S & QUANTITIES4  

 ,BUT :E!R ! DIFFICULTIES ( LE>N+ NATURAL LAW BE GREAT] OR LESS ?AN H]E REPRES5T$1 !Y EXI/ 9 ! NATURE ( ?+S1 & CANNOT BE REMOV$4 ,LEGISLATION1 9/EAD ( REMOV+1 ONLY 9CREASES !M4 ,?IS IT DOES BY 9NOVAT+ UPON NATURAL TRU?S & PR9CIPLES1 & 9TRODUC+ J>GON & CONTRADICTION1 9 ! PLACE ( ORD]1 ANALOGY1 CONSI/5CY1 & UNI=MITY4  

 ,FUR!R ?AN ?IS2 LEGISLATION DOES NOT EV5 PR(ESS TO REMOVE ! OBSCURITY ( NATURAL LAW4 ,?AT IS NO P>T ( ITS OBJECT4 ,IT ONLY PR(ESSES TO SUB/ITUTE SOME?+ >BITR>Y 9 ! PLACE ( NATURAL LAW4 ,LEGISLATORS G5]ALLY HAVE ! S5SE TO SEE ?AT LEGISLATION WILL NOT MAKE NATURAL LAW ANY CLE>] ?AN IT IS4 ,NEI!R IS IT ! OBJECT ( LEGISLATION TO E/ABLI% ! AU?ORITY ( NATURAL LAW4 ,LEGISLATORS HAVE ! S5SE TO SEE ?AT !Y CAN ADD NO?+ TO ! AU?ORITY ( NATURAL LAW1 & ?AT IT WILL /& ON ITS [N AU?ORITY1 UNLESS !Y OV]TURN IT4 ,! :OLE OBJECT ( LEGISLATION1 EXCEPT+ ?AT LEGISLATION :I* M]ELY MAKES REGULATIONS1 & PROVIDES 9/RUM5TALITIES = C>RY+ O!R LAWS 9TO EFFECT1 IS TO OV]TURN NATURAL LAW1 & SUB/ITUTE = IT ! >BITR>Y WILL ( P[]4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! :OLE OBJECT ( IT IS TO DE/ROY M5'S RI<TS4 ,AT LEA/1 SU* IS ITS ONLY EFFECT2 & ITS DESIGNS MU/ BE 9F]R$ FROM ITS EFFECT4 ,TAK+ ALL ! /ATUTES 9 ! C\NTRY1 !RE PROBABLY IS NOT ONE 9 A HUNDR$1 -- EXCEPT ! AUXILI>Y ONES JU/ M5TION$1 -- ?AT DOES NOT VIOLATE NATURAL LAW2 ?AT DOES NOT 9VADE SOME RI<T OR O!R4  

 ,YET ! ADVOCATES ( >BITR>Y LEGISLATION >E CONT9UALLY PRACTIC+ ! FRAUD ( PRET5D+ ?AT UNLESS ! LEGISLATURE MAKE ! LAWS1 ! LAWS WILL NOT BE KN[N4 ,! :OLE OBJECT ( ! FRAUD IS TO SECURE TO ! GOV]NM5T ! AU?ORITY ( MAK+ LAWS ?AT NEV] \<T TO BE KN[N40  

 ,9 ADDITION TO ! AU?ORITY ALREADY CIT$1 ( ,SIR ,WILLIAM ,JONES1 AS TO ! C]TA9TY ( NATURAL LAW1 & ! UNI=MITY ( M5'S OP9IONS 9 REG>D TO IT1 ,I MAY ADD ! FOLL[+3  

 0,!RE IS ?AT GREAT SIMPLICITY & PLA9NESS 9 ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 ?AT ,LORD ,COKE HAS GONE SO F> AS TO ASS]T1 7& ,LORD ,BACON NE>LY SECONDS HIM 9 OBS]V+17 ?AT 'HE NEV] KNEW TWO QUE/IONS >ISE M]ELY UPON COMMON LAW2 BUT ?AT !Y W]E MO/LY [+ TO /ATUTES ILL-P5N$ & OV]LAD5 ) PROVISOS4' 0-- #c ,EUNOMUS1 #a#e#g-#h4  

 ,IF IT /ILL BE SAID ?AT JURIES W\LD DISAGREE1 AS TO :AT WAS NATURAL JU/ICE1 & ?AT ONE JURY W\LD DECIDE ONE WAY1 & ANO!R JURY ANO!R2 ! ANSW] IS1 ?AT SU* A ?+ IS H>DLY CR$IBLE1 AS ?AT TWELVE M51 TAK5 AT R&OM FROM ! PEOPLE AT L>GE1 %\LD UNANIM\SLY DECIDE A QUE/ION ( NATURAL JU/ICE ONE WAY1 & ?AT TWELVE O!R M51 SELECT$ 9 ! SAME MANN]1 %\LD UNANIM\SLY DECIDE ! SAME QUE/ION ! O!R WAY1 UNLESS !Y W]E MISL$ BY ! JU/ICES4 ,IF1 H[EV]1 SU* ?+S %\LD SOMETIMES HAPP51 FROM ANY CAUSE :ATEV]1 ! REM$Y IS BY APPEAL1 & NEW TRIAL4   

,*,A,P,T,] ,V,I4 ,J,U,R,I,E,S ,( ,! ,P,R,E,S,5,T ,D,A,Y ,I,L,L,E,G,A,L 

 ,IT MAY PROBABLY BE SAFELY ASS]T$ ?AT !RE >E1 AT ?IS DAY1 NO LEGAL JURIES1 EI!R 9 ,5GL& OR ,AM]ICA4 ,& IF !RE >E NO LEGAL JURIES1 !RE IS1 ( C\RSE1 NO LEGAL TRIAL1 NOR 0JUDGM5T10 BY JURY4  

 ,9 SAY+ ?AT !RE >E PROBABLY NO LEGAL JURIES1 ,I MEAN ?AT !RE >E PROBABLY NO JURIES APPO9T$ 9 CON=MITY ) ! PR9CIPLES ( ! COMMON LAW4  

 ,! T]M JURY IS A TE*NICAL ONE1 D]IV$ FROM ! COMMON LAW2 & :5 ! ,AM]ICAN CON/ITUTIONS PROVIDE = ! TRIAL BY JURY1 !Y PROVIDE = ! COMMON LAW TRIAL BY JURY2 & NOT M]ELY = ANY TRIAL BY JURY ?AT ! GOV]NM5T ITSELF MAY *ANCE TO 9V5T1 & CALL BY ?AT NAME4 ,IT IS ! ?+1 & NOT M]ELY ! NAME1 ?AT IS GU>ANTI$4 ,ANY LEGISLATION1 !RE=E1 ?AT 9FR+ES ANY ESS5TIAL PR9CIPLE ( ! COMMON LAW1 9 ! SELECTION ( JURORS1 IS UNCON/ITUTIONAL2 & ! JURIES SELECT$ 9 ACCORDANCE ) SU* LEGISLATION >E1 ( C\RSE1 ILLEGAL1 & !IR JUDGM5TS VOID4  

 ,IT WILL ALSO BE %[N1 9 A SUBSEQU5T *APT]1#g#e ?AT S9CE ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ! LEGISLATIVE P[] 9 ,5GL& 7:E!R K+ OR P>LIAM5T7 HAS NEV] HAD ANY CON/ITUTIONAL AU?ORITY TO 9FR+E1 BY LEGISLATION1 ANY ESS5TIAL PR9CIPLE ( ! COMMON LAW 9 ! SELECTION ( JURORS4 ,ALL SU* LEGISLATION IS AS MU* UNCON/ITUTIONAL & VOID1 AS ?\< IT ABOLI%$ ! TRIAL BY JURY ALTOGE!R4 ,9 REALITY IT DOES ABOLI% IT4  

 ,:AT1 !N1 >E ! ESS5TIAL PR9CIPLES ( ! COMMON LAW1 CONTROLL+ ! SELECTION ( JURORS8  

 ,!Y >E TWO4  

 #a4 ,?AT ALL ! FREEM51 OR ADULT MALE MEMB]S ( ! /ATE1 %ALL BE ELIGIBLE AS JURORS4#g#f  

 ,ANY LEGISLATION :I* REQUIRES ! SELECTION ( JURORS TO BE MADE FROM A LESS NUMB] ( FREEM5 ?AN ! :OLE1 MAKES ! JURY SELECT$ AN ILLEGAL ONE4  

 ,IF A P>T ONLY ( ! FREEM51 OR MEMB]S ( ! /ATE1 >E ELIGIBLE AS JURORS1 ! JURY NO LONG] REPRES5T 0! C\NTRY10 BUT ONLY A P>T ( 0! C\NTRY40  

 ,IF ! SELECTION ( JURORS CAN BE RE/RICT$ TO ANY LESS NUMB] ( FREEM5 ?AN ! :OLE1 IT CAN BE RE/RICT$ TO A V]Y SMALL PROPORTION ( ! :OLE2 & ?US ! GOV]NM5T BE TAK5 \T ( ! H&S ( 0 ! C\NTRY10 OR ! :OLE PEOPLE1 & BE ?R[N 9TO ! H&S ( A FEW4  

 ,?AT1 AT COMMON LAW1 ! :OLE BODY ( FREEM5 W]E ELIGIBLE AS JURORS1 IS SUFFICI5TLY PROV$1 NOT ONLY BY ! REASON ( ! ?+1 BUT BY ! FOLL[+ EVID5CE3  

 #a4 ,EV]YBODY MU/ BE PRESUM$ ELIGIBLE1 UNTIL ! CONTR>Y BE %[N4 ,WE HAVE NO EVID5CE1 ?AT ,I AM AW>E (1 ( A PRIOR DATE TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 TO DISPROVE ?AT ALL FREEM5 W]E ELIGIBLE AS JURORS1 UNLESS IT BE ! LAW ( ,E!LR$1 :I* REQUIRES ?AT !Y BE ELD]LY#g#g M54 ,S9CE NO SPECIFIC AGE IS GIV51 IT IS PROBABLE1 ,I ?9K1 ?AT ?IS /ATUTE MEANT NO?+ MORE ?AN ?AT !Y BE MORE ?AN TW5TY-ONE YE>S OLD4 ,IF IT MEANT ANY?+ MORE1 IT WAS PROBABLY CONTR>Y TO ! COMMON LAW1 & !RE=E VOID4  

 #b4 ,S9CE ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 WE HAVE EVID5CE %[+ QUITE CONCLUSIVELY ?AT ALL FREEM51 ABOVE ! AGE ( TW5TY-ONE YE>S1 W]E ELIGIBLE AS JURORS4  

 ,! ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES1 7WRITT5 )9 A C5TURY AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA17 9 ! SECTION 0,( ,JUDGES0 -- ?AT IS1 JURORS -- SAYS3  

 0,ALL ?OSE :O >E NOT =BIDD5 BY LAW MAY BE JUDGES 7JURORS74 ,TO WOM5 IT IS =BIDD5 BY LAW ?AT !Y BE JUDGES2 & !NCE IT IS1 ?AT FEME COV]TS >E EXEMPT$ TO DO SUIT 9 9F]IOR C\RTS4 ,ON ! O!R P>T1 A VILLE9 CANNOT BE A JUDGE1 BY REASON ( ! TWO E/ATES1 :I* >E REPUGNANTS2 P]SONS ATTA9T$ ( FALSE JUDGM5TS CANNOT BE JUDGES1 NOR 9FANTS1 NOR ANY UND] ! AGE ( TW5TY-ONE YE>S1 NOR 9FECT$ P]SONS1 NOR IDIOTS1 NOR MADM51 NOR DEAF1 NOR DUMB1 NOR P>TIES 9 ! PLEAS1 NOR M5 EXCOMMUNICAT$ BY ! BI%OP1 NOR CRIM9AL P]SONS4 "9 "9 ,& ?OSE :O >E NOT ( ! ,*RI/IAN FAI? CANNOT BE JUDGES1 NOR ?OSE :O >E \T ( ! K+'S ALLEGIANCE40 -- ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES1 #e#i-#f4  

 ,9 ! SECTION 0,( ,9F]IOR ,C\RTS10 IT IS SAID3  

 0,FROM ! FIR/ ASSEMBLIES CAME CONSI/ORIES1 :I* WE N[ CALL C\RTS1 & ?AT 9 DIV]SE PLACES1 & 9 DIV]SE MANN]S3 :]E( ! %]IFFS HELD ONE MON?LY1 OR EV]Y FIVE WEEKS ACCORD+ TO ! GREATNESS OR L>G5ESS ( ! %IRES4 ,& !SE C\RTS >E CALL$ C\NTY C\RTS1 :]E ! JUDGM5T IS BY ! SUITORS1 IF !RE BE NO WRIT1 & IS BY W>RANT ( JURISDICTION ORD9>Y4 ,! O!R 9F]IOR C\RTS >E ! C\RTS ( EV]Y LORD ( ! FEE1 TO ! LIK5ESS ( ! HUNDR$ C\RTS4 "9 "9 ,!RE >E O!R 9F]IOR C\RTS :I* ! BAILIFFS HOLD 9 EV]Y HUNDR$1 FROM ?REE WEEKS TO ?REE WEEKS1 BY ! SUITORS ( ! FREEHOLD]S ( ! HUNDR$4 ,ALL ! T5ANTS )9 ! FEES >E B\ND5 TO DO !IR SUIT !RE1 & ?AT NOT = ! S]VICE ( !IR P]SONS1 BUT = ! S]VICE ( !IR FEES4 ,BUT WOM51 9FANTS )9 ! AGE ( TW5TY-ONE YE>S1 DEAF1 DUMB1 IDIOTS1 ?OSE :O >E 9DICT$ OR APPEAL$ ( MORTAL FELONY1 BE=E !Y BE ACQUITT$1 DISEAS$ P]SONS1 & EXCOMMUNICAT$ P]SONS >E EXEMPT$ FROM DO+ SUIT40 -- ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES1 #e-#e#a4  

 ,9 ! SECTION 0,( ! ,%]IFF'S ,TURNS10 IT IS SAID3  

 0,! %]IFF'S BY ANCI5T ORD9ANCES HOLD SEV]AL MEET+S TWICE 9 ! YE> 9 EV]Y HUNDR$2 :]E ALL ! FREEHOLD]S )9 ! HUNDR$ >E B\ND TO APPE> = ! S]VICE ( !IR FEES40 -- ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES1 #e4  

 ,! FOLL[+ /ATUTE WAS PASS$ BY ,$W>D ,I41 SEV5TY YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA3  

 0,=ASMU* ALSO AS %]IFFS1 HUNDR$]S1 & BAILIFFS ( LIB]TIES1 HAVE US$ TO GRIEVE ?OSE :I* BE PLAC$ UND] !M1 PUTT+ 9 ASSIZES & JURIES M5 DISEAS$ & DECREPIT1 & HAV+ CONT9UAL OR SUDD5 DISEASE2 & M5 ALSO ?AT DWELL$ NOT 9 ! C\NTRY AT ! TIME ( ! SUMMONS2 & SUMMON ALSO AN UNREASONABLE NUMB] ( JURORS1 = TO EXTORT MONEY FROM SOME ( !M1 = LETT+ !M GO 9 PEACE1 & SO ! ASSIZES & JURIES PASS MANY TIMES BY POOR M51 & ! RI* ABIDE AT HOME BY REASON ( !IR BRIBES2 IT IS ORDA9$ ?AT FROM H5CE=? 9 ONE ASSIZE NO MORE %ALL BE SUMMON$ ?AN F\R & TW5TY2 & OLD M5 ABOVE ?REE SCORE & T5 YE>S1 BE+ CONT9UALLY SICK1 OR BE+ DISEAS$ AT ! TIME ( ! SUMMONS1 OR NOT DWELL+ 9 ?AT C\NTRY1 %ALL NOT BE PUT 9 JURIES ( PETIT ASSIZES40 ,/4 #ac ,$W>D ,I41 *4 #c#h4 7#a#b#h#e47  

 ,AL?\< ?IS COMM& TO ! %]IFF'S & O!R (FIC]S1 NOT TO SUMMON1 AS JURORS1 ?OSE :O1 FROM AGE & DISEASE1 W]E PHYSICALLY 9CAPABLE ( P]=M+ ! DUTIES1 MAY NOT1 ( ITSELF1 AF=D ANY ABSOLUTE OR LEGAL IMPLICATION1 BY :I* WE CAN DET]M9E PRECISELY :O W]E1 & :O W]E NOT1 ELIGIBLE AS JURORS AT COMMON LAW1 YET ! EXCEPTIONS H]E MADE NEV]!LESS C>RY A SEEM+ CONFESSION ) !M ?AT1 AT COMMON LAW1 ALL MALE ADULTS W]E ELIGIBLE AS JURORS4  

 ,BUT ! MA9 PR9CIPLE ( ! FEUDAL SY/EM ITSELF1 %[S ?AT ALL ! FULL & FREE ADULT MALE MEMB]S ( ! /ATE -- ?AT IS1 ALL :O W]E FREE BORN1 & HAD NOT LO/ !IR CIVIL RI<TS BY CRIME1 OR O!RWISE -- MU/1 AT COMMON LAW1 HAVE BE5 ELIGIBLE AS JURORS4 ,:AT WAS ?AT PR9CIPLE8 ,IT WAS1 ?AT ! /ATE RE/$ = SUPPORT UPON ! L&1 & NOT UPON TAXATION LEVI$ UPON ! PEOPLE P]SONALLY4 ,! L&S ( ! C\NTRY W]E CONSID]$ ! PROP]TY ( ! /ATE1 & W]E MADE TO SUPPORT ! /ATE 9 ?IS WAY4 ,A PORTION ( !M WAS SET AP>T TO ! K+1 ! R5TS ( :I* W5T TO PAY HIS P]SONAL & (FICIAL EXP5DITURES1 NOT 9CLUD+ ! MA9T5ANCE ( >MIES1 OR ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE4 ,W> & ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE W]E PROVID$ = 9 ! FOLL[+ MANN]4 ,! FREEM51 OR ! FREE-BORN ADULT MALE MEMB]S ( ! /ATE -- :O HAD NOT =FEIT$ !IR POLITICAL RI<TS -- W]E 5TITL$ TO L& ( RI<T1 7UNTIL ALL ! L& WAS TAK5 UP17 ON CONDITION ( !IR R5D]+ C]TA9 MILIT>Y & CIVIL S]VICES1 TO ! /ATE4 ,! MILIT>Y S]VICES CONSI/$ 9 S]V+ P]SONALLY AS SOLDI]S1 OR CONTRIBUT+ AN EQUIVAL5T 9 HORSES1 PROVISIONS1 OR O!R MILIT>Y SUPPLIES4 ,! CIVIL S]VICES CONSI/$1 AMONG O!R ?+S1 9 S]V+ AS JURORS 7&1 IT W\LD APPE>1 AS WITNESSES7 9 ! C\RTS ( JU/ICE4 ,= !SE S]VICES !Y RECEIV$ NO COMP5SATION O!R ?AN ! USE ( !IR L&S4 ,9 ?IS WAY ! /ATE WAS SU/A9$2 & ! K+ HAD NO P[] TO LEVY ADDITIONAL BURD5S OR TAXES UPON ! PEOPLE4 ,! P]SONS HOLD+ L&S ON !SE T]MS W]E CALL$ FREEHOLD]S -- 9 LAT] TIMES FREEM5 -- MEAN+ FREE & FULL MEMB]S ( ! /ATE4  

 ,N[1 AS ! PR9CIPLE ( ! SY/EM WAS ?AT ! FREEHOLD]S HELD !IR L&S ( ! /ATE1 ON ! CONDITION ( R5D]+ !SE MILIT>Y & CIVIL S]VICES AS R5TS = !IR L&S1 ! PR9CIPLE IMPLIES ?AT ALL ! FREEHOLD]S W]E LIABLE TO !SE R5TS1 & W]E !RE=E ELIGIBLE AS JURORS4 ,9DE$1 ,I DO NOT KN[ ?AT IT HAS EV] BE5 D\BT$ ?AT1 AT COMMON LAW1 ALL ! FREEHOLD]S W]E ELIGIBLE AS JURORS4 ,IF ALL HAD NOT BE5 ELIGIBLE1 WE UNQUE/IONABLY %\LD HAVE HAD ABUNDANT EVID5CE ( ! EXCEPTIONS4 ,& IF ANYBODY1 AT ?IS DAY1 ALLEGE ANY EXCEPTIONS1 ! BURD5 WILL BE ON HIM TO PROVE !M4 ,! PRESUMPTION CLE>LY IS ?AT ALL W]E ELIGIBLE4  

 ,! FIR/ 9VASION :I* ,I F9D MADE1 BY ! ,5GLI% /ATUTES1 UPON ?IS COMMON LAW PR9CIPLE1 WAS MADE 9 #a#b#h#e1 SEV5TY YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,IT WAS !N 5ACT$ AS FOLL[S3  

 0,NOR %ALL1 ANY BE PUT 9 ASSIZES OR JURIES1 ?\< !Y \<T TO BE TAK5 9 !IR [N %IRE1 ?AT HOLD A T5EM5T ( LESS ?AN ! VALUE ( TW5TY %ILL+S YE>LY4 ,& IF SU* ASSIZES & JURIES BE TAK5 \T ( ! %IRE1 NO ONE %ALL BE PLAC$ 9 !M :O HOLDS A T5EM5T ( LESS VALUE ?AN =TY %ILL+S YE>LY AT ! LEA/1 EXCEPT SU* AS BE WITNESSES 9 DE$S OR O!R WRIT+S1 :OSE PRES5CE IS NECESS>Y1 SO ?AT !Y BE ABLE TO TRAVEL40 -- ,/4 #a#c4 ,$W>D ,I41 *4 #c#h4 7#a#b#h#e47  

 ,! NEXT 9VASION ( ! COMMON LAW1 9 ?IS P>TICUL>1 WAS MADE 9 #a#d#a#d1 AB\T TWO HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 :5 IT WAS 5ACT$3  

 0,?AT NO P]SON %ALL BE ADMITT$ TO PASS 9 ANY 9QUE/ UPON TRIAL ( ! DEA? ( A MAN1 NOR 9 ANY 9QUE/ BETWIXT P>TY & P>TY 9 PLEA REAL1 NOR 9 PLEA P]SONAL1 :]E( ! DEBT OR ! DAMAGE DECL>$ AM\NT TO =TY M>KS1 IF ! SAME P]SON HAVE NOT L&S OR T5EM5TS ( ! YE>LY VALUE ( =TY %ILL+S ABOVE ALL *>GES ( ! SAME40 -- #b ,H5RY ,V41 /4 #b1 *4 #c4 7#a#d#a#d47  

 ,O!R /ATUTES ON ?IS SUBJECT ( ! PROP]TY QUALIFICATIONS ( JURORS1 >E GIV5 9 ! NOTE4#g#h   

 ,FROM !SE /ATUTES IT WILL BE SE5 ?AT1 S9CE #a#b#h#e1 SEV5TY YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ! COMMON LAW RI<T ( ALL FREE ,BRITI% SUBJECTS TO ELIGIBILITY AS JURORS HAS BE5 ABOLI%$1 & ! QUALIFICATIONS ( JURORS HAVE BE5 MADE A SUBJECT ( >BITR>Y LEGISLATION4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! GOV]NM5T HAS USURP$ ! AU?ORITY ( SELECT+ ! JURORS ?AT W]E TO SIT 9 JUDGM5T UPON ITS [N ACTS4 ,?IS IS DE/ROY+ ! VITAL PR9CIPLE ( ! TRIAL BY JURY ITSELF1 :I* IS ?AT ! LEGISLATION ( ! GOV]NM5T %ALL BE SUBJECT$ TO ! JUDGM5T ( A TRIBUNAL1 TAK5 9DISCRIM9ATELY FROM ! :OLE PEOPLE1 )\T ANY *OICE BY ! GOV]NM5T1 & OV] :I* ! GOV]NM5T CAN EX]CISE NO CONTROL4 ,IF ! GOV]NM5T CAN SELECT ! JURORS1 IT WILL1 ( C\RSE1 SELECT ?OSE :OM IT SUPPOSES WILL BE FAVORABLE TO ITS 5ACTM5TS4 ,& AN EXCLUSION ( ANY ( ! FREEM5 FROM ELIGIBILITY IS A SELECTION ( ?OSE NOT EXCLUD$4  

 ,IT WILL BE SE51 FROM ! /ATUTES CIT$1 ?AT ! MO/ ABSOLUTE AU?ORITY OV] ! JURY BOX -- ?AT IS1 OV] ! RI<T ( ! PEOPLE TO SIT 9 JURIES -- HAS BE5 USURP$ BY ! GOV]NM5T2 ?AT ! QUALIFICATIONS ( JURORS HAVE BE5 REPEAT$LY *ANG$1 & MADE TO V>Y FROM A FREEHOLD ( T5 %ILL+S YE>LY1 TO ONE ( 0TW5TY P\NDS BY ! YE> AT LEA/ ABOVE REPRISES40 ,!Y HAVE ALSO BE5 MADE DIFF]5T1 9 ! C\NTIES ( ,S\?AMPTON1 ,SURREY1 & ,SUSSEX1 FROM :AT !Y W]E 9 ! O!R C\NTIES2 DIFF]5T 9 ,WALES FROM :AT !Y W]E 9 ,5GL&2 & DIFF]5T 9 ! CITY ( ,LONDON1 & 9 ! C\NTY ( ,MIDDLESEX1 FROM :AT !Y W]E 9 ANY O!R P>T ( ! K+DOM4  

 ,BUT ?IS IS NOT ALL4 ,! GOV]NM5T HAS NOT ONLY ASSUM$ >BITR>ILY TO CLASSIFY ! PEOPLE1 ON ! BASIS ( PROP]TY1 BUT IT HAS EV5 ASSUM$ TO GIVE TO SOME ( ITS JUDGES 5TIRE & ABSOLUTE P]SONAL DISCRETION 9 ! SELECTION ( ! JURORS TO BE IMPANEL$ 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 AS ! FOLL[+ /ATUTES %[4  

 0,BE IT ALSO ORDA9$ & 5ACT$ BY ! SAME AU?ORITY1 ?AT ALL PANELS H]EAFT] TO BE RETURN$1 :I* BE NOT AT ! SUIT ( ANY P>TY1 ?AT %ALL BE MADE & PUT 9 A=E ANY JU/ICE ( JAIL DELIV]Y OR JU/ICES ( PEACE 9 !IR OP5 SESSIONS TO 9QUIRE = ! K+1 %ALL H]EAFT] BE RE=M$ BY ADDITIONS & TAK+ \T ( NAMES ( P]SONS BY DISCRETION ( ! SAME JU/ICES BE=E :OM SU* PANEL %ALL BE RETURN$2 & ! SAME JU/ICES %ALL H]EAFT] COMM& ! %]IFF1 OR HIS M9I/]S 9 HIS ABS5CE1 TO PUT O!R P]SONS 9 ! SAME PANEL BY !IR DISCRETIONS2 & ?AT PANEL SO H]EAFT] TO BE MADE1 TO BE GOOD& LAWFUL4 ,?IS ACT TO 5DURE ONLY TO ! NEXT ,P>LIAM5T 0 #aa ,H5RY ,V,I,I41 *4 #b#d1 SEC4 #f4 7#a#d#i#e47  

 ,?IS ACT WAS CONT9U$ 9 =CE BY #a ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I1 *4 #a#a1 7#a#e#i17 TO ! 5D ( ! !N NEXT ,P>LIAM5T4  

 ,IT WAS RE5ACT$1 & MADE P]PETUAL1 BY #c ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I41 *4 #a#b4 7#a#e#a#a47  

 ,!SE ACTS GAVE UNLIMIT$ AU?ORITY TO ! K+'S' JU/ICES TO PACK JURIES AT !IR DISCRETION2 & ABOLI%$ ! LA/ VE/IGE ( ! COMMON LAW RI<T ( ! PEOPLE TO SIT AS JURORS1 & JUDGE ( !IR [N LIB]TIES1 9 ! C\RTS TO :I* ! ACTS APPLI$4  

 ,YET1 AS MATT]S ( LAW1 !SE /ATUTES W]E NO MORE CLE> VIOLATIONS ( ! COMMON LAW1 ! FUNDAM5TAL & P>AM\NT 0LAW ( ! L&10 ?AN W]E ?OSE /ATUTES :I* AFFIX$ ! PROP]TY QUALIFICATIONS BE=E NAM$2 BECAUSE1 IF ! K+1 OR ! GOV]NM5T1 CAN SELECT ! JURORS ON ! GR\ND ( PROP]TY1 IT CAN SELECT !M ON ANY O!R GR\ND :ATEV]4  

 ,ANY 9FR+EM5T OR RE/RICTION ( ! COMMON LAW RI<T ( ! :OLE BODY ( ! FREEM5 ( ! K+DOM TO ELIGIBILITY AS JURORS1 WAS LEGALLY AN ABOLITION ( ! TRIAL BY JURY ITSELF4 ,! JURIES NO LONG] REPRES5T$ 0! C\NTRY10 BUT ONLY A P>T ( ! C\NTRY2 ?AT P>T1 TOO1 ON :OSE FAVOR ! GOV]NM5T *OSE TO RELY = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ITS P[]1 & :I* IT !RE=E SAW FIT TO SELECT AS BE+ ! MO/ RELIABLE 9/RUM5TS = ITS PURPOSES ( OPPRESSION T[>DS ! RE/4 ,& ! SELECTION WAS MADE ON ! SAME PR9CIPLE1 ON :I* TYRANNICAL GOV]NM5TS G5]ALLY SELECT !IR SUPPORT]S1 VIZ41 ?AT ( CONCILIAT+ ?OSE :O W\LD BE MO/ DANG]\S AS 5EMIES1 & MO/ P[]FUL AS FRI5DS ?AT IS1 ! WEAL?Y4#g#i  

 ,!SE RE/RICTIONS1 OR 9DE$ ANY ONE ( !M1 ( ! RI<T ( ELIGIBILITY AS JURORS1 WAS1 9 PR9CIPLE1 A COMPLETE ABOLITION ( ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION2 OR1 AT LEA/1 ( ITS MO/ VITAL & VALUABLE P>T4 ,IT WAS1 9 PR9CIPLE1 AN ASS]TION ( A RI<T1 ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T1 TO SELECT ! 9DIVIDUALS :O W]E TO DET]M9E ! AU?ORITY ( ITS [N LAWS1 & ! EXT5T ( ITS [N P[]S4 ,IT WAS1 !RE=E1 9 EFFECT1 ! ASS]TION ( A RI<T1 ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T ITSELF1 TO DET]M9E ITS [N P[]S1 & ! AU?ORITY ( ITS [N LEGISLATION1 OV] ! PEOPLE2 & A D5IAL ( ALL RI<T1 ON ! P>T ( ! PEOPLE1 TO JUDGE ( OR DET]M9E !IR [N LIB]TIES AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T4 ,IT WAS1 !RE=E1 9 REALITY1 A DECL>ATION ( 5TIRE ABSOLUTISM ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T4 ,IT WAS AN ACT AS PURELY DESPOTIC1 9 PR9CIPLE1 AS W\LD HAVE BE5 ! EXPRESS ABOLITION ( ALL JURIES :ATSOEV]4 ,BY 0! LAW ( ! L&10 :I* ! K+S W]E SWORN TO MA9TA91 EV]Y FREE ADULT MALE ,BRITI% SUBJECT WAS ELIGIBLE TO ! JURY BOX1 ) FULL P[] TO EX]CISE HIS [N JUDGM5T AS TO ! AU?ORITY & OBLIGATION ( EV]Y /ATUTE ( ! K+1 :I* MI<T COME  BE=E HIM4 ,BUT ! PR9CIPLE ( !SE /ATUTES 7FIX+ ! QUALIFICATIONS ( JURORS7 IS1 ?AT NOBODY IS TO SIT 9 JUDGM5T UPON ! ACTS OR LEGISLATION ( ! K+1 OR ! GOV]NM5T1 EXCEPT ?OSE :OM ! GOV]NM5T ITSELF %ALL SELECT = ?AT PURPOSE4 ,A MORE COMPLETE SUBV]SION ( ! ESS5TIAL PR9CIPLES ( ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION C\LD NOT BE DEVIS$4  

 ,! JURIES ( ,5GL& >E ILLEGAL = ANO!R REASON1 VIZ41 ?AT ! /ATUTES CIT$ REQUIRE ! JURORS 7EXCEPT 9 ,LONDON & A FEW O!R PLACES7 TO BE FREEHOLD]S4 ,ALL ! O!R FREE ,BRITI% SUBJECTS >E EXCLUD$2 :]EAS1 AT COMMON LAW1 ALL SU* SUBJECTS >E ELIGIBLE TO SIT 9 JURIES1 :E!R !Y BE FREEHOLD]S OR NOT4  

 ,IT IS TRUE1 ! ANCI5T COMMON LAW REQUIR$ ! JURORS TO BE FREEHOLD]S2 BUT ! T]M FREEHOLD] NO LONG] EXPRESSES ! SAME IDEA ?AT IT DID 9 ! ANCI5T COMMON LAW2 BECAUSE NO L& IS N[ HOLD5 9 ,5GL& ON ! SAME PR9CIPLE1 OR BY ! SAME T5URE1 AS ?AT ON :I* ALL ! L& WAS HELD 9 ! E>LY TIMES ( ! COMMON LAW4  

 ,AS HAS H]ET(ORE BE5 M5TION$1 9 ! E>LY TIMES ( ! COMMON LAW ! L& WAS CONSID]$ ! PROP]TY ( ! /ATE2 & WAS ALL HOLD5 BY ! T5ANTS1 SO CALL$1 7?AT IS1 HOLD]S17 ON ! CONDITION ( !IR R5D]+ C]TA9 MILIT>Y & CIVIL S]VICES TO ! /ATE1 7OR TO ! K+ AS ! REPRES5TATIVE ( ! /ATE17 UND] ! NAME ( R5TS4 ,?OSE :O HELD L&S ON !SE T]MS W]E CALL$ FREE T5ANTS1 ?AT IS1 FREE HOLD]S MEAN+ FREE P]SONS1 OR MEMB]S ( ! /ATE1 HOLD+ L&S TO DI/+UI% !M FROM VILLE9S1 OR S]FS1 :O W]E NOT MEMB]S ( ! /ATE1 BUT HELD !IR L&S BY A MORE S]VILE T5URE1 & ALSO TO DI/+UI% !M FROM P]SONS ( =EIGN BIR?1 \TLAWS1 & ALL O!R P]SONS1 :O W]E NOT MEMB]S ( ! /ATE4  

 ,EV]Y FREEBORN ADULT MALE ,5GLI%MAN 7:O HAD NOT LO/ HIS CIVIL RI<T0 BY CRIME OR O!RWISE7 WAS 5TITL$ TO L& ( RI<T2 ?AT IS1 BY VIRTUE ( HIS CIVIL FRE$OM1 OR MEMB]%IP ( ! BODY POLITIC4 ,EV]Y MEMB] ( ! /ATE WAS !RE=E A FREEHOLD]2 & EV]Y FREEHOLD] WAS A MEMB] ( ! /ATE4 ,& ! MEMB]S ( ! /ATE W]E !RE=E CALL$ FREEHOLD]S4 ,BUT :AT IS MAT]IAL TO BE OBS]V$1 IS1 ?AT A MAN'S RI<T TO L& WAS AN 9CID5T TO HIS CIVIL FRE$OM2 NOT HIS CIVIL FRE$OM AN 9CID5T TO HIS RI<T TO L&4 ,HE WAS A FREEHOLD] BECAUSE HE WAS A FREEBORN MEMB] ( ! /ATE2 & NOT A FREEBORN MEMB] ( ! /ATE BECAUSE HE WAS A FREEHOLD]2 = ?IS LA/ W\LD BE AN ABSURDITY4  

 ,AS ! T5URES ( L&S *ANG$1 ! T]M FREEHOLD] LO/ ITS ORIG9AL SIGNIFICANCE1 & NO LONG] DESCRIB$ A MAN :O HELD L& ( ! /ATE BY VIRTUE ( HIS CIVIL FRE$OM1 BUT ONLY ONE :O HELD IT 9 FEE-SIMPLE ?AT IS1 FREE ( ANY LIABILITY TO MILIT>Y OR CIVIL S]VICES4 ,BUT ! GOV]NM5T1 9 FIX+ ! QUALIFICATIONS ( JURORS1 HAS ADH]$ TO ! T]M FREEHOLD] AFT] ?AT T]M HAS CEAS$ TO EXPRESS ! ?+ ORIG9ALLY DESIGNAT$ BY IT4  

 ,! PR9CIPLE1 !N1 ( ! COMMON LAW1 WAS1 ?AT EV]Y FREEMAN1 OR FREEBORN MALE ,5GLI%MAN1 ( ADULT AGE1 @&C241 WAS ELIGIBLE TO SIT 9 JURIES1 BY VIRTUE ( HIS CIVIL FRE$OM1 OR HIS BE+ A MEMB] ( ! /ATE1 OR BODY POLITIC4 ,RUT ! PR9CIPLE ( ! PRES5T ,5GLI% /ATUTES IS1 ?AT A MAN %ALL HAVE A RI<T TO SIT 9 JURIES BECAUSE HE [NS L&S 9 FEE-SIMPLE4 ,AT ! COMMON LAW A MAN WAS BORN TO ! RI<T TO SIT 9 JURIES4 ,BY ! PRES5T /ATUTES HE BUYS ?AT RI<T :5 HE BUYS HIS L&4 ,& ?US ?IS1 ! GREATE/ ( ALL ! POLITICAL RI<TS ( AN ,5GLI%MAN1 HAS BECOME A M]E >TICLE ( M]*&ISE2 A ?+ ?AT IS B\<T & SOLD 9 ! M>KET = :AT IT WILL BR+4  

 ,( C\RSE1 !RE CAN BE NO LEGALITY 9 SU* JURIES AS !SE2 BUT ONLY 9 JURIES TO :I* EV]Y FREE OR NATURAL BORN ADULT MALE ,5GLI%MAN IS ELIGIBLE4  

 ,! SECOND ESS5TIAL PR9CIPLE ( ! COMMON LAW1 CONTROLL+ ! SELECTION ( JURORS1 IS1 ?AT :5 ! SELECTION ( ! ACTUAL JURORS COMES TO BE MADE1 7FROM ! :OLE BODY ( MALE ADULTS17 ?AT SELECTION %ALL BE MADE 9 SOME MODE ?AT EXCLUDES ! POSSIBILITY ( *OICE ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,( C\RSE1 ?IS PR9CIPLE =BIDS ! SELECTION TO BE MADE BY ANY (FIC] ( ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,!RE SEEM TO HAVE BE5 AT LEA/ ?REE MODES ( SELECT+ ! JURORS1 AT ! COMMON LAW4 #a4 ,BY LOT4#h #b4 ,TWO KNI<TS1 OR O!R FREEHOLD]S1 W]E APPO9T$1 7PROBABLY BY ! %]IFF17 TO SELECT ! JURORS4 #c4 ,BY ! %]IFF1 BAILIFF1 OR O!R P]SON1 :O HELD ! C\RT1 OR RA!R ACT$ AS ITS M9I/]IAL (FIC]4 ,PROBABLY ! LATT] MODE MAY HAVE BE5 ! MO/ COMMON1 AL?\< !RE MAY BE SOME D\BT ON ?IS PO9T4  

 ,AT ! COMMON LAW ! %]IFF'S1 BAILIFFS1 & O!R (FIC]S W]E *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE1 9/EAD ( BE+ APPO9T$ BY ! K+4 7#d ,BLACK/ONE1 #d#a#c4 ,9TRODUCTION TO ,GILB]T'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 P4 #b2 NOTE1 & P4 #d47 ,?IS HAS BE5 %[N 9 A =M] *APT]4#h#a ,AT COMMON LAW1 !RE=E1 JURORS SELECT$ BY !SE (FIC]S W]E LEGALLY SELECT$1 SO F> AS ! PR9CIPLE N[ UND] DISCUSSION IS CONC]N$2 ?AT IS1 !Y W]E NOT SELECT$ BY ANY (FIC] :O WAS DEP5D5T ON ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,BUT 9 ! YE> #a#c#a#e1 ONE HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ! *OICE ( %]IFF'S WAS TAK5 FROM ! PEOPLE1 & IT WAS 5ACT$3  

 0,?AT ! %]IFFS %ALL H5CE=? BE ASSIGN$ BY ! *ANCELLOR1 TREASUR]1 B>ONS ( ! EX*EQU]1 & BY ! JU/ICES4 ,& 9 ! ABS5CE ( ! *ANCELLOR1 BY ! TREASUR]1 B>ONS & JU/ICES40 #i ,$W>D ,I,I41 /4 #b4 7#a#c#a#e47  

 ,!SE (FIC]S1 :O APPO9T$ ! %]IFFS1 W]E !MSELVES APPO9T$ BY ! K+1 & HELD !IR (FICES DUR+ HIS PLEASURE4 ,!IR APPO9TM5T ( %]IFFS WAS1 !RE=E1 EQUIVAL5T TO AN APPO9TM5T BY ! K+ HIMSELF4 ,& ! %]IFFS1 ?US APPO9T$1 HELD !IR (FICES ONLY DUR+ ! PLEASURE ( ! K+1 & W]E ( C\RSE M]E TOOLS ( ! K+2 & !IR SELECTION ( JURORS WAS REALLY A SELECTION BY ! K+ HIMSELF4 ,9 ?IS MANN] ! K+ USURP$ ! SELECTION ( ! JURORS :O W]E TO SIT 9 JUDGM5T UPON HIS [N LAWS4  

 ,H]E1 !N1 WAS ANO!R USURPATION1 BY :I* ! COMMON LAW TRIAL BY JURY WAS DE/ROY$1 SO F> AS RELAT$ TO ! C\NTY C\RTS1 9 :I* ! %]IFF'S PRESID$1 & :I* W]E ! MO/ IMPORTANT C\RTS ( ! K+DOM4 ,FROM ?IS CAUSE ALONE1 IF !RE W]E NO O!R1 !RE HAS NOT BE5 A LEGAL JURY 9 A C\NTY C\RT 9 ,5GL&1 = MORE ?AN FIVE HUNDR$ YE>S4  

 ,9 NE>LY OR QUITE ALL ! ,/ATES ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ! JURIES >E ILLEGAL1 = ONE OR ! O!R ( ! SAME REASONS ?AT MAKE ! JURIES 9 ,5GL& ILLEGAL4  

 ,9 ORD] ?AT ! JURIES 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES MAY BE LEGAL ?AT IS1 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! PR9CIPLES ( ! COMMON LAW IT IS NECESS>Y ?AT EV]Y ADULT MALE MEMB] ( ! /ATE %\LD HAVE HIS NAME 9 ! JURY BOX1 OR BE ELIGIBLE AS A JUROR4 ,YET ?IS IS ! CASE 9 H>DLY A S+LE /ATE4  

 ,9 ,NEW ,J]SEY1 ,M>YL&1 ,NOR? ,C>OL9A1 ,T5NESSEE1 & ,MISSISSIPPI1 ! JURORS >E REQUIR$ TO BE FREEHOLD]S4 ,BUT ?IS REQUIREM5T IS ILLEGAL1 = ! REASON ?AT ! T]M FREEHOLD]1 9 ?IS C\NTRY1 HAS NO MEAN+ ANALOG\S TO ! MEAN+ IT HAD 9 ! ANCI5T COMMON LAW4  

 ,9 ,>KANSAS1 ,MISS\RI1 ,9DIANA1 & ,ALABAMA1 JURORS >E REQUIR$ TO BE 0FREEHOLD]S OR H\SEHOLD]S40 ,EA* ( !SE REQUIREM5TS IS ILLEGAL4  

 ,9 ,FLORIDA1 !Y >E REQUIR$ TO BE 0H\SEHOLD]S40  

 ,9 ,CONNECTICUT1 ,MA9E1 ,OHIO1 & ,GEORGIA1 JURORS >E REQUIR$ TO HAVE ! QUALIFICATIONS ( 0ELECTORS40  

 ,9 ,VIRG9IA1 !Y >E REQUIR$ TO HAVE A PROP]TY QUALIFICATION ( ONE HUNDR$ DOLL>S4  

 ,9 ,MA9E1 ,MASSA*USETTS1 ,V]MONT1 ,CONNECTICUT1 ,NEW ,YORK1 ,OHIO1 ,9DIANA1 ,MI*IGAN1 & ,WISCONS91 C]TA9 CIVIL AU?ORITIES ( ! T[NS1 CITIES1 & C\NTIES >E AU?ORIZ$ TO SELECT1 ONCE 9 ONE1 TWO1 OR ?REE YE>S1 A C]TA9 NUMB] ( ! PEOPLE A SMALL NUMB] COMP>$ ) ! :OLE FROM :OM JURORS >E TO BE TAK5 :5 WANT$2 ?US DISFRAN*IZ+ ALL EXCEPT1 ! FEW ?US SELECT$4  

 ,9 ,MA9E & ,V]MONT1 ! 9HABITANTS1 BY VOTE 9 T[N MEET+1 HAVE A VETO UPON ! JURORS SELECT$ BY ! AU?ORITIES ( ! T[N4  

 ,9 ,MASSA*USETTS1 ! 9HABITANTS1 BY VOTE 9 T[N MEET+1 CAN /RIKE \T ANY NAMES 9S]T$ BY ! AU?ORITIES1 & 9S]T O!RS2 ?US MAK+ JURORS ELECTIVE BY ! PEOPLE1 &1 ( C\RSE1 REPRES5TATIVES ONLY ( A MAJORITY ( ! PEOPLE4  

 ,9 ,ILL9OIS1 ! JURORS >E SELECT$1 = EA* T]M ( C\RT1 BY ! C\NTY COMMISSION]S4  

 ,9 ,NOR? ,C>OL9A1 0! C\RTS ( PLEAS & QU>T] SESSIONS %ALL SELECT ! NAMES ( SU* P]SONS ONLY AS >E FREEHOLD]S1 & AS >E WELL QUALIFI$ TO ACT AS JURORS1 @&C242 ?US GIV+ ! C\RTS P[] TO PACK ! JURIES40 7,REVIS$ ,/ATUTES1 #a#d#g47  

 ,9 ,>KANSAS1 TOO1 0,IT %ALL BE ! DUTY ( ! C\NTY C\RT ( EA* C\NTY "9 TO MAKE \T & CAUSE TO BE DELIV]$ TO ! %]IFF A LI/ ( NOT LESS ?AN SIXTE51 NOR MORE ?AN TW5TY-?REE P]SONS1 QUALIFI$ TO S]VE AS GR& JURORS20 & ! %]IFF IS TO SUMMON SU* P]SONS TO S]VE AS GR& JURORS4  

 ,9 ,T5NESSEE1 ALSO1 ! JURORS >E TO BE SELECT$ BY ! C\NTY C\RTS4  

 ,9 ,GEORGIA1 ! JURORS >E TO BE SELECT$ BY 0! JU/ICES ( ! 9F]IOR C\RTS ( EA* C\NTY1 TOGE!R ) ! %]IFF & CL]K1 OR A MAJORITY ( !M40  

 ,9 ,ALABAMA1 0! %]IFF2 JUDGE ( ! C\NTY C\RT1 & CL]KS ( ! CIRCUIT & C\NTY C\RTS10 OR 0A MAJORITY (0 !M1 SELECT ! JURORS4  

 ,9 ,VIRG9IA1 ! JURORS >E SELECT$ BY ! %]IFFS2 BUT ! %]IFF'S >E APPO9T$ BY ! GOV]NOR ( ! /ATE1 & ?AT IS 5\< TO MAKE ! JURIES ILLEGAL4 ,PROBABLY ! SAME OBJECTION LIES AGA9/ ! LEGALITY ( ! JURIES 9 SOME O!R /ATES4  

 ,H[ JURORS >E APPO9T$1 & :AT >E !IR QUALIFICATIONS1 9 ,NEW ,HAMP%IRE1 ,RHODE ,ISL&1 ,P5NSYLVANIA1 ,DELAW>E1 ,S\? ,C>OL9A1 ,K5TUCKY1 ,I[A1 ,TEXAS1 & ,CALI=NIA1 ,I KN[ NOT4 ,!RE IS LITTLE D\BT ?AT !RE IS SOME VALID OBJECTION TO !M1 ( ! K9DS ALREADY SUGGE/$1 9 ALL !SE /ATES4  

 ,9 REG>D TO JURORS 9 ! C\RTS ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 IT IS 5ACT$1 BY ACT ( ,CONGRESS3  

 0,?AT JURORS TO S]VE 9 ! C\RTS ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 9 EA* /ATE RESPECTIVELY1 %ALL HAVE ! LIKE QUALIFICATIONS & BE 5TITL$ TO ! LIKE EXEMPTIONS1 AS JURORS ( ! HI<E/ C\RT ( LAW ( SU* /ATE N[ HAVE & >E 5TITL$ TO1 & %ALL H]EAFT]1 FROM TIME TO TIME1 HAVE & BE 5TITL$ TO1 & %ALL BE DESIGNAT$ BY BALLOT1 LOT1 OR O!RWISE1 ACCORD+ TO ! MODE ( =M+ SU* JURIES N[ PRACTIC$ & H]EAFT] TO BE PRACTIC$ !RE91 9 SO F> AS SU* MODE MAY BE PRACTICABLE BY ! C\RTS ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 OR ! (FIC]S !RE(2 & = ?IS PURPOSE1 ! SAID C\RTS %ALL HAVE P[] TO MAKE ALL NECESS>Y RULES & REGULATIONS = CON=M+ ! DESIGNATION & IMPANEL+ ( JURORS1 9 SUB/ANCE1 TO ! LAWS & USAGES N[ 9 =CE 9 SU* /ATE2 &1 FUR!R1 %ALL HAVE P[]1 BY ROLE OR ORD]1 FROM TIME TO TIME1 TO CON=M ! SAME TO ANY *ANGE 9 !SE RESPECTS :I* MAY BE H]EAFT] ADOPT$ BY ! LEGISLATURES ( ! RESPECTIVE /ATES = ! /ATE C\RTS40 ,/4 #a#h#d1 *4 #d#g1 ,/ATUTES AT ,L>GE1 VOL4 #e1 P4 #c#i#d4  

 ,9 ?IS CORRUPT & LAWLESS MANN]1 ,CONGRESS1 9/EAD ( TAK+ C>E TO PRES]VE ! TRIAL BY JURY1 SO F> AS !Y MI<T1 BY PROVID+ = ! APPO9TM5T ( LEGAL JURIES 9COMP>ABLY ! MO/ IMPORTANT ( ALL \R JUDICIAL TRIBUNALS1 & ! ONLY ONES ON :I* ! LEA/ RELIANCE CAN BE PLAC$ = ! PRES]VATION ( LIB]TY HAVE GIV5 ! SELECTION ( !M OV] 5TIRELY TO ! CONTROL ( AN 9DEF9ITE NUMB] ( /ATE LEGISLATURES1 & ?US AU?ORIZ$ EA* /ATE LEGISLATURE TO ADAPT ! JURIES ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES TO ! MA9T5ANCE ( ANY & EV]Y SY/EM ( TYRANNY ?AT MAY PREVAIL 9 SU* /ATE4  

 ,CONGRESS HAVE AS MU* CON/ITUTIONAL RI<T TO GIVE OV] ALL ! FUNCTIONS ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES GOV]NM5T 9TO ! H& ( ! /ATE LEGISLATURES1 TO BE EX]CIS$ )9 EA* /ATE 9 SU* MANN] AS ! LEGISLATURE ( SU* /ATE %ALL PLEASE TO EX]CISE !M1 AS !Y HAVE TO ?US GIVE UP TO !SE LEGISLATURES ! SELECTION ( JURIES = ! C\RTS ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4  

 ,!RE HAS1 PROBABLY1 NEV] BE5 A LEGAL JURY1 NOR A LEGAL TRIAL BY JURY1 9 A S+LE C\RT ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 S9CE ! ADOPTION ( ! CON/ITUTION4  

 ,!SE FACTS %[ H[ MU* RELIANCE CAN BE PLAC$ 9 WRITT5 CON/ITUTIONS1 TO CONTROL ! ACTION ( ! GOV]NM5T1 & PRES]VE ! LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE4  

 ,IF ! REAL TRIAL BY JURY HAD BE5 PRES]V$ 9 ! C\RTS ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ?AT IS1 IF WE HAD HAD LEGAL JURIES1 & ! JURORS HAD KN[N !IR RI<TS IT IS H>DLY PROBABLE ?AT ONE T5? ( ! PA/ LEGISLATION ( ,CONGRESS W\LD EV] HAVE BE5 5ACT$1 OR1 AT LEA/1 ?AT1 IF 5ACT$1 IT C\LD HAVE BE5 5=C$4  

 ,PROBABLY ! BE/ MODE ( APPO9T+ JURORS W\LD BE ?IS3 ,LET ! NAMES ( ALL ! ADULT .<MALE.> .<#i.> MEMB]S ( ! /ATE1 9 EA* T[N%IP1 BE KEPT 9 A JURY BOX1 BY ! (FIC]S ( ! T[N%IP2 & :5 A C\RT IS TO BE HELD = A C\NTY OR O!R DI/RICT1 LET ! (FIC]S ( A SUFFICI5T NUMB] ( T[N%IPS BE REQUIR$ 7)\T SEE+ ! NAMES7 TO DRAW \T A NAME FROM !IR BOXES RESPECTIVELY1 TO BE RETURN$ TO ! C\RT AS A JUROR4 ,?IS MODE ( APPO9TM5T W\LD GU>D AGA9/ COLLUSION & SELECTION2 & JURIES SO APPO9T$ W\LD BE LIKELY TO BE A FAIR EPITOME ( 0! C\NTRY40 

,*,A,P,T,] ,V,I,I4 ,I,L,L,E,G,A,L ,J,U,D,G,E,S  

 ,IT IS A PR9CIPLE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & !RE=E ( ! TRIAL BY JURY1 7= ALL P>TS ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA MU/ BE CON/RU$ TOGE!R17 ?AT NO JUDGE OR O!R (FIC] APPO9T$ BY ! K+1 %ALL PRESIDE 9 JURY TRIALS1 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 OR 0PLEAS ( ! CR[N40  

 ,?IS PROVISION IS CONTA9$ 9 ! GREAT *>T]S ( BO? ,JOHN & ,H5RY1 & IS SECOND 9 IMPORTANCE ONLY TO ! PROVISION GU>ANTEE+ ! TRIAL BY JURY1 ( :I* IT IS REALLY A P>T4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 )\T ! OBS]VANCE ( ?IS PROHIBITION1 !RE CAN BE NO G5U9E OR LEGAL ?AT IS1 COMMON LAW TRIAL BY JURY4 ,AT ! COMMON LAW1 ALL (FIC]S :O HELD JURY TRIALS1 :E!R 9 CIVIL OR CRIM9AL CASES1 W]E *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE4#h#b  

 ,BUT PREVI\S TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ! K+S HAD ADAPT$ ! PRACTICE ( S5D+ (FIC]S ( !IR [N APPO9TM5T1 CALL$ JU/ICES1 9TO ! C\NTIES1 TO HOLD JURY TRIALS 9 SOME CASES2 & ,MAGNA ,C>TA AU?ORIZES ?IS PRACTICE TO BE CONT9U$ SO F> AS IT RELATES TO ?REE K9DS ( CIVIL ACTIONS1 TO WIT3 0NOVEL DISSEIZ91 MORT DE ANCE/OR1 & D>RE9 PRES5TM5T20#h#c BUT SPECIALLY =BIDS ITS BE+ EXT5D$ TO CRIM9AL CASES1 OR PLEAS ( ! CR[N4  

 ,?IS PROHIBITION IS 9 !SE WORDS3  

 0,NULLUS VICECOMES1 CON/ABUL>IUS1 CORONATOR1 VEL ALII BALIVI NO/RI1 T5EANT PLACITA CORONAE NO/RAE40 7,NO %]IFF1 CON/ABLE1 CORON]1 OR O!R \R BAILIFFS1 %ALL HOLD PLEAS ( \R CR[N47 ,JOHN'S ,*>T]1 *4 #e#c1 ,H5RY'S DITTO1 *4 #a#g4  

 ,SOME P]SONS SEEM TO HAVE SUPPOS$ ?AT ?IS WAS A PROHIBITION M]ELY UPON (FIC]S BE>+ ! SPECIFIC NAMES ( 0%]IFFS1 CON/ABLES1 CORON]S & BAILIFFS10 TO HOLD CRIM9AL TRIALS4 ,BUT SU* IS NOT ! MEAN+4 ,IF IT W]E1 ! NAME C\LD BE *ANG$1 & ! ?+ RETA9$2 & ?US ! PROHIBITION BE EVAD$4 ,! PROHIBITION APPLIES 7AS WILL PRES5TLY BE SE57 TO ALL (FIC]S ( ! K+ :ATSOEV]2 & IT SETS UP A DI/9CTION BETWE5 (FIC]S ( ! K+1 70\R BAILIFFS107 & (FIC]S *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE4  

 ,! PROHIBITION UPON ! K+'S JU/ICES SITT+ 9 CRIM9AL TRIALS1 IS 9CLUD$ 9 ! WORDS 0VEL ALII BALIVI NO/RI10 7OR O!R \R BAILIFFS47 ,! WORD BAILIF WAS ANCI5TLY A SORT ( G5]AL NAME = JUDICIAL (FIC]S & P]SONS EMPLOY$ 9 & AB\T ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE4 ,9 MOD]N TIMES ITS USE1 AS APPLI$ TO ! HI<] GRADES ( JUDICIAL (FIC]S1 HAS BE5 SUP]S$$ BY O!R WORDS2 & IT !RE=E N[1 MORE G5]ALLY1 IF NOT UNIV]SALLY1 SIGNIFIES AN EXECUTIVE OR POLICE (FIC]1 A S]VANT ( C\RTS1 RA!R ?AN ONE :OSE FUNCTIONS >E PURELY JUDICIAL4  

 ,! WORD IS A ,FR5* WORD1 BR\<T 9TO ,5GL& BY ! ,NORMANS4  

 ,COKE SAYS1 0,BAYLIFE IS A ,FR5* WORD1 & SIGNIFIES AN (FIC] CONC]N$ 9 ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE ( A C]TA9 PROV9CE2 & BECAUSE A %]IFF HA? AN (FICE CONC]N+ ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE )9 HIS C\NTY1 OR BAILIWICK1 !RE=E BE CALL$ HIS C\NTY BALIVA SUA1 7HIS BAILIWICK47  

 0,I HAVE HE>D GREAT QUE/ION MADE :AT ! TRUE EXPOSITION ( ?IS WORD BALIVUS IS4 ,9 ! /ATUTE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 CAP4 #b#h1 ! LETT] ( ?AT /ATUTE IS1 NULLUS BALIVUS DE EAET]O PONAT ALIQNEM AD LEGEM MANIFE/AM NEC AD JURAM5TUM SIMPLICI LOQUELA SUA S9E TE/IBUS FIDELIBUS AD HOC 9DUCTIS40 7,NO BAILIFF FROM H5CE=? %ALL PUT ANY ONE TO HIS OP5 LAW1 NOR TO AN OA? 7( SELF-EXCULPATION7 UPON HIS [N SIMPLE ACCUSATION1 OR COMPLA9T1 )\T FAI?FUL WITNESSES BR\<T 9 = ! SAME47 0,& SOME HAVE SAID ?AT BALIVUS 9 ?IS /ATUTE SIGNIFIE? ANY JUDGE2 = ! LAW MU/ BE WAG$ & MADE BE=E ! JUDGE4 ,& ?IS /ATUTE 7SAY !Y7 EXT5DS TO ! C\RTS ( COMMON PLEAS1 K+'S B5*1 @&C241 = !Y MU/ BR+ ) !M FIDELES TE/ES1 7FAI?FUL WITNESSES17 @&C241 & SO HA? BE5 ! USAGE TO ?IS DAY40 #a ,COKE'S ,9/41 #afh B4  

 ,COKE MAKES V>I\S REF]5CES1 9 HIS M>G9 TO ,BRACTON1 ,FLETA1 & O!R AU?ORITIES1 :I* ,I HAVE NOT EXAM9$1 BUT :I*1 ,I PRESUME1 SUPPORT ! OP9ION EXPRESS$ 9 ?IS QUOTATION4  

 ,COKE ALSO1 9 ANO!R PLACE1 UND] ! HEAD ( ! *APT] JU/ CIT$ FROM ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ?AT 0NO BAILIFF %ALL PUT ANY MAN TO HIS OP5 LAW10 @&C241 GIVES ! FOLL[+ COMM5T>Y UPON IT1 FROM ! ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES1 FROM :I* IT APPE>S ?AT 9 ! TIME ( ,$W>D ,I41 7#a#b#g#b TO #a#c#g17 ?IS WORD BALIVUS WAS UND]/OOD TO 9CLUDE ALL JUDICIAL1 AS WELL AS ALL O!R1 (FIC]S ( ! K+4  

 ,! ,MIRROR SAYS3 0,! PO9T :I* =BIDDE? ?AT NO BAILIFF PUT A FREEMAN TO HIS OA? )\T SUIT1 IS TO BE UND]/OOD 9 ?IS MANN]1 ?AT NO JU/ICE1 NO M9I/] ( ! K+1 NOR O!R /EW>D1 NOR BAILIFF1 HAVE P[] TO MAKE A FREEMAN MAKE OA?1 7( SELF-EXCULPATION17 )\T ! K+'S COMM&1#h#d NOR RECEIVE ANY PLA9T1 )\T WITNESSES PRES5T :O TE/IFY ! PLA9T TO BE TRUE40 ,MIRROR ( ,JU/ICES1 *4 #e1 SEC4 #b1 P4 #b#e#g4  

 ,COKE QUOTES ?IS COMM5T>Y1 79 ! ORIG9AL ,FR5*17 & !N 5DORSES IT 9 !SE WORDS3  

 0,BY ?IS IT APPE>E?1 ?AT UND] ?IS WORD BALIVUS1 9 ?IS ACT1 IS COMPREH5D$ EV]Y JU/ICE1 M9I/] ( ! K+1 /EW>D1 & BAILIFF40 #b ,9/41 #d#d4  

 ,COKE ALSO1 9 HIS COMM5T>Y UPON ?IS V]Y *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ?AT PROVIDES ?AT 0NO %]IFF2 CON/ABLE2 CORON]1 OR O!R \R BAILIFFS1 %ALL HOLD PLEAS ( \R CR[N10 EXPRESSES ! OP9ION ?AT IT 0IS A G5]AL LAW10 7?AT IS1 APPLICABLE TO ALL (FIC]S ( ! K+17 0 BY REASON ( ! WORDS VEL ALII BALIVI NO/RI1 7OR O!R \R BAILIFFS17 UND] :I* WORDS >E COMPREH5D$ ALL JUDGES OR JU/ICES ( ANY C\RTS ( JU/ICE4 0,& HE CITES A DECISION 9 ! K+'S B5*1 9 ! #a#g? YE> ( ,$W>D ,I41 7#a#b#h#i17 AS AU?ORITY2 :I* DECISION HE CALLS 0A NOTABLE & LEAD+ JUDGM5T40 #b ,9/41 #c #a4  

 ,& YET ,COKE1 9 FLAT CONTRADICTION ( ?IS DECISION1 :I* HE QUOTES ) SU* EMPHASIS & APPROBATION1 & 9 FLAT CONTRADICTION ALSO ( ! DEF9ITION HE REPEAT$LY GIVES ( ! WORD BALIVUS %[+ ?AT IT EMBRAC$ ALL M9I/]S ( ! K+ :ATSOEV]1 :E!R HI< OR L[1 JUDICIAL OR EXECUTIVE1 FABRICATES AN 5TIRELY GRATUIT\S 9T]PRETATION ( ?IS *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & PRET5DS ?AT AFT] ALL IT ONLY REQUIR$ ?AT FELONIES %\LD HE TRI$ BE=E ! K+'S JU/ICES1 ON ACC\NT ( !IR SUP]IOR LE>N+2 & ?AT IT P]MITT$ ALL LESS] (F5SES TO BE TRI$ BE=E 9F]IOR (FIC]S1 7MEAN+ ( C\RSE ! K+'S 9F]IOR (FIC]S47 #b ,9/41 #c4  

 ,& ?US ?IS *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 :I*1 ACCORD+ TO HIS [N DEF9ITION ( ! WORD BALIVUS1 APPLIES TO ALL (FIC]S ( ! K+2 & :I*1 ACCORD+ TO ! COMMON & TRUE DEF9ITION ( ! T]M 0PLEAS ( ! CR[N10 APPLIES TO ALL CRIM9AL CASES )\T DI/9CTION1 & :I*1 !RE=E1 =BIDS ANY (FIC] OR M9I/] ( ! K+ TO PRESIDE 9 A JURY TRIAL 9 ANY CRIM9AL CASE :ATSOEV]1 HE COOLLY & GRATUIT\SLY 9T]PRETS 9TO A M]E S5SELESS PROVISION = SIMPLY RE/RICT+ ! DISCRETION ( ! K+ 9 GIV+ NAMES TO HIS [N (FIC]S :O %\LD PRESIDE AT ! TRIALS ( P>TICUL> (F5SES2 AS IF ! K+1 :O MADE & UNMADE ALL HIS (FIC]S BY A WORD1 C\LD NOT DEFEAT ! :OLE OBJECT ( ! PROHIBITION1 BY APPO9T+ SU* 9DIVIDUALS AS HE PLEAS$1 TO TRY SU* CAUSES AS HE PLEAS$1 & CALL+ !M BY SU* NAMES AS HE PLEAS$1 IF HE W]E BUT P]MITT$ TO APPO9T & NAME SU* (FIC]S AT ALL2 & AS IF IT W]E ( ! LEA/ IMPORTANCE :AT NAME AN (FIC] BORE1 :OM ! K+ MI<T APPO9T TO A P>TICUL> DUTY4#h#e   

 ,COKE EVID5TLY GIVES ?IS 9T]PRETATION SOLELY BECAUSE1 AS HE WAS GIV+ A G5]AL COMM5T>Y ON ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 HE WAS B\ND TO GIVE SOME 9T]PRETATION OR O!R TO EV]Y *APT] ( IT2 & = ?IS *APT] HE C\LD 9V5T1 OR FABRICATE1 7= IT IS A %E] FABRICATION17 NO 9T]PRETATION BETT] SUIT$ TO HIS PURPOSE ?AN ?IS4 ,IT SEEMS NEV] TO HAVE 5T]$ HIS M9D1 7OR IF IT DID1 HE 9T5D$ ?AT IT %\LD NEV] 5T] ! M9D ( ANYBODY ELSE17 ?AT ! OBJECT ( ! *APT] C\LD BE TO DEPRIVE ! K+ ( ! P[] ( PUTT+ HIS CREATURES 9TO CRIM9AL C\RTS1 TO PACK1 *EAT1 & BR[BEAT JURIES1 & ?US MA9TA9 HIS AU?ORITY BY PROCUR+ ! CONVICTION ( ?OSE :O %\LD TRANSGRESS HIS LAWS1 OR 9CUR HIS DISPLEASURE4  

 ,?IS EXAMPLE ( ,COKE T5DS TO %[ H[ UTT]LY BL9D1 OR H[ UTT]LY CORRUPT1 ,5GLI% JUDGES1 7DEP5D5T UPON ! CR[N & ! LEGISLATURE71 HAVE BE5 9 REG>D TO EV]Y?+ 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ?AT W5T TO SECURE ! LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE1 OR LIMIT ! P[] ( ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,COKE'S 9T]PRETATION ( ?IS *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA IS ( A PIECE ) HIS ABSURD & GRATUIT\S 9T]PRETATION ( ! WORDS 0NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS10 :I* WAS PO9T$ \T 9 A =M] >TICLE1 & BY :I* HE ATTEMPT$ TO GIVE A JUDICIAL P[] TO ! K+ & HIS JUDGES1 :]E ,MAGNA ,C>TA HAD GIV5 IT ONLY TO A JURY4 ,IT IS ALSO ( A PIECE ) HIS PRET5SE ?AT !RE WAS A DIFF]5CE BETWE5 F9E & AM]CEM5T1 & ?AT F9ES MI<T BE IMPOS$ BY ! K+1 & ?AT JURIES W]E REQUIR$ ONLY = FIX+ AM]CEM5TS4  

 ,!SE >E SOME ( ! 9NUM]ABLE FRAUDS BY :I* ! ,5GLI% PEOPLE HAVE BE5 *EAT$ \T ( ! TRIAL BY JURY4  

 ,EX UNO DISCE OMNES4 ,FROM ONE JUDGE LE>N ! *>ACT]S ( ALL4#h#f  

 ,I GIVE 9 ! NOTE ADDITIONAL & ABUNDANT AU?ORITIES = ! MEAN+ ASCRIB$ TO ! WORD BAILIFF4 ,! IMPORTANCE ( ! PR9CIPLE 9VOLV$ WILL BE A SUFFICI5T EXCUSE = SU* AN ACCUMULATION ( AU?ORITIES AS W\LD O!RWISE BE T$I\S & P]HAPS UNNECESS>Y4#h#g  

 ,! =EGO+ 9T]PRETATION ( ! *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA N[ UND] DISCUSSION1 IS CORROBORAT$ BY ANO!R *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 :I* SPECIALLY PROVIDES ?AT ! K+'S JU/ICES %ALL 0GO ?R\< EV]Y C\NTY0 TO 0TAKE ! ASSIZES0 7HOLD JURY TRIALS7 9 ?REE K9DS ( CIVIL ACTIONS1 TO WIT1 0NOVEL DISSEIZ91 MORT DE ANCE/OR1 & D>RE9 PRES5TM5T20 BUT MAKES NO M5TION :ATEV] ( !IR HOLD+ JURY TRIALS 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 AN OMISSION :OLLY UNLIKELY TO BE MADE1 IF IT W]E DESIGN$ !Y %\LD ATT5D ! TRIAL ( SU* CAUSES4 ,BESIDES1 ! H]E SPOK5 ( 79 ,JOHN'S *>T]7 DOES NOT ALL[ !SE JU/ICES TO SIT ALONE 9 JURY TRIALS1 EV5 9 CIVILACTIONS2 BUT PROVIDES ?AT F\R KNI<TS1 *OS5 BY ! C\NTY1 %ALL SIT ) !M TO KEEP !M HONE/4 ,:5 ! K+'S JU/ICES W]E KN[N TO BE SO CORRUPT & S]VILE ?AT ! PEOPLE W\LD NOT EV5 TRU/ !M TO SIT ALONE1 9 JURY TRIALS1 9 CIVIL ACTIONS1 H[ PREPO/]\S IS IT TO SUPPOSE ?AT !Y W\LD NOT ONLY SUFF] !M TO SIT1 BUT TO SIT ALONE1 9 CRIM9AL ONES4  

 ,IT IS 5TIRELY 9CR$IBLE ?AT ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 :I* MAKES SU* C>EFUL PROVISION 9 REG>D TO ! K+'S JU/ICES SITT+ 9 CIVIL ACTIONS1 %\LD MAKE NO PROVISION :ATEV] AS TO !IR SITT+ 9 CRIM9AL TRIALS1 IF !Y W]E TO BE ALL[$ TO SIT 9 !M AT ALL4 ,YET ,MAGNA ,C>TA HAS NO PROVISION :ATEV] ON ! SUBJECT4#h#h  

 ,BUT :AT W\LD APPE> TO MAKE ?IS MATT] AHSOLUTE#aY C]TA9 IS1 ?AT UNLESS ! PROHIBITION ?AT 0NO BAILIFF1 @&C241 ( \RS %ALL HOLD PLEAS ( \R CR[N10 APPLY TO ALL (FIC]S ( ! K+1 JU/ICES AS WELL AS O!RS1 IT W\LD BE :OLLY NUGATORY = ANY PRACTICAL OR USEFUL PURPOSE1 BECAUSE ! PROHIBITION C\LD BE EVAD$ BY ! K+1 AT ANY TIME1 BY SIMPLY *ANG+ ! TITLES ( HIS (FIC]S4 ,9/EAD ( CALL+ !M 0%]IFFS1 CORON]S1 CON/ABLES & BAILIFFS10 HE C\LD CALL !M 0JU/ICES10 OR ANY?+ ELSE HE PLEAS$2 & ?IS PROHIBITION1 SO IMPORTANT TO ! LIB]TY ( ! PEOPLE1 W\LD !N BE 5TIRELY DEFEAT$4 ,! K+ ALSO C\LD MAKE & UNMAKE 0JU/ICES0 AT HIS PLEASURE2 & IF HE C\LD APPO9T ANY (FIC]S :ATEV] TO PRESIDE OV] JURIES 9 CRIM9AL TRIALS1 HE C\LD APPO9T ANY TOOL ?AT HE MI<T AT ANY TIME F9D ADAPT$ TO HIS PURPOSE4 ,IT WAS AS EASY TO MAKE JU/ICES ( ,JEFFREYS & ,SCROGGS1 AS ( ANY O!R MAT]IAL2 & TO HAVE PROHIBIT$ ALL ! K+'S (FIC]S1 EXCEPT HIS JU/ICES1 FROM PRESID+ 9 CRIM9AL TRIALS1 W\LD !RE=E HAVE BE5 M]E FOOL'S PLAY4  

 ,WE CAN ALL P]HAPS =M SOME IDEA1 ?\< FEW ( US WILL BE LIKELY TO =M ANY ADEQUATE IDEA1 ( :AT A DIFF]5T ?+ ! TRIAL BY JURY W\LD HAVE BE5 9 PRACTICE1 & ( :AT W\LD HAVE BE5 ! DIFF]5CE TO ! LIB]TIES ( ,5GL&1 = FIVE HUNDR$ YE>S LA/ PA/1 HAD ?IS PROHIBITION ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 UPON ! K+'S (FIC]S SITT+ 9 ! TRIAL ( CRIM9AL CASES1 BE5 OBS]V$4  

 ,! PR9CIPLE ( ?IS *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 AS APPLICABLE TO ! GOV]NM5TS ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ( ,AM]ICA1 =BIDS ?AT ANY (FIC] APPO9T$ EI!R BY ! EXECUTIVE OR LEGISLATIVE P[]1 OR DEP5D5T UPON !M = !IR SAL>IES1 OR RESPONSIBLE TO !M BY IMPEA*M5T1 %\LD PRESIDE OV] A JURY 9 CRIM9AL TRIALS4 ,TO HAVE ! TRIAL A LEGAL 7?AT IS1 A COMMON LAW7 & TRUE TRIAL BY JURY1 ! PRESID+ (FIC]S MU/ BE *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE1 & BE 5TIRELY FREE FROM ALL DEP5D5CE UPON1 & ALL ACC\NTABILITY TO1 ! EXECUTIVE & LEGISLATIVE BRAN*ES ( ! GOV]NM5T4#h#i  

,*,A,P,T,] ,V,I,I,I ,! ,F,R,E,E ,A,D,M,9,I,/,R,A,T,I,O,N ,( ,J,U,/,I,C,E  

 ,! FREE ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE WAS A PR9CIPLE ( ! COMMON LAW2 & IT MU/ NECESS>ILY BE A P>T ( EV]Y SY/EM ( GOV]NM5T :I* IS NOT DESIGN$ TO BE AN 5G9E 9 ! H&S ( ! RI* = ! OPPRESSION ( ! POOR4  

 ,9 SAY+ ?AT ! FREE ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE WAS A PR9CIPLE ( ! COMMON LAW1 ,I MEAN ONLY ?AT P>TIES W]E SUBJECT$ TO NO CO/S = JURORS1 WITNESSES1 WRITS1 OR O!R NECESS>IES = ! TRIAL1 PRELIM9>Y TO ! TRIAL ITSELF4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 NO ONE C\LD LOSE ! B5EFIT ( A TRIAL1 = ! WANT ( MEANS TO DEFRAY EXP5SES4 ,BUT AFT] ! TRIAL1 ! PLA9TIFF OR DEF5DANT WAS LIABLE TO BE AM]C$1 7BY ! JURY1 ( C\RSE17 = HAV+ TR\BL$ ! C\RT ) ! PROSECUTION OR DEF5SE ( AN UNJU/ SUIT4#i ,BUT IT IS NOT LIKELY ?AT ! LOS+ P>TY WAS SUBJECT$ TO AN AM]CEM5T AS A MATT] ( C\RSE1 BUT ONLY 9 ?OSE CASES :]E ! 9JU/ICE ( HIS CAUSE WAS SO EVID5T AS TO MAKE HIM 9EXCUSABLE 9 BR++ IT BE=E ! C\RTS4  

 ,ALL ! FREEHOLD]S W]E REQUIR$ TO ATT5D ! C\RTS1 ?AT !Y MI<T S]VE AS JURORS & WITNESSES1 & DO ANY O!R S]VICE ?AT C\LD LEGALLY BE REQUIR$ ( !M2 & !IR ATT5DANCE WAS PAID = BY ! /ATE4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 !IR ATT5DANCE & S]VICE AT ! C\RTS W]E P>T ( ! R5TS :I* !Y PAID ! /ATE = !IR L&S4  

 ,! FREEHOLD]S1 :O W]E ?US REQUIR$ ALWAYS TO ATT5D ! C\RTS1 W]E D\BTLESS ! ONLY WITNESSES :O W]E USUALLY REQUIR$ 9 CIVIL CAUSES4 ,?IS WAS [+ TO ! FACT ?AT1 9 ?OSE DAYS1 :5 ! PEOPLE AT L>GE C\LD NEI!R WRITE NOR READ1 FEW CONTRACTS W]E PUT 9 WRIT+4 ,! EXP$I5T ADOPT$ = PROV+ CONTRACTS1 WAS ?AT ( MAK+ !M 9 ! PRES5CE ( WITNESSES1 :O C\LD AFT]W>DS TE/IFY TO ! TRANSACTIONS4 ,MO/ CONTRACTS 9 REG>D TO L&S W]E MADE AT ! C\RTS1 9 ! PRES5CE ( ! FREEHOLD]S !RE ASSEMBL$4#i#a  

 ,9 ! K+'S C\RTS IT WAS SPECIALLY PROVID$ BY ,MAGNA ,C>TA ?AT 0JU/ICE & RI<T0 %\LD NOT BE 0SOLD20 ?AT IS1 ?AT ! K+ %\LD TAKE NO?+ FROM ! P>TIES = ADM9I/]+ JU/ICE4  

 ,! OA? ( A P>TY TO ! JU/ICE ( HIS CAUSE WAS ALL ?AT WAS NECESS>Y TO 5TITLE HIM TO ! B5EFIT ( ! C\RTS FREE ( ALL EXP5SE2 7EXCEPT ! RISK ( BE+ AM]C$ AFT] ! TRIAL1 9 CASE ! JURY %\LD ?9K HE DES]V$ IT4#i#b7  

 ,?IS PR9CIPLE ( ! FREE ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE CONNECTS ITSELF NECESS>ILY ) ! TRIAL BY JURY1 BECAUSE A JURY C\LD NOT RI<TFULLY GIVE JUDGM5T AGA9/ ANY MAN1 9 EI!R A CIVIL OR CRIM9AL CASE1 IF !Y HAD ANY REASON TO SUPPOSE HE HAD BE5 UNABLE TO PROCURE HIS WITNESSES4  

 ,! TRUE TRIAL BY JURY W\LD ALSO COMPEL ! FREE ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE FROM ANO!R NECESSITY1 VIZ41 ?AT ( PREV5T+ PRIVATE QU>RELS2 BECAUSE1 UNLESS ! GOV]NM5T 5=C$ A MAN'S RI<TS & R$RESS$ HIS WRONGS1 FREE ( EXP5SE TO HIM1 A JURY W\LD BE B\ND TO PROTECT HIM 9 TAK+ ! LAW 9TO HIS [N H&S4 ,A MAN HAS A NATURAL RI<T TO 5=CE HIS [N RI<TS & R$RESS HIS [N WRONGS4 ,IF ONE MAN [E ANO!R A DEBT1 & REFUSE TO PAY IT1 ! CR$ITOR HAS A NATURAL RI<T TO SEIZE SUFFICI5T PROP]TY ( ! DEBTOR1 :]EV] HE CAN F9D IT1 TO SATISFY ! DEBT4 ,IF ONE MAN COMMIT A TRESPASS UPON ! P]SON1 PROP]TY OR *>ACT] ( ANO!R1 ! 9JUR$ P>TY HAS A NATURAL RI<T1 EI!R TO *A/ISE ! AGGRESSOR1 OR TO TAKE COMP5SATION = ! 9JURY \T ( HIS PROP]TY4 ,BUT AS ! GOV]NM5T IS AN IMP>TIAL P>TY AS BETWE5 !SE 9DIVIDUALS1 IT IS MORE LIKELY TO DO EXACT JU/ICE BETWE5 !M ?AN ! 9JUR$ 9DIVIDUAL HIMSELF W\LD DO4 ,! GOV]NM5T1 ALSO1 HAV+ MORE P[] AT ITS COMM&1 IS LIKELY TO RI<T A MAN'S WRONGS MORE PEACEFULLY ?AN ! 9JUR$ P>TY HIMSELF C\LD DO IT4 ,IF1 !RE=E1 ! GOV]NM5T WILL DO ! WORK ( 5=C+ A MAN'S RI<TS1 & R$RESS+ HIS WRONGS1 PROMPTLY1 & FREE ( EXP5SE TO HIM1 HE IS UND] A MORAL OBLIGATION TO LEAVE ! WORK 9 ! H&S ( ! GOV]NM5T2 BUT NOT O!RWISE4 ,:5 ! GOV]NM5T =BIDS HIM TO 5=CE HIS [N RI<TS OR R$RESS HIS [N WRONGS1 & DEPRIVES HIM ( ALL MEANS ( OBTA9+ JU/ICE1 EXCEPT ON ! CONDITION ( HIS EMPLOY+ ! GOV]NM5T TO OBTA9 IT = HIM1 & ( PAY+ ! GOV]NM5T = DO+ IT1 ! GOV]NM5T BECOMES ITSELF ! PROTECTOR & ACCOMPLICE ( ! WRONG-DO]4 ,IF ! GOV]NM5T WILL =BID A MAN TO PROTECT HIS [N RI<TS1 IT IS B\ND1 TO DO IT = HIM1 FREE ( EXP5SE TO HIM4 ,& SO LONG AS GOV]NM5T REFUSES TO DO ?IS1 JURIES1 IF !Y KNEW !IR DUTIES1 W\LD PROTECT A MAN 9 DEF5D+ HIS [N RI<TS4  

 ,UND] ! PREVAIL+ SY/EM1 PROBABLY ONE HALF ( ! COMMUNITY >E VIRTUALLY DEPRIV$ ( ALL PROTECTION = !IR RI<TS1 EXCEPT :AT ! CRIM9AL LAW AF=DS !M4 ,C\RTS ( JU/ICE1 = ALL CIVIL SUITS1 >E AS EFFECTUALLY %UT AGA9/ !M1 AS ?\< IT W]E DONE BY BOLTS & B>S4 ,BE+ =BIDD5 TO MA9TA9 !IR [N RI<TS BY =CE1 AS1 = 9/ANCE1 TO COMPEL ! PAYM5T ( DEBTS1 & BE+ UNABLE TO PAY ! EXP5SES ( CIVIL SUITS1 !Y HAVE NO ALT]NATIVE BUT SUBMISSION TO MANY ACTS ( 9JU/ICE1 AGA9/ :I* ! GOV]NM5T IS B\ND EI!R TO PROTECT !M1 FREE ( EXP5SE1 OR ALL[ !M TO PROTECT !MSELVES4  

 ,!RE W\LD BE ! SAME REASON 9 COMPELL+ A P>TY TO PAY ! JUDGE & JURY = !IR S]VICES1 ?AT !RE IS 9 COMPELL+ HIM TO PAY ! WITNESSES1 OR ANY O!R NECESS>Y *>GES4#i#c 

 ,?IS COMPELL+ P>TIES TO PAY ! EXP5SES ( CIVIL SUITS IS ONE ( ! MANY CASES 9 :I* GOV]NM5T IS FALSE TO ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ON :I* FREE GOV]NM5T IS BAS$4 ,:AT IS ! OBJECT ( GOV]NM5T1 BUT TO PROTECT M5'S RI<TS8 ,ON :AT PR9CIPLE DOES A MAN PAY HIS TAXES TO ! GOV]NM5T1 EXCEPT ON ?AT ( CONTRIBUT+ HIS PROPORTION T[>DS ! NECESS>Y CO/ ( PROTECT+ ! RI<TS ( ALL8 ,YET1 :5 HIS [N RI<TS >E ACTUALLY 9VAD$1 ! GOV]NM5T1 :I* HE CONTRIBUTES TO SUPPORT1 9/EAD ( FULFILL+ ITS IMPLI$ CONTRACT1 BECOMES HIS 5EMY1 & NOT ONLY REFUSES TO PROTECT HIS RI<TS1 7EXCEPT AT HIS [N CO/17 BUT EV5 =BIDS HIM TO DO IT HIMSELF4  

 ,ALL FREE GOV]NM5T IS F\ND$ ON ! !ORY ( VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION2 & ON ! !ORY ?AT ALL ! P>TIES TO IT VOLUNT>ILY PAY !IR TAXES = ITS SUPPORT1 ON ! CONDITION ( RECEIV+ PROTECTION 9 RETURN4 ,BUT ! IDEA ?AT ANY POOR MAN W\LD VOLUNT>ILY PAY TAXES TO BUILD UP A GOV]NM5T1 :I* WILL NEI!R PROTECT HIS RI<TS1 7EXCEPT AT A CO/ :I* HE CANNOT MEET17 NOR SUFF] HIMSELF TO PROTECT !M BY SU* MEANS AS MAY BE 9 HIS P[]1 IS ABSURD4  

 ,UND] ! PREVAIL+ SY/EM1 A L>GE PORTION ( ! LAWSUITS DET]M9$ 9 C\RTS1 >E M]E CONTE/S ( PURSES RA!R ?AN ( RI<TS4 ,& A JURY1 SWORN TO DECIDE CAUSES 0ACCORD+ TO ! EVID5CE0 PRODUC$1 >E QUITE LIKELY1 = AU<T !Y !MSELVES CAN KN[1 TO BE DECID+ M]ELY ! COMP>ATIVE L5G? ( ! P>TIES' PURSES1 RA!R ?AN ! 9TR9SIC /R5G? ( !IR RESPECTIVE RI<TS4 ,JURORS \<T TO REFUSE TO DECIDE A CAUSE AT ALL1 EXCEPT UPON ! ASSURANCE ?AT ALL ! EVID5CE1 NECESS>Y TO A FULL KN[L$GE ( ! CAUSE1 IS PRODUC$4 ,?IS ASSURANCE !Y CAN SELDOM HAVE1 UNLESS ! GOV]NM5T ITSELF PRODUCES ALL ! WITNESSES ! P>TIES DESIRE4  

 ,9 CRIM9AL CASES1 ! ATROCITY ( ACCUS+ A MAN ( CRIME1 & !N CONDEMN+ HIM UNLESS HE PROVE HIS 9NOC5CE AT HIS [N *>GES1 IS SO EVID5T ?AT A JURY C\LD R>ELY1 IF EV]1 BE JU/IFI$ 9 CONVICT+ A MAN UND] SU* CIRCUM/ANCES4  

 ,BUT ! FREE ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE IS NOT ONLY 9DISP5SABLE TO ! MA9T5ANCE ( RI<T BETWE5 MAN & MAN2 IT W\LD ALSO PROMOTE SIMPLICITY & /ABILITY 9 ! LAWS4 ,! MANIA = LEGISLATION W\LD BE1 9 AN IMPORTANT DEGREE1 RE/RA9$1 IF ! GOV]NM5T W]E COMPELL$ TO PAY ! EXP5SES ( ALL ! SUITS ?AT GREW \T ( IT4  

 ,! FREE ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE W\LD DIM9I% & NE>LY EXT+UI% ANO!R GREAT EVIL1 ?AT ( MALICI\S CIVIL SUITS ,IT IS AN OLD SAY+1 ?AT 0MULTI LITIGANT 9 =O1 NON UT ALIQUID LUC5TUR1 S$ UT VEXANT ALIOS40 7,MANY LITIGATE 9 C\RT1 NOT ?AT !Y MAY GA9 ANY?+1 BUT ?AT !Y MAY H>ASS O!RS47 ,MANY M51 FROM MOTIVES ( REV5GE & OPPRESSION1 >E WILL+ TO SP5D !IR [N MONEY 9 PROSECUT+ A GR\NDLESS SUIT1 IF !Y CAN !REBY COMPEL !IR VICTIMS1 :O >E LESS ABLE ?AN !MSELVES TO BE> ! LOSS1 TO SP5D MONEY 9 ! DEF5SE4 ,UND] ! PREVAIL+ SY/EM1 9 :I* ! P>TIES PAY ! EXP5SES ( !IR SUITS1 NO?+ BUT MONEY IS NECESS>Y TO 5ABLE ANY MALICI\S MAN TO COMM5CE & PROSECUTE A GR\NDLESS SUIT1 TO ! T]ROR1 9JURY1 & P]HAPS RU91 ( ANO!R MAN4 ,9 ?IS WAY1 A C\RT ( JU/ICE1 9TO :I* NONE BUT A CONSCI5TI\S PLA9TIFF C]TA9LY %\LD EV] BE ALL[$ TO 5T]1 BECOMES AN >5A 9TO :I* ANY RI* & REV5GEFUL OPPRESSOR MAY DRAG ANY MAN POOR] ?AN HIMSELF1 & H>ASS1 T]RIFY1 & IMPOV]I% HIM1 TO ALMO/ ANY EXT5T4 ,IT IS A SC&AL & AN \TRAGE1 ?AT GOV]NM5T %\LD SUFF] ITSELF TO BE MADE AN 9/RUM5T1 9 ?IS WAY1 = ! GRATIFICATION ( PRIVATE MALICE4 ,WE MI<T NE>LY AS WELL HAVE NO C\RTS ( JU/ICE1 AS TO ?R[ !M OP51 AS WE DO1 = SU* FLAGITI\S USES4 ,YET ! EVIL PROBABLY ADMITS ( NO REM$Y EXCEPT A FREE ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE4 ,UND] A FREE SY/EM1 PLA9TIFFS C\LD R>ELY BE 9FLU5C$ BY MOTIVES ( ?IS K9D2 BECAUSE !Y C\LD PUT !IR VICTIM TO LITTLE OR NO EXP5SE1 NEI!R P5D+ ! SUIT1 7:I* IT IS ! OBJECT ( ! OPPRESSOR TO DO17 NOR AT ITS T]M9ATION4 ,BESIDES1 IF ! ANCI5T COMMON LAW PRACTICE %\LD BE ADOPT$1 ( AM]C+ A P>TY = TR\BL+ ! C\RTS ) GR\NDLESS SUITS1 ! PROSECUTOR HIMSELF W\LD1 9 ! 5D1 BE LIKELY TO BE AM]C$ BY ! JURY1 9 SU* A MANN] AS TO MAKE C\RTS ( JU/ICE A V]Y UNPROITABLE PLACE = A MAN TO GO TO SEEK REV5GE4  

 ,9 E/IMAT+ ! EVILS ( ?IS K9D1 RESULT+ FROM ! PRES5T SY/EM1 WE >E TO CONSID] ?AT !Y >E NOT1 BY ANY MEANS1 CONF9$ TO ! ACTUAL SUITS 9 :I* ?IS K9D ( OPPRESSION IS PRACTIC$2 BUT WE >E TO 9CLUDE ALL ?OSE CASES 9 :I* ! FE> ( SU* OPPRESSION IS US$ AS A WEAPON TO COMPEL M5 9TO A SURR5D] ( !IR RI<TS4 

,*,A,P,T,] ,I,X4 ,! ,C,R,I,M,9,A,L ,9,T,5,T  

 ,IT IS A MAXIM ( ! COMMON LAW ?AT !RE CAN BE NO CRIME )\T A CRIM9AL 9T5T4 ,& IT IS A P]FECTLY CLE> PR9CIPLE1 AL?\< ONE :I* JUDGES HAVE 9 A GREAT MEASURE OV]?R[N 9 PRACTICE1 ?AT JURORS >E TO JUDGE ( ! MORAL 9T5T ( AN ACCUS$ P]SON1 & HOLD HIM GUILTLESS1 :ATEV] HIS ACT1 UNLESS !Y F9D HIM TO HAVE ACT$ ) A CRIM9AL 9T5T2 ?AT IS1 ) A DESIGN TO DO :AT HE KNEW TO BE CRIM9AL4  

 ,?IS PR9CIPLE IS CLE>1 BECAUSE ! QUE/ION = A JURY TO DET]M9E IS1 :E!R ! ACCUS$ BE GUILTY1 OR NOT GUILTY4 ,GUILT IS A P]SONAL QUALITY ( ! ACTOR1 NOT NECESS>ILY 9VOLV$ 9 ! ACT1 BUT DEP5D+ ALSO UPON ! 9T5T OR MOTIVE ) :I* ! ACT WAS DONE4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 ! JURY MU/ F9D ?AT HE ACT$ FROM A CRIM9AL MOTIVE1 BE=E !Y CAN DECL>E HIM GUILTY4  

 ,!RE IS NO MORAL JU/ICE 91 NOR ANY POLITICAL NECESSITY =1 PUNI%+ A MAN = ANY ACT :ATEV] ?AT HE MAY HAVE COMMITT$1 IF HE HAVE DONE IT )\T ANY CRIM9AL 9T5T4 ,!RE CAN BE NO MORAL JU/ICE 9 PUNI%+ = SU* AN ACT1 BECAUSE1 !RE HAV+ BE5 NO CRIM9AL MOTIVE1 !RE CAN HAVE BE5 NO O!R MOTIVE :I* JU/ICE CAN TAKE COGNIZANCE (1 AS DEM&+ OR JU/IFY+ PUNI%M5T4 ,!RE CAN BE NO POLITICAL NECESSITY = PUNI%+1 TO W>N AGA9/ SIMIL> ACTS 9 FUTURE1 BECAUSE1 IF ONE MAN HAVE 9JUR$ ANO!R1 H[EV] UN9T5TIONALLY1 HE IS LIABLE1 & JU/LY LIABLE1 TO A CIVIL SUIT = DAMAGES2 & 9 ?IS SUIT HE WILL BE COMPELL$ TO MAKE COMP5SATION = ! 9JURY1 NOT)/&+ HIS 9NOC5CE ( ANY 9T5TION TO 9JURE4 ,HE MU/ BE> ! CONSEQU5CES ( HIS [N ACT1 9/EAD ( ?R[+ !M UPON ANO!R1 H[EV] 9NOC5T HE MAY HAVE BE5 ( ANY 9T5TION TO DO WRONG4 ,& ! DAMAGES HE WILL HAVE TO PAY WILL BE A SUFFICI5T W>N+ TO HIM NOT TO DO ! LIKE ACT AGA94  

 ,IF IT BE ALLEG$ ?AT !RE >E CRIMES AGA9/ ! PUBLIC1 7AS TREASON1 = EXAMPLE1 OR ANY O!R RESI/ANCE TO GOV]NM5T17 = :I* PRIVATE P]SONS CAN RECOV] NO DAMAGES1 & ?AT !RE IS A POLITICAL NECESSITY = PUNI%+ = SU* (F5SES1 EV5 ?\< ! P>TY ACT$ CONSCI5TI\SLY1 ! ANSW] IS1 ! GOV]NM5T MU/ BE> ) ALL RESI/ANCE ?AT IS NOT SO CLE>LY WRONG AS TO GIVE EVID5CE ( CRIM9AL 9T5T4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! GOV]NM5T1 9 ALL ITS ACTS1 MU/ KEEP ITSELF SO CLE>LY )9 ! LIMITS ( JU/ICE1 AS ?AT TWELVE M51 TAK5 AT R&OM1 WILL ALL AGREE ?AT IT IS 9 ! RI<T1 OR IT MU/ 9CUR ! RISK ( RESI/ANCE1 )\T ANY P[] TO PUNI% IT4 ,?IS IS ! MODE 9 :I* ! TRIAL BY JURY OP]ATES TO PREV5T ! GOV]NM5T FROM FALL+ 9TO ! H&S ( A P>TY1 OR A FACTION1 & TO KEEP IT )9 SU* LIMITS AS ALL1 OR SUB/ANTIALLY ALL1 ! PEOPLE >E AGRE$ ?AT IT MAY OCCUPY4  

 ,?IS NECESSITY = A CRIM9AL 9T5T1 TO JU/IFY CONVICTION1 IS PROV$ BY ! ISSUE :I* ! JURY >E TO TRY1 & ! V]DICT !Y >E TO PRON\NCE4 ,! 0ISSUE0 !Y >E TO TRY IS1 0GUILTY10OR 0NOT GUILTY40 ,& ?OSE >E ! T]MS !Y >E REQUIR$ TO USE 9 R5D]+ !IR V]DICTS4 ,BUT IT IS A PLA9 FALSEHOOD TO SAY ?AT A MAN IS 0GUILTY10 UNLESS HE HAVE DONE AN ACT :I* HE KNEW TO BE CRIM9AL4  

 ,?IS NECESSITY = A CRIM9AL 9T5T -- 9 O!R WORDS1 = GUILT -- AS A PRELIM9>Y TO CONVICTION1 MAKES IT IMPOSSIBLE ?AT A MAN CAN BE RI<TFULLY CONVICT$ = AN ACT ?AT IS 9TR9SICALLY 9NOC5T1 ?\< =BIDD5 BY ! GOV]NM5T2 BECAUSE GUILT IS AN 9TR9SIC QUALITY ( ACTIONS & MOTIVES1 & NOT ONE ?AT CAN BE IMP>T$ TO !M BY >BITR>Y LEGISLATION4 ,ALL ! EF=TS ( ! GOV]NM5T1 !RE=E1 TO 0MAKE (F5SES BY /ATUTE10 \T ( ACTS ?AT >E NOT CRIM9AL BY NATURE1 MU/ NECESS>ILY BE 9EFFECTUAL1 UNLESS A JURY WILL DECL>E A MAN 0GUILTY0 = AN ACT ?AT IS REALLY 9NOC5T4  

 ,! CORRUPTION ( JUDGES1 9 !IR ATTEMPTS TO UPHOLD ! >BITR>Y AU?ORITY ( ! GOV]NM5T1 BY PROCUR+ ! CONVICTION ( 9DIVIDUALS = ACTS 9NOC5T 9 !MSELVES1 & =BIDD5 ONLY BY SOME TYRANNICAL /ATUTE1 & ! COMMISSION ( :I* !RE=E 9DICATES NO CRIM9AL 9T5T1 IS V]Y APP>5T4  

 ,TO ACCOMPLI% ?IS OBJECT1 !Y HAVE 9 MOD]N TIMES HELD IT TO BE UNNECESS>Y ?AT 9DICTM5TS %\LD *>GE1 AS BY ! COMMON LAW !Y W]E REQUIR$ TO DO1 ?AT AN ACT WAS DONE 0WICK$LY10 0FELONI\SLY10 0) MALICE A=E?\<T10 OR 9 ANY O!R MANN] ?AT IMPLI$ A CRIM9AL 9T5T1 )\T :I* !RE CAN BE NO CRIM9ALITY2 BUT ?AT IT IS SUFFICI5T TO *>GE SIMPLY ?AT IT WAS DONE 0CONTR>Y TO ! =M ( ! /ATUTE 9 SU* CASE MADE & PROVID$40 ,?IS =M ( 9DICTM5T PROCE$S PLA9LY UPON ! ASSUMPTION ?AT ! GOV]NM5T IS ABSOLUTE1 & ?AT IT HAS AU?ORITY TO PROHIBIT ANY ACT IT PLEASES1 H[EV] 9NOC5T 9 ITS NATURE ! ACT MAY BE4 ,JUDGES HAVE BE5 DRIV5 TO ! ALT]NATIVE ( EI!R SANCTION+ ?IS NEW =M ( 9DICTM5T1 7:I* !Y NEV] HAD ANY CON/ITUTIONAL RI<T TO SANCTION17 OR ( SEE+ ! AU?ORITY ( MANY ( ! /ATUTES ( ! GOV]NM5T FALL TO ! GR\ND2 BECAUSE ! ACTS =BIDD5 BY ! /ATUTES W]E SO PLA9LY 9NOC5T 9 !IR NATURE1 ?AT EV5 ! GOV]NM5T ITSELF HAD NOT ! FACE TO ALLEGE ?AT ! COMMISSION ( !M IMPLI$ OR 9DICAT$ ANY CRIM9AL 9T5T4  

 ,TO GET RID ( ! NECESSITY ( %[+ A CRIM9AL 9T5T1 & !REBY FUR!R TO 5?RALL$ ! PEOPLE1 BY R$UC+ !M TO ! NECESSITY ( A BL9D1 UNREASON+ SUBMISSION TO ! >BITR>Y WILL ( ! GOV]NM5T1 & ( A SURR5D] ( ALL RI<T1 ON !IR [N P>T1 TO JUDGE :AT >E !IR CON/ITUTIONAL & NATURAL RI<TS & LIB]TIES1 C\RTS HAVE 9V5T$ ANO!R IDEA1 :I* !Y HAVE 9CORPORAT$ AMONG ! PRET5D$ MAXIMS1 UPON :I* !Y ACT 9 CRIM9AL TRIALS1 VIZ41 ?AT 0IGNORANCE ( ! LAW EXCUSES NO ONE40 ,AS IF IT W]E 9 ! NATURE ( ?+S POSSIBLE ?AT !RE C\LD BE AN EXCUSE MORE ABSOLUTE & COMPLETE4 ,:AT ELSE ?AN IGNORANCE ( ! LAW IS IT ?AT EXCUSES P]SONS UND] ! YE>S ( DISCRETION1 & M5 ( IMBECILE M9DS8 ,:AT ELSE ?AN IGNORANCE ( ! LAW IS IT ?AT EXCUSES JUDGES !MSELVES = ALL !IR ]RONE\S DECISIONS8 ,NO?+4 ,!Y >E EV]Y DAY COMMITT+ ]RORS1 :I* W\LD BE CRIMES1 BUT = !IR IGNORANCE ( ! LAW4 ,& YET !SE SAME JUDGES1 :O CLAIM TO BE LE>N$ 9 ! LAW1 & :O YET C\LD NOT HOLD !IR (FICES = A DAY1 BUT = ! ALL[ANCE :I* ! LAW MAKES = !IR IGNORANCE1 >E CONT9UALLY ASS]T+ IT TO BE A 0MAXIM0 ?AT 0IGNORANCE ( ! LAW EXCUSES NO ONE20 7BY :I*1 ( C\RSE1 !Y REALLY MEAN ?AT IT EXCUSES NO ONE BUT !MSELVES2 & ESPECIALLY ?AT IT EXCUSES NO UNLE>N$ MAN1 :O COMES BE=E !M *>G$ ) CRIME47  

 ,?IS PREPO/]\S DOCTR9E1 ?AT 0IGNORANCE ( ! LAW EXCUSES NO ONE10 IS ASS]T$ BY C\RTS BECAUSE IT IS AN 9DISP5SABLE ONE TO ! MA9T5ANCE ( ABSOLUTE P[] 9 ! GOV]NM5T4 ,IT IS 9DISP5SABLE = ?IS PURPOSE1 BECAUSE1 IF IT BE ONCE ADMITT$ ?AT ! PEOPLE HAVE ANY RI<TS & LIB]TIES :I* ! GOV]NM5T CANNOT LAWFULLY TAKE FROM !M1 !N ! QUE/ION >ISES 9 REG>D TO EV]Y /ATUTE ( ! GOV]NM5T1 :E!R IT BE LAW1 OR NOT2 ?AT IS1 :E!R IT 9FR+E1 OR NOT1 ! RI<TS & LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE4 ,( ?IS QUE/ION EV]Y MAN MU/ ( C\RSE JUDGE ACCORD+ TO ! LI<T 9 HIS [N M9D4 ,& NO MAN CAN BE CONVICT$ UNLESS ! JURY F9D1 NOT ONLY ?AT ! /ATUTE IS LAW1 -- ?AT IT DOES NOT 9FR+E ! RI<TS & LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE1 -- BUT ALSO ?AT IT WAS SO CLE>LY LAW1 SO CLE>LY CONSI/5T ) ! RI<TS & LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE1 AS ?AT ! 9DIVIDUAL HIMSELF1 :O TRANSGRESS$ IT1 KNEW IT TO BE SO1 & !RE=E HAD NO MORAL EXCUSE = TRANSGRESS+ IT4 ,GOV]NM5TS SEE ?AT IF IGNORANCE ( ! LAW W]E ALL[$ TO EXCUSE A MAN = ANY ACT :ATEV]1 IT MU/ EXCUSE HIM = TRANSGRESS+ ALL /ATUTES :ATSOEV]1 :I* HE HIMSELF ?9KS 9CONSI/5T ) HIS RI<TS & LIB]TIES4 ,BUT SU* A DOCTR9E W\LD ( C\RSE BE 9CONSI/5T ) ! MA9T5ANCE ( >BITR>Y P[] BY ! GOV]NM5T2 & H5CE GOV]NM5TS WILL NOT ALL[ ! PLEA1 AL?\< !Y WILL NOT CONFESS !IR TRUE REASONS = DISALL[+ IT4  

 ,! ONLY REASONS1 7IF !Y DES]VE ! NAME ( REASONS71 ?AT ,I EV] KNEW GIV5 = ! DOCTR9E ?AT IGNORANCE ( ! LAW EXCUSES NO ONE1 >E !SE3  

 #a4 0,! REASON = ! MAXIM IS ?AT ( NECESSITY4 ,IT PREVAILS1 'NOT ?AT ALL M5 KN[ ! LAW1 BUT BECAUSE IT IS AN EXCUSE :I* EV]Y MAN WILL MAKE1 & NO MAN CAN TELL H[ TO CONFUTE HIM4' -- ,SELD51 7AS QUOT$ 9 ! #bD $ITION ( ,/>KIE ON ,SL&]1 ,PRELIM4 ,DISC41 P4 #a#d1 NOTE470 -- ,LAW ,MAGAZ9E1 7,LONDON17 VOL4 #b#g1 P4 #i#g4 

 ,?IS REASON IMPLI$LY ADMITS ?AT IGNORANCE ( ! ,LAW IS1 9TR9SICALLY1 AN AMPLE & SUFFICI5T EXCUSE = A CRIME2 & ?AT ! EXCUSE \<T TO BE ALL[$1 IF ! FACT ( IGNORANCE C\LD BUT BE ASC]TA9$4 ,BUT IT ASS]TS ?AT ?IS FACT IS 9CAPABLE ( BE+ ASC]TA9$1 & ?AT !RE=E !RE IS A NECESSITY = PUNI%+ ! IGNORANT & ! KN[+ ?AT IS1 ! 9NOC5T & ! GUILTY )\T DISCRIM9ATION4 ,?IS REASON IS WOR?Y ( ! DOCTR9E IT IS US$ TO UPHOLD2 AS IF A PLEA ( IGNORANCE1 ANY MORE ?AN ANY O!R PLEA1 MU/ NECESS>ILY BE BELIEV$ SIMPLY BECAUSE IT IS URG$2 & AS IF IT W]E NOT A COMMON & EV]YDAY PRACTICE ( C\RTS & JURIES1 9 BO? CIVIL & CRIM9AL CASES1 TO DET]M9E ! M5TAL CAPACITY ( 9DIVIDUALS2 AS1 = EXAMPLE1 TO DET]M9E :E!R !Y >E ( SUFFICI5T M5TAL CAPACITY TO MAKE REASONABLE CONTRACTS2 :E!R !Y >E LUNATIC2 :E!R !Y >E COMPOTES M5TIS1 0( S\ND M9D & MEMORY10 @&4 @&4 ,& !RE IS OBVI\SLY NO MORE DIFFICULTY 9 A JURY'S DET]M9+ :E!R AN ACCUS$ P]SON KNEW ! LAW 9 A CRIM9AL CASE1 ?AN !RE IS 9 DET]M9+ ANY ( !SE O!R QUE/IONS ?AT >E CONT9UALLY DET]M9$ 9 REG>D TO A MAN'S M5TAL CAPACITY4 ,= ! QUE/ION TO BE SETTL$ BY ! JURY IS NOT :E!R ! ACCUS$ P]SON KNEW ! P>TICUL> P5ALTY ATTA*$ TO HIS ACT1 7= AT COMMON LAW NO ONE KNEW :AT P5ALTY A JURY W\LD ATTA* TO AN (F5SE17 BUT :E!R HE KNEW ?AT HIS ACT WAS 9TR9SICALLY CRIM9AL4 ,IF IT W]E 9TR9SICALLY CRIM9AL1 IT WAS CRIM9AL AT COMMON LAW4 ,IF IT WAS NOT 9TR9SICALLY CRIM9AL1 IT WAS NOT CRIM9AL AT COMMON LAW4 7,AT LEA/1 SU* WAS ! G5]AL PR9CIPLE ( ! COMMON LAW4 ,!RE MAY HAVE BE5 EXCEPTIONS 9 PRACTICE1 [+ TO ! FACT ?AT ! OP9IONS ( M51 AS TO :AT WAS 9TR9SICALLY4 CRIM9AL1 MAY NOT HAVE BE5 9 ALL CASES CORRECT47  

 ,A JURY1 !N1 9 JUDG+ :E!R AN ACCUS$ P]SON KNEW HIS ACT TO BE ILLEGAL1 W]E B\ND FIR/ TO USE !IR [N JUDGM5TS1 AS TO :E!R ! ACT W]E 9TR9SICALLY CRIM9AL4 ,IF !IR [N JUDGM5TS TOLD !M ! ACT WAS 9TR9SICALLY & CLE>LY CRIM9AL1 !Y W\LD NATURALLY & REASONABLY 9F] ?AT ! ACCUS$ ALSO UND]/OOD ?AT IT WAS 9TR9SICALLY CRIM9AL1 7& CONSEQU5TLY ILLEGAL17 UNLESS IT %\LD APPE> ?AT HE WAS EI!R BEL[ !MSELVES 9 ! SCALE ( 9TELLECT1 OR HAD HAD LESS OPPORTUNITIES ( KN[+ :AT ACTS W]E CRIM9AL4 ,9 %ORT1 !Y W\LD JUDGE1 FROM ANY & EV]Y MEANS !Y MI<T HAVE ( JUDG+2 & IF !Y HAD ANY REASONABLE D\BT ?AT HE KNEW HIS ACT TO BE CRIM9AL 9 ITSELF1 !Y W\LD BE B\ND TO ACQUIT HIM4  

 ,! SECOND REASON ?AT HAS BE5 (F]$ = ! DOCTR9E ?AT IGNORANCE ( ! LAW EXCUSES NO ONE1 IS ?IS3  

 0,IGNORANCE ( ! MUNICIPAL LAW ( ! K+DOM1 OR ( ! P5ALTY !REBY 9FLICT$ ON (F5D]S1 DO? NOT EXCUSE ANY ?AT IS ( ! AGE ( DISCRETION & COMPOS M5TIS1 FROM ! P5ALTY ( ! BREA* ( IT2 BECAUSE EV]Y P]SON1 ( ! AGE ( DISCRETION & COMPOS M5TIS1 IS B\ND TO KN[ ! LAW1 & PRESUM$ TO DO SO4 0,IGNORANTIA EORUM11 QUE QUIS SCIRE T5ETUR NON EXCUSAT40 7,IGNORANCE ( ?OSE ?+S :I* EV]Y ONE IS B\ND TO KN[1 DOES NOT EXCUSE47 -- #a ,HALE'S ,PLEAS ( ! ,CR[N1 #d#b4 ,DOCTOR & ,/UD5T1 ,DIALOGUE4 #b1 *4 #d#f4 ,LAW ,MAGAZ9E1 7,LONDON17 VOL4 #b#g1 P4 #i#g4  

 ,! SUM ( ?IS REASON IS1 ?AT IGNORANCE ( ! LAW EXCUSES NO ONE1 7:O IS ( ! AGE ( DISCRETION & IS COMPOS M5TIS17 BECAUSE EV]Y SU* P]SON 0IS B\ND TO KN[ ! LAW40 ,BUT ?IS IS GIV+ NO REASON AT ALL = ! DOCTR9E1 S9CE SAY+ ?AT A MAN 0IS B\ND TO KN[ ! LAW10 IS ONLY SAY+1 9 ANO!R =M1 ?AT 0IGNORANCE ( ! LAW DOES NOT EXCUSE HIM40 ,!RE IS NO DIFF]5CE AT ALL 9 ! TWO IDEAS4 ,TO SAY1 !RE=E1 ?AT 0IGNORANCE ( ! LAW EXCUSES NO ONE1 BECAUSE EV]Y ONE IS B\ND TO KN[ ! LAW10 IS ONLY EQUIVAL5T TO SAY+ ?AT 0IGNORANCE ( ! LAW EXCUSES NO ONE1 BECAUSE IGNORANCE ( ! LAW EXCUSES NO ONE40 ,IT IS M]ELY REASS]T+ ! DOCTR9E1 )\T GIV+ ANY REASON AT ALL4  

 ,& YET !SE REASONS1 :I* >E REALLY NO REASONS AT ALL1 >E ! ONLY ONES1 SO F> AS ,I KN[1 ?AT HAVE EV] BE5 (F]$ = ?IS ABSURD & BRUTAL DOCTR9E4  

 ,! IDEA SUGGE/$1 ?AT 0 ! AGE ( DISCRETION0 DET]M9ES ! GUILT ( A P]SON1 -- ?AT !RE IS A P>TICUL> AGE1 PRIOR TO :I* ALL P]SONS ALIKE %\LD BE HELD 9CAPABLE ( KN[+ ANY CRIME1 & SUBSEQU5T TO :I* ALL P]SONS ALIKE %\LD BE HELD CAPABLE ( KN[+ ALL CRIMES1 -- IS ANO!R ( ?IS MO/ RIDICUL\S NE/ ( IDEAS4 ,ALL MANK9D ACQUIRE !IR KN[L$GE ( CRIMES1 AS !Y DO ( O!R ?+S1 GRADUALLY4 ,SOME !Y LE>N AT AN E>LY AGE2 O!RS NOT TILL A LAT] ONE4 ,ONE 9DIVIDUAL ACQUIRES A KN[L$GE ( CRIMES1 AS HE DOES ( >I?METIC1 AT AN E>LI] AGE ?AN O!RS DO4 ,& TO APPLY ! SAME PRESUMPTION TO ALL1 ON ! GR\ND ( AGE ALONE1 IS NOT ONLY GROSS 9JU/ICE1 BUT GROSS FOLLY4 ,A UNIV]SAL PRESUMPTION MI<T1 ) NE>LY OR QUITE AS MU* REASON1 BE F\ND$ UPON WEI<T1 OR HEI<T1 AS UPON AGE4#i#d  

 ,?IS DOCTR9E1 ?AT 0IGNORANCE ( ! LAW EXCUSES NO ONE10 IS CON/ANTLY REPEAT$ 9 ! =M ?AT 0EV]Y ONE IS B\ND TO KN[ ! LAW40 ,! DOCTR9E IS TRUE 9 CIVIL MATT]S1 ESPECIALLY 9 CONTRACTS1 SO F> AS ?IS3 ?AT NO MAN1 :O HAS ! ORD9>Y CAPACITY TO MAKE REASONABLE CONTRACTS1 CAN ESCAPE ! CONSEQU5CES ( HIS [N AGREEM5T1 ON ! GR\ND ?AT HE DID NOT KN[ ! LAW APPLICABLE TO IT4 ,:5 A MAN MAKES A CONTRACT1 HE GIVES ! O!R P>TY RI<TS2 & HE MU/ ( NECESSITY JUDGE = HIMSELF1 & TAKE HIS [N RISK1 AS TO :AT ?OSE RI<TS >E1 -- O!RWISE ! CONTRACT W\LD NOT BE B9D+1 & M5 C\LD NOT MAKE CONTRACTS ?AT W\LD CONVEY RI<TS TO EA* O!R4 ,BESIDES1 ! CAPACITY TO MAKE REASONABLE CONTRACTS1 IMPLIES & 9CLUDES A CAPACITY TO =M A REASONABLE JUDGM5T AS TO ! LAW APPLICABLE TO !M4 ,BUT 9 CRIM9AL MATT]S1 :]E ! QUE/ION IS ONE ( PUNI%M5T1 OR NOT2 :]E NO SECOND P>TY HAS ACQUIR$ ANY RI<T TO HAVE ! CRIME PUNI%$1 UNLESS IT W]E COMMITT$ ) CRIM9AL 9T5T1 7BUT ONLY TO HAVE IT COMP5SAT$ = BY DAMAGES 9 A CIVIL SUIT27 & :5 ! CRIM9AL 9T5T IS ! ONLY MORAL JU/IFICATION = ! PUNI%M5T1 ! PR9CIPLE DOES NOT APPLY1 & A MAN IS B\ND TO KN[ ! LAW ONLY AS WELL AS HE REASONABLY MAY4 ,! CRIM9AL LAW REQUIRES NEI!R IMPOSSIBILITIES NOR EXTRAORD9>IES ( ANY ONE4 ,IT REQUIRES ONLY ?\<TFULNESS & A GOOD CONSCI5CE4 ,IT REQUIRES ONLY ?AT A MAN FAIRLY & PROP]LY USE ! JUDGM5T HE POSSESSES1 & ! MEANS HE HAS ( LE>N+ HIS DUTY4 ,IT REQUIRES ( HIM ONLY ! SAME C>E TO KN[ HIS DUTY 9 REG>D TO ! LAW1 ?AT HE IS MORALLY B\ND TO USE 9 O!R MATT]S ( EQUAL IMPORTANCE4 ,& ?IS C>E IT DOES REQUIRE ( HIM4 ,ANY IGNORANCE ( ! LAW1 !RE=E1 ?AT IS UNNECESS>Y1 OR ?AT >ISES FROM 9DIFF]5CE OR DISREG>D ( ONE'S DUTY1 IS NO EXCUSE4 ,AN ACCUS$ P]SON1 !RE=E1 MAY BE RI<TFULLY HELD RESPONSIBLE = SU* A KN[L$GE ( ! LAW AS IS COMMON TO M5 9 G5]AL1 HAV+ NO GREAT] NATURAL CAPACITIES ?AN HIMSELF1 & NO GREAT] OPPORTUNITIES = LE>N+ ! LAW4 ,& HE CAN RI<TFULLY BE HELD TO NO GREAT] KN[L$GE ( ! LAW ?AN ?IS4 ,TO HOLD HIM RESPONSIBLE = A GREAT] KN[L$GE ( ! LAW ?AN IS COMMON TO MANK9D1 :5 O!R ?+S >E EQUAL1 W\LD BE GROSS 9JU/ICE & CRUELTY4 ,! MASS ( MANK9D CAN GIVE BUT LITTLE ( !IR ATT5TION TO ACQUIR+ A KN[L$GE ( ! LAW4 ,!IR O!R DUTIES 9 LIFE =BID IT4 ,( C\RSE1 !Y CANNOT 9VE/IGATE AB/RUSE OR DIFFICULT QUE/IONS4 ,ALL ?AT CAN RI<TFULLY BE REQUIR$ ( EA* ( !M1 !N1 IS ?AT HE EX]CISE SU* A C&ID & CONSCI5TI\S JUDGM5T AS IT IS COMMON =MANK9D G5]ALLY TO EX]CISE 9 SU* MATT]S4 ,IF HE HAVE DONE ?IS1 IT W\LD BE MON/R\S TO PUNI% HIM CRIM9ALLY = HIS ]RORS2 ]RORS NOT ( CONSCI5CE1 BUT ONLY ( JUDGM5T4 ,IT W\LD ALSO BE CONTR>Y TO ! FIR/ PR9CIPLES ( A FREE GOV]NM5T 7?AT IS1 A GOV]NM5T =M$ BY VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION7 TO PUNI% M5 9 SU* CASES1 BECAUSE IT W\LD BE ABSURD TO SUPPOSE ?AT ANY MAN W\LD VOLUNT>ILY ASSI/ TO E/ABLI% OR SUPPORT A GOV]NM5T ?AT W\LD PUNI% HIMSELF = ACTS :I* HE HIMSELF DID NOT KN[ TO BE CRIMES4 ,BUT A MAN MAY REASONABLY UNITE ) HIS FELL[-M5 TO MA9TA9 A GOV]NM5T TO PUNI% ?OSE ACTS :I* HE HIMSELF CONSID]S CRIM9AL1 & MAY REASONABLY ACQUIESCE 9 HIS [N LIABILITY TO BE PUNI%$ = SU* ACTS4 ,AS ?OSE >E ! ONLY GR\NDS ON :I* ANY ONE CAN BE SUPPOS$ TO R5D] ANY VOLUNT>Y SUPPORT TO A GOV]NM5T1 IT FOLL[S ?AT A GOV]NM5T =M$ BY VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION1 & ( C\RSE HAV+ NO P[]S EXCEPT SU* AS ALL ! ASSOCIATES HAVE CONS5T$ ?AT IT MAY HAVE1 CAN HAVE NO P[] TO PUNI% A MAN = ACTS :I* HE DID NOT HIMSELF KN[ TO BE CRIM9AL4  

 ,! SAFETY ( SOCIETY1 :I* IS ! ONLY OBJECT ( ! CRIM9AL LAW1 REQUIRES ONLY ?AT ?OSE ACTS :I* >E UND]/OOD BY MANK9D AT L>GE TO BE 9TR9SICALLY CRIM9AL1 %\LD HE PUNI%$ AS CRIMES4 ,! REMA9+ FEW 7IF !RE >E ANY7 MAY SAFELY BE LEFT TO GO UNPUNI%$4 ,NOR DOES ! SAFETY ( SOCIETY REQUIRE ?AT ANY 9DIVIDUALS1 O!R ?AN ?OSE :O HAVE SUFFICI5T M5TAL CAPACITY TO UND]/& ?AT !IR ACTS >E CRIM9AL1 %\LD BE CRIM9ALLY PUNI%$4 ,ALL O!RS MAY SAFELY BE LEFT TO !IR LIABILITY1 UND] ! CIVIL LAW1 TO COMP5SATE = !IR UN9T5TIONAL WRONGS4  

 ,! ONLY REAL OBJECT ( ?IS ABSURD & ATROCI\S DOCTR9E1 ?AT 0IGNORANCE ( ! LAW 7?AT IS1 ( CRIME7 EXCUSES NO ONE10 & ?AT 0EV]YONE IS B\ND TO KN[ ! CRIM9AL LAW10 7?AT IS1 B\ND TO KN[ :AT IS A CRIME17 IS TO MA9TA9 AN 5TIRELY >BITR>Y AU?ORITY ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T1 & TO D5Y TO ! PEOPLE ALL RI<T TO JUDGE = !MSELVES :AT !IR [N RI<TS & LIB]TIES >E4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! :OLE OBJECT ( ! DOCTR9E IS TO D5Y TO ! PEOPLE !MSELVES ALL RI<T TO JUDGE :AT /ATUTES & O!R ACTS ( ! GOV]NM5T >E CONSI/5T OR 9CONSI/5T ) !IR [N RI<TS & LIB]TIES2 & ?US TO R$UCE ! PEOPLE TO ! CONDITION ( M]E SLAVES TO A DESPOTIC P[]1 SU* AS ! PEOPLE !MSELVES W\LD NEV] HAVE VOLUNT>ILY E/ABLI%$1 & ! JU/ICE ( :OSE LAWS ! PEOPLE !MSELVES CANNOT UND]/&4  

 ,UND] ! TRUE TRIAL BY JURY ALL TYRANNY ( ?IS K9D W\LD BE ABOLI%$4 ,A JURY W\LD NOT ONLY JUDGE :AT ACTS W]E REALLY CRIM9AL1 BUT !Y W\LD JUDGE ( ! M5TAL CAPACITY ( AN ACCUS$ P]SON1 & ( HIS OPPORTUNITIES = UND]/&+ ! TRUE *>ACT] ( HIS CONDUCT4 ,9 %ORT1 !Y W\LD JUDGE ( HIS MORAL 9T5T FROM ALL ! CIRCUM/ANCES ( ! CASE1 & ACQUIT HIM1 IF !Y HAD ANY REASONABLE D\BT ?AT HE KNEW ?AT HE WAS COMMITT+ A CRIME4#i#e  

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 ,! TRIAL BY JURY MU/1 IF POSSIBLE1 BE CON/RU$ TO BE SU* ?AT A MAN CAN RI<TFULLY SIT 9 A JURY1 & UNITE ) HIS FELL[S 9 GIV+ JUDGM5T4 ,BUT NO MAN CAN RI<TFULLY DO ?IS1 UNLESS HE HOLD 9 HIS [N H& ALONE A VETO UPON ANY JUDGM5T OR S5T5CE :ATEV] TO BE R5D]$ BY ! JURY AGA9/ A DEF5DANT1 :I* VETO HE MU/ BE P]MITT$ TO USE ACCORD+ TO HIS [N DISCRETION & CONSCI5CE1 & NOT B\ND TO USE ACCORD+ TO ! DICTATION ( EI!R LEGISLATURES OR JUDGES4  

 ,! PREVAL5T IDEA1 ?AT A JUROR MAY1 AT ! M]E DICTATION ( A LEGISLATURE OR A JUDGE1 & )\T ! CONCURR5CE ( HIS [N CONSCI5CE OR UND]/&+1 DECL>E A MAN 0GUILTY10 & ?US 9 EFFECT LIC5SE ! GOV]NM5T TO PUNI% HIM2 & ?AT ! LEGISLATURE OR ! JUDGE1 & NOT HIMSELF1 HAS 9 ?AT CASE ALL ! MORAL RESPONSIBILITY = ! CORRECTNESS ( ! PR9CIPLES ON :I* ! JUDGM5T WAS R5D]$1 IS ONE ( ! MANY GROSS IMPO/URES BY :I* IT C\LD H>DLY HAVE BE5 SUPPOS$ ?AT ANY SANE MAN C\LD EV] HAVE BE5 DELUD$1 BUT :I* GOV]NM5TS HAVE NEV]!LESS SUCCE$$ 9 9DUC+ ! PEOPLE AT L>GE TO RECEIVE & ACT UPON4  

 ,AS A MORAL PROPOSITION1 IT IS P]FECTLY SELF-EVID5T ?AT1 UNLESS JURIES HAVE ALL ! LEGAL RI<TS ?AT HAVE BE5 CLAIM$ = !M 9 ! PREC$+ *APT]S1 ---?AT IS1 ! RI<TS ( JUDG+ :AT ! LAW IS1 :E!R ! LAW BE A JU/ ONE1 :AT EVID5CE IS ADMISSIBLE1 :AT WEI<T ! EVID5CE IS 5TITL$ TO1 :E!R AN ACT W]E DONE ) A CRIM9AL 9T5T1 & ! RI<T ALSO TO LIMIT ! S5T5CE1 FREE ( ALL DICTATION FROM ANY QU>T]1 ---!Y HAVE NO MORAL RI<T TO SIT 9 ! TRIAL AT ALL1 & CANNOT DO SO )\T MAK+ !MSELVES ACCOMPLICES 9 ANY 9JU/ICE ?AT !Y MAY HAVE REASON TO BELIEVE MAY RESULT FROM !IR V]DICT4 ,IT IS ABSURD TO SAY ?AT !Y HAVE NO MORAL RESPONSIBILITY = ! USE ?AT MAY BE MADE ( !IR V]DICT BY ! GOV]NM5T1 :5 !Y HAVE REASON TO SUPPOSE IT WILL BE US$ = PURPOSES ( 9JU/ICE4  

 ,IT IS1 = 9/ANCE1 MANIFE/LY ABSURD TO SAY ?AT JURORS HAVE NO MORAL RESPONSIBILITY = ! 5=CEM5T ( AN UNJU/ LAW1 :5 !Y CONS5T TO R5D] A V]DICT ( GUILTY = ! TRANSGRESSION ( IT2 :I* V]DICT !Y KN[1 OR HAVE GOOD REASON TO BELIEVE1 WILL BE US$ BY ! GOV]NM5T AS A JU/IFICATION = 9FLICT+ A P5ALTY4  

 ,IT IS ABSURD1 ALSO1 TO SAY ?AT JURORS HAVE NO MORAL RESPONSIBILITY = A PUNI%M5T 9DICT$ UPON A MAN AGA9/ LAW1 :51 AT ! DICTATION ( A JUDGE AS TO :AT ! LAW IS1 !Y HAVE CONS5T$ TO R5D] A V]DICT AGA9/ !IR [N OP9IONS ( ! LAW4  

 ,IT IS ABSURD1 TOO1 TO SAY ?AT JURORS HAVE NO MORAL RESPONSIBILITY = ! CONVICTION & PUNI%M5T ( AN 9NOC5T MAN1 :5 !Y CONS5T TO R5D] A V]DICT AGA9/ HIM ON ! /R5G? ( EVID5CE1 OR LAWS ( EVID5CE1 DICTAT$ TO !M BY ! C\RT1 IF ANY EVID5CE OR LAWS ( EVID5CE HAVE BE5 EXCLUD$1 :I* !Y 7! JURORS7 ?9K \<T TO HAVE BE5 ADMITT$ 9 HIS DEF5SE4  

 ,IT IS ABSURD TO SAY ?AT JURORS HAVE NO MORAL RESPONSIBILITY = R5D]+ A V]DICT ( 0GUILTY0 AGA9/ A MAN1 = AN ACT :I* HE DID NOT KN[ TO BE A CRIME1 & 9 ! COMMISSION ( :I*1 !RE=E1 HE C\LD HAVE HAD NO CRIM9AL 9T5T1 9 OB$I5CE TO ! 9/RUCTIONS ( C\RTS ?AT 0IGNORANCE ( ! LAW 7?AT IS1 ( CRIME7 EXCUSES NO ONE40  

 ,IT IS ABSURD1 ALSO1 TO SAY ?AT JURORS HAVE NO MORAL RESPONSIBILITY = ANY CRUEL OR UNREASONABLE S5T5CE ?AT MAY BE 9FLICT$ EV5 UPON A GUILTY MAN1 :5 !Y CONS5T TO R5D] A V]DICT :I* !Y HAVE REASON TO BELIEVE WILL BE US$ BY ! GOV]NM5T AS A JU/IFICATION = ! 9FLICTION ( SU* S5T5CE4  

 ,! CONSEQU5CE IS1 ?AT JURORS MU/ HAVE ! :OLE CASE 9 !IR H&S1 & JUDGE ( LAW1 EVID5CE1 & S5T5CE1 OR !Y 9CUR ! MORAL RESPONSIBILITY ( ACCOMPLICES 9 ANY 9JU/ICE :I* !Y HAVE REASON TO BELIEVE WILL BE DONE BY ! GOV]NM5T ON ! AU?ORITY ( !IR V]DICT4 

 ,! SAME PR9CIPLES APPLY TO CIVIL CASES AS TO CRIM9AL4 ,IF A JURY CONS5T1 AT ! DICTATION ( ! C\RT1 AS TO EI!R LAW OR EVID5CE1 TO R5D] A V]DICT1 ON ! /R5G? ( :I* !Y HAVE REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT A MAN'S PROP]TY WILL BE TAK5 FROM HIM & GIV5 TO ANO!R1 AGA9/ !IR [N NOTIONS ( JU/ICE1 !Y MAKE !MSELVES MORALLY RESPONSIBLE = ! WRONG4  

 ,EV]Y MAN1 !RE=E1 \<T TO REFUSE TO SIT 9 A JURY1 & TO TAKE ! OA? ( A JUROR1 UNLESS ! =M ( ! OA? BE SU* AS TO ALL[ HIM TO USE HIS [N JUDGM5T1 ON EV]Y P>T ( ! CASE1 FREE ( ALL DICTATION :ATSOEV]1 & TO HOLD 9 HIS [N H& A VETO UPON ANY V]DICT ?AT CAN BE R5D]$ AGA9/ A DEF5DANT1 & ANY S5T5CE ?AT CAN BE 9FLICT$ UPON HIM1 EV5 IF HE BE GUILTY4  

 ,( C\RSE1 NO MAN CAN RI<TFULLY TAKE AN OA? AS JUROR1 TO TRY A CASE 0ACCORD+ TO LAW10 7IF BY LAW BE MEANT ANY?+ O!R ?AN HIS [N IDEAS ( JU/ICE17 NOR 0ACCORD+ TO ! LAW & ! EVID5CE1 AS !Y %ALL BE GIV5 HIM40 ,NOR CAN HE RI<TFULLY TAKE AN OA? EV5 TO TRY A CASE 0ACCORD+ TO ! EVID5CE10 BECAUSE 9 ALL CASES HE MAY HAVE GOOD REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT A P>TY HAS BE5 UNABLE TO PRODUCE ALL ! EVID5CE LEGITIMATELY 5TITL$ TO BE RECEIV$4 ,! ONLY OA? :I* IT W\LD SEEM ?AT A MAN CAN RI<TFULLY TAKE AS JUROR1 9 EI!R A CIVIL OR CRIM9AL CASE1 IS1 ?AT HE 0WILL TRY ! CASE ACCORD+ TO HIS CONSCI5CE40 ,( C\RSE1 ! =M MAY ADMIT ( V>IATION1 BUT ?IS %\LD BE ! SUB/ANCE4 ,SU*1 WE HAVE SE51 W]E ! ANCI5T COMMON LAW OA?S4 

,*,A,P,T,] ,X,I4 ,A,U,?,O,R,I,T,Y ,( ,M,A,G,N,A ,C,>,T,A  

 ,P,R,O,B,A,B,L,Y NO POLITICAL COMPACT BETWE5 K+ & PEOPLE WAS EV] 5T]$ 9TO 9 A MANN] TO SETTLE MORE AU?ORITATIVELY ! FUNDAM5TAL LAW ( A NATION1 ?AN WAS ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,PROBABLY NO PEOPLE W]E EV] MORE UNIT$ & RESOLUTE 9 DEM&+ FROM !IR K+ A DEF9ITE & UNAMBIGU\S ACKN[L$GM5T ( !IR RI<TS & LIB]TIES1 ?AN W]E ! ,5GLI% AT ?AT TIME4 ,PROBABLY NO K+ WAS EV] MORE COMPLETELY /RIPP$ ( ALL P[] TO MA9TA9 HIS ?RONE1 & AT ! SAME TIME RESI/ ! DEM&S ( HIS PEOPLE1 ?AN WAS ,JOHN ON ! #a#e? DAY ( ,JUNE1 #a#b#a#e4 ,PROBABLY NO K+ EV]Y CONS5T$1 MORE DELIB]ATELY OR EXPLICITLY1 TO HOLD HIS ?RONE SUBJECT TO SPECIFIC & 5UM]AT$ LIMITATIONS UPON HIS P[]1 ?AN DID ,JOHN :5 HE PUT HIS SEAL TO ! ,GREAT ,*>T] ( ! ,LIB]TIES ( ,5GL&4 ,& IF ANY POLITICAL COMPACT BETWE5 K+ & PEOPLE WAS EV] VALID TO SETTLE ! LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE1 OR TO LIMIT ! P[] ( ! CR[N1 ?AT COMPACT IS N[ TO BE F\ND 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,IF1 !RE=E1 ! CON/ITUTIONAL AU?ORITY ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA HAD RE/$ SOLELY UPON ! COMPACT ( ,JOHN ) HIS PEOPLE1 ?AT AU?ORITY W\LD HAVE BE5 5TITL$ TO /& =EV] AS ! SUPREME LAW ( ! L&1 UNLESS REVOK$ BY ! WILL ( ! PEOPLE !MSELVES4  

 ,BUT ! AU?ORITY ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA DOES NOT RE/ ALONE UPON ! COMPACT ) ,JOHN4 ,:51 9 ! NEXT YE>1 7#a#b#a#f17 HIS SON1 ,H5RY ,I,I,I41 CAME TO ! ?RONE1 ! *>T] WAS RATIFI$ BY HIM1 & AGA9 9 #a#b#a#g1 & AGA9 9 #a#b#b#e1 9 SUB/ANTIALLY ! SAME =M1 & ESPECIALLY )\T ALL[+ ANY NEW P[]S1 LEGISLATIVE1 JUDICIAL1 OR EXECUTIVE1 TO ! K+ OR HIS JUDGES1 & )\T DETRACT+ 9 ! LEA/ FROM ! P[]S ( ! JURY4 ,& FROM ! LATT] DATE TO ?IS1 ! *>T] HAS REMA9$ UN*ANG$4  

 ,9 ! C\RSE ( TWO HUNDR$ YE>S ! *>T] WAS CONFIRM$ BY ,H5RY & HIS SUCCESSORS MORE ?AN ?IRTY TIMES4 ,& AL?\< !Y W]E GUILTY ( NUM]\S & ALMO/ CONT9UAL BREA*ES ( IT1 & W]E CON/ANTLY SEEK+ TO EVADE IT1 YET SU* W]E ! SPIRIT1 VIGILANCE & C\RAGE ( ! NATION1 ?AT ! K+S HELD !IR ?RONES ONLY ON ! CONDITION ( !IR R5EW$ & SOLEMN PROMISES ( OBS]VANCE4 ,& IT WAS NOT UNTIL #a#d#b#i1 7AS WILL BE MORE FULLY %[N H]EAFT]17 :5 A TRUCE BETWE5 !MSELVES1 & A =MAL COMB9ATION AGA9/ ! MASS ( ! PEOPLE1 HAD BE5 5T]$ 9TO1 BY ! K+1 ! NOBILITY1 & ! 0=TY %ILL+ FREEHOLD]S10 7A CLASS :OM ,MACK9TO% DESIGNATES AS 0A FEW FREEHOLD]S !N ACC\NT$ WEAL?Y10#i#f7 BY ! EXCLUSION ( ALL O!RS ?AN SU* FREEHOLD]S FROM ALL VOICE 9 ! ELECTION ( KNI<TS TO REPRES5T ! C\NTIES 9 ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS1 ?AT A REPETITION ( !SE CONFIRMATIONS ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA CEAS$ TO BE DEM&$4 & OBTA9$4#i#g  

 ,! T]MS & ! =MALITIES ( SOME ( !SE 0CONFIRMATIONS0 MAKE !M WOR?Y ( 9S]TION AT L5G?4  

 ,HUME ?US DESCRIBES ONE :I* TOOK PLACE 9 ! #c#h? YE> ( ,H5RY ,I,I,I4 7#a#b#e#c73  

 0 ,BUT AS !Y 7! B>ONS7 HAD EXP]I5C$ HIS 7! K+'S7 FREQU5T BREA* ( PROMISE1 !Y REQUIR$ ?AT HE %\LD RATIFY ! ,GREAT ,*>T] 9 A MANN] /ILL MORE AU!NTIC & SOLEMN ?AN ANY :I* HE HAD HI!RTO EMPLOY$4 ,ALL ! PRELATES & ABBOTS W]E ASSEMBL$4 ,!Y HELD BURN+ TAP]S 9 !IR H&S4 ,! ,GREAT ,*>T] WAS READ BE=E !M4 ,!Y D5\NC$ ! S5T5CE ( EXCOMMUNICATION AGA9/ EV]Y ONE :O %\LD !NCE=? VIOLATE ?AT FUNDAM5TAL LAW4 ,!Y ?REW !IR TAP]S ON ! GR\ND1 & EXCLAIM$1 ,MAY ! S\L ( EV]Y ONE :O 9CURS ?IS S5T5CE SO /9K & CORRUPT 9 HELL6 ,! K+ BORE A P>T 9 ?IS C]EMONY1 & SUBJO9$1 ' ,SO HELP ME ,GOD6 ,I WILL KEEP ALL !SE >TICLES 9VIOLATE1 AS ,I AM A MAN1 AS ,I AM A ,*RI/IAN1 AS ,I AM A KNI<T1 & AS ,I AM A K+ CR[N$ & ANO9T$4'0 ---,HUME1 *4 #a#b4 ,SEE ALSO ,BLACK/ONE'S ,9TROD4 TO ! ,*>T]S4 ,BLACK4 ,LAW ,TRACTS1 ,OX=D $41 P4 #c#c#b4 ,MAK9TO%'S ,HI/4 ( ,5G41 *4 #c4 ,L>DN]'S ,CAB4 ,CYC41 VOL4 #d#e1 P4 #bcc #d4  

 ,! FOLL[+ IS ! =M ( 0! S5T5CE ( EXCOMMUNICATION0 REF]R$ TO BY ,HUME3  

 0,! ,S5T5CE ( ,CURSE1 ,GIV5 BY ! ,BI%OPS1 AGA9/ ! ,BREAK]S ( ! ,*>T]S4  

 0,! YE> ( \R ,LORD A ?\S& TWO HUNDR$ & FIFTY-?REE1 ! ?IRD DAY ( ,MAY1 9 ! GREAT ,HALL ( ! ,K+ AT ,WE/M9/]1 9 ! PRES5CE1 & BY ! ASS5T1 ( ! ,LORD ,H5RY1 BY ! ,GRACE ( ,GOD ,K+ ( ,5GL&1 & ! ,LORDS ,RI*>D1 ,E>L ( ,CORNWALL1 HIS BRO!R1 ,ROG] 7,BIGOT7 ,E>L ( ,NORFOLK & ,SUFFOLK21 M>%AL ( ,5GL&1 ,HUMPHREY1 ,E>L ( ,H]E=D1 ,H5RY1 ,E>L ( ,OX=D1 ,JOHN1 ,E>L ( ,W>WICK1 & O!R E/ATES ( ! ,REALM ( ,5GL&3 ,WE1 ,BONIFACE1 BY ! M]CY ( ,GOD ,>*BI%OP ( ,CANT]BURY1 ,PRIMATE ( ALL ,5GL&1 ,F4 ( ,LONDON1 ,H4 ( ,ELY1 ,S4 ( ,WORCE/]1 ,F4 ( ,L9COLN1 ,W4 ( ,NORWI*1 ,P4 ( ,H]E=D1 ,W4 ( ,SALISBURY1 ,W4 ( ,DURHAM1 ,R4 ( ,EXET]1 ,M4 ( ,C>LISLE1 ,W4 ( ,BA?1 ,E4 ( ,RO*E/]1 ,T4 ( ,SA9T ,DAVID'S1 ,BI%OPS1 APP>EL$ 9 ,PONTIFICALS1 ) TAP]S BURN+1 AGA9/ ! BREAK]S ( ! ,*UR*'S ,LIB]TIES1 & ( ! ,LIB]TIES OR FREE CU/OMS ( ! ,REALM ( ,5GL&1 & ESPECIALLY ( ?OSE :I* >E CONTA9$ 9 ! ,*>T] ( ! ,COMMON ,LIB]TIES ( ! ,REALM1 & ! ,*>T] ( ! ,=E/1 HAVE SOLEMNLY D5\NC$ ! S5T5CE ( ,EXCOMMUNICATION 9 ?IS =M4 ,BY ! AU?ORITY ( ,ALMI<TY ,GOD1 ! ,FA!R1 ! ,SON1 & ! ,HOLY ,<O/1 & ( ! GLORI\S ,MO!R ( ,GOD1 & P]PETUAL ,VIRG9 ,M>Y1 ( ! BLESS$ ,APO/LES ,PET] & ,PAUL1 & ( ALL APO/LES1 ( ! BLESS$ ,?OMAS1 ,>*BI%OP & ,M>TYR1 & ( ALL M>TYRS1 ( BLESS$ ,$W>D ( ,5GL&1 & ( ALL ,CONFESSORS & VIRG9S1 & ( ALL ! SA9TS ( HEAV53 ,WE EXCOMMUNICATE1 ACCURSE1 & FROM ! ?RE%OLDS 7LIM9IBUS7 ( \R ,HOLY ,MO!R ! ,*UR*1 ,WE SEQUE/]1 ALL ?OSE ?AT H]EAFT] WILL+LY & MALICI\SLY DEPRIVE OR SPOIL ! ,*UR* ( H] RI<T3 ,& ALL ?OSE ?AT BY ANY CRAFT OR WIL9ESS DO VIOLATE1 BREAK1 DIM9I%1 OR *ANGE ! ,*UR*'S ,LIB]TIES1 OR ! ANCI5T APPROV$ CU/OMS ( ! ,REALM1 & ESPECIALLY ! ,LIB]TIES & FREE ,CU/OMS CONTA9$ 9 ! ,*>T]S ( ! ,COMMON ,LIB]TIES1 & ( ! ,=E/1 CONC$$ BY \R ,LORD ! ,K+1 TO ,>*BI%OPS1 ,BI%OPS1 & O!R ,PRELATES ( ,5GL& & LIKEWISE TO ! ,E>LS1 ,B>ONS1 ,KNI<TS1 & O!R ,FREEHOLD]S ( ! ,REALM3 ,& ALL ?AT SECRETLY1 OR OP5LY1 BY DE$1 WORD1 OR C\NSEL1 DO MAKE /ATUTES1 OR OBS]VE !M BE+ MADE1 & ?AT BR+ 9 ,CU/OMS1 OR KEEP !M :5 !Y BE BR\<T 91 AGA9/ ! SAID ,LIB]TIES1 OR ANY ( !M1 ! ,WRIT]S & ,C\NSELORS ( SAID /ATUTES1 & ! ,EXECUTORS ( !M1 & A#a#a ?OSE ?AT %ALL PRESUME TO JUDGE ACCORD+ TO !M4 ,ALL & EV]Y :I* P]SONS BE=E M5TION$1 ?AT WITT+LY %ALL COMMIT ANY?+ ( ! PREMISES1 LET !M WELL KN[ ?AT !Y 9CUR ! A=ESAID S5T5CE1 IPSO FACTO1 7I4 E4 UPON ! DE$ BE+ DONE47 ,& ?OSE ?AT IGNORANTLY DO SO1 & BE ADMONI%$1 EXCEPT !Y RE=M !MSELVES )9 FIFTE5 DAYS AFT] ! TIME ( ! ADMONITION1 & MAKE FULL SATISFACTION = ?AT !Y HAVE DONE1 AT ! WILL ( ! ORD9>Y1 %ALL BE FROM ?AT TIME =? 9CLUD$ 9 ! SAME S5T5CE4 ,& ) ! SAME S5T5CE WE BURD5 ALL ?OSE ?AT PRESUME TO P]TURB ! PEACE ( \R SOV]EIGN ,LORD ! ,K+1 & ( ! ,REALM4 ,TO ! P]PETUAL MEMORY ( :I* ?+1 ,WE1 ! A=ESAID ,PRELATES1 HAVE PUT \R SEALS TO !SE PRES5TS40 ---,/ATUTES ( ! ,REALM1 VOL4 #a1 P4 #f4 ,RUFFHEAD'S ,/ATUTES1 VOL4 #a1 P4 #b4  

 ,ONE ( ! ,CONFIRMATIONS ( ! ,*>T]S1 BY ,$W>D ,I41 WAS BY /ATUTE1 9 ! #b#e? YE> ( HIS REIGN1 7#a#b#i#g17 9 ! FOLL[+ T]MS4 ,! /ATUTE IS USUALLY 5TITL$4 0,CONFIRMATIO ,C>T>UM107,CONFIRMATION ( ! ,*>T]S47  

 ,*4 #a4 0,$W>D1 BY ! ,GRACE ( ,GOD1 ,K+ ( ,5GL&1 ,LORD ( ,IREL&1 & ,DUKE ( ,GUYAN1 ,TO ALL ?OSE ?AT !SE PRES5TS %ALL HE> OR SEE1 ,GREET+4 ,KN[ YE1 ?AT ,WE1 TO ! HONOR ( ,COD1 & ( ,HOLY ,*UR*1 & TO ! PR(IT ( \R ,REALM1 HAVE GRANT$1 = US & \R HEIRS1 ?AT ! ,*>T] ( ,LIB]TIES1 & ! ,*>T] ( ! ,=E/1 :I* W]E MADE BY COMMON ASS5T ( ALL ! ,REALM1 9 ! TIME ( ,K+ ,H5RY \R ,FA!R1 %ALL BE KEPT 9 EV]Y PO9T )\T BREA*4 ,& WE WILL ?AT ! SAME ,*>T]S %ALL BE S5T UND] \R SEAL1 AS WELL TO \R JU/ICES ( ! ,=E/1 AS TO O!RS1 & TO ALL ,%]IFF'S ( %IRES1 & TO ALL \R O!R (FIC]S1 & TO ALL \R CITIES ?R\<\T ! ,REALM1 TOGE!R ) \R WRITS1 9 ! :I* IT %ALL HE CONTA9$1 ?AT !Y CAUSE ! A=ESAID ,*>T]S TO BE PUBLI%$1 & TO DECL>E TO ! PEOPLE ?AT ,WE HAVE CONFIRM$ !M AT ALL PO9TS2 & TO \R ,JU/ICES1 ,%]IFFS1 MAYORS1 & O!R M9I/]S1 :I* UND] US HAVE ! ,LAWS ( \R ,L& TO GUIDE1 ?AT !Y ALL[ ! SAME ,*>T]S1 9 ALL !IR PO9TS1 9 PLEAS BE=E !M1 & 9 JUDGM5T2 ?AT IS1 TO WIT1 ! ,GREAT ,*>T] AS ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 & ! ,*>T] ( ! ,=E/ = ! WEAL? ( \R ,REALM4  

 ,*4 #b4 0,& WE WILL ?AT IF ANY JUDGM5T BE GIV5 FROM H5CE=? CONTR>Y TO ! PO9TS ( ! *>T]S A=ESAID BY ! JU/ICES1 OR BY ANY O!RS \R M9I/]S ?AT HOLD PLEA BE=E !M1 AGA9/ ! PO9TS ( ! ,*>T]S1 IT %ALL BE UNDONE & HOLD5 = NAU<T4  

 ,*4 #c4 0,& WE WILL1 ?AT ! SAME ,*>T]S %ALL BE S5T1 UND] \R SEAL1 TO ,CA!DRAL ,*UR*ES ?R\<\T \R ,REALMS !RE TO REMA91 & %ALL BE READ BE=E ! PEOPLE TWO TIMES 9 ! YE>4  

 ,*4 #d4 0,& ?AT ALL ,>*BI%OPS & ,BI%OPS %ALL PRON\NCE ! S5T5CE ( EXCOMMUNICATION AGA9/ ALL ?OSE ?AT BY WORD1 DE$1 OR C\NSEL1 DO CONTR>Y TO ! =ESAID *>T]S1 OR ?AT 9 ANY PO9T BREAK OR UNDO !M4 ,& ?AT ! SAID ,CURSES BE TWICE A YE> D5\NC$ & PUBLI%$ BY ! PRELATES A=ESAID4 ,& IF ! SAME PRELATES1 OR ANY ( !M1 BE REMISS 9 ! D5UNCIATION ( ! SAID S5T5CES1 ! ,>*BI%OPS ( ,CANT]BURY & ,YORK-1 = ! TIME BE+1 %ALL COMPEL & DI/RA9 !M TO MAKE ! D5UNCIATION 9 ! =M A=ESAID40 ---,/4 #be ,$W>D ,I41 7#a#b#i#g474 ,/ATUTES ( ! ,REALM1 VOL4 L1 P4 #a#b#c4  

 ,IT IS UNNECESS>Y TO REPEAT ! T]MS ( ! V>I\S CONFIRMATIONS1 MO/ ( :I* W]E LESS =MAL ?AN ?OSE ?AT HAVE BE5 GIV51 ?\< ( C\RSE EQUALLY AU?ORITATIVE4 ,MO/ ( !M >E BRIEF1 & 9 ! =M ( A SIMPLE /ATUTE1 OR PROMISE1 TO ! EFFECT ?AT 0,! ,GREAT ,*>T]1 & ! ,*>T] ( ! ,=E/1 %ALL BE FIRMLY KEPT & MA9TA9$ 9 ALL PO9TS40 ,!Y >E TO BE F\ND PR9T$ ) ! O!R /ATUTES ( ! REALM4 ,ONE ( !M1 AFT] HAV+ 0AGA9 GRANT$1 R5EW$ & CONFIRM$0 ! *>T]S1 REQUIRES AS FOLL[S3  

 0,?AT ! ,*>T]S BE DELIV]$ TO EV]Y %]IFF ( ,5GL& UND] ! K+'S SEAL1 TO BE READ F\R TIMES 9 ! YE> BE=E ! PEOPLE 9 ! FULL C\NTY10 7?AT IS1 AT ! C\NTY C\RT17 0?AT IS1 TO WIT1 ! NEXT C\NTY 7C\RT7 AFT] ! FEA/ ( ,SA9T ,MI*AEL1 & ! NEXT C\NTY 7C\RT7 AFT] ,*RI/MAS1 & AT ! NEXT C\NTY 7C\RT7 AFT] ,EA/]1 & AT ! NEXT C\NTY 7C\RT7 AFT] ! FEA/ ( ,SA9T ,JOHN 0 ---#b#h ,$W>D ,I41 *4 #a1 7#a#c47 V  

 ,L+>D SAYS1 0,! ,*>T] WAS RATIFI$ F\R TIMES BY ,H5RY ,I,I,I41 TWICE BY ,$W>D ,I41 FIFTE5 TIMES BY ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 SEV5 TIMES BY ,RI*>D ,I,I41 SIX TIMES BY ,H5RY ,I,V41 & ONCE BY ,H5RY ,V420 MAK+ ?IRTY-FIVE TIMES 9 ALL4 ---#c ,L+>D1 #e1 NOTE1 ,PHILAD4 $4  

 ,COKE SAYS ,MAGNA ,C>TA WAS CONFIRM$ ?IRTY-TWO TIMES4 ,PREFACE TO #b ,9/41 P4 #f4  

 ,L+>D CALLS !SE 0?IRTY-FIVE SUCCESSIVE RATIFICATIONS0 ( ! *>T]1 0A SUFFICI5T PRO( H[ MU* ITS PROVISIONS W]E ABHORR$ BY ! SOV]EIGN1 & H[ HI<LY !Y W]E PRIZ$ BY ! NATION40 ---#c ,L+>D1 #e4  

 ,MACK9TO% SAYS1 0,= ALMO/ FIVE C5TURIES 7?AT IS1 UNTIL #a#f#h#h7 IT 7,MAGNA ,C>TA7 WAS APPEAL$ TO AS ! DECISIVE AU?ORITY ON BEHALF ( ! PEOPLE1 ?\< COMMONLY SO F> ONLY AS ! NECESSITIES ( EA* CASE DEM&$40 ---,MACK9TO%'S ,HI/4 ( ,5G4 *4 #c4 #de ,L>DN]'S ,CAB4 ,CYC41 #b#b#a4  

 ,COKE1 :O HAS LABOR$ SO H>D TO OV]?R[ ! MO/ VITAL PR9CIPLES ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & :O1 !RE=E1 \<T TO BE CONSID]$ GOOD AU?ORITY :5 HE SPEAKS 9 ITS FAVOR1#i#h SAYS3  

 0,IT IS CALL$ ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 NOT ?AT IT IS GREAT 9 QUANTITY1 = !RE BE MANY VOLUM9\S *>T]S COMMONLY PASS$1 SPECIALLY 9 !SE LAT] TIMES1 LONG] ?AN ?IS IS2 NOR COMP>ATIVELY 9 RESPECT ?AT IT IS GREAT] ?AN ,*>TA DE ,=E/A1 BUT 9 RESPECT ( ! GREAT IMPORTANCE & WEI<T9ESS ( ! MATT]1 AS H]EAFT] %ALL APPE>2 & LIKEWISE = ! SAME CAUSE ,*>TA DE ,=E/A2 & BO? ( !M >E CALL$ ,MAGNAE ,*>TAE ,LIB]TATUM ,ANGLIAE1 7,! ,GREAT ,*>T]S ( ! ,LIB]TIES ( ,5GL&47  

 0,& IT IS ALSO CALL$ ,*>TA ,LIB]TATUM REGNI1 7,*>T] ( ! LIB]TIES ( ! K+DOM27 & UPON GREAT REASON IT IS SO CALL$ ( ! EFFECT1 QUIA LIB]OS FACIT1 7BECAUSE IT MAKES M5 FREE47 ,SOMETIME = ! SAME CAUSE 7IT IS CALL$7 COMMUNIS LIB]TAS1 7COMMON LIB]TY17 & LE *>TRE DES FRAN*ISES1 7! *>T] ( FRAN*ISES47  

 0,IT WAS = ! MO/ P>T DECL>ATORY ( ! PR9CIPAL GR\NDS ( ! FUNDAM5TAL LAWS ( ,5GL&1 & = ! RESIDUE IT IS ADDITIONAL TO SUPPLY SOME DEFECTS ( ! COMMON LAW4 4 4 4  

 0,ALSO1 BY ! SAID ACT ( #be ,$W>D ,I41 7CALL$ ,CONFIRMATIO ,*>T>UM17 IT IS ADJUDG$ 9 P>LIAM5T ?AT ! ,GREAT ,*>T] & ! ,*>T] ( ! ,=E/ %ALL BE TAK5 AS ! COMMON LAW4 4 4 4  

 0,!Y 7,MAGNA ,C>TA & ,C>TA DE ,=E/A7 W]E1 = ! MO/ P>T1 BUT DECL>ATIONS ( ! ANCI5T COMMON LAWS ( ,5GL&1 TO ! OBS]VATION & KEEP+ :]E(1 ! K+ WAS B\ND & SWORN4 4 4 4  

 0,AFT] ! MAK+ ( ,MAGNA ,*>TA1 & ,*>TA DE ,=E/A1 DIV]SE LE>N$ M5 9 ! LAWS1 ?AT ,I MAY USE ! WORDS ( ! RECORD1 KEPT S*OOLS ( ! LAW 9 ! CITY ( ,LONDON1 & TAU<T SU* AS RESORT$ TO !M ! LAWS ( ! REALM1 TAK+ !IR F\NDATION ( ,MAGNA ,*>TA & ,*>TA DE ,=E/A4  

 0,& ! SAID TWO *>T]S HAVE BE5 CONFIRM$1 E/ABLI%$1 & COMM&$ TO BE PUT 9 EXECUTION BY ?IRTY-TWO SEV]AL ACTS ( P>LIAM5T 9 ALL4  

 0,?IS APPE>E? P>TLY BY ?AT :I* HA? BE5 SAID1 = ?AT IT HA? SO (T5 BE5 CONFIRM$ BY ! WISE PROVID5CE ( SO MANY ACTS ( P>LIAM5T4  

 0,& ALBEIT JUDGM5TS 9 ! K+'S C\RTS >E ( HI< REG>D 9 LAW1 & JUDICIA 7JUDGM5TS7 >E ACC\NT$ AS JURISDICTA1 7! SPEE* ( ! LAW ITSELF17 YET IT IS PROVID$ BY ACT ( P>LIAM5T1 ?AT IF ANY JUDGM5T BE GIV5 CONTR>Y TO ANY ( ! PO9TS ( ! ,GREAT ,*>T] & ,*>TA DE ,=E/A1 BY ! JU/ICES1 OR BY ANY O!R ( ! K+'S M9I/]S1 @&C241 IT %ALL BE UNDONE1 & HOLD5 = NAU<T4  

 0,& ?AT BO? ! SAID *>T]S %ALL BE S5T UND] ! GREAT SEAL TO ALL CA!DRAL *UR*ES ?R\<\T ! REALM1 !RE TO REMA91 & %ALL BE READ TO ! PEOPLE TWICE EV]Y YE>4  

 0,! HI<E/ & MO/ B9D+ LAWS >E ! /ATUTES :I* >E E/ABLI%$ BY P>LIAM5T2 & BY AU?ORITY ( ?AT HI<E/ C\RT IT IS 5ACT$ 7ONLY TO %[ !IR T5D] C>E ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA & ,C>TA DE ,=E/A7 ?AT IF ANY /ATUTE BE MADE CONTR>Y TO ! ,GREAT ,*>T]1 OR ! ,*>T] ( ! ,=E/1 ?AT %ALL BE HOLD5 = NONE2 BY :I* WORDS ALL =M] /ATUTES MADE AGA9/ EI!R ( ?OSE *>T]S >E N[ REPEAL$2 & ! NOBLES & GREAT (FIC]S W]E TO BE SWORN TO ! OBS]VATION ( ,MAGNA ,*>TA & ,*>TA DE ,=E/A4  

 0,MAGNA FUIT QUONDAM MAGNAE REV]5TIA *>TAE40 7,GREAT WAS =M]LY ! REV]5CE = ,MAGNA ,C>TA47 ---,COKE'S ,PROEM TO #b ,9/41 P4 #a TO #g4  

 ,COKE ALSO SAYS1 0,ALL PRET5SE ( PR]OGATIVE AGA9/ ,MAGNA ,*>TA IS TAK5 AWAY40 ---#b ,9/41 #c#f4  

 ,HE ALSO SAYS1 0,?AT AFT] ?IS P>LIAM5T 7#e#b ,H5RY ,I,I,I41 9 #a#b#f#g7 NEI!R ,MAGNA ,C>TA NOR ,C>TA DE ,=E/A WAS EV] ATTEMPT$ TO BE IMPUGN$ OR QUE/ION$40 ---#b ,9/41 #a#b4#i#i  

 ,TO GIVE ALL ! EVID5CE ( ! AU?ORITY ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 IT W\LD BE NECESS>Y TO GIVE ! CON/ITUTIONAL HI/ORY ( ,5GL& S9CE ! YE> #a#b#a#e4 ,?IS HI/ORY W\LD %[ ?AT ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 AL?\< CONT9UALLY VIOLAT$ & EVAD$1 WAS /ILL ACKN[L$G$ AS LAW BY ! GOV]NM5T1 & WAS HELD UP BY ! PEOPLE AS ! GREAT /&>D & PRO( ( !IR RI<TS & LIB]TIES4 ,IT W\LD %[ ALSO ?AT ! JUDICIAL TRIBUNALS1 :5EV] IT SUIT$ !IR PURPOSES TO DO SO1 W]E 9 ! HABIT ( REF]R+ TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA AS AU?ORITY1 9 ! SAME MANN]1 & ) ! SAME REAL OR PRET5D$ V5]ATION1 ) :I* ,AM]ICAN C\RTS N[ REF] TO ! CON/ITUTION ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 OR ! CON/ITUTIONS ( ! /ATES4 ,&1 :AT IS EQUALLY TO ! PO9T1 IT W\LD %[ ?AT !SE SAME TRIBUNALS1 ! M]E TOOLS ( K+S & P>LIAM5TS1 W\LD RESORT TO ! SAME >TIFICES ( ASSUMPTION1 PREC$5T1 CON/RUCTION1 & FALSE 9T]PRETATION1 TO EVADE ! REQUIREM5TS ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & TO EMASCULATE IT ( ALL ITS P[] = ! PRES]VATION ( LIB]TY1 ?AT >E RESORT$ TO BY ,AM]ICAN C\RTS TO ACCOMPLI% ! SAME WORK ON \R ,AM]ICAN CON/ITUTIONS4  

 ,I TAKE IT = GRANT$1 !RE=E1 ?AT IF ! AU?ORITY ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA HAD RE/$ SIMPLY UPON ITS *>ACT] AS A COMPACT BETWE5 ! K+ & ! PEOPLE1 IT W\LD HAVE BE5 =EV] B9D+ UPON ! K+1 7?AT IS1 UPON ! GOV]NM5T1 = ! K+ WAS ! GOV]NM5T17 9 HIS LEGISLATIVE1 JUDICIAL1 & EXECUTIVE *>ACT]2 & ?AT !RE WAS NO CON/ITUTIONAL POSSIBILITY ( HIS ESCAP+ FROM ITS RE/RA9TS1 UNLESS ! PEOPLE !MSELVES %\LD FREELY DIS*>GE HIM FROM !M4  

 ,BUT ! AU?ORITY ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA DOES NOT RE/1 EI!R :OLLY OR MA9LY1 UPON ITS *>ACT] AS A COMPACT4 ,= C5TURIES BE=E ! *>T] WAS GRANT$1 ITS MA9 PR9CIPLES CON/ITUT$ 0! ,LAW ( ! ,L&10 ! FUNDAM5TAL & CON/ITUTIONAL LAW ( ! REALM1 :I* ! K+S W]E SWORN TO MA9TA94 ,& ! PR9CIPAL B5EFIT ( ! *>T] WAS1 ?AT IT CONTA9$ A WRITT5 DESCRIPTION & ACKN[L$GM5T1 BY ! K+ HIMSELF1 ( :AT ! CON/ITUTIONAL LAW ( ! K+DOM WAS1 :I* HIS CORONATION OA? B\ND HIM TO OBS]VE4 ,PREVI\S TO ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ?IS CON/ITUTIONAL LAW RE/$ MA9LY 9 PREC$5TS1 CU/OMS1 & ! MEMORIES ( ! PEOPLE4 ,& IF ! K+ C\LD BUT MAKE ONE 9NOVATION UPON ?IS LAW1 )\T >\S+ RESI/ANCE1 & BE+ COMPELL$ TO RETREAT FROM HIS USURPATION1 HE W\LD CITE ?AT 9NOVATION AS A PREC$5T = ANO!R ACT ( ! SAME K9D2 NEXT1 ASS]T A CU/OM2 &1 F9ALLY1 RAISE A CONTROV]SY AS TO :AT ! ,LAW ( ! ,L& REALLY WAS4 ,! GREAT OBJECT ( ! B>ONS & PEOPLE1 9 DEM&+ FROM ! K+ A WRITT5 DESCRIPTION & ACKN[L$GM5T ( ! ,LAW ( ! ,L&1 WAS TO PUT AN 5D TO ALL DISPUTES ( ?IS K9D1 & TO PUT IT \T ( ! P[] ( ! K+ TO PLEAD ANY MISUND]/&+ ( ! CON/ITUTIONAL LAW ( ! K+DOM4 ,& ! *>T]1 NO D\BT1 ACCOMPLI%$ V]Y MU* 9 ?IS WAY4 ,AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 IT REQUIR$ MU* MORE AUDACITY1 CUNN+1 OR /R5G?1 ON ! P>T ( ! K+1 ?AN IT HAD BE=E1 TO 9VADE ! PEOPLE'S LIB]TIES ) IMPUNITY4 ,/ILL1 ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 LIKE ALL O!R WRITT5 CON/ITUTIONS1 PROV$ 9ADEQUATE TO ! FULL ACCOMPLI%M5T ( ITS PURPOSE2 = :5 DID A P>*M5T EV] HAVE P[] ADEQUATELY TO RE/RA9 A GOV]NM5T1 ?AT HAD EI!R CUNN+ TO EVADE ITS REQUIREM5TS1 OR /R5G? TO OV]COME ?OSE :O ATTEMPT$ ITS DEF5SE8 ,! WORK ( USURPATION1 !RE=E1 ?\< S]I\SLY *ECK$1 /ILL W5T ON1 TO A GREAT EXT5T1 AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,9NOVATIONS UPON ! ,LAW ( ! ,L& >E /ILL MADE BY ! GOV]NM5T4 ,ONE 9NOVATION WAS CIT$ AS A PREC$5T2 PREC$5TS MADE CU/OMS2 & CU/OMS BECAME LAWS1 SO F> AS PRACTICE WAS CONC]N$2 UNTIL ! GOV]NM5T1 COMPOS$ ( ! K+1 ! HI< FUNCTION>IES ( ! *UR*1 ! NOBILITY1 A ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS REPRES5T+ ! 0=TY %ILL+ FREEHOLD]S10 & A DEP5D5T & S]VILE JUDICI>Y1 ALL ACT+ 9 CONSPIRACY AGA9/ ! MASS ( ! PEOPLE1 BECAME PRACTICALLY ABSOLUTE1 AS IT IS AT ?IS DAY4  

 ,AS PRO( ?AT ,MAGNA ,C>TA EMBRAC$ LITTLE ELSE ?AN :AT WAS PREVI\SLY RECOGNIZ$ AS ! COMMON LAW1 OR ,LAW ( ! ,L&1 ,I REPEAT SOME AU?ORITIES ?AT HAVE BE5 ALREADY CIT$4  

 ,CRABBE SAYS1 0,IT IS ADMITT$ ON ALL H&S ?AT IT 7,MAGNA ,C>TA7 CONTA9S NO?+ BUT :AT WAS CONFIRMATORY ( ! COMMON LAW & ! ANCI5T USAGES ( ! REALM2 & IS1 PROP]LY SPEAK+1 ONLY AN 5L>GEM5T ( ! *>T] ( ,H5RY ,I4 & HIS SUCCESSORS40 ---,CRABBE'S ,HI/4 ( ! ,5G4 ,LAW1 P4 #a#b#g4  

 ,BLACK/ONE SAYS1 0,IT IS AGRE$ BY ALL \R HI/ORIANS ?AT ! ,GREAT ,*>T] ( ,K+ ,JOHN WAS1 = ! MO/ P>T1 COMPIL$ FROM ! ANCI5T CU/OMS ( ! REALM1 OR ! LAWS ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR2 BY :I* !Y MEAN ! OLD COMMON LAW :I* WAS E/ABLI%$ UND] \R ,SAXON PR9CES40 ---,BLACK/ONE'S ,9TROD4 TO ! ,*>T]S4 ,SEE ,BLACK/ONE'S ,LAW ,TRACTS1 ,OX=D $41 P4 #b#h#i4  

 ,COKE SAYS1 0 ,! COMMON LAW IS ! MO/ G5]AL & ANCI5T LAW ( ! REALM4 4 4 4,! COMMON LAW APPE>E? 9 ! /ATUTE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & O!R ANCI5T /ATUTES1 7:I* = ! MO/ P>T >E AFFIRMATIONS ( ! COMMON LAW17 9 ! ORIG9AL WRITS1 9 JUDICIAL RECORDS1 & 9 \R BOOKS ( T]MS & YE>S40 ---#a ,9/41 #aae B4  

 ,COKE ALSO SAYS1 0,IT 7,MAGNA ,C>TA7 WAS = ! MO/ P>T DECL>ATORY ( ! PR9CIPAL GR\NDS ( ! FUNDAM5TAL LAWS ( ,5GL&1 & = ! RESIDUE IT WAS ADDITIONAL TO SUPPLY SOME DEFECTS ( ! COMMON LAW4 4 4 4,!Y 7,MAGNA ,C>TA & ,C>TA DE ,=E/A7 W]E1 = ! MO/ P>T1 BUT DECL>ATIONS ( ! ANCI5T COMMON LAWS ( ,5GL&1 TO ! OBS]VATION & KEEP+ :]E( ! K+ WAS B\ND & SWORN40 ---,PREFACE TO #b ,9/41 P4 #c & #e4  

 ,HUME SAYS1 0,WE MAY N[1 FROM ! T5OR ( ?IS *>T]1 7,MAGNA ,C>TA17 CONJECTURE :AT ?OSE LAWS W]E ( ,K+ ,$W>D1 7! ,CONFESSOR17 :I* ! ,5GLI% NATION DUR+ SO MANY G5]ATIONS /ILL DESIR$1 ) SU* AN OB/9ATE P]SEV]ANCE1 TO HAVE RECALL$ & E/ABLI%$4 ,!Y W]E *IEFLY !SE LATT] >TICLES ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA2 & ! B>ONS :O1 AT ! BEG9N+ ( !SE COMMOTIONS1 DEM&$ ! REVIVAL ( ! ,SAXON LAWS1 UND\BT$LY ?\<T ?AT !Y HAD SUFFICI5TLY SATISFI$ ! PEOPLE1 BY PROCUR+ !M ?IS CONCESSION1 :I* COMPREH5D$ ! PR9CIPAL OBJECTS TO :I* !Y HAD SO LONG ASPIR$40 ---,HUME1 *4 #a#a4  

 ,$W>D ! ,FIR/ CONFESS$ ?AT ! ,GREAT ,*>T] WAS SUB/ANTIALLY ID5TICAL ) ! COMMON LAW1 AS F> AS IT W5T1 :5 HE COMM&$ HIS JU/ICES TO ALL[ 0! ,GREAT ,*>T] AS ! ,COMMON ,LAW10 0 9 PLEAS BE=E !M1 & 9 JUDGM5T10 AS HAS BE5 ALREADY CIT$ 9 ?IS *APT]4 ---#b#e ,$W>D ,I41 *4 #a1 7#a#b#i#g47  

 ,9 CONCLUSION ( ?IS *APT]1 IT MAY BE SAFELY ASS]T$ ?AT ! V5]ATION1 ATTA*M5T1 & PRIDE1 :I* ! ,5GLI% NATION1 = MORE ?AN SIX C5TURIES1 HAVE FELT T[>DS ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 >E 9 !IR NATURE AMONG ! MO/ IRREFRAGABLE ( ALL PRO(S ?AT IT WAS ! FUNDAM5TAL LAW ( ! L&1 & CON/ITUTIONALLY B9D+ UPON ! GOV]NM5T2 =1 O!RWISE1 IT W\LD HAVE BE51 9 !IR EYES1 AN UNIMPORTANT & WOR?LESS ?+4 ,:AT ?OSE S5TIM5TS W]E ,I WILL USE ! WORDS ( O!RS TO DESCRIBE1 ! WORDS1 TOO1 ( M51 :O1 LIKE ALL MOD]N AU?ORS :O HAVE WRITT5 ON ! SAME TOPIC1 HAD UTT]LY 9ADEQUATE IDEAS ( ! TRUE *>ACT] ( ! 9/RUM5T ON :I* !Y LAVI%$ !IR EULOGIUMS4  

 ,HUME1 SPEAK+ ( ! ,GREAT ,*>T] & ! ,*>T] ( ! ,=E/1 AS !Y W]E CONFIRM$ BY ,H5RY ,I,I,I41 9 #a#b#a#g1 SAYS3 0,?US !SE FAM\S *>T]S W]E BR\<T NE>LY TO ! %APE 9 :I* !Y HAVE EV] S9CE /OOD2 & !Y W]E1 DUR+ MANY G5]ATIONS1 ! PECULI> FAVORITES ( ! ,5GLI% NATION1 & E/EEM$ ! MO/ SACR$ RAMP>T TO NATIONAL LIB]TY & 9DEP5D5CE4 ,AS !Y SECUR$ ! RI<TS ( ALL ORD]S ( M51 !Y W]E ANXI\SLY DEF5D$ BY ALL1 & BECAME ! BASIS1 9 A MANN]1 ( ! ,5GLI% MON>*Y1 & A K9D ( ORIG9AL CONTRACT1 :I* BO? LIMIT$ ! AU?ORITY ( ! K+ & 5SUR$ ! CONDITIONAL ALLEGIANCE ( HIS SUBJECTS4 ,?\< (T5 VIOLAT$1 !Y W]E /ILL CLAIM$ BY ! NOBILITY & PEOPLE2 &1 AS NO PREC$5TS W]E SUPPOS$ VALID ?AT 9FR+$ !M1 !Y RA!R ACQUIR$ ?AN LO/ AU?ORITY1 FROM ! FREQU5T ATTEMPTS MADE AGA9/ !M 9 SEV]AL AGES1 BY REGAL & >BITR>Y P[]40 ---,HUME1 *4 #a#b4  

 ,MACK9TO% SAYS1 0,IT WAS UND]/OOD BY ! SIMPLE/ ( ! UNLETT]$ AGE = :OM IT WAS 9T5D$4 ,IT WAS REMEMB]$ BY !M444 ,= ALMO/ FIVE C5TURIES IT WAS APPEAL$ TO AS ! DECISIVE AU?ORITY ON BEHALF ( ! PEOPLE444 ,TO HAVE PRODUC$ IT1 TO HAVE PRES]V$ IT1 TO HAVE MATUR$ IT1 CON/ITUTE ! IMMORTAL CLAIM ( ,5GL& ON ! E/EEM ( MANK9D4 ,H] ,BACONS >ID ,%AKSPE>ES1 H] ,MILTONS & ,NEWTONS1 ) ALL ! TRU? :I* !Y HAVE REVEAL$1 & ALL ! G5]\S VIRTUES :I* !Y HAVE 9SPIR$1 >E ( 9F]IOR VALUE :5 COMP>$ ) ! SUBJECTION ( M5 & !IR RUL]S TO ! PR9CIPLES ( JU/ICE2 IF1 9DE$1 IT BE NOT MORE TRUE ?AT !SE MI<TY SPIRITS C\LD NOT HAVE BE5 =M$ EXCEPT UND] EQUAL LAWS1 NOR R\S$ TO FULL ACTIVITY )\T ! 9FLU5CE ( ?AT SPIRIT :I* ! ,GREAT ,*>T] BREA!D OV] !IR =EFA!RS40 ---,MACK9TO%'S ,HI/4 ( ,5G41 *4 #c4#a  

 ,( ! ,GREAT ,*>T]1 ! TRIAL BY JURY IS ! VITAL P>T1 & ! ONLY P>T ?AT PLACES ! LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE 9 !IR [N KEEP+4 ,( ?IS ,BLACK/ONE SAYS3  

 0,! TRIAL BY JURY1 OR ! C\NTRY1 P] PATRIAM1 IS ALSO ?AT TRIAL BY ! PE]S ( EV]Y ,5GLI%MAN1 :I*1 AS ! GR& BULW>K ( HIS LIB]TIES1 IS SECUR$ TO HIM BY ! ,GREAT ,*>T]2 NULLUS LIB] HOMO CAPIATUR1 VEL IMPRISONETUR1 AUT EXULETUR1 AUT ALIQUO MODO DE/RUATUR1 NISI P] LEGALE JUDICIAL P>IUM SUORUM1 VEL P] LEGEM T]RE444  

 ,! LIB]TIES ( ,5GL& CANNOT BUT SUBSI/ SO LONG AS ?IS PALLADIUM REMA9S SACR$ & 9VIOLATE1 NOT ONLY FROM ALL OP51 ATTACKS1 :I* NONE WILL BE SO H>DY AS TO MAKE1 BUT ALSO FROM ALL SECRET MA*9ATIONS :I* MAY SAP & UND]M9E IT40 #aa  

 0,! TRIAL BY JURY EV] HAS BE51 & ,I TRU/ EV] WILL BE1 LOOK$ UPON AS ! GLORY ( ! ,5GLI% LAW444 ,IT IS ! MO/ TRANSC5D5T PRIVILEGE :I* ANY SUBJECT CAN 5JOY OR WI% =1 ?AT HE CANNOT BE AFFECT$ 9 HIS PROP]TY1 HIS LIB]TY1 OR HIS P]SON1 BUT BY ! UNANIM\S CONS5T ( TWELVE ( HIS NEI<BORS & EQUALS40 #ab  

 ,HUME CALLS ! ,TRIAL BY ,JURY 0,AN 9/ITUTION ADMIRABLE 9 ITSELF1 & ! BE/ CALCULAT$ = ! PRES]VATION ( LIB]TY & ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE1 ?AT EV] WAS DEVIS$ BY ! WIT ( MAN40 #ac  

 ,AN OLD BOOK1 CALL$ 0,5GLI% ,LIB]TIES10 SAYS3 0,5GLI% ,P>LIAM5TS HAVE ALL ALONG BE5 MO/ ZEAL\S = PRES]V+ ?IS ,GREAT ,JEWEL ( ,LIB]TY1 ,TRIALS BY ,JURIES HAV+ NO LESS ?AN FIFTY-EI<T SEV]AL TIMES1 S9CE ! ,NORMAN ,CONQUE/1 BE5 E/ABLI%$ & CONFIRM$ BY ! LEGISLATIVE P[]1 NO ONE PRIVILEGE BESIDES HAV+ BE5 EV] SO (T5 REMEMB]$ 9 P>LIAM5T40#a#d   

,*,A,P,T,] ,X,I,I ,L,I,M,I,T,A,T,I,O,N,S ,I,M,P,O,S,$ ,U,P,O,N ,! ,M,A,J,O,R,I,T,Y ,B,Y ,! ,T,R,I,A,L ,B,Y ,J,U,R,Y 

 ,! PR9CIPAL OBJECTION1 ?AT WILL BE MADE TO ! DOCTR9E ( ?IS ESSAY1 IS1 ?AT UND] IT1 A JURY W\LD P>ALYZE ! P[] ( ! MAJORITY1 & VETO ALL LEGISLATION ?AT WAS NOT 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! WILL ( ! :OLE1 OR NE>LY ! :OLE1 PEOPLE4  

 ,! ANSW] TO ?IS OBJECTION IS1 ?AT ! LIMITATION1 :I* W\LD BE ?US IMPOS$ UPON ! LEGISLATIVE P[]1 7:E!R ?AT P[] BE VE/$ 9 ! MAJORITY1 OR M9ORITY1 ( ! PEOPLE17 IS ! CR[N+ M]IT ( ! TRIAL BY JURY4 ,IT HAS O!R M]ITS2 BUT1 ?\< IMPORTANT 9 !MSELVES1 !Y >E UTT]LY 9SIGNIFICANT & WOR?LESS 9 COMP>ISON ) ?IS4  

 ,IT IS ?IS P[] ( VETO+ ALL P>TIAL & OPPRESSIVE LEGISLATION1 & ( RE/RICT+ ! GOV]NM5T TO ! MA9T5ANCE ( SU* LAWS AS ! :OLE1 OR SUB/ANTIALLY ! :OLE1 PEOPLE >E AGRE$ 91 ?AT MAKES ! TRIAL BY JURY 0! PALLADIUM ( LIB]TY40 ,)\T ?IS P[] IT W\LD NEV] HAVE DES]V$ ?AT NAME4  

 ,! WILL1 OR ! PRET5D$ WILL1 ( ! MAJORITY1 IS ! LA/ LURK+ PLACE ( TYRANNY AT ! PRES5T DAY4 ,! DOGMA1 ?AT C]TA9 9DIVIDUALS & FAMILIES HAVE A DIV9E APPO9TM5T TO GOV]N ! RE/ ( MANK9D1 IS FA/ GIV+ PLACE TO ! ONE ?AT ! L>G] NUMB] HAVE A RI<T TO GOV]N ! SMALL]2 A DOGMA1 :I* MAY1 OR MAY NOT1 BE LESS OPPRESSIVE 9 ITS PRACTICAL OP]ATION1 BUT :I* C]TA9LY IS NO LESS FALSE OR TYRANNICAL 9 PR9CIPLE1 ?AN ! ONE IT IS SO RAPIDLY SUPPLANT+4 ,OBVI\SLY !RE IS NO?+ 9 ! NATURE ( MAJORITIES1 ?AT 9SURES JU/ICE AT !IR H&S4 ,!Y HAVE ! SAME PASSIONS AS M9ORITIES1 & !Y HAVE NO QUALITIES :ATEV] ?AT %\LD BE EXPECT$ TO PREV5T !M FROM PRACTIC+ ! SAME TYRANNY AS M9ORITIES1 IF !Y ?9K IT WILL BE = !IR 9T]E/ TO DO SO4  

 ,!RE IS NO P>TICLE ( TRU? 9 ! NOTION ?AT ! MAJORITY HAVE A RI<T TO RULE1 OR TO EX]CISE >BITR>Y P[] OV]1 ! M9ORITY1 SIMPLY BECAUSE ! =M] >E MORE NUM]\S ?AN ! LATT]4 ,TWO M5 HAVE NO MORE NATURAL RI<T TO RULE ONE1 ?AN ONE HAS TO RULE TWO4 ,ANY S+LE MAN1 OR ANY BODY ( M51 MANY OR FEW1 HAVE A NATURAL RI<T TO MA9TA9 JU/ICE = !MSELVES1 & = ANY O!RS :O MAY NE$ !IR ASSI/ANCE AGA9/ ! 9JU/ICE ( ANY & ALL O!R M51 )\T REG>D TO !IR NUMB]S2 & MAJORITIES HAVE NO RI<T TO DO ANY MORE ?AN ?IS4 ,! RELATIVE NUMB]S ( ! OPPOS+ P>TIES HAVE NO?+ TO DO ) ! QUE/ION ( RI<T4 ,& NO MORE TYRANNICAL PR9CIPLE WAS EV] AV[$1 ?AN ?AT ! WILL ( ! MAJORITY \<T TO HAVE ! =CE ( LAW1 )\T REG>D TO ITS JU/ICE2 OR1 :AT IS ! SAME ?+1 ?AT ! WILL ( ! MAJORITY \<T ALWAYS TO BE PRESUM$ TO BE 9 ACCORDANCE ) JU/ICE4 ,SU* A DOCTR9E IS ONLY ANO!R =M ( ! DOCTR9E ?AT MI<T MAKES RI<T4  

 ,:5 TWO M5 MEET ONE UPON ! HI<WAY1 OR 9 ! WILD]NESS1 HAVE !Y A RI<T TO DISPOSE ( HIS LIFE1 LIB]TY1 OR PROP]TY AT !IR PLEASURE1 SIMPLY BECAUSE !Y >E ! MORE NUM]\S P>TY8 ,OR IS HE B\ND TO SUBMIT TO LOSE HIS LIFE1 LIB]TY1 OR PROP]TY1 IF !Y DEM& IT1 M]ELY BECAUSE HE IS ! LESS NUM]\S P>TY8 ,OR1 BECAUSE !Y >E MORE NUM]\S ?AN HE1 IS HE B\ND TO PRESUME ?AT !Y >E GOV]N$ ONLY BY SUP]IOR WISDOM1 & ! PR9CIPLES ( JU/ICE1 & BY NO SELFI% PASSION ?AT CAN LEAD !M TO DO HIM A WRONG8 ,YET ?IS IS ! PR9CIPLE1 :I* IT IS CLAIM$ %\LD GOV]N M5 9 ALL !IR CIVIL RELATIONS TO EA* O!R4 ,MANK9D FALL 9 COMPANY ) EA* O!R ON ! HI<WAY OR 9 ! WILD]NESS ( LIFE1 & IT IS CLAIM$ ?AT ! MORE NUM]\S P>TY1 SIMPLY BY VIRTUE ( !IR SUP]IOR NUMB]S1 HAVE ! RI<T >BITR>ILY TO DISPOSE ( ! LIFE1 LIB]TY1 & PROP]TY ( ! M9ORITY2 & ?AT ! M9ORITY >E B\ND1 BY REASON ( !IR 9F]IOR NUMB]S1 TO PRACTICE ABJECT SUBMISSION1 & CONS5T TO HOLD !IR NATURAL RI<TS1 ---ANY1 ALL1 OR NONE1 AS ! CASE MAY BE1 ---AT ! M]E WILL & PLEASURE ( ! MAJORITY2 AS IF ALL A MAN'S NATURAL RI<TS EXPIR$1 OR W]E SUSP5D$ BY ! OP]ATION ( A P>AM\NT LAW1 ! MOM5T HE CAME 9TO ! PRES5CE ( SUP]IOR NUMB]S4  

 ,IF SU* BE ! TRUE NATURE ( ! RELATIONS M5 HOLD TO EA* O!R 9 ?IS WORLD1 IT PUTS AN 5D TO ALL SU* ?+S AS CRIMES1 UNLESS !Y BE P]PETRAT$ UPON ?OSE :O >E EQUAL OR SUP]IOR1 9 NUMB]1 TO ! ACTORS4 ,ALL ACTS COMMITT$ AGA9/ P]SONS 9F]IOR 9 NUMB] TO ! AGGRESSORS1 BECOME BUT ! EX]CISE AT RI<TFUL AU?ORITY4 ,& CONSI/5CY ) !IR [N PR9CIPLES REQUIRES ?AT ALL GOV]NM5TS1 F\ND$ ON ! WILL ( ! MAJORITY1 %\LD RECOGNIZE ?IS PLEA AS A SUFFICI5T JU/IFICATION = ALL CRIMES :ATSOEV]4  

 ,IF IT BE SAID ?AT ! MAJORITY %\LD BE ALL[$ TO RULE1 NOT BECAUSE !Y >E /RONG] ?AN ! M9ORITY1 BUT BECAUSE !IR SUP]IOR NUMB]S FURNI% A PROBABILITY ?AT !Y >E 9 ! RI<T2 ONE ANSW] IS1 ?AT ! LIVES1 LIB]TIES1 & PROP]TIES ( M5 >E TOO VALUABLE TO !M1 & ! NATURAL PRESUMPTIONS >E TOO /RONG 9 !IR FAVOR1 TO JU/IFY ! DE/RUCTION ( !M BY !IR FELL[-M5 ON A M]E BALANC+ ( PROBABILITIES1 OR ON ANY GR\ND :ATEV] %ORT ( C]TA9TY BEYOND A REASONABLE D\BT4 ,?IS LA/ IS ! MORAL RULE UNIV]SALLY RECOGNIZ$ TO BE B9D+ UPON S+LE 9DIVIDUALS4 ,& 9 ! =UM ( CONSCI5CE ! SAME RULE IS EQUALLY B9D+ UPON GOV]NM5TS1 = GOV]NM5TS >E M]E ASSOCIATIONS ( 9DIVIDUALS4 ,?IS IS ! RULE ON :I* ! TRIAL BY JURY IS BAS$4 ,& IT IS PLA9LY ! ONLY RULE ?AT \<T TO 9DUCE A MAN TO SUBMIT HIS RI<TS TO ! ADJUDICATION ( HIS FELL[-M51 OR DISSUADE HIM FROM A =CIBLE DEF5SE ( !M4  

 ,ANO!R ANSW] IS1 ?AT IF TWO OPPOS+ P>TIES C\LD BE SUPPOS$ TO HAVE NO P]SONAL 9T]E/S OR PASSIONS 9VOLV$1 TO W>P !IR JUDGM5TS1 OR CORRUPT !IR MOTIVES1 ! FACT ?AT ONE ( ! P>TIES WAS MORE NUM]\S ?AN ! O!R1 7A FACT ?AT LEAVES ! COMP>ATIVE 9TELLECTUAL COMPET5CY ( ! TWO P>TIES 5TIRELY \T ( CONSID]ATION17 MI<T1 P]HAPS1 FURNI% A SLI<T1 BUT AT BE/ ONLY A V]Y SLI<T1 PROBABILITY ?AT SU* P>TY WAS ON ! SIDE ( JU/ICE4 ,BUT :5 IT IS CONSID]$ ?AT ! P>TIES >E LIABLE TO DIFF] 9 !IR 9TELLECTUAL CAPACITIES1 & ?AT ONE1 OR ! O!R1 OR BO?1 >E UND\BT$LY UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( SU* PASSIONS AS RIVALRY1 HATR$1 AV>ICE1 & AMBITION1 ---PASSIONS ?AT >E NE>LY C]TA9 TO P]V]T !IR JUDGM5TS1 & V]Y LIKELY TO CORRUPT !IR MOTIVES1 ALL PROBABILITIES F\ND$ UPON A M]E NUM]ICAL MAJORITY1 9 ONE P>TY1 OR ! O!R1 VANI% AT ONCE2 & ! DECISION ( ! MAJORITY BECOMES1 TO ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES1 A M]E DECISION ( *ANCE4 ,& TO DISPOSE ( M5'S PROP]TIES1 LIB]TIES1 & LIVES1 BY ! M]E PROCESS ( 5UM]AT+ SU* P>TIES1 IS NOT ONLY AS PALPABLE GAMBL+ AS WAS EV] PRACTIC$1 BUT IT IS ALSO ! MO/ ATROCI\S ?AT WAS EV] PRACTIC$1 EXCEPT 9 MATT]S ( GOV]NM5T4 ,& :]E GOV]NM5T IS 9/ITUT$ ON ?IS PR9CIPLE1 7AS 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 = EXAMPLE17 ! NATION IS AT ONCE CONV]T$ 9TO ONE GREAT GAMBL+ E/ABLI%M5T2 :]E ALL ! RI<TS ( M5 >E ! /AKES2 A FEW BOLD BAD M5 ?R[ ! DICE 7DICE LOAD$ ) ALL ! HOPES1 FE>S1 9T]E/S1 & PASSIONS :I* RAGE 9 ! BREA/S ( AMBITI\S & DESP]ATE M517 & ALL ! PEOPLE1 FROM ! 9T]E/S !Y HAVE DEP5D+1 BECOME 5LI/$1 EXCIT$1 AGITAT$1 & G5]ALLY CORRUPT$1 BY ! HAZ>DS ( ! GAME4  

 ,! TRIAL BY JURY DISAV[S ! MAJORITY PR9CIPLE ALTOGE!R2 & PROCE$S UPON ! GR\ND ?AT EV]Y MAN %\LD BE PRESUM$ TO BE 5TITL$ TO LIFE1 LIB]TY1 & SU* PROP]TY AS HE HAS 9 HIS POSSESSION2 & ?AT ! GOV]NM5T %\LD LAY ITS H& UPON NONE ( !M1 7EXCEPT = ! PURPOSE ( BR++ !M BE=E A TRIBUNAL = ADJUDICATION17 UNLESS IT BE FIR/ ASC]TA9$1 BEYOND A REASONABLE D\BT1 9 EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL CASE1 ?AT JU/ICE REQUIRES IT4  

 ,TO ASC]TA9 :E!R !RE BE SU* REASONABLE D\BT1 IT TAKES TWELVE M5 BY LOT FROM ! :OLE BODY ( MATURE M54 ,IF ANY ( !SE TWELVE >E PROV$ TO BE UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ANY SPECIAL 9T]E/ OR PASSION1 ?AT MAY EI!R P]V]T !IR JUDGM5TS1 OR CORRUPT !IR MOTIVES1 !Y >E SET ASIDE AS UNSUITABLE = ! P]=MANCE ( A DUTY REQUIR+ SU* ABSOLUTE IMP>TIALITY & 9TEGRITY2 & O!RS SUB/ITUT$ 9 !IR /EAD4 ,:5 ! UTMO/ PRACTICABLE IMP>TIALITY IS ATTA9$ ON ! P>T ( ! :OLE TWELVE1 !Y >E SWORN TO ! OBS]VANCE ( JU/ICE2 & !IR UNANIM\S CONCURR5CE IS !N HELD TO BE NECESS>Y TO REMOVE ?AT REASONABLE D\BT1 :I*1 UNREMOV$1 W\LD =BID ! GOV]NM5T TO LAY ITS H& ON ITS VICTIM4  

 ,SU* IS ! CAUTION :I* ! TRIAL BY JURY BO? PRACTICES & 9CULCATES1 AGA9/ ! VIOLATION ( JU/ICE1 ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T1 T[>DS ! HUMBLE/ 9DIVIDUAL1 9 ! SMALLE/ MATT] AFFECT+ HIS CIVIL RI<TS1 HIS PROP]TY1 LIB]TY1 OR LIFE4 ,& SU* IS ! CONTRA/1 :I* ! TRIAL BY JURY PRES5TS1 TO ?AT GAMBL]'S & ROBB]'S RULE1 ?AT ! MAJORITY HAVE A RI<T1 BY VIRTUE ( !IR SUP]IOR NUMB]S1 & )\T REG>D TO JU/ICE1 TO DISPOSE AT PLEASURE ( ! PROP]TY & P]SONS ( ALL BODIES ( M5 LESS NUM]\S ?AN !MSELVES4  

 ,! DIFF]5CE1 9 %ORT1 BETWE5 ! TWO SY/EMS1 IS ?IS4 ,! TRIAL BY JURY PROTECTS P]SON & PROP]TY1 9VIOLATE TO !IR POSSESSORS1 FROM ! H& ( ! LAW1 UNLESS JU/ICE1 BEYOND A REASONABLE D\BT1 REQUIRE !M TO BE TAK54 ,! MAJORITY PR9CIPLE TAKES P]SON & PROP]TY FROM !IR POSSESSORS1 AT ! M]E >BITR>Y WILL ( A MAJORITY1 :O >E LIABLE & LIKELY TO BE 9FLU5C$1 9 TAK+ !M1 BY MOTIVES ( OPPRESSION1 AV>ICE1 & AMBITION4  

 ,IF ! RELATIVE NUMB]S ( OPPOS+ P>TIES AF=D$ SUFFICI5T EVID5CE ( ! COMP>ATIVE JU/ICE ( !IR CLAIMS ! GOV]NM5T %\LD C>RY ! PR9CIPLE 9TO ITS C\RTS ( JU/ICE2 & 9/EAD ( REF]R+ CONTROV]SIES TO IMP>TIAL & DIS9T]E/$ M51 TO JUDGES & JURORS1 SWORN TO DO JU/ICE1 & B\ND PATI5TLY TO HE> & WEI< ALL ! EVID5CE & >GUM5TS ?AT CAN BE (F]$ ON EI!R SIDE1 IT %\LD SIMPLY C\NT ! PLA9TIFF'S & DEF5DANTS 9 EA* CASE1 7:]E !RE W]E MORE ?AN ONE ( EI!R17 & !N GIVE ! CASE TO ! MAJORITY2 AFT] AMPLE OPPORTUNITY HAD BE5 GIV5 TO ! PLA9TIFFS & DEF5DANTS TO REASON )1 FLATT]1 *EAT1 ?REAT51 & BRIBE EA* O!R1 BY WAY ( 9DUC+ !M TO *ANGE SIDES4 ,SU* A4 PROCESS W\LD BE JU/ AS RATIONAL 9 C\RTS ( JU/ICE1 AS 9 HALLS ( LEGISLATION2 = IT IS ( NO IMPORTANCE TO A MAN1 :O HAS HIS RI<TS TAK5 FROM HIM1 :E!R IT BE DONE BY A LEGISLATIVE 5ACTM5T1 OR A JUDICIAL DECISION4  

 ,9 LEGISLATION1 ! PEOPLE >E ALL >RANG$ AS PLA9TIFF'S & DEF5DANTS 9 !IR [N CAUSES2 7?OSE :O >E 9 FAVOR ( A P>TICUL> LAW1 /&+ AS PLA9TIFF'S1 & ?OSE :O >E OPPOS$ TO ! SAME LAW1 /&+ AS DEF5DANTS72 & TO ALL[ !SE CAUSES TO BE DECID$ BY MAJORITIES1 IS PLA9LY AS ABSURD AS IT W\LD BE TO ALL[ JUDICIAL DECISIONS TO BE DET]M9$ BY ! RELATIVE NUMB] ( PLA9TIFFS & DEF5DANTS4  

 ,IF ?IS MODE ( DECISION W]E 9TRODUC$ 9TO C\RTS ( JU/ICE1 WE %\LD SEE A P>ALLEL1 & ONLY A P>ALLEL1 TO ?AT SY/EM ( LEGISLATION :I* WE WITNESS DAILY4 ,WE %\LD SEE L>GE BODIES ( M5 CONSPIR+ TO BR+ P]FECTLY GR\NDLESS SUITS1 AGA9/ O!R BODIES ( M51 = L>GE SUMS ( MONEY1 & TO C>RY !M BY %E] =CE ( NUMB]S2 JU/ AS WE N[ CONT9UALLY SEE L>GE BODIES ( M5 CONSPIR+ TO C>RY1 BY M]E =CE ( NUMB]S1 SOME S*EME ( LEGISLATION ?AT WILL1 DIRECTLY OR 9DIRECTLY1 TAKE MONEY \T ( O!R M5'S POCKETS1 & PUT IT 9TO !IR [N4 ,& WE %\LD ALSO SEE DI/9CT BODIES ( M51 P>TIES 9 SEP>ATE SUITS1 COMB9+ & AGREE+ ALL TO APPE> & BE C\NT$ AS PLA9TIFFS OR DEF5DANTS 9 EA* O!R'S SUITS1 = ! PURPOSE ( EKE+ \T ! NECESS>Y MAJORITY2 JU/ AS WE N[ SEE DI/9CT BODIES ( M51 9T]E/$ 9 SEP>ATE S*EMES ( AMBITION OR PLUND]1 CONSPIR+ TO C>RY ?R\< A BAT* ( LEGISLATIVE 5ACTM5TS1 ?AT %ALL ACCOMPLI% !IR SEV]AL PURPOSES4  

 ,?IS SY/EM ( COMB9ATION & CONSPIRACY W\LD GO ON1 UNTIL AT L5G? :OLE /ATES & A :OLE NATION W\LD BECOME DIVID$ 9TO TWO GREAT LITIGAT+ P>TIES1 EA* P>TY COMPOS$ ( SEV]AL SMALL] BODIES1 HAV+ !IR SEP>ATE SUITS1 BUT ALL CONF$]AT+ = ! PURPOSE ( MAK+ UP ! NECESS>Y MAJORITY 9 EA* CASE4 ,! 9DIVIDUALS COMPOS+ EA* ( !SE TWO GREAT P>TIES1 W\LD AT L5G? BECOME SO ACCU/OM$ TO ACT+ TOGE!R1 & SO WELL ACQUA9T$ ) EA* O!RS' S*EMES1 & SO MUTUALLY DEP5D5T UPON EA* O!RS' FIDELITY = SUCCESS1 ?AT !Y W\LD BECOME ORGANIZ$ AS P]MAN5T ASSOCIATIONS2 B\ND TOGE!R BY ?AT K9D ( HONOR ?AT PREVAILS AMONG ?IEVES2 & PL$G$ BY ALL !IR 9T]E/S1 SYMPA?IES1 & ANIMOSITIES1 TO MUTUAL FIDELITY1 & TO UNCEAS+ HO/ILITY TO !IR OPPON5TS2 & EX]T+ ALL !IR >TS & ALL !IR RES\RCES ( ?REATS1 9JURIES1 PROMISES1 & BRIBES1 TO DRIVE OR S$UCE FROM ! O!R P>TY 5\< TO 5ABLE !IR [N TO RETA9 OR ACQUIRE SU* A MAJORITY AS W\LD BE NECESS>Y TO GA9 !IR [N SUITS1 & DEFEAT ! SUITS ( !IR OPPON5TS4 ,ALL ! WEAL? & TAL5T ( ! C\NTRY W\LD BECOME 5LI/$ 9 ! S]VICE ( !SE RIVAL ASSOCIATIONS2 & BO? W\LD AT L5G? BECOME SO COMPACT1 SO WELL ORGANIZ$1 SO P[]FUL1 & YET ALWAYS SO MU* 9 NE$ ( RECRUITS1 ?AT A PRIVATE P]SON W\LD BE NE>LY OR QUITE UNABLE TO OBTA9 JU/ICE 9 ! MO/ PALTRY SUIT ) HIS NEI<BOR1 EXCEPT ON ! CONDITION ( JO9+ ONE ( !SE GREAT LITIGAT+ ASSOCIATIONS1 :O W\LD AGREE TO C>RY ?R\< HIS CAUSE1 ON CONDITION ( HIS ASSI/+ !M TO C>RY ?R\< ALL ! O!RS1 GOOD & BAD1 :I* !Y HAD ALREADY UND]TAK54 ,IF HE REFUS$ ?IS1 !Y W\LD ?REAT5 TO MAKE A SIMIL> (F] TO HIS ANTAGONI/1 & SUFF] !IR :OLE NUMB]S TO BE C\NT$ AGA9/ HIM4  

 ,N[ ?IS PICTURE IS NO C>ICATURE1 BUT A TRUE & HONE/ LIK5ESS4 ,& SU* A SY/EM ( ADM9I/]+ JU/ICE1 W\LD BE NO MORE FALSE1 ABSURD1 OR ATROCI\S1 ?AN ?AT SY/EM ( WORK+ BY MAJORITIES1 :I* SEEKS TO ACCOMPLI%1 BY LEGISLATION1 ! SAME 5DS :I*1 9 ! CASE SUPPOS$1 W\LD BE ACCOMPLI%$ BY JUDICIAL DECISIONS4  

 ,AGA91 ! DOCTR9E ?AT ! M9ORITY \<T TO SUBMIT TO ! WILL ( ! MAJORITY1 PROCE$S1 NOT UPON ! PR9CIPLE ?AT GOV]NM5T IS =M$ BY VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION1 & = AN AGRE$ PURPOSE1 ON ! P>T ( ALL :O CONTRIBUTE TO ITS SUPPORT1 BUT UPON ! PRESUMPTION ?AT ALL GOV]NM5T MU/ BE PRACTICALLY A /ATE ( W> & PLUND] BETWE5 OPPOS+ P>TIES2 & ?AT 9 ORD] TO SAVE BLOOD1 & PREV5T MUTUAL EXT]M9ATION1 ! P>TIES COME TO AN AGREEM5T ?AT !Y WILL C\NT !IR RESPECTIVE NUMB]S P]IODICALLY1 & ! ONE P>TY %ALL !N BE P]MITT$ QUIETLY TO RULE & PLUND]1 7RE/RA9$ ONLY BY !IR [N DISCRETION17 & ! O!R SUBMIT QUIETLY TO BE RUL$ & PLUND]$1 UNTIL ! TIME ( ! NEXT 5UM]ATION4  

 ,SU* AN AGREEM5T MAY POSSIBLY BE WIS] ?AN UNCEAS+ & DEADLY CONFLICT2 IT NEV]!LESS P>TAKES TOO MU* ( ! LUDICR\S TO DES]VE TO BE S]I\SLY CONSID]$ AS AN EXP$I5T = ! MA9T5ANCE ( CIVIL SOCIETY4 ,IT W\LD C]TA9LY SEEM ?AT MANK9D MI<T AGREE UPON A CESSATION ( HO/ILITIES1 UPON MORE RATIONAL & EQUITABLE T]MS ?AN ?AT ( UNCONDITIONAL SUBMISSION ON ! P>T ( ! LESS NUM]\S BODY4 ,UNCONDITIONAL SUBMISSION IS USUALLY ! LA/ ACT ( ONE :O CONFESSES HIMSELF SUBDU$ & 5SLAV$4 ,H[ ANY ONE EV] CAME TO IMAG9E ?AT CONDITION TO BE ONE ( FRE$OM1 HAS NEV] BE5 EXPLA9$4 ,& AS = ! SY/EM BE+ ADAPT$ TO ! MA9T5ANCE ( JU/ICE AMONG M51 IT IS A MY/]Y ?AT ANY HUMAN M9D C\LD EV] HAVE BE5 VISIT$ ) AN 9SANITY WILD 5\< TO ORIG9ATE ! IDEA4  

 ,IF IT BE SAID ?AT O!R CORPORATIONS1 ?AN GOV]NM5TS1 SURR5D] !IR AFFAIRS 9TO ! H&S ( ! MAJORITY1 ! ANSW] IS1 ?AT !Y ALL[ MAJORITIES TO DET]M9E ONLY TRIFL+ MATT]S1 ?AT >E 9 !IR NATURE M]E QUE/IONS ( DISCRETION1 & :]E !RE IS NO NATURAL PRESUMPTION ( JU/ICE OR RI<T ON ONE SIDE RA!R ?AN ! O!R4 ,!Y NEV] SURR5D] TO ! MAJORITY ! P[] TO DISPOSE (2 OR1 :AT IS PRACTICALLY ! SAME ?+1 TO DET]M9E1 ! RI<TS ( ANY 9DIVIDUAL MEMB]4 ,! RI<TS ( EV]Y MEMB] >E DET]M9$ BY ! WRITT5 COMPACT1 TO :I* ALL ! MEMB]S HAVE VOLUNT>ILY AGRE$4  

 ,= EXAMPLE4 ,A BANK+ CORPORATION ALL[S A MAJORITY TO DET]M9E SU* QUE/IONS ( DISCRETION AS :E!R ! NOTE ( ,A OR ( ,B %ALL BE DISC\NT$2 :E!R NOTES %ALL BE DISC\NT$ ON ONE1 TWO1 OR SIX DAYS 9 ! WEEK2 H[ MANY H\RS 9 A DAY !IR BANK+-H\SE %ALL BE KEPT OP52 H[ MANY CL]KS %ALL BE EMPLOY$2 :AT SAL>IES !Y %ALL RECEIVE1 & SU* LIKE MATT]S1 :I* >E 9 !IR NATURE M]E SUBJECTS ( DISCRETION1 & :]E !RE >E NO NATURAL PRESUMPTIONS ( JU/ICE OR RI<T 9 FAVOR ( ONE C\RSE OV] ! O!R4 ,BUT NO BANK+ CORPORATION ALL[S A MAJORITY1 OR ANY O!R NUMB] ( ITS MEMB]S LESS ?AN ! :OLE1 TO DIV]T ! FUNDS ( ! CORPORATION TO ANY O!R PURPOSE ?AN ! ONE TO :I* EV]Y MEMB] ( ! CORPORATION HAS LEGALLY AGRE$ ?AT !Y MAY BE DEVOT$2 NOR TO TAKE ! /OCK ( ONE MEMB] & GIVE IT TO ANO!R2 NOR TO DI/RIBUTE ! DIVID5DS AMONG ! /OCKHOLD]S O!RWISE ?AN TO EA* ONE ! PROPORTION :I* HE HAS AGRE$ TO ACCEPT1 & ALL ! O!RS HAVE AGRE$ ?AT HE %ALL RECEIVE4 ,NOR DOES ANY BANK+ CORPORATION ALL[ A MAJORITY TO IMPOSE TAXES UPON ! MEMB]S = ! PAYM5T ( ! CORPORATE EXP5SES1 EXCEPT 9 SU* PROPORTIONS AS EV]Y MEMB] HAS CONS5T$ ?AT !Y MAY BE IMPOS$4 ,ALL !SE QUE/IONS1 9VOLV+ ! RI<TS ( ! MEMB]S AS AGA9/ EA* O!R1 >E FIX$ BY ! >TICLES ( ! ASSOCIATION1 ---?AT IS1 BY ! AGREEM5T TO :I* EV]Y MEMB] HAS P]SONALLY ASS5T$4  

 ,:AT IS ALSO SPECIALLY TO BE NOTIC$1 & :AT CON/ITUTES A VITAL DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! BANK+ CORPORATION & ! POLITICAL CORPORATION1 OR GOV]NM5T1 IS1 ?AT 9 CASE ( CONTROV]SY AMONG ! MEMB]S ( ! BANK+ CORPORATION1 AS TO ! RI<TS ( ANY MEMB]1 ! QUE/ION IS DET]M9$1 NOT BY ANY NUMB]1 EI!R MAJORITY1 OR M9ORITY1 ( ! CORPORATION ITSELF1 BUT BY P]SONS \T ( ! CORPORATION2 BY TWELVE M5 ACT+ AS JURORS1 OR BY O!R TRIBUNALS ( JU/ICE1 ( :I* NO MEMB] ( ! CORPORATION IS ALL[$ TO BE A P>T4 ,BUT 9 ! CASE ( ! POLITICAL CORPORATION1 CONTROV]SIES AMONG ! P>TIES TO IT1 AS TO ! RI<TS ( 9DIVIDUAL MEMB]S1 MU/ ( NECESSITY BE SETTL$ BY MEMB]S ( ! CORPORATION ITSELF1 BECAUSE !RE >E NO P]SONS \T ( ! CORPORATION TO :OM ! QUE/ION CAN BE REF]R$4  

 ,S9CE1 !N1 ALL QUE/IONS AS TO ! RI<TS ( ! MEMB]S ( ! POLITICAL CORPORATION1 MU/ BE DET]M9$ BY MEMB]S ( ! CORPORATION ITSELF1 ! TRIAL BY JURY SAYS ?AT NO MAN'S RI<TS1 ---NEI!R HIS RI<T TO HIS LIFE1 HIS LIB]TY1 NOR HIS PROP]TY1 ---%ALL BE DET]M9$ BY ANY SU* /&>D AS ! M]E WILL & PLEASURE ( MAJORITIES2 BUT ONLY BY ! UNANIM\S V]DICT ( A TRIBUNAL FAIRLY REPRES5T+ ! :OLE PEOPLE1 ---?AT IS1 A TRIBUNAL ( TWELVE M51 TAK5 AT R&OM FROM ! :OLE BODY1 & ASC]TA9$ TO BE AS IMP>TIAL AS ! NATURE ( ! CASE WILL ADMIT1 & SWORN TO ! OBS]VANCE ( JU/ICE4 ,SU* IS ! DIFF]5CE 9 ! TWO K9DS ( CORPORATIONS2 & ! CU/OM ( MANAG+ BY MAJORITIES ! M]E DISCRETION>Y MATT]S ( BUS9ESS CORPORATIONS1 7! MAJORITY HAV+ NO P[] TO DET]M9E ! RI<TS ( ANY MEMB]17 FURNI%ES NO ANALOGY TO ! PRACTICE1 ADOPT$ BY POLITICAL CORPORATIONS1 ( DISPOS+ ( ALL ! RI<TS ( !IR MEMB]S BY ! >BITR>Y WILL ( MAJORITIES4  

 ,BUT FUR!R4 ,! DOCTR9E ?AT ! MAJORITY HAVE A RI<T TO RULE1 PROCE$S UPON ! PR9CIPLE ?AT M9ORITIES HAVE NO RI<TS 9 ! GOV]NM5T2 = C]TA9LY ! M9ORITY CANNOT BE SAID TO HAVE ANY RI<TS 9 A GOV]NM5T1 SO LONG AS ! MAJORITY ALONE DET]M9E :AT !IR RI<TS %ALL BE4 ,!Y HOLD EV]Y?+1 OR NO?+1 AS ! CASE MAY BE1 AT ! M]E WILL ( ! MAJORITY4  

 ,IT IS 9DISP5SABLE TO A 0FREE GOV]NM5T10 79 ! POLITICAL S5SE ( ?AT T]M17 ?AT ! M9ORITY1 ! WEAK] P>TY1 HAVE A VETO UPON ! ACTS ( ! MAJORITY4 ,POLITICAL LIB]TY IS LIB]TY = ! WEAK] P>TY 9 A NATION4 ,IT IS ONLY ! WEAK] P>TY ?AT LOSE !IR LIB]TIES1 :5 A GOV]NM5T BECOMES OPPRESSIVE4 ,! /RONG] P>TY1 9 ALL GOV]NM5TS1 >E FREE BY VIRTUE ( !IR SUP]IOR /R5G?4 ,!Y NEV] OPPRESS !MSELVES4  

 ,LEGISLATION IS ! WORK ( ?IS /RONG] P>TY2 & IF1 9 ADDITION TO ! SOLE P[] ( LEGISLAT+1 !Y HAVE ! SOLE P[] ( DET]M9+ :AT LEGISLATION %ALL BE 5=C$1 !Y HAVE ALL P[] 9 !IR H&S1 & ! WEAK] P>TY >E ! SUBJECTS ( AN ABSOLUTE GOV]NM5T4  

 ,UNLESS ! WEAK] P>TY HAVE A VETO1 EI!R UPON ! MAK+1 OR ! 5=CEM5T ( LAWS1 !Y HAVE NO P[] :ATEV] 9 ! GOV]NM5T1 & CAN ( C\RSE HAVE NO LIB]TIES EXCEPT SU* AS ! /RONG] P>TY1 9 !IR >BITR>Y DISCRETION1 SEE FIT TO P]MIT !M TO 5JOY4  

 ,9 ,5GL& & ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 ! TRIAL BY JURY IS ! ONLY 9/ITUTION ?AT GIVES ! WEAK] P>TY ANY VETO UPON ! P[] ( ! /RONG]4 ,CONSEQU5TLY IT IS ! ONLY 9/ITUTION1 ?AT GIVES !M ANY EFFECTIVE VOICE 9 ! GOV]NM5T1 OR ANY GU>ANTEE AGA9/ OPPRESSION4  

 ,SUFFRAGE1 H[EV] FREE1 IS ( NO AVAIL = ?IS PURPOSE2 BECAUSE ! SUFFRAGE ( ! M9ORITY IS OV]BORNE BY ! SUFFRAGE ( ! MAJORITY1 & IS ?US R5D]$ P[]LESS = PURPOSES ( LEGISLATION4 ,! RESPONSIBILITY ( (FIC]S CAN BE MADE ( NO AVAIL1 BECAUSE !Y >E RESPONSIBLE ONLY TO ! MAJORITY4 ,! M9ORITY1 !RE=E1 >E :OLLY )\T RI<TS 9 ! GOV]NM5T1 :OLLY AT ! M]CY ( ! MAJORITY1 UNLESS1 ?R\< ! TRIAL BY JURY1 !Y HAVE A VETO UPON SU* LEGISLATION AS !Y ?9K UNJU/4  

 ,GOV]NM5T IS E/ABLI%$ = ! PROTECTION ( ! WEAK AGA9/ ! /RONG4 ,?IS IS ! PR9CIPAL1 IF NOT ! SOLE1 MOTIVE = ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ALL LEGITIMATE GOV]NM5T4 ,LAWS1 ?AT >E SUFFICI5T = ! PROTECTION ( ! WEAK] P>TY1 >E ( C\RSE SUFFICI5T = ! PROTECTION ( ! /RONG] P>TY2 BECAUSE ! /RONG CAN C]TA9LY NE$ NO MORE PROTECTION ?AN ! WEAK4 ,IT IS1 !RE=E1 RI<T ?AT ! WEAK] P>TY %\LD BE REPRES5T$ 9 ! TRIBUNAL :I* IS F9ALLY TO DET]M9E :AT LEGISLATION MAY BE 5=C$2 & ?AT NO LEGISLATION %ALL BE 5=C$ AGA9/ !IR CONS5T4 ,!Y BE+ PRESUM$ TO BE COMPET5T JUDGES ( :AT K9D ( LEGISLATION MAKES = !IR SAFETY1 & :AT = !IR 9JURY1 IT MU/ BE PRESUM$ ?AT ANY LEGISLATION1 :I* !Y OBJECT TO 5=C+1 T5DS TO !IR OPPRESSION1 & NOT TO !IR SECURITY4  

 ,!RE IS /ILL ANO!R REASON :Y ! WEAK] P>TY1 OR ! M9ORITY1 %\LD HAVE A VETO UPON ALL LEGISLATION :I* !Y DISAPPROVE4 ,?AT REASON IS1 ?AT ?AT IS ! ONLY MEANS BY :I* ! GOV]NM5T CAN BE KEPT )9 ! LIMITS ( ! CONTRACT1 COMPACT1 OR CON/ITUTION1 BY :I* ! :OLE PEOPLE AGREE TO E/ABLI% GOV]NM5T4 ,IF ! MAJORITY W]E ALL[$ TO 9T]PRET ! COMPACT = !MSELVES1 & 5=CE IT ACCORD+ TO !IR [N 9T]PRETATION1 !Y W\LD1 ( C\RSE1 MAKE IT AU?ORIZE !M TO DO :ATEV] !Y WI% TO DO4  

 ,! !ORY ( FREE GOV]NM5T IS ?AT IT IS =M$ BY ! VOLUNT>Y CONTRACT ( ! PEOPLE 9DIVIDUALLY ) EA* O!R4 ,?IS IS ! !ORY1 7AL?\< IT IS NOT1 AS IT \<T TO BE1 ! FACT17 9 ALL ! GOV]NM5TS 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 AS ALSO 9 ! GOV]NM5T ( ,5GL&4 ,! !ORY ASSUMES ?AT EA* MAN1 :O IS A P>TY TO ! GOV]NM5T1 & CONTRIBUTES TO ITS SUPPORT1 HAS 9DIVIDUALLY & FREELY CONS5T$ TO IT4 ,O!RWISE ! GOV]NM5T W\LD HAVE NO RI<T TO TAX HIM = ITS SUPPORT1 ---= TAXATION )\T CONS5T IS ROBB]Y4 ,?IS !ORY1 !N1 NECESS>ILY SUPPOSES ?AT ?IS GOV]NM5T1 :I* IS =M$ BY ! FREE CONS5T ( ALL1 HAS NO P[]S EXCEPT SU* AS ALL ! P>TIES TO IT HAVE 9DIVIDUALLY AGRE$ ?AT IT %ALL HAVE3 & ESPECIALLY ?AT IT HAS NO P[] TO PASS ANY LAWS1 EXCEPT SU* AS ALL ! P>TIES HAVE AGRE$ ?AT IT MAY PASS4  

 ,?IS !ORY SUPPOSES ?AT !RE MAY BE C]TA9 LAWS ?AT WILL BE B5EFICIAL TO ALL1 ---SO B5EFICIAL ?AT ALL CONS5T TO BE TAX$ = !IR MA9T5ANCE4 ,= ! MA9T5ANCE ( !SE SPECIFIC LAWS1 9 :I* ALL >E 9T]E/$1 ALL ASSOCIATE4 ,& !Y ASSOCIATE = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ?OSE LAWS ONLY1 9 :I* ALL >E 9T]E/$4 ,IT W\LD BE ABSURD TO SUPPOSE ?AT ALL W\LD ASSOCIATE1 & CONS5T TO BE TAX$1 = PURPOSES :I* W]E B5EFICIAL ONLY TO A P>T2 & ESPECIALLY = PURPOSES ?AT W]E 9JURI\S TO ANY4 ,A GOV]NM5T ( ! :OLE1 !RE=E1 CAN HAVE NO P[]S EXCEPT SU* AS ALL ! P>TIES CONS5T ?AT IT MAY HAVE4 ,IT CAN DO NO?+ EXCEPT :AT ALL HAVE CONS5T$ ?AT IT MAY DO4 ,& IF ANY PORTION ( ! PEOPLE1 ---NO MATT] H[ L>GE !IR NUMB]1 IF IT BE LESS ?AN ! :OLE1 ---DESIRE A GOV]NM5T = ANY PURPOSES O!R ?AN ?OSE ?AT >E COMMON TO ALL1 & DESIR$ BY ALL1 !Y MU/ =M A SEP>ATE ASSOCIATION = ?OSE PURPOSES4 ,!Y HAVE NO RI<T1 ---BY P]V]T+ ?IS GOV]NM5T ( ! :OLE1 TO ! ACCOMPLI%M5T ( PURPOSES DESIR$ ONLY BY A P>T1 ---TO COMPEL ANY ONE TO CONTRIBUTE TO PURPOSES ?AT >E EI!R USELESS OR 9JURI\S TO HIMSELF4  

 ,SU* BE+ ! PR9CIPLES ON :I* ! GOV]NM5T IS =M$1 ! QUE/ION >ISES1 H[ %ALL ?IS GOV]NM5T1 :]E =M$1 BE KEPT )9 ! LIMITS ( ! CONTRACT BY :I* IT WAS E/ABLI%$8 ,H[ %ALL ?IS GOV]NM5T1 9/ITUT$ BY ! :OLE PEOPLE1 AGRE$ TO BY ! :OLE PEOPLE1 SUPPORT$ BY ! CONTRIBUTIONS ( ! :OLE PEOPLE1 BE CONF9$ TO ! ACCOMPLI%M5T ( ?OSE PURPOSES ALONE1 :I* ! :OLE PEOPLE DESIRE8 ,H[ %ALL IT BE PRES]V$ FROM DEG5]ATION 9TO A M]E GOV]NM5T = ! B5EFIT ( A P>T ONLY ( ?OSE :O E/ABLI%$1 & :O SUPPORT IT8 ,H[ %ALL IT BE PREV5T$ FROM EV5 9JUR+ A P>T ( ITS [N MEMB]S1 = ! AGGR&IZEM5T ( ! RE/8 ,ITS LAWS MU/ BE1 7OR AT LEA/ N[ >E17 PASS$1 & MO/ ( ITS O!R ACTS P]=M$1 BY M]E AG5TS1 ---AG5TS *OS5 BY A P>T ( ! PEOPLE1 & NOT BY ! :OLE4 ,H[ CAN !SE AG5TS BE RE/RA9$ FROM SEEK+ !IR [N 9T]E/S1 & ! 9T]E/S ( ?OSE :O ELECT$ !M1 AT ! EXP5SE ( ! RI<TS ( ! REMA9D] ( ! PEOPLE1 BY ! PASSAGE & 5=CEM5T ( LAWS ?AT %ALL BE P>TIAL1 UNEQUAL1 & UNJU/ 9 !IR OP]ATION8 ,?AT IS ! GREAT QUE/ION4 ,& ! TRIAL BY JURY ANSW]S IT4 ,& H[ DOES ! TRIAL BY JURY ANSW] IT8 ,IT ANSW]S IT1 AS HAS ALREADY BE5 %[N ?R\<\T ?IS VOLUME1 BY SAY+ ?AT !SE M]E AG5TS & ATTORNEYS1 :O >E *OS5 BY A P>T ONLY ( ! PEOPLE1 & >E LIABLE TO BE 9FLU5C$ BY P>TIAL & UNEQUAL PURPOSES1 %ALL NOT HAVE UNLIMIT$ AU?ORITY 9 ! 5ACTM5T & 5=CEM5T ( LAWS2 ?AT !Y %ALL NOT EX]CISE ALL ! FUNCTIONS ( GOV]NM5T4 ,IT SAYS ?AT !Y %ALL NEV] EX]CISE ?AT ULTIMATE P[] ( COMPELL+ OB$I5CE TO ! LAWS BY PUNI%+ = DISOB$I5CE1 OR ( EXECUT+ ! LAWS AGA9/ ! P]SON OR PROP]TY ( ANY MAN1 )\T FIR/ GETT+ ! CONS5T ( ! PEOPLE1 ?R\< A TRIBUNAL ?AT MAY FAIRLY BE PRESUM$ TO REPRES5T ! :OLE1 OR SUB/ANTIALLY ! :OLE1 PEOPLE4 ,IT SAYS ?AT IF ! P[] TO MAKE LAWS1 & ! P[] ALSO TO 5=CE !M1 W]E COMMITT$ TO !SE AG5TS1 !Y W\LD HAVE ALL P[]1 ---W\LD BE ABSOLUTE MA/]S ( ! PEOPLE1 & C\LD DEPRIVE !M ( !IR RI<TS AT PLEASURE4 ,IT SAYS1 !RE=E1 ?AT ! PEOPLE !MSELVES WILL HOLD A VETO UPON ! 5=CEM5T ( ANY & EV]Y LAW1 :I* !SE AG5TS MAY 5ACT1 & ?AT :5EV] ! OCCASION >ISES = !M TO GIVE OR )HOLD !IR CONS5T1 9ASMU* AS ! :OLE PEOPLE CANNOT ASSEMBLE1 OR DEVOTE ! TIME & ATT5TION NECESS>Y TO ! 9VE/IGATION ( EA* CASE1 ---TWELVE ( !IR NUMB] %ALL BE TAK5 BY LOT1 OR O!RWISE AT R&OM1 FROM ! :OLE BODY2 ?AT !Y %ALL NOT BE *OS5 BY MAJORITIES1 7! SAME MAJORITIES ?AT ELECT$ ! AG5TS :O 5ACT$ ! LAWS TO BE PUT 9 ISSUE17 NOR BY ANY 9T]E/$ OR SUSPECT$ P>TY2 ?AT !Y %ALL NOT BE APPO9T$ BY1 OR BE 9 ANY WAY DEP5D5T UPON1 ?OSE :O 5ACT$ ! LAW2 ?AT !IR OP9IONS1 :E!R = OR AGA9/ ! LAW ?AT IS 9 ISSUE1 %ALL NOT BE 9QUIR$ ( BE=EH&2 & ?AT IF !SE TWELVE M5 GIVE !IR CONS5T TO ! 5=CEM5T ( ! LAW1 !IR CONS5T %ALL /& = ! CONS5T ( ! :OLE4  

 ,?IS IS ! MODE1 :I* ! TRIAL BY JURY PROVIDES1 = KEEP+ ! GOV]NM5T )9 ! LIMITS DESIGN$ BY ! :OLE PEOPLE1 :O HAVE ASSOCIAT$ = ITS E/ABLI%M5T4 ,& IT IS ! ONLY MODE1 PROVID$ EI!R BY ! ,5GLI% OR ,AM]ICAN CON/ITUTIONS1 = ! ACCOMPLI%M5T ( ?AT OBJECT4  

 ,BUT IT WILL1 P]HAPS1 BE SAID ?AT IF ! M9ORITY CAN DEFEAT ! WILL ( ! MAJORITY1 !N ! M9ORITY RULE ! MAJORITY4 ,BUT ?IS IS NOT TRUE 9 ANY UNJU/ S5SE4 ,! M9ORITY 5ACT NO LAWS ( !IR [N4 ,!Y SIMPLY REFUSE !IR ASS5T TO SU* LAWS ( ! MAJORITY AS !Y DO NOT APPROVE4 ,! M9ORITY ASSUME NO AU?ORITY OV] ! MAJORITY2 !Y SIMPLY DEF5D !MSELVES4 ,!Y DO NOT 9T]F]E ) ! RI<T ( ! MAJORITY TO SEEK !IR [N HAPP9ESS 9 !IR [N WAY1 SO LONG AS !Y 7! MAJORITY7 DO NOT 9T]F]E ) ! M9ORITY4 ,!Y CLAIM SIMPLY NOT TO BE OPPRESS$1 & NOT TO BE COMPELL$ TO ASSI/ 9 DO+ ANY?+ :I* !Y DO NOT APPROVE4 ,!Y SAY TO ! MAJORITY1 0,WE WILL UNITE ) Y\1 IF Y\ DESIRE IT1 = ! ACCOMPLI%M5T ( ALL ?OSE PURPOSES1 9 :I* WE HAVE A COMMON 9T]E/ ) Y\4 ,Y\ CAN C]TA9LY EXPECT US TO DO NO?+ MORE4 ,IF Y\ DO NOT *OOSE TO ASSOCIATE ) US ON ?OSE T]MS1 !RE MU/ BE TWO SEP>ATE ASSOCIATIONS4 ,Y\ MU/ ASSOCIATE = ! ACCOMPLI%M5T ( Y\R PURPOSES2 WE = ! ACCOMPLI%M5T ( \RS40  

 ,9 ?IS CASE1 ! M9ORITY ASSUME NO AU?ORITY OV] ! MAJORITY2 !Y SIMPLY REFUSE TO SURR5D] !IR [N LIB]TIES 9TO ! H&S ( ! MAJORITY4 ,!Y PROPOSE A UNION2 BUT DECL9E SUBMISSION4 ,! MAJORITY >E /ILL AT LIB]TY TO REFUSE ! CONNECTION1 & TO SEEK !IR [N HAPP9ESS 9 !IR [N WAY1 EXCEPT ?AT !Y CANNOT BE GRATIFI$ 9 !IR DESIRE TO BECOME ABSOLUTE MA/]S ( ! M9ORITY4  

 ,BUT1 IT MAY BE ASK$1 H[ CAN ! M9ORITY BE TRU/$ TO 5=CE EV5 SU* LEGISLATION AS IS EQUAL & JU/8 ,! ANSW] IS1 ?AT !Y >E AS RELIABLE = ?AT PURPOSE AS >E ! MAJORITY2 !Y >E AS MU* PRESUM$ TO HAVE ASSOCIAT$1 & >E AS LIKELY TO HAVE ASSOCIAT$1 = ?AT OBJECT1 AS >E ! MAJORITY2 & !Y HAVE AS MU* 9T]E/ 9 SU* LEGISLATION AS HAVE ! MAJORITY4 ,!Y HAVE EV5 MORE 9T]E/ 9 IT2 =1 BE+ ! WEAK] P>TY1 !Y MU/ RELY ON IT = !IR SECURITY1 ---HAV+ NO O!R SECURITY ON :I* !Y CAN RELY4 ,H5CE !IR CONS5T TO ! E/ABLI%M5T ( GOV]NM5T1 & TO ! TAXATION REQUIR$ = ITS SUPPORT1 IS PRESUM$1 7AL?\< IT \<T NOT TO BE PRESUM$17 )\T ANY EXPRESS CONS5T BE+ GIV54 ,?IS PRESUMPTION ( !IR CONS5T TO BE TAX$ = ! MA9T5ANCE ( LAWS1 W\LD BE ABSURD1 IF !Y C\LD NOT !MSELVES BE TRU/$ TO ACT 9 GOOD FAI? 9 5=C+ ?OSE LAWS4 ,& H5CE !Y CANNOT BE PRESUM$ TO HAVE CONS5T$ TO BE TAX$ = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ANY LAWS1 EXCEPT SU* AS !Y >E !MSELVES READY TO AID 9 5=C+4 ,IT IS !RE=E UNJU/ TO TAX !M1 UNLESS !Y >E ELIGIBLE TO SEATS 9 A JURY1 ) P[] TO JUDGE ( ! JU/ICE ( ! LAWS4 ,TAX+ !M = ! SUPPORT ( ! LAWS1 ON ! ASSUMPTION ?AT !Y >E 9 FAVOR ( ! LAWS1 & AT ! SAME TIME REFUS+ !M ! RI<T1 AS JURORS1 TO JUDGE ( ! JU/ICE ( ! LAWS1 ON ! ASSUMPTION ?AT !Y >E OPPOS$ TO ! LAWS1 >E FLAT CONTRADICTIONS4  

 ,BUT1 IT WILL BE ASK$1 :AT MOTIVE HAVE ! MAJORITY1 :5 !Y HAVE ALL P[] 9 !IR [N H&S1 TO SUBMIT !IR WILL TO ! VETO ( ! M9ORITY8  

 ,ONE ANSW] IS1 ?AT !Y HAVE ! MOTIVE ( JU/ICE4 ,IT W\LD BE UNJU/ TO COMPEL ! M9ORITY TO CONTRIBUTE1 BY TAXATION1 TO ! SUPPORT ( ANY LAWS :I* !Y DID NOT APPROVE4  

 ,ANO!R ANSW] IS1 ?AT IF ! /RONG] P>TY WI% TO USE !IR P[] ONLY = PURPOSES ( JU/ICE1 !Y HAVE NO OCCASION TO FE> ! VETO ( ! WEAK] P>TY2 = ! LATT] HAVE AS /RONG MOTIVES = ! MA9T5ANCE ( JU/ GOV]NM5T1 AS HAVE ! =M]4  

 ,ANO!R ANSW] IS1 ?AT IF ! /RONG] P>TY USE !IR P[] UNJU/LY1 !Y WILL HOLD IT BY AN UNC]TA9 T5URE1 ESPECIALLY 9 A COMMUNITY :]E KN[L$GE IS DIFFUS$2 = KN[L$GE WILL 5ABLE ! WEAK] P>TY TO MAKE ITSELF 9 TIME ! /RONG] P>TY4 ,IT ALSO 5ABLES ! WEAK] P>TY1 EV5 :ILE IT REMA9S ! WEAK] P>TY1 P]PETUALLY TO ANNOY1 AL>M1 & 9JURE !IR OPPRESSORS4 ,UNJU/ P[]1 ---OR RA!R P[] ?AT IS GROSSLY UNJU/1 & ?AT IS KN[N TO BE SO BY ! M9ORITY1 ---CAN BE SU/A9$ ONLY AT ! EXP5SE ( /&+ >MIES1 & ALL ! O!R MA*9]Y ( =CE2 = ! OPPRESS$ P>TY >E ALWAYS READY TO RISK !IR LIVES = PURPOSES ( V5GEANCE1 & ! ACQUISITION ( !IR RI<TS1 :5EV] !RE IS ANY TOL]ABLE *ANCE ( SUCCESS4 ,PEACE1 SAFETY1 & QUIET = ALL1 CAN BE 5JOY$ ONLY UND] LAWS ?AT OBTA9 ! CONS5T ( ALL4 ,H5CE TYRANTS FREQU5TLY YIELD TO ! DEM&S ( JU/ICE FROM ?OSE WEAK] ?AN !MSELVES1 AS A MEANS ( BUY+ PEACE & SAFETY4  

 ,/ILL ANO!R ANSW] IS1 ?AT ?OSE :O >E 9 ! MAJORITY ON ONE LAW1 WILL BE 9 ! M9ORITY ON ANO!R4 ,ALL1 !RE=E1 NE$ ! B5EFIT ( ! VETO1 AT SOME TIME OR O!R1 TO PROTECT !MSELVES FROM 9JU/ICE4  

 ,?AT ! LIMITS1 )9 :I* LEGISLATION W\LD1 BY ?IS PROCESS1 BE CONF9$1 W\LD BE EXCE$+LY N>R[1 9 COMP>ISON ) ?OSE IT AT PRES5T OCCUPIES1 !RE CAN BE NO D\BT4 ,ALL MONOPOLIES1 ALL SPECIAL PRIVILEGES1 ALL SUMPTU>Y LAWS1 ALL RE/RA9TS UPON ANY TRAFFIC1 B>GA91 OR CONTRACT1 ?AT WAS NATURALLY LAWFUL1#a#e ALL RE/RA9TS UPON M5'S NATURAL RI<TS1 ! :OLE CATALOG ( MALA PROHIBITA1 & ALL TAXATION TO :I* ! TAX$ P>TIES HAD NOT 9DIVIDUALLY1 SEV]ALLY1 & FREELY CONS5T$1 W\LD BE AT AN 5D2 BECAUSE ALL SU* LEGISLATION IMPLIES A VIOLATION ( ! RI<TS ( A GREAT] OR LESS M9ORITY4 ,?IS M9ORITY W\LD DISREG>D1 TRAMPLE UPON1 OR RESI/1 ! EXECUTION ( SU* LEGISLATION1 & !N ?R[ !MSELVES UPON A JURY ( ! :OLE PEOPLE = JU/IFICATION & PROTECTION4 ,9 ?IS WAY ALL LEGISLATION W\LD BE NULLIFI$1 EXCEPT ! LEGISLATION ( ?AT G5]AL NATURE :I* IMP>TIALLY PROTECT$ ! RI<TS1 & SUBS]V$ ! 9T]E/S1 ( ALL4 ,! ONLY LEGISLATION ?AT C\LD BE SU/A9$1 W\LD PROBABLY BE SU* AS T5D$ DIRECTLY TO ! MA9T5ANCE ( JU/ICE & LIB]TY2 SU*1 = EXAMPLE1 AS %\LD CONTRIBUTE TO ! 5=CEM5T ( CONTRACTS1 ! PROTECTION ( PROP]TY1 & ! PREV5TION & PUNI%M5T ( ACTS 9TR9SICALLY CRIM9AL4 ,9 %ORT1 GOV]NM5T 9 PRACTICE W\LD BE BR\<T TO ! NECESSITY ( A /RICT ADH]5CE TO NATURAL LAW1 & NATURAL JU/ICE1 9/EAD ( BE+1 AS IT N[ IS1 A GREAT BATTLE1 9 :I* AV>ICE & AMBITION >E CON/ANTLY FI<T+ = & OBTA9+ ADVANTAGES OV] ! NATURAL RI<TS ( MANK9D4  

,A,P,P,5,D,I,X ,T,A,X,A,T,I,O,N  

 ,IT WAS A PR9CIPLE ( ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 AS IT IS ( ! LAW ( NATURE1 & ( COMMON S5SE1 ?AT NO MAN CAN BE TAX$ )\T HIS P]SONAL CONS5T4 ,! ,COMMON ,LAW KNEW NO?+ ( ?AT SY/EM1 :I* N[ PREVAILS 9 ,5GL&1 ( ASSUM+ A MAN'S [N CONS5T TO BE TAX$1 BECAUSE SOME PRET5D$ REPRES5TATIVE1 :OM HE NEV] AU?ORIZ$ TO ACT = HIM1 HAS TAK5 IT UPON HIMSELF TO CONS5T ?AT HE MAY BE TAX$4 ,?AT IS ONE ( ! MANY FRAUDS ON ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 & ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION1 :I* HAVE BE5 9TRODUC$ S9CE ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,HAV+ F9ALLY E/ABLI%$ ITSELF 9 ,5GL&1 IT HAS BE5 /UPIDLY & S]VILELY COPI$ & SUBMITT$ TO 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4  

 ,IF ! TRIAL BY JURY W]E REE/ABLI%$1 ! ,COMMON ,LAW PR9CIPLE ( TAXATION W\LD BE REE/ABLI%$ ) IT2 = IT IS NOT TO BE SUPPOS$ ?AT JURIES W\LD 5=CE A TAX UPON AN 9DIVIDUAL :I* HE HAD NEV] AGRE$ TO PAY4 ,TAXATION )\T CONS5T IS AS PLA9LY ROBB]Y1 :5 5=C]S AGA9/ ONE MAN1 AS :5 5=C$ AGA9/ MILLIONS2 & IT IS NOT TO BE IMAG9$ ?AT JURIES C\LD BE BL9D TO SO SELF-EVID5T A PR9CIPLE4 ,TAK+ A MAN'S MONEY )\T HIS CONS5T1 IS ALSO AS MU* ROBB]Y1 :5 IT IS DONE BY MILLIONS ( M51 ACT+ 9 CONC]T1 & CALL+ !MSELVES A GOV]NM5T1 AS :5 IT IS DONE BY A S+LE 9DIVIDUAL1 ACT+ ON HIS [N RESPONSIBILITY1 & CALL+ HIMSELF A HI<WAYMAN4 ,NEI!R ! NUMB]S 5GAG$ 9 ! ACT1 NOR ! DIFF]5T *>ACT]S !Y ASSUME AS A COV] = ! ACT1 ALT] ! NATURE ( ! ACT ITSELF4  

 ,IF ! GOV]NM5T CAN TAKE A MAN'S MONEY )\T HIS CONS5T1 !RE IS NO LIMIT TO ! ADDITIONAL TYRANNY IT MAY PRACTICE UPON HIM2 =1 ) HIS MONEY1 IT CAN HIRE SOLDI]S TO /& OV] HIM1 KEEP HIM 9 SUBJECTION1 PLUND] HIM AT DISCRETION1 & KILL HIM IF HE RESI/S4 ,& GOV]NM5TS ALWAYS WILL DO ?IS1 AS !Y EV]Y:]E & ALWAYS HAVE DONE IT1 EXCEPT :]E ! ,COMMON ,LAW PR9CIPLE HAS BE5 E/ABLI%$4 ,IT IS !RE=E A FIR/ PR9CIPLE1 A V]Y S9E QUA NON ( POLITICAL FRE$OM1 ?AT A MAN CAN BE TAX$ ONLY BY HIS P]SONAL CONS5T4 ,& ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ?IS PR9CIPLE1 ) TRIAL BY JURY1 9SURES FRE$OM ( C\RSE2 BECAUSE3 #a4 ,NO MAN W\LD PAY HIS MONEY UNLESS HE HAD FIR/ CONTRACT$ = SU* A GOV]NM5T AS HE WAS WILL+ TO SUPPORT2 &1 #b4 ,UNLESS ! GOV]NM5T !N KEPT ITSELF )9 ! T]MS ( ITS CONTRACT1 JURIES W\LD NOT 5=CE ! PAYM5T ( ! TAX4 ,BESIDES1 ! AGREEM5T TO BE TAX$ W\LD PROBABLY BE 5T]$ 9TO BUT = A YE> AT A TIME4 ,IF1 9 ?AT YE>1 ! GOV]NM5T PROV$ ITSELF EI!R 9EFFICI5T OR TYRANNICAL1 TO ANY S]I\S DEGREE1 ! CONTRACT W\LD NOT BE R5EW$4 ,! DISSATISFI$ P>TIES1 IF SUFFICI5TLY NUM]\S = A NEW ORGANIZATION1 W\LD =M !MSELVES 9TO A SEP>ATE ASSOCIATION = MUTUAL PROTECTION4 ,IF NOT SUFFICI5TLY NUM]\S = ?AT PURPOSE1 ?OSE :O W]E CONSCI5TI\S W\LD =EGO ALL GOV]NM5TAL PROTECTION1 RA!R ?AN CONTRIBUTE TO ! SUPPORT ( A GOV]NM5T :I* !Y DEEM$ UNJU/4  

 ,ALL LEGITIMATE GOV]NM5T IS A MUTUAL 9SURANCE COMPANY1 VOLUNT>ILY AGRE$ UPON BY ! P>TIES TO IT1 = ! PROTECTION ( !IR RI<TS AGA9/ WRONG-DO]S4 ,9 ITS VOLUNT>Y *>ACT] IT IS PRECISELY SIMIL> TO AN ASSOCIATION = MUTUAL PROTECTION AGA9/ FIRE OR %IPWRECK4 ,BE=E A MAN WILL JO9 AN ASSOCIATION = !SE LATT] PURPOSES1 & PAY ! PREMIUM = BE+ 9SUR$1 HE WILL1 IF HE BE A MAN ( S5SE1 LOOK AT ! >TICLES ( ! ASSOCIATION2 SEE :AT ! COMPANY PROMISES TO DO2 :AT IT IS LIKELY TO DO2 & :AT >E ! RATES ( 9SURANCE4 ,IF HE BE SATISFI$ ON ALL !SE PO9TS1 HE WILL BECOME A MEMB]1 PAY HIS PREMIUM = A YE>1 & !N HOLD ! COMPANY TO ITS CONTRACT4 ,IF ! CONDUCT ( ! COMPANY PROVE UNSATISFACTORY1 HE WILL LET HIS POLICY EXPIRE AT ! 5D ( ! YE> = :I* HE HAS PAID2 WILL DECL9E TO PAY ANY FUR!R PREMIUMS1 & EI!R SEEK 9SURANCE ELSE:]E1 OR TAKE HIS [N RISK )\T ANY 9SURANCE4 ,& AS M5 ACT 9 ! 9SURANCE ( !IR %IPS & DWELL+S1 !Y W\LD ACT 9 ! 9SURANCE ( !IR PROP]TIES1 LIB]TIES & LIVES1 9 ! POLITICAL ASSOCIATION1 OR GOV]NM5T4  

 ,! POLITICAL 9SURANCE COMPANY1 OR GOV]NM5T1 HAVE NO MORE RI<T1 9 NATURE OR REASON1 TO ASSUME A MAN'S CONS5T TO BE PROTECT$ BY !M1 & TO BE TAX$ = ?AT PROTECTION1 :5 HE HAS GIV5 NO ACTUAL CONS5T1 ?AN A FIRE OR M>9E 9SURANCE COMPANY HAVE TO ASSUME A MAN'S CONS5T TO BE PROTECT$ BY !M1 & TO PAY ! PREMIUM1 :5 HIS ACTUAL CONS5T HAS NEV] BE5 GIV54 ,TO TAKE A MAN'S PROP]TY )\T HIS CONS5T IS ROBB]Y2 & TO ASSUME HIS CONS5T1 :]E NO ACTUAL CONS5T IS GIV51 MAKES ! TAK+ NONE ! LESS ROBB]Y4 ,IF IT DID1 ! HI<WAYMAN HAS ! SAME RI<T TO ASSUME A MAN'S CONS5T TO P>T ) HIS PURSE1 ?AT ANY O!R MAN1 OR BODY ( M51 CAN HAVE4 ,& HIS ASSUMPTION W\LD AF=D AS MU* MORAL JU/IFICATION = HIS ROBB]Y AS DOES A LIKE ASSUMPTION1 ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T1 = TAK+ A MAN'S PROP]TY )\T HIS CONS5T4 ,! GOV]NM5T'S PRET5SE ( PROTECT+ HIM1 AS AN EQUIVAL5T = ! TAXATION1 AF=DS NO JU/IFICATION4 ,IT IS = HIMSELF TO DECIDE :E!R HE DESIRES SU* PROTECTION AS ! GOV]NM5T (F]S HIM4 ,IF HE DO NOT DESIRE IT1 OR DO NOT B>GA9 = IT1 ! GOV]NM5T HAS NO MORE RI<T ?AN ANY O!R 9SURANCE COMPANY TO IMPOSE IT UPON HIM1 OR MAKE HIM PAY = IT4 ,TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY1 & NO TAXATION )\T CONS5T1 W]E ! TWO PILL>S ( ,5GLI% LIB]TY1 7:5 ,5GL& HAD ANY LIB]TY17 & ! FIR/ PR9CIPLES ( ! ,COMMON ,LAW4 ,!Y MUTUALLY SU/A9 EA* O!R2 & NEI!R CAN /& )\T ! O!R4 ,)\T BO?1 NO PEOPLE HAVE ANY GU>ANTEE = !IR FRE$OM2 ) BO?1 NO PEOPLE CAN BE O!RWISE ?AN FREE4#a#f   

 ,BY :AT =CE1 FRAUD1 & CONSPIRACY1 ON ! P>T ( K+S1 NOBLES1 & 0A FEW WEAL?Y FREEHOLD]S10 !SE PILL>S HAVE BE5 PRO/RAT$ 9 ,5GL&1 IT IS DESIR$ TO %[ MORE FULLY 9 ! NEXT VOLUME1 IF IT %\LD BE NECESS>Y4  

 ,N,O,T,E,S  

 #a4 ,TO %[ ?AT ?IS SUPPOSITION IS NOT AN EXTRAVAGANT ONE1 IT MAY BE M5TION$ ?AT C\RTS HAVE REPEAT$LY QUE/ION$ JURORS TO ASC]TA9 :E!R !Y W]E PREJUDIC$ AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T --- ?AT IS1 :E!R !Y W]E 9 FAVOR (1 OR OPPOS$ TO1 SU* LAWS ( ! GOV]NM5T AS W]E TO BE PUT 9 ISSUE 9 ! !N P5D+ TRIAL4 ,?IS WAS DONE 79 #a#h#e#a7 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ,DI/RICT ,C\RT = ! ,DI/RICT ( ,MASSA*USETTS1 BY ,PELEG ,SPRAGUE1 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES DI/RICT JUDGE1 9 PANEL+ ?REE SEV]AL JURIES = ! TRIALS ( ,SCOTT1 ,HAYD51 & ,MORRIS1 *>G$ ) HAV+ AID$ 9 ! RESCUE ( A FUGITIVE SLAVE FROM ! CU/ODY ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES DEPUTY M>%AL4 ,?IS JUDGE CAUS$ ! FOLL[+ QUE/ION TO BE PROP\ND$ TO ALL ! JURORS SEP>ATELY2 & ?OSE :O ANSW]$ UNFAVORABLY = ! PURPOSES ( ! GOV]NM5T1 W]E EXCLUD$ FROM ! PANEL4  

 0,DO Y\ HOLD ANY OP9IONS UPON ! SUBJECT ( ! ,FUGITIVE ,SLAVE ,LAW1 SO CALL$1 :I* WILL 9DUCE Y\ TO REFUSE TO CONVICT A P]SON 9DICT$ UND] IT1 IF ! FACTS SET =? 9 ! 9DICTM5T1 & CON/ITUT+ ! (F5SE1 >E PROV$ AGA9/ HIM1 & ! C\RT DIRECT Y\ ?AT ! LAW IS CON/ITUTIONAL80  

 ,! REASON ( ?IS QUE/ION WAS1 ?AT 0! ,FUGITIVE ,SLAVE ,LAW1 SO CALL$10 WAS SO OBNOXI\S TO A L>GE PORTION ( ! ,PEOPLE1 AS TO R5D] A CONVICTION UND] IT HOPELESS1 IF ! JURORS W]E TAK5 9DISCRIM9ATELY FROM AMONG ! PEOPLE4  

 ,A SIMIL> QUE/ION WAS SOON AFT]W>DS PROP\ND$ TO ! P]SONS DRAWN AS JURORS 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ,CIRCUIT ,C\RT = ! ,DI/RICT ( ,MASSA*USETTS1 BY ,B5JAM9 ,R4 ,CURTIS1 ONE ( ! ,JU/ICE ( ! ,SUPREME ,C\RT ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 9 IMPANEL+ A JURY = ! TRIAL ( ! A=ESAID ,MORRIS ON ! *>GE BE=E M5TION$2 & ?OSE :O DID NOT ANSW] ! QUE/ION FAVORABLY = ! GOV]NM5T W]E AGA9 EXCLUD$ FROM ! PANEL4  

 ,IT HAS ALSO BE5 AN HABITUAL PRACTICE ) ! ,SUPREME ,C\RT ( ,MASSA*USETTS1 9 IMPANEL+ JURIES = ! TRIAL ( CAPITAL (F5SES1 TO 9QUIRE ( ! P]SONS DRAWN AS JURORS :E!R !Y HAD ANY CONSCI5TI\S SCRUPLES AGA9/ F9D+ V]DICTS ( GUILTY 9 SU* CASES2 ?AT IS1 :E!R !Y HAD ANY CONSCI5TI\S SCRUPLES AGA9/ SU/A9+ ! LAW PRESCRIB+ DEA? AS ! PUNI%M5T ( ! CRIME TO BE TRI$2 & TO EXCLUDE FROM ! PANEL ALL :O ANSW]$ 9 ! AFFIRMATIVE4  

 ,! ONLY PR9CIPLE UPON :I* !SE QUE/IONS >E ASK$1 IS ?IS --- ?AT NO MAN %ALL BE ALL[$ TO S]VE AS JUROR1 UNLESS HE BE READY TO 5=CE ANY 5ACTM5T ( ! GOV]NM5T1 H[EV] CRUEL OR TYRANNICAL IT MAY BE4  

 ,:AT IS SU* A JURY GOOD =1 AS A PROTECTION AGA9/ ! TYRANNY ( ! GOV]NM5T8 ,A JURY LIKE ?AT IS PALPABLY NO?+ BUT A M]E TOOL ( OPPRESSION 9 ! H&S ( ! GOV]NM5T4 ,A TRIAL BY SU* A JURY IS REALLY A TRIAL BY ! GOV]NM5T ITSELF --- & NOT A TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY --- BECAUSE IT IS A TRIAL ONLY BY M5 SPECIALLY SELECT$ BY ! GOV]NM5T = !IR READ9ESS TO 5=CE ITS [N TYRANNICAL MEASURES4  

 ,IF ?AT BE ! TRUE PR9CIPLE ( ! TRIAL BY JURY1 ! TRIAL IS UTT]LY WOR?LESS AS A SECURITY TO LIB]TY4 ,! ,CZ> MI<T1 ) P]FECT SAFETY TO HIS AU?ORITY1 9TRODUCE ! TRIAL BY JURY 9TO ,RUSSIA1 IF HE C\LD BUT BE P]MITT$ TO SELECT HIS JURORS FROM ?OSE :O W]E READY TO MA9TA9 HIS LAWS1 )\T REG>D TO !IR 9JU/ICE4  

 ,?IS EXAMPLE IS SUFFICI5T TO %[ ?AT ! V]Y PI? ( ! TRIAL BY JURY1 AS A SAFEGU>D TO LIB]TY1 CONSI/S 9 ! JURORS BE+ TAK5 9DISCRIM9ATELY FROM ! :OLE PEOPLE1 & 9 !IR RI<T TO HOLD 9VALID ALL LAWS :I* !Y ?9K UNJU/4  

 #b4 ,! EXECUTIVE HAS A QUALIFI$ VETO UPON ! PASSAGE ( LAWS1 9 MO/ ( \R GOV]NM5TS1 & AN ABSOLUTE VETO1 9 ALL ( !M1 UPON ! EXECUTION ( ANY LAWS :I* HE DEEMS UNCON/ITUTIONAL2 BECAUSE HIS OA? TO SUPPORT ! CON/ITUTION 7AS HE UND]/&S IT7 =BIDS HIM TO EXECUTE ANY LAW ?AT HE DEEMS UNCON/ITUTIONAL4  

 #c4 ,& IF !RE BE SO MU* AS A REASONABLE D\BT ( ! JU/ICE ( ! LAWS1 ! B5EFIT ( ?AT D\BT MU/ BE GIV5 TO ! DEF5DANT1 & NOT TO ! GOV]NM5T4 ,SO ?AT ! GOV]NM5T MU/ KEEP ITS LAWS CLE>LY )9 ! LIMITS ( JU/ICE1 IF IT W\LD ASK A JURY TO 5=CE !M4  

 #d4 ,HALLAM SAYS1 0,! RELATION E/ABLI%$ BETWE5 A LORD & HIS VASSAL BY ! FEUDAL T5URE1 F> FROM CONTA9+ PR9CIPLES ( ANY S]VILE & IMPLICIT OB$I5CE1 P]MITT$ ! COMPACT TO BE DISSOLV$ 9 CASE ( ITS VIOLATION BY EI!R P>TY4 ,?IS EXT5D$ AS MU* TO ! SOV]EIGN AS TO 9F]IOR LORDS4 "9 "9 ,IF A VASSAL WAS AGGRIEV$1 & IF JU/ICE WAS D5I$ HIM1 HE S5T A DEFIANCE1 ?AT IS1 A R5UNCIATION ( FEALTY TO ! K+1 & WAS 5TITL$ TO 5=CE R$RESS AT ! PO9T ( HIS SWORD4 ,IT !N BECAME A CONTE/ ( /R5G? AS BETWE5 TWO 9DEP5D5T POT5TATES1 & WAS T]M9AT$ BY TREATY1 ADVANTAGE\S OR O!RWISE1 ACCORD+ TO ! =TUNE ( W>4 "9 "9 ,!RE REMA9$ ! ORIG9AL PR9CIPLE1 ?AT ALLEGIANCE DEP5D$ CONDITIONALLY UPON GOOD TREATM5T1 & ?AT AN APPEAL MI<T BE LAWFULLY MADE TO >MS AGA9/ AN OPPRESSIVE GOV]NM5T4 ,NOR WAS ?IS1 WE MAY BE SURE1 LEFT = EXTREME NECESSITY1 OR ?\<T TO REQUIRE A LONG-5DUR+ =BE>ANCE4 ,9 MOD]N TIMES1 A K+1 COMPELL$ BY HIS SUBJECTS' SWORDS TO AB&ON ANY PRET5SION1 W\LD BE SUPPOS$ TO HAVE CEAS$ TO REIGN2 & ! EXPRESS RECOGNITION ( SU* A RI<T AS ?AT ( 9SURRECTION HAS BE5 JU/LY DEEM$ 9CONSI/5T ) ! MAJE/Y ( LAW4 ,BUT RUD] AGES HAD RUD] S5TIM5TS4 ,=CE WAS NECESS>Y TO REPEL =CE2 & M5 ACCU/OM$ TO SEE ! K+'S AU?ORITY DEFI$ BY A PRIVATE RIOT1 W]E NOT MU* %OCK$ :5 IT WAS RESI/$ 9 DEF5SE ( PUBLIC FRE$OM4 --- #c ,MIDDLE ,AGES #b#d-#b4  

 #e4 #a ,HUME1 ,APP5DIX #b4  

 #f4 ,CRABBE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI% LAW1 #b#c#f4  

 #g4  ,COKE SAYS1 0,! K+ ( ,5GL& IS >M$ ) DIV]SE C\NCILS1 ONE :]E( IS CALL$ COMMUNE CONCILIUM1 7! COMMON C\NCIL17 & ?AT IT ! C\RT ( P>LIAM5T1 & SO IT IS LEGALLY CALL$ 9 WRITS & JUDICIAL PROCE$+S COMMUNE CONCILIUM REGNI ,ANGLIAE 7! COMMON C\NCIL ( ! K+DOM ( ,5GL&47 ,& ANO!R IS CALL$ MAGNUM CONCILIUM1 7GREAT C\NCIL27 ?IS IS SOMETIMES APPLI$ TO ! UPP] H\SE ( P>LIAM5T1 & SOMETIMES1 \T ( P>LIAM5T TIME1 TO ! PE]S ( ! REALM1 LORDS ( P>LIAM5T1 :O >E CALL$ MAGNUM CONCILIUM REGIS1 7! GREAT C\NCIL ( ! K+74 "9 "9 ,?IRDLY1 7AS EV]Y MAN KN[E?17 ! K+ HA? A PRIVY C\NCIL = MATT]S ( /ATE4 "9 "9 ,! F\R? C\NCIL ( ! K+ >E HIS JUDGES = LAW MATT]S4 --- #a ,COKE'S ,9/ITUTES1 #a#aA4  

 #h4 ,! ,GREAT ,*>T] ( ,H5RY ,I,I,I41 7#a#b#a#f & #a#b#b#e17 CONFIRM$ BY ,$W>D ,I41 7#a#b#i#g17 MAKES NO PROVISION :ATEV] =1 OR M5TION (1 A P>LIAM5T1 UNLESS ! PROVISION1 7,*4 #c#g17 ?AT 0,ESCUAGE1 7A MILIT>Y CONTRIBUTION17 FROM H5CE=? %ALL BE TAK5 LIKE AS IT WAS WONT TO BE 9 ! TIME ( ,K+ ,H5RY \R GR&FA!R10 MEAN ?AT A P>LIAM5T %ALL BE SUMMON$ = ?AT PURPOSE4  

 #i4  ,! ,MAGNA ,C>TA ( ,JOHN1 7,*4 #ag & #a#h17 DEF9ES ?OSE :O W]E 5TITL$ TO BE SUMMON$ TO P>LIAM5T1 TO WIT1 0,! ,>*BI%OPS1 ,BI%OPS1 ,ABBOTS1 ,E>LS1 & ,GREAT ,B>ONS ( ! ,REALM1 "9 "9 & ALL O!RS :O HOLD ( US 9 *IEF40 ,?OSE :O HELD L& ( ! K+ 9 *IEF 9CLUD$ NONE BEL[ ! RANK ( KNI<TS4  

 #a4 ,! P>LIAM5TS ( ?AT TIME W]E1 D\BTLESS1 SU* AS ,C>LYLE DESCRIBES !M1 :5 HE SAYS1 0,! P>LIAM5T WAS AT FIR/ A MO/ SIMPLE ASSEMBLAGE1 QUITE COGNATE TO ! SITUATION2 ?AT ,R$ ,WILLIAM1 OR :OEV] HAD TAK5 ON HIM ! T]RIBLE TASK ( BE+ ,K+ ( ,5GL&1 WAS WONT TO 9VITE1 (T5E/ AB\T ,*RI/MAS TIME1 HIS SUBORD9ATE ,K+LETS1 ,B>ONS AS HE CALL$ !M1 TO GIVE HIM ! PLEASURE ( !IR COMPANY = A WEEK OR TWO2 !RE1 9 E>NE/ CONF]5CE ALL MORN+ 9 FRE] TALK OV] ,*RI/MAS *E] ALL EV5+1 9 SOME BIG ROYAL HALL ( ,WE/M9/]1 ,W9*E/]1 OR :]EV] IT MI<T BE1 ) LOG FIRES1 HUGE R\NDS ( ROA/ & BOIL$1 NOT LACK+ MALMSEY & O!R G5]\S LIQUOR1 !Y TOOK C\NSEL CONC]N+ ! >DU\S MATT]S ( ! K+DOM40  

 #a#a4  ,HUME1 ,APP5DIX #b4  

 #a#b4 ,?IS PO9T WILL BE MORE FULLY E/ABLI%$ H]EAFT]4  

 #a#c4 ,IT IS PLA9 ?AT ! K+ & ALL HIS P>TISANS LOOK$ UPON ! *>T] AS UTT]LY PRO/RAT+ ! K+'S LEGISLATIVE SUPREMACY BE=E ! DISCRETION ( JURIES4 ,:5 ! S*$ULE ( LIB]TIES DEM&$ BY ! B>ONS WAS %[N TO HIM1 7( :I* ! TRIAL BY JURY WAS ! MO/ IMPORTANT1 BECAUSE IT WAS ! ONLY ONE ?AT PROTECT$ ALL ! RE/17 0! K+1 FALL+ 9TO A VIOL5T PASSION1 ASK$1 ,:Y ! B>ONS DID NOT ) !SE EXACTATIONS DEM& HIS K+DOM8 "9 "9 & ) A SOLEMN OA? PROTE/$1 ?AT HE W\LD GRANT SU* LIB]TIES AS W\LD MAKE HIMSELF A SLAVE40 "9 "9 ,BUT AFT]W>DS1 0SEE+ HIMSELF DES]T$1 & FE>+ !Y W\LD SEIZE HIS CA/LES1 HE S5T ! ,E>L ( ,PEMBROKE & O!R FAI?FUL MESS5G]S TO !M1 TO LET !M KN[ HE W\LD GRANT !M ! LAWS & LIB]TIES !Y DESIR$40 "9 "9 ,BUT AFT] ! *>T] HAD BE5 GRANT$1 0! K+'S M]C5>Y SOLDI]S1 DESIR+ W> MORE ?AN PEACE1 W]E BY !IR LEAD]S CONT9UALLY :ISP]+ 9 HIS E>S1 ?AT HE WAS N[ NO LONG] K+1 BUT ! SCORN ( O!R PR9CES2 & ?AT IT WAS MORE ELIGIBLE TO BE NO K+1 ?AN SU* A ONE AS HE40 "9 "9 ,HE APPLI$ 0TO ! ,POPE1 ?AT HE MI<T BY HIS APO/OLIC AU?ORITY MAKE VOID :AT ! B>ONS HAD DONE4 "9 "9 ,AT ,ROME HE MET ) :AT SUCCESS HE C\LD DESIRE1 :]E ALL ! TRANSACTIONS ) ! B>ONS W]E FULLY REPRES5T$ TO ! ,POPE1 & ! ,*>T] ( LIB]TIES %[N TO HIM1 9 WRIT+2 :I*1 :5 HE HAD C>EFULLY P]US$1 HE1 ) A FURI\S LOOK1 CRI$ \T1 ,:AT6 ,DO ! B>ONS ( ,5GL& 5DEAVOR TO DE?RONE A K+1 :O HAS TAK5 UPON HIM ! ,HOLY ,CROSS1 & IS UND] ! PROTECTION ( ! ,APO/OLIC ,SEE2 & W\LD !Y =CE HIM TO TRANSF] ! DOM9IONS ( ! ,ROMAN ,*UR* TO O!RS8 ,BY ,/4 ,PET]1 ?IS 9JURY MU/ NOT PASS UNPUNI%$4 ,!N DEBAT+ ! MATT] ) ! C>D9ALS1 HE1 BY A DEF9ITIVE S5T5CE1 DAMN$ & CASSAT$ =EV] ! ,*>T] ( ,LIB]TIES1 & S5T ! K+ A BULL CONTA9+ ?AT S5T5CE AT L>GE40 --- ,E*>D'S ,HI/ORY ( ,5GL&1 P4 #a#f-#g4  

 ,!SE ?+S %[ ?AT ! NATURE & EFFECT ( ! *>T] W]E WELL UND]/OOD BY ! K+ & HIS FRI5DS2 ?AT !Y ALL AGRE$ ?AT HE WAS EFFECTUALLY /RIPP$ ( P[]4 ,YET ! LEGISLATIVE P[] HAD NOT BE5 TAK5 FROM HIM2 BUT ONLY ! P[] TO 5=CE HIS LAWS1 UNLESS FURIES %\LD FREELY CONS5T TO !IR 5=CEM5T4  

 #a#d4 ,! LAWS W]E1 AT ?AT TIME1 ALL WRITT5 9 ,LAT94  

 #a#e4 0,NO MAN %ALL BE CONDEMN$ AT ! K+'S SUIT1 EI!R BE=E ! K+ 9 HIS B5*1 :]E PLEAS >E CORAM REGE1 7BE=E ! K+17 7& SO >E ! WORDS NEC SUP] EUM IBIMUS1 TO BE UND]/OOD17 NOR BE=E ANY O!R COMMISSION] OR JUDGE :ATSOEV]1 & SO >E ! WORDS NEC SUP] EUM MITTEMUS1 TO BE UND]/OOD1 BUT BY ! JUDGM5T ( HIS PE]S ?AT IS1 EQUALS1 OR ACCORD+ TO ! LAW ( ! L&40 --- #b ,COKE'S ,9/41 #d#f4  

 #a#f4 ,P]HAPS ! ASS]TION 9 ! TEXT %\LD BE MADE ) ?IS QUALIFICATION --- ?AT ! WORDS 0P] LEGEM T]RE10 7ACCORD+ TO ! LAW ( ! L&17 & ! WORDS 0P] LEGALE JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM10 7ACCORD+ TO ! LEGAL JUDGM5T ( HIS PE]S17 IMPLY ?AT ! K+1 BE=E PROCE$+ TO ANY EXECUTIVE ACTION1 WILL TAKE NOTICE ( 0! LAW ( ! L&10 & ( ! LEGALITY ( ! JUDGM5T ( ! PE]S1 & WILL EXECUTE UPON ! PRISON] NOT+ EXCEPT :AT ! LAW ( ! L& AU?ORIZES1 & NO JUDGM5TS ( ! PE]S1 EXCEPT LEGAL ONES4 ,) ?IS QUALIFICATION1 ! ASS]TION 9 ! TEXT IS /RICTLY CORRECT --- ?AT !RE IS NOT+ 9 ! :OLE *APT] ?AT GRANTS TO ! K+1 OR HIS JUDGES1 ANY JUDICIAL P[] AT ALL4 ,! *APT] ONLY DESCRIBES & LIMITS HIS EXECUTIVE P[]4  

 #a#g4  ,BLACK/ONE'S ,LAW ,TRACTS1 PAGE #b#i#d1 ,OX=D ,$ITION4  

 #a#h4 ,!SE ,>TICLES ( ! ,*>T] >E GIV5 9 ,BLACK/ONE'S COLLECTION ( ,*>T]S1 & >E ALSO PR9T$ ) ! ,/ATUTES ( ! ,REALM4 ,ALSO 9 ,WILK9S' ,LAWS ( ! ,ANGLO-,SAXONS1 P4 #c#e#f4  

 #a#i4 ,L+>D SAYS1 0,! WORDS1 ',WE WILL NOT DE/ROY HIM1 NOR WILL WE GO UPON HIM1 NOR WILL WE S5D UPON HIM1' HAVE BE5 V]Y DIFF]5TLY EXP\ND$ BY DIFF]5T LEGAL AU?ORITIES4 ,!IR REAL MEAN+ MAY BE LE>N$ FROM ,JOHN HIMSELF1 :O ! NEXT YE> PROMIS$ BY HIS LETT]S1 PAT5T4 4 4 4 NEC SUP] EOS P] VIM VEL P] >MA IBIMUS1 NISI P] LEGEM REGNI NO/RI1 VEL P] JUDICIUM P>IUM SUORUM 9 CURIA NO/RA1 7NOR WILL WE GO UPON !M BY =CE OR >MS1 UNLESS BY ! LAW ( \R K+DOM1 OR 9 ! JUDGM5T ( !IR PE]S 9 \R C\RT47 ,PAT4 #af ,JOHAN1 APUD ,DRAD4 #a#a1 APP4 NO4 #a#b#d4 ,HE HAD HI!RTO BE5 9 ! HABIT ( GO+ ) AN >M$ =CE1 OR S5D+ AN >M$ =CE ON ! L&S1 & AGA9/ ! CA/LES1 ( ALL :OM HE KNEW OR SUSPECT$ TO BE HIS SECRET 5EMIES1 )\T OBS]V+ ANY =M ( LAW40 --- #c ,L+>D1 #dg NOTE4  

 #b4 0,JUDGM5T1 JUDICIUM4 "9 "9 ,! S5T5CE ( ! LAW1 PRON\NC$ BY ! C\RT1 UPON ! MATT] CONTA9$ 9 ! RECORD40 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#i#e4 ,JACOB'S ,LAW ,DICTION>Y4 ,TOML9'S DO4  

 0,JUDGM5T IS ! DECISION OR S5T5CE ( ! LAW1 GIV5 BY A C\RT ( JU/ICE OR O!R COMPET5T TRIBUNAL1 AS ! RESULT ( ! PROCE$+S 9/ITUT$ !RE91 = ! R$RESS ( AN 9JURY40 --- ,B\VI]'S ,LAW ,DICT4  

 0,JUDGM5T1 JUDICIUM4 "9 "9 ,S5T5CE ( A JUDGE AGA9/ A CRIM9AL4 "9 "9 ,DET]M9ATION1 DECISION 9 G5]AL40 --- ,BAILEY'S ,DICT4  

 0,JUDGM5T4 "9 "9 ,9 A LEGAL S5SE1 A S5T5CE OR DECISION PRON\NC$ BY AU?ORITY ( A K+1 OR O!R P[]1 EI!R BY !IR [N M\?1 OR BY ?AT ( !IR JUDGES & (FIC]S1 :OM !Y APPO9T TO ADM9I/] JU/ICE 9 !IR /EAD40 --- ,*AMB]'S ,DICT4  

 0,JUDGM5T4 "9 "9 ,9 LAW1 ! S5T5CE OR DOOM PRON\NC$ 9 ANY CASE1 CIVIL OR CRIM9AL1 BY ! JUDGE OR C\RT BY :I* IT IS TRI$40 --- ,WEB/]'S ,DICT4  

 ,SOMETIMES ! PUNI%M5T ITSELF IS CALL$ JUDICIUM1 JUDGM5T2 OR1 RA!R1 IT WAS AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,= EXAMPLE1 9 A /ATUTE PASS$ FIFTY-ONE YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 IT WAS SAID ?AT A BAK]1 = DEFAULT 9 ! WEI<T ( HIS BREAD1 0DEBEAT AM]CI>I VEL SUBIRE JUDICIUM PILLORIE02 ?AT IS1 \<T TO BE AM]C$1 OR SUFF] ! PUNI%M5T1 OR JUDGM5T1 ( ! PILLORY4 ,ALSO ?AT A BREW]1 = 0SELL+ ALE CONTR>Y TO ! ASSIZE10 0DEBEAT AM]CI>I1 VEL PATI JUDICIUM TUMBRELLI02 ?AT IS1 \<T TO BE AM]C$1 OR SUFF] ! PUNI%M5T1 OR JUDGM5T1 ( ! TUMBREL40 --- #ea ,H5RY #c1 ,/4 #f4 7#a#b#f#f47  

 ,ALSO ! 0,/ATUTES ( UNC]TA9 DATE10 7BUT SUPPOS$ TO BE PRIOR TO ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 OR #a#c#b#f17 PROVIDE1 9 *APT]S #f1 #g1 & #a1 = 0JUDGM5T ( ! PILLORY40 --- ,SEE #a ,RUFFHEAD'S ,/ATUTES1 #a#h#g1 #a#h#h4 #a ,/ATUTES ( ,REALM1 #b#c4  

 ,BLACK/ONE1 9 HIS *APT] 0,( ,JUDGM5T1 & ITS CONSEQU5CES10 SAYS1  

 0,JUDGM5T 7UNLESS ANY MATT] BE (F]$ 9 >RE/ !RE(7 FOLL[S UPON CONVICTION2 BE+ ! PRON\NC+ ( ?AT PUNI%M5T :I* IS EXPRESSLY ORDA9$ BY LAW40 --- ,BLACK/ONE'S ,ANALYSIS ( ! ,LAWS ( ,5GL&1 ,BOOK #d1 ,*4 #b#i1 ,SEC4 L4 ,BLACK/ONE'S ,LAW ,TRACTS1 #a#b#f4  

 ,COKE SAYS1 0,JUDICIUM 4 4 ! JUDGM5T IS ! GUIDE & DIRECTION ( ! EXECUTION40 #c ,9/4 #b#a4  

 #b#a4 ,?IS PREC$5T FROM ,G]MANY IS GOOD AU?ORITY1 BECAUSE ! TRIAL BY JURY WAS 9 USE1 9 ! NOR!RN NATIONS ( ,EUROPE G5]ALLY1 LONG BE=E ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & PROBABLY FROM TIME IMMEMORIAL2 & ! ,SAXONS & ,NORMANS W]E FAMILI> ) IT BE=E !Y SETTL$ 9 ,5GL&4  

 #b#b4 ,B5EFICIUM WAS ! LEGAL NAME ( AN E/ATE HELD BY A FEUDAL T5URE4 ,SEE ,SPELMAN'S ,GLOSS>Y4  

 #b#c4 ,CONT5EM5T ( A FREEMAN WAS ! MEANS ( LIV+ 9 ! CONDITION ( A FREEMAN4  

 #b#d4 ,WAYNAGE WAS A VILLE9'S PL[-TACKLE & C>TS4  

 #b#e4 ,TOML9 SAYS1 0,! ANCI5T PRACTICE WAS1 :5 ANY SU* F9E WAS IMPOS$1 TO 9QUIRE BY A JURY QUANTUM 9DE REGI D>E VALEAT P] ANNUM1 SALVA SU/5TATIONE SUA ET UXORIS LIB]ORUM SUORUM1 7H[ MU* IS HE ABLE TO GIVE TO ! K+ P] ANNUM1 SAV+ HIS [N MA9T5ANCE1 & ?AT ( HIS WIFE & *ILDR574 ,& S9CE ! DISUSE ( SU* 9QUE/1 IT IS NEV] USUAL TO ASSESS A L>G] F9E ?AN A MAN IS ABLE TO PAY1 )\T T\*+ ! IMPLEM5TS ( HIS LIVELIHOOD2 BUT TO 9FLICT CORPORAL PUNI%M5T1 OR A LIMIT$ IMPRISONM5T1 9/EAD ( SU* A F9E AS MI<T AM\NT TO IMPRISONM5T = LIFE4 ,& ?IS IS ! REASON :Y F9ES 9 ! K+'S C\RTS >E FREQU5TLY D5OM9AT$ RANSOMS1 BECAUSE ! P5ALTY MU/ O!RWISE FALL UPON A MAN'S P]SON1 UNLESS IT BE R$EEM$ OR RANSOM$ BY A PECUNI>Y F9E40 --- ,TOML9'S ,LAW ,DICT41 WORD ,F9E4  

 #b#f4 ,BECAUSE JURIES W]E TO FIX ! S5T5CE1 IT MU/ NOT BE SUPPOS$ ?AT ! K+ WAS OBLIG$ TO C>RY ! S5T5CE 9TO EXECUTION2 BUT ONLY ?AT HE NOT GO BEYOND ! S5T5CE4 ,HE MI<T P>DON1 OR HE MI<T ACQUIT ON GR\NDS ( LAW1 NOT)/&+ ! S5T5CE2 BUT HE C\LD NOT PUNI% BEYOND ! EXT5T ( ! S5T5CE4 ,MAGNA ,C>TA DOES NOT PRESCRIBE ?AT ! K+ %ALL PUNI% ACCORD+ TO ! S5T5CE ( ! PE]S2 BUT ONLY ?AT HE %ALL NOT PUNI% 0UNLESS ACCORD+ TO0 ?AT S5T5CE4 ,HE MAY ACQUIT OR P>DON1 NOT)/&+ !IR S5T5CE OR JUDGM5T BUT HE CANNOT PUNI%1 EXCEPT ACCORD+ TO !IR JUDGM5T4  

 #b#g4 ,! TRIAL BY BATTLE WAS ONE 9 :I* ! ACCUS$ *ALL5G$ HIS ACCUS] TO S+LE COMBAT1 & /AK$ ! QUE/ION ( HIS GUILT OR 9NOC5CE ON ! RESULT ( ! DUEL4 ,?IS TRIAL WAS 9TRODUC$ 9TO ,5GL& BY ! ,NORMANS1 )9 ONE HUNDR$ & FIFTY YE>S BE=E ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,IT WAS NOT V]Y (T5 RESORT$ TO EV5 BY ! ,NORMANS !MSELVES2 PROBABLY NEV] BY ! ,ANGLO-,SAXONS1 UNLESS 9 !IR CONTROV]SIES ) ! ,NORMANS4 ,IT WAS /RONGLY DISC\RAG$ BY SOME ( ! ,NORMAN PR9CES1 P>TICUL>LY BY ,H5RY ,I,I41 BY :OM ! TRIAL BY JURY WAS ESPECIALLY FAVOR$4 ,IT IS PROBABLE ?AT ! TRIAL BY BATTLE1 SO F> AS IT PREVAIL$ AT ALL 9 ,5GL&1 WAS RA!R TOL]AT$ AS A MATT] ( *IVALRY1 ?AN AU?ORIZ$ AS A MATT] ( LAW4 ,AT ANY RATE1 IT IS NOT LIKELY ?AT IT WAS 9CLUD$ 9 ! 0LEGEM T]RE0 ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 AL?\< SU* DUELS HAVE OCCASIONALLY OCCURR$ S9CE ?AT TIME1 & HAVE1 BY SOME1 BE5 SUPPOS$ TO BE LAWFUL4 ,I APPREH5D ?AT NO?+ CAN BE PROP]LY SAID TO BE A P>T ( LEX T]RE1 UNLESS IT CAN BE %[N EI!R TO HAVE BE5 ( ,SAXON ORIG91 OR TO HAVE BE5 RECOGNIZ$ BY ,MAGNA ,C>TA4  

 ,! TRIAL BY ORDEAL WAS ( V>I\S K9DS4 ,9 ONE ORDEAL ! ACCUS$ WAS REQUIR$ TO TAKE HOT IRON 9 HIS H&2 9 ANO!R TO WALK BL9DFOLD AMONG R$-HOT PL[%>ES2 9 ANO!R TO ?RU/ HIS >M 9TO BOIL+ WAT]2 9 ANO!R TO BE ?R[N1 ) HIS H&S & FEET B\ND1 9TO COLD WAT]2 9 ANO!R TO SWALL[ ! MORSEL ( EXECRATION2 9 ! CONFID5CE ?AT HIS GUILT OR 9NOC5CE W\LD BE MIRACUL\SLY MADE KN[N4 ,?IS MODE ( TRIAL WAS NE>LY EXT9CT AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & IT IS NOT LIKELY ?AT IT WAS 9CLUD$ 9 0LEGEM T]RE10 AS ?AT T]M IS US$ 9 ?AT 9/RUM5T4 ,?IS IDEA IS CORROBORAT$ BY ! FACT ?AT ! TRIAL BY ORDEAL WAS SPECIALLY PROHIBIT$ ONLY F\R YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 0BY ACT ( ,P>LIAM5T 9 #c ,H5RY ,I,I,I41 ACCORD+ TO ,SIR ,$W>D ,COKE1 OR RA!R BY AN ORD] ( ! K+ 9 C\NCIL40 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE #c#d#e1 NOTE4  

 ,I APPREH5D ?AT ?IS TRIAL WAS NEV] =C$ UPON ACCUS$ P]SONS1 BUT WAS ONLY ALL[$ TO !M1 AS AN APPEAL TO ,GOD1 FROM ! JUDGM5T ( A JURY4 .<,HALLAM SAYS1 0,IT APPE>S AS IF ! ORDEAL W]E P]MITT$ TO P]SONS ALREADY CONVICT$ BY ! V]DICT ( A JURY40 --- #b ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 NOTE4.>  

 ,! TRIAL BY COMPURGATORS WAS ONE 9 :I*1 IF ! ACCUS$ C\LD BR+ TWELVE ( HIS NEI<BORS1 :O W\LD MAKE OA? ?AT !Y BELIEV$ HIM 9NOC5T1 HE WAS HELD TO BE SO4 ,IT IS PROBABLE ?AT ?IS TRIAL WAS REALLY ! TRIAL BY JURY1 OR WAS ALL[$ AS AN APPEAL FROM A JURY4 ,IT IS :OLLY IMPROBABLE ?AT TWO DIFF]5T MODES ( TRIAL1 SO NE>LY RESEMBL+ EA* O!R AS ?IS & ! TRIAL BY JURY DO1 %\LD PREVAIL AT ! SAME TIME1 & AMONG A RUDE PEOPLE1 :OSE JUDICIAL PROCE$+S W\LD NATURALLY BE ( ! SIMPLE/ K9D4 ,BUT IF ?IS TRIAL REALLY W]E ANY O!R ?AN ! TRIAL BY JURY1 IT MU/ HAVE BE5 NE>LY OR QUITE EXT9CT AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA2 & !RE IS NO PROBABILITY ?AT IT WAS 9CLUD$ 9 0LEGEM T]RE40  

 #b#h4 ,COKE ATTEMPTS TO %[ ?AT !RE IS A DI/9CTION BETWE5 AM]CEM5TS & F9ES --- ADMITT+ ?AT AM]CEM5TS MU/ BE FIX$ BY ONE'S PE]S1 BUT CLAIM+ ?AT F9ES MAY BE FIX$ BY ! GOV]NM5T4 7#b ,9/4 #b#g1 #h ,COKE'S ,REPORTS #c#h47 ,BUT !RE SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 NO GR\ND :ATEV] = SUPPOS+ ?AT ANY SU* DI/9CTION EXI/$ AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,IF !RE W]E ANY SU* DI/9CTION 9 ! TIME ( ,COKE1 IT HAD D\BTLESS GR[N UP )9 ! F\R C5TURIES ?AT HAD ELAPS$ S9CE ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & IS TO BE SET D[N AS ONE ( ! NUMB]LESS 9V5TIONS ( GOV]NM5T = GETT+ RID ( ! RE/RA9TS ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & = TAK+ M5 \T ( ! PROTECTION ( !IR PE]S1 & SUBJECT+ !M TO SU* PUNI%M5TS AS ! GOV]NM5T *OOSES TO 9FLICT4  

 ,! FIR/ /ATUTE ( ,WE/M9/]1 PASS$ SIXTY YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 TREATS ! F9E & AM]CEM5T AS SYNONYM\S1 AS FOLL[S3  

 0,=ASMU* AS ! COMMON F9E & AM]CEM5T ( ! :OLE C\NTY 9 ,EYRE ( ! JU/ICES = FALSE JUDGM5TS1 OR = O!R TRESPASS1 IS UNJU/LY ASSESS$ BY %]IFFS & B>ETORS 9 ! %IRES1 "9 "9 IT IS PROVID$1 & ! K+ WILLS1 ?AT FROM H5CE=? SU* SUMS %ALL BE ASSESS$ BE=E ! JU/ICES 9 ,EYRE1 A=E !IR DEP>TURE1 BY ! OA? ( KNI<TS & O!R HONE/ M510 @&C4 --- #c ,$W>D ,I1 ,*4 #a#h4 7#a#b#g#e47  

 ,& 9 MANY O!R /ATUTES PASS$ AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ! T]MS F9ES & AM]CEM5T SEEM TO BE US$ 9DIFF]5TLY1 9 PRESCRIB+ ! PUNI%M5TS = (F5SES4 ,AS LATE AS #a#d#f#a1 7#b#d#f YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA17 ! /ATUTE #a ,$W>D ,I,V41 ,*4 #b1 SPEAKS ( 0F9ES1 RANSOMS & AM]CIAM5TS0 AS BE+ LEVI$ UPON CRIM9ALS1 AS IF !Y W]E ! COMMON PUNI%M5TS ( (F5SES4  

 ,/4 #b & #c ,PHILIP & ,M>Y1 ,*4 #h1 USES ! T]MS1 0F9ES1 =FEITURES1 & AM]CIAM5TS0 FIVE TIMES4 7#a#e#e#e47  

 ,/4 #e ,ELIZABE?1 ,*4 #a#c1 ,SEC4 #a1 USES ! T]MS 0F9ES1 =FEITURES1 & AM]CIAM5TS40  

 ,?AT AM]CEM5TS W]E F9ES1 OR PECUNI>Y PUNI%M5TS1 9FLICT$ = (F5SES1 IS PROV$ BY ! FOLL[+ /ATUTES1 7ALL SUPPOS$ TO HAVE BE5 PASS$ )9 ONE HUNDR$ & FIFTE5 YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA17 :I* SPEAK ( AM]CEM5TS AS A SPECIES ( 0JUDGM5T10 OR PUNI%M5T1 & AS BE+ 9FLICT$ = ! SAME (F5SES AS O!R 0JUDGM5TS40  

 ,?US ONE /ATUTE DECL>ES ?AT A BAK]1 = DEFAULT 9 ! WEI<T ( HIS BREAD1 0\<T TO BE AM]C$1 OR SUFF] ! JUDGM5T ( ! PILLORY20 & ?AT A BREW]1 = 0SELL+ ALE CONTR>Y TO ! ASSIZE10 0\<T TO BE AM]C$1 OR SUFF] ! JUDGM5T OR ! TUMBREL40 --- #ea ,H5RY ,I,I,I41 ,/4 #f4 7#a#b#f#f47  

 ,AMONG ! 0,/ATUTES ( ,UNC]TA9 ,DATE10 BUT SUPPOS$ TO BE PRIOR TO ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 7#a#c#b#f17 >E ! FOLL[+3  

 ,*AP4 #f PROVIDES ?AT 0IF A BREW] BREAK ! ASSIZE1 7FIX+ ! PRICE ( ALE17 ! FIR/1 SECOND1 & ?IRD TIME1 HE %ALL BE AM]C$1 BUT ! F\R? TIME HE %ALL SUFF] JUDGM5T ( ! PILLORY )\T R$EMPTION40  

 ,*AP4 #g PROVIDES ?AT 0A BUT*] ?AT SELLE? SW9E'S FLE% MEASL$1 OR FLE% DEAD ( ! MURRA91 OR ?AT BUYE? FLE% ( ,JEWS1 & SELLE? ! SAME UNTO ,*RI/IANS1 AFT] HE %ALL BE CONVICT !RE(1 = ! FIR/ TIME HE %ALL BE GRIEV\SLY AM]C$2 ! SECOND TIME HE %ALL SUFF] JUDGM5T ( ! PILLORY2 & ! ?IRD TIME HE %ALL BE IMPRISON$ & MAKE F9E2 & ! F\R? TIME HE %ALL =SWE> ! T[N40  

 ,*AP4 #a1 A /ATUTE AGA9/ =E/ALL+1 PROVIDES ?AT1  

 0,HE ?AT IS CONVICT !RE(1 ! FIR/ TIME %ALL BE AM]C$1 & %ALL LOSE ! ?+ SO B\<T1 & ?AT ACCORD+ TO ! CU/OM ( ! T[N2 HE ?AT IS CONVICT$ ! SECOND HE %ALL HAVE JUDGM5T ( ! PILLORY2 AT ! ?IRD TIME HE %ALL BE IMPRISON$ & MAKE F9E2 ! F\R? TIME HE %ALL ABJURE ! T[N4 ,& ?IS JUDGM5T %ALL BE GIV5 UPON ALL MANN] ( =E/ALL]S1 & LIKEWISE UPON !M ?AT HAVE GIV5 !M C\NSEL1 HELP1 OR FAVOR4 --- #a ,RUFFHEAD'S ,/ATUTES1 #a#h#g1 #a#h#h4 #a ,/ATUTES ( ! ,REALM1 #b#c4  

 #b#i4 #a ,HUME1 ,APP5DIX1 L4  

 #c4  ,BLACK/ONE SAYS1 0,\R ANCI5T ,SAXON LAWS NOM9ALLY PUNI%$ !FT ) DEA?1 IF ABOVE ! VALUE ( TWELVE P5CE2 BUT ! CRIM9AL WAS P]MITT$ TO R$EEM HIS LIFE BY A PECUNI>Y RANSOM1 AS AMONG !IR ANCE/ORS1 ! ,G]MANS1 BY A /AT$ NUMB] ( CATTLE4 ,BUT 9 ! N9? YE> ( ,H5RY ! ,FIR/1 7#a#a#i17 ?IS P[] ( R$EMPTION WAS TAK5 AWAY1 & ALL P]SONS GUILTY ( L>C5Y ABOVE ! VALUE ( TWELVE P5CE W]E DIRECT$ TO BE HANG$1 :I* LAW CONT9UES ! =CE TO ?IS DAY40 --- #d ,BLACK/ONE1 #b#c#h4  

 ,I GIVE ?IS /ATEM5T ( ,BLACK/ONE1 BECAUSE ! LATT] CLAUSE MAY SEEM TO MILITATE ) ! IDEA1 :I* ! =M] CLAUSE CORROBORATES1 VIZ41 ?AT AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 F9ES W]E ! USUAL PUNI%M5TS ( (F5SES4 ,BUT ,I ?9K !RE IS NO PROBABILITY ?AT A LAW SO UNREASONABLE 9 ITSELF1 7UNREASONABLE EV5 AFT] MAK+ ALL ALL[ANCE = ! DIFF]5CE 9 ! VALUE ( MONEY17 & SO CONTR>Y TO IMMEMORIAL CU/OM1 C\LD OR DID OBTA9 ANY G5]AL OR SPE$Y ACQUIESC5CE AMONG A PEOPLE :O C>$ LITTLE = ! AU?ORITY ( K+S4  

 ,MADDOX1 WRIT+ ( ! P]IOD FROM ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR TO ,JOHN1 SAYS3  

 0,! AM]CEM5TS 9 CRIM9AL & COMMON PLEAS1 :I* W]E WONT TO BE IMPOS$ DUR+ ?IS FIR/ P]IOD & AFT]W>DS1 W]E ( SO MANY SEV]AL SORTS1 ?AT IT IS NOT EASY TO PLACE !M UND] DI/9CT HEADS4 ,LET !M1 = ME?OD'S SAKE1 BE R$UC$ TO ! HEADS FOLL[+3 ,AM]CEM5TS = OR BY REASON ( MURD]S & MANSLAU<T]S1 = MISDEMEANORS1 = DISSEIZ9S1 = RECREANCY1 = BREA* ( ASSIZE1 = DEFAULTS1 = NONAPPE>ANCE1 = FALSE JUDGM5T1 & = NOT MAK+ SUIT1 OR HUE & CRY4 ,TO !M MAY BE ADD$ MISCELLANE\S AM]CEM5TS1 = TRESPASSES ( DIV]SE K9D40 --- #a ,MADDOX'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,EX*EQU]1 #e#d#b4  

 #c#a4  ,COKE1 9 HIS EXPOSITION ( ! WORDS LEGEM T]RE1 GIVES QUITE 9 DETAIL ! PR9CIPLES ( ! COMMON LAW GOV]N+ >RE/S2 & TAKES IT = GRANT$ ?AT ! WORDS 0NISI P] LEGEM T]RE0 >E APPLICABLE TO >RE/S1 AS WELL AS TO ! 9DICTM5T1 @&C4 --- #b ,9/41 #e#a1 #e#b4  

 #c#b4 ,I CITE ! ABOVE EXTRACT FROM ,MR4 ,HALLAM SOLELY = ! SAKE ( HIS AU?ORITY = R5D]+ ! WORD VEL BY &2 & NOT BY ANY MEANS = ! PURPOSE ( 5DORS+ ! OP9ION HE SUGGE/S1 ?AT LEGEM T]RE AU?ORIZ$ 0JUDGM5TS BY DEFAULT OR DEMURR]10 )\T ! 9T]V5TION ( A JURY4 ,HE SEEMS TO IMAG9E ?AT LEX T]RE1 ! COMMON LAW1 AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 9CLUD$ EV]Y?+1 EV5 TO ! PRACTICE ( C\RTS1 ?AT IS1 AT ?IS DAY1 CALL$ BY ! NAME ( ,COMMON ,LAW2 :]EAS MU* ( :AT IS N[ CALL$ ,COMMON ,LAW HAS GR[N UP1 BY USURPATION1 S9CE ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 9 PALPABLE VIOLATION ( ! AU?ORITY ( ?AT *>T]4 ,HE SAYS1 0,C]TA9LY !RE >E MANY LEGAL PROC$URES1 BESIDES TRIAL BY JURY1 ?R\< :I* A P>TS GOODS OR P]SON MAY BE TAK540 ,( C\RSE !RE >E N[ MANY SU* WAYS1 9 :I* A P>TY'S GOODS OR P]SON >E TAK51 BESIDES BY ! JUDGM5T ( A JURY2 BUT ! QUE/ION IS1 :E!R SU* TAK+S >E NOT 9 VIOLATION ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA4  

 ,HE SEEMS TO ?9K ?AT1 9 CASES ( 0JUDGM5T BY DEFAULT OR DEMURR]10 !RE IS NO NE$ ( A JURY1 & !NCE TO 9F] ?AT LEGEM T]RE MAY NOT HAVE REQUIR$ A JURY 9 ?OSE CASES4 ,BUT ?IS OP9ION IS F\ND$ ON ! ]RONE\S IDEA ?AT JURIES >E REQUIR$ ONLY = DET]M9+ CONTE/$ FACTS1 & NOT = JUDG+ ( ! LAW4 ,9 CASE ( DEFAULT1 ! PLA9TIFF MU/ PRES5T A PRIMA FACIE CASE BE=E HE IS 5TITL$ TO A JUDGM5T2 & ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 7SUPPOS+ IT TO REQUIRE A JURY TRIAL 9 CIVIL CASES1 AS ,MR4 ,HALLAM ASSUMES ?AT IT DOES17 AS MU* REQUIRES ?AT ?IS PRIMA FACIE CASE1 BO? LAW & FACT1 BE MADE \T TO ! SATISFACTION ( A JURY1 AS IT DOES ?AT A CONTE/$ CASE %ALL BE4  

 ,AS = A DEMURR]1 ! JURY MU/ TRY A DEMURR] 7HAV+ ! ADVICE & ASSI/ANCE ( ! C\RT1 ( C\RSE7 AS MU* AS ANY O!R MATT] ( LAW >IS+ 9 A CASE4  

 ,MR4 ,HALLAM EVID5TLY ?9KS !RE IS NO USE = A JURY1 EXCEPT :]E !RE IS 0TRIAL0 --- MEAN+ !REBY A CONTE/ ON MATT]S ( FACT4 ,HIS LANGUAGE IS1 ?AT 0!RE >E MANY LEGAL PROC$URES1 BESIDES TRIAL BY JURY1 ?R\< :I* A P>TY'S GOODS OR P]SON MAY BE TAK540 ,N[ ,MAGNA ,C>TA SAYS NO?+ ( TRIAL BY JURY2 BUT ONLY ( ! JUDGM5T1 OR S5T5CE1 ( A JURY4 ,IT IS ONLY BY 9F]5CE WE COME TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT !RE MU/ BE A TRIAL BY JURY4 ,S9CE ! JURY ALONE CAN GIVE ! JUDGM5T1 OR S5T5CE1 WE 9F] ?AT !Y MU/ TRY ! CASE2 BECAUSE O!RWISE !Y W\LD BE 9COMPET5T1 & W\LD HAVE NO MORAL RI<T1 TO GIVE JUDGM5T4 ,!Y MU/1 !RE=E1 EXAM9E ! GR\NDS1 7BO? ( LAW & FACT17 OR RA!R TRY ! GR\NDS1 ( EV]Y ACTION :ATSOEV]1 :E!R IT BE DECID$ ON 0DEFAULT1 DEMURR]10 OR O!RWISE1 & R5D] !IR JUDGM5T1 OR S5T5CE1 !REON1 BE=E ANY JUDGM5T CAN BE A LEGAL ONE1 ON :I* 0TO TAKE A P>TY'S GOODS OR P]SON40 ,9 %ORT1 ! PR9CIPLE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA IS1 ?AT NO JUDGM5T CAN BE VALID AGA9/ A P>TY'S GOODS OR P]SON1 7NOT EV5 A JUDGM5T = CO/S17 EXCEPT A JUDGM5T R5D]$ BY A JURY4 ,( C\RSE1 A JURY MU/ TRY EV]Y QUE/ION1 BO? ( LAW & FACT1 ?AT IS 9VOLV$ 9 ! R5D]+ ( ?AT JUDGM5T4 ,!Y >E TO HAVE ! ASSI/ANCE & ADVICE ( ! JUDGES1 SO F> AS !Y DESIRE !M2 BUT ! JUDGM5T ITSELF MU/ BE !IRS1 & NOT ! JUDGM5T ( ! C\RT4  

 ,AS TO 0PROCESS ( ATTA*M5T = CONTEMPT10 IT IS ( C\RSE LAWFUL = A JUDGE1 9 HIS *>ACT] ( A PEACE (FIC]1 TO ISSUE A W>RANT = ! >RE/ ( A MAN GUILTY ( A CONTEMPT1 AS HE W\LD = ! >RE/ ( ANY O!R (F5D]1 & HOLD HIM TO BAIL1 7OR1 9 DEFAULT ( BAIL1 COMMIT HIM TO PRISON17 TO ANSW] = HIS (F5SE BE=E A JURY4 ,OR HE MAY ORD] HIM 9TO CU/ODY )\T A W>RANT :5 ! (F5SE IS COMMITT$ 9 ! JUDGE'S PRES5CE4 ,BUT !RE IS NO REASON :Y A JUDGE %\LD HAVE ! P[] ( PUNI%+ = CONTEMPT1 ANY MORE ?AN = ANY O!R (F5SE4 ,& IT IS ONE ( ! MO/ DANG]\S P[]S A JUDGE CAN HAVE1 BECAUSE IT GIVES HIM ABSOLUTE AU?ORITY 9 A C\RT ( JU/ICE1 & 5ABLES HIM TO TYRANNIZE AS HE PLEASES OV] P>TIES1 C\NSEL1 WITNESSES1 & JURORS4 ,IF A JUDGE HAVE P[] TO PUNI% = CONTEMPT1 & TO DET]M9E = HIMSELF :AT IS A CONTEMPT1 ! :OLE ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE 7OR 9JU/ICE1 IF HE *OOSE TO MAKE IT SO7 IS 9 HIS H&S4 ,& ALL ! RI<TS ( JURORS1 WITNESSES1 C\NSEL1 & P>TIES1 >E HELD SUBJECT TO HIS PLEASURE1 & CAN BE EX]CIS$ ONLY AGREEABLY TO HIS WILL4 ,HE CAN ( C\RSE CONTROL ! 5TIRE PROCE$+S 91 & CONSEQU5TLY ! DECISION (1 EV]Y CAUSE1 BY RE/RA9+ & PUNI%+ EV]Y ONE1 :E!R P>TY1 C\NSEL1 WITNESS1 OR JUROR1 :O PRESUMES TO (F] ANY?+ CONTR>Y TO HIS PLEASURE4  

 ,?IS >BITR>Y P[]1 :I* HAS BE5 USURP$ & EX]CIS$ BY JUDGES TO PUNI% = CONTEMPT1 HAS UND\BT$LY HAD MU* TO DO 9 SUBDU+ C\NSEL 9TO ?OSE S]VILE1 OBSEQUI\S1 & C[>DLY HABITS1 :I* SO UNIV]SALLY PREVAIL AMONG !M1 & :I* HAVE NOT ONLY CO/ SO MANY CLI5TS !IR RI<TS1 BUT HAVE ALSO CO/ ! PEOPLE SO MANY ( !IR LIB]TIES4  

 ,IF ANY SUMM>Y PUNI%M5T = CONTEMPT BE EV] NECESS>Y1 7AS IT PROBABLY IS NOT17 BEYOND EXCLUSION = ! TIME BE+ FROM ! C\RT-ROOM1 7:I* %\LD BE DONE1 NOT AS A PUNI%M5T1 BUT = SELF-PROTECTION1 & ! PRES]VATION ( ORD]17 ! JUDGM5T = IT %\LD BE GIV5 BY ! JURY1 7:]E ! TRIAL IS BE=E A JURY17 & NOT BY ! C\RT1 = ! JURY1 & NOT ! C\RT1 >E REALLY ! JUDGES4 ,= ! SAME REASON1 EXCLUSION FROM ! C\RT-ROOM %\LD BE ORD]$ ONLY BY ! JURY1 9 CASES :5 ! TRIAL IS BE=E A JURY1 BECAUSE !Y1 BE+ ! REAL JUDGES & TRI]S ( ! CAUSE1 >E 5TITL$1 IF ANYBODY1 TO ! CONTROL ( ! C\RT-ROOM4 ,9 APPEAL C\RTS1 :]E NO JURIES SIT1 IT MAY BE NECESS>Y --- NOT AS A PUNI%M5T1 BUT = SELF-PROTECTION1 & ! MA9T5ANCE ( ORD] --- ?AT ! C\RT %\LD EX]CISE ! P[] ( EXCLUD+ A P]SON1 = ! TIME BE+1 FROM ! C\RT-ROOM2 BUT !RE IS NO REASON :Y !Y %\LD PROCE$ TO S5T5CE HIM AS A CRIM9AL1 )\T HIS BE+ TRI$ BY A JURY4  

 ,IF ! PEOPLE WI% TO HAVE !IR RI<TS RESPECT$ & PROTECT$ 9 C\RTS ( JU/ICE1 IT IS MO/LY ( ! LA/ IMPORTANCE ?AT !Y JEAL\SLY GU>D ! LIB]TY ( P>TIES1 C\NSEL1 WITNESSES1 & JURORS1 AGA9/ ALL >BITR>Y P[] ON ! P>T ( ! C\RT4  

 ,C]TA9LY ,MR4 ,HALLAM MAY V]Y WELL SAY ?AT 0ONE MAY D\BT :E!R !SE 7! SEV]AL CASES HE HAS M5TION$7 W]E 9 CONTEMPLATION ( ! FRAM]S ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA0 --- ?AT IS1 AS EXCEPTIONS TO ! RULE ?AT ALL JUDGM5TS ?AT >E TO BE 5=C$ 0AGA9/ A P>TY'S GOODS OR P]SON10 BE R5D]$ BY A JURY4  

 ,AGA91 ,MR4 ,HALLAM SAYS1 IF ! WORD BE R5D]$ BY &1 0! MEAN+ WILL BE1 ?AT NO P]SON %ALL BE DISSEIZ$1 @&C41 EXCEPT UPON A LAWFUL CAUSE ( ACTION40 ,?IS IS TRUE2 BUT IT DOES NOT ?AT ANY FOLL[ ?AT ANY CAUSE ( ACTION1 F\ND$ ON /ATUTE ONLY1 IS !RE=E A 0LAWFUL CAUSE ( ACTION10 )9 ! MEAN+ ( LEGEM T]RE1 OR ! ,COMMON ,LAW4 ,)9 ! MEAN+ ( ! LEGEM T]RE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 NO?+ BUT A COMMON LAW CAUSE ( ACTION IS A 0LAWFUL0 ONE4  

 #c#c4 ,HALE SAYS3  

 0,! TRIAL BY JURY ( TWELVE M5 WAS ! USUAL TRIAL AMONG ! ,NORMANS1 9 MO/ SUITS2 ESPECIALLY 9 ASSIZES1 ET JURIS UTRUM40 --- #a ,HALE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 #b#a#i4  

 ,?IS WAS 9 ,NORM&Y1 BE=E ! CONQUE/ ( ,5GL& BY ! ,NORMANS4 ,SEE ,DITTO1 P4 #b#a#h4  

 ,CRABBE SAYS3  

 0,IT CANNOT BE D5I$ ?AT ! PRACTICE ( SUBMITT+ CAUSES TO ! DECISION ( TWELVE M5 WAS UNIV]SAL AMONG ALL ! NOR!RN TRIBES 7( ,EUROPE7 FROM ! V]Y REMOTE/ ANTIQUITY40 ---- ,CRABBE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI% ,LAW1 P4 #c#b4  

 #c#d4 0,! PEOPLE1 :O 9 EV]Y G5]AL C\NCIL OR ASSEMBLY C\LD OPPOSE & DE?RONE !IR SOV]EIGNS1 W]E 9 LITTLE DREAD ( !IR 5CROA*M5TS ON !IR LIB]TIES2 & K+S1 :O F\ND SUFFICI5T EMPLOYM5T 9 KEEP+ POSSESSION ( !IR CR[NS1 W\LD NOT LIKELY ATTACK ! MORE IMPORTANT PRIVILEGES ( !IR SUBJECTS40  

 #c#e4  ,?IS (FICE WAS AFT]W>DS COMMITT$ TO %]IFFS4 ,BUT EV5 :ILE ! C\RT WAS HELD BY ! LORD1 0! ,LORD WAS NOT JUDGE1 BUT ! ,P>ES 7PE]S7 ONLY40 --- ,GILB]T ON ! ,C\RT ( ,EX*EQU]1 #f#a-#b4  

 #c#f4  ,! OP9ION EXPRESS$ 9 ! TEXT1 ?AT ! ,WITAN HAD NO LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY1 IS CORROBORAT$ BY ! FOLL[+ AU?ORITIES3  

 0,FROM ! FACT ?AT ! NEW LAWS PASS$ BY ! K+ & ! ,WITAN W]E LAID BE=E ! %IRE-MOTE1 7C\NTY C\RT17 WE %\LD BE ALMO/ JU/IFI$ 9 ! 9F]5CE ?AT A SECOND SANCTION WAS NECESS>Y BE=E !Y C\LD HAVE ! EFFECT ( LAW 9 ?AT P>TICUL> C\NTY40 --- ,DUNHAM'S ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 ,SEC4 #b1 ,B4 #b1 ,*4 #a4 #eg ,L>DN]'S ,CAB4 ,CYC41 #e#c4  

 ,! 0SECOND SANCTION0 REQUIR$ TO GIVE ! LEGISLATION ( ! K+ & ,WITAN ! EFFECT ( LAW1 WAS UND\BT$LY1 ,I ?9K1 AS A G5]AL ?+1 ! SANCTION ( A JURY4 ,I KN[ ( NO EVID5CE :ATEV] ?AT LAWS W]E EV] SUBMITT$ TO POPUL> VOTE 9 ! C\NTY C\RTS1 AS ?IS AU?OR SEEMS TO SUPPOSE POSSIBLE4 ,ANO!R MODE1 SOMETIMES RESORT$ TO = OBTA9+ ! SANCTION ( ! PEOPLE TO ! LAWS ( ! ,WITAN1 WAS1 IT SEEMS1 TO P]SUADE ! PEOPLE !MSELVES TO SWE> TO OBS]VE !M4 ,MACK9TO% SAYS3  

 0,! PREAMBLES ( ! LAWS 7( ! ,WITAN7 SPEAK ( ! 9F9ITE NUMB] ( LIEGEM5 :O ATT5D$1 AS ONLY APPLAUD+ ! MEASURES ( ! ASSEMBLY4 ,BUT ?IS APPLAUSE WAS NEI!R SO UNIMPORTANT TO ! SUCCESS ( ! MEASURES1 NOR SO PRECISELY DI/+UI%$ FROM A %>E 9 LEGISLATION1 AS ?OSE :O READ HI/ORY ) A MOD]N EYE MI<T IMAG9E4 ,IT APPE>S ?AT UND] ,A!L/AN EXP$I5TS W]E RESORT$ TO1 TO OBTA9 A CONS5T TO ! LAW FROM GREAT BODIES ( ! PEOPLE 9 !IR DI/RICTS1 :I* !IR NUMB]S R5D]$ IMPOSSIBLE 9 A NATIONAL ASSEMBLY4 ,?AT MON>* APPE>S TO HAVE S5T COMMISSION]S TO HOLD %IRE-GEMOTES OR C\NTY MEET+S1 :]E !Y PROCLAIM$ ! LAWS MADE BY ! K+ & HIS C\NSELORS1 :I*1 BE+ ACKN[LG$ & SWORN TO AT !SE FOLK-MOTES 7MEET+S ( ! PEOPLE7 BECAME1 BY !IR ASS5T1 COMPLETELY B9D+ ON ! :OLE NATION40 --- ,MACK9TO%'S ,HI/4 ( ,5GL&1 ,*4 #b4 #de ,L>DN]'S ,CAB4 ,CYC41 #g#e4  

 #c#g4 ,PAGE #c#a4  

 #c#h4 ,HALLAM SAYS1 0,IT WAS1 H[EV]1 TO ! C\NTY C\RT ?AT AN ,5GLI% FREEMAN *IEFLY LOOK$ = ! MA9T5ANCE ( HIS CIVIL RI<TS40 --- #b ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 #c#i#b4  

 ,ALSO1 0,?IS 7! C\NTY C\NT7 WAS ! GREAT CON/ITUTIONAL JUDICATURE 9 ALL QUE/IONS ( CIVIL RI<T40 --- ,DITTO1 #c#i#e4  

 ,ALSO1 0,! LIB]TIES ( !SE ,ANGLO-,SAXON ?ANES W]E *IEFLY SECUR$1 NEXT TO !IR SWORDS & !IR FREE SPIRITS1 BY ! 9E/IMABLE RI<T ( DECID+ CIVIL & CRIM9AL SUITS 9 !IR [N C\NTY C\RTS40 --- ,DITTO1 #c#i#i4  

 #c#i4  0,ALFR$ MAY1 9 ONE S5SE1 BE CALL$ ! F\ND] ( !SE LAWS1 7! ,SAXON17 = UNTIL HIS TIME !Y W]E AN UNWRITT5 CODE1 BUT HE EXPRESSLY SAYS1 '?AT ,I1 ,ALFR$1 COLLECT$ ! GOOD LAWS ( \R =EFA!RS 9TO ONE CODE1 & ALSO WROTE !M D[N' --- :I* IS A DECISIVE FACT 9 ! HI/ORY ( \R LAWS WELL WOR? NOT+40 --- ,9TRODUCTION TO ,GILB]T'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 P4 #b1 NOTE4  

 ,KELHAM SAYS1 0,LET US CONSULT \R [N LAWY]S & HI/ORIANS1 & !Y WILL TELL US "9 "9 ?AT ,ALFR$1 ,$G>1 & ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR1 W]E ! GREAT COMPIL]S & RE/OR]S ( ! ,5GLI% LAWS40 --- ,KELHAM'S ,PRELIM9>Y ,DISC\RSE ( ! ,LAWS ( ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR1 P4 #a#b4 ,APP5DIX TO ,KELHAM'S ,DICTION>Y ( ! ,NORMAN ,LANGUAGE4  

 0,HE 7,ALFR$7 ALSO1 LIKE ANO!R ,!ODOSIUS1 COLLECT$ ! V>I\S CU/OMS ?AT HE F\ND DISP]S$ 9 ! K+DOM1 & R$UC$ & DIGE/$ !M 9TO ONE UNI=M SY/EM1 OR CODE ( LAWS1 9 HIS SOM-BEC1 OR LIB] JUDICIALIS 7JUDICIAL BOOK74 ,?IS HE COMPIL$ = ! USE ( ! C\RT B>ON1 HUNDR$ & C\NTY C\RT1 ! C\RT-LEET & %]IFF'S T\RN1 TRIBUNALS :I* HE E/ABLI%$ = ! TRIAL ( ALL CAUSES1 CIVIL & CRIM9AL1 9 ! V]Y DI/RICTS :]E9 ! COMPLA9TS >OSE40 --- #d ,BLACK/ONE1 #d#a#a4  

 ,ALFR$ HIMSELF SAYS1 0,H5CE ,I1 ,K+ ,ALFR$1 GA!R$ !SE TOGE!R1 & COMM&$ MANY ( ?OSE TO BE WRITT5 D[N :I* \R =EFA!RS OBS]V$ --- ?OSE :I* ,I LIK$ --- & ?OSE :I* ,I DID NOT LIKE1 BY ! ADVICE ( MY ,WITAN1 ?REW ASIDE4 ,= ,I DUR/ NOT V5TURE TO SET D[N 9 WRIT+ OV] MANY ( MY [N1 S9CE ,I KNEW NOT :AT AMONG !M W\LD PLEASE ?OSE ?AT %\LD COME AFT] US4 ,BUT ?OSE :I* ,I MET ) EI!R ( ! DAYS ( ME1 MY K9SMAN1 OR ( ,(FA1 ,K+ ( ,M]CIA1 OR ( ,AE!LB]T1 :O WAS ! FIR/ ( ! ,5GLI% :O RECEIV$ BAPTISM --- ?OSE :I* APPE>$ TO ME ! JU/E/ --- ,I HAVE H]E COLLECT$1 & AB&ON$ ! O!RS4 ,!N ,I1 ,ALFR$1 ,K+ ( ! ,WE/ ,SAXONS1 %[$ !SE TO ALL MY ,WITAN1 & !Y !N SAID ?AT !Y W]E ALL WILL+ TO OBS]VE !M40 --- ,LAW ( ,ALFR$1 TRANSLAT$ BY ,R4 ,PRICE1 PREFIX$ TO ,MACK9TO%'S ,HI/4 ( ,5GL&1 VOL4 #a4 #de ,L>DN]'S ,CAB4 ,CYC4  

 0,K+ ,$W>D "9 "9 PROJECT$ & BEGUN :AT HIS GR&SON1 ,K+ ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR1 AFT]W>DS COMPLET$1 VIS41 ONE UNI=M DIGE/ OR BODY ( LAWS TO BE OBS]V$ ?R\<\T ! :OLE K+DOM1 BE+ PROBABLY NO MORE ?AN A REVIVAL ( ,K+ ,ALFR$'S CODE1 ) SOME IMPROVM5TS SUGGE/$ BY NECESSITY & EXP]I5CE1 P>TICUL>LY ! 9CORPORAT+ SOME ( ! ,BRITI%1 OR1 RA!R1 ,M]CIAN CU/OMS1 & ALSO SU* ( ! ,DANI% 7CU/OMS7 AS W]E REASONABLE & APPROV$1 9TO ! ,WE/ ,SAXON ,LAGE1 :I* WAS /ILL ! GR\ND-WORK ( ! :OLE4 ,& ?IS APPE>S TO BE ! BE/ SUPPORT$ & MO/ PLAUSIBLE CONJECTURE1 7= C]TA9TY IS NOT TO BE EXPECT$17 ( ! RISE & ORIG9AL ( ?AT ADMIRABLE SY/EM ( MAXIMS & UNWRITT5 CU/OMS :I* IS N[ KN[N BY ! NAME ( ! COMMON LAW1 AS EXT5D+ ITS AU?ORITY UNIV]SALLY OV] ALL ! REALM1 & :I* IS D\BLESS ( ,SAXON P>5TAGE4 --- #d ,BLACK/ONE1 #d#a#b4  

 0,BY ! ,LEX ,T]RE & ,LEX ,REGNI IT IS UND]/OOD ! LAWS ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR1 ! CONFIRM$ & 5L>G$ AS !Y W]E BY ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR2 & ?IS ,CON/ITUTION OR ,CODE ( ,LAWS IS :AT EV5 TO ?IS DAY >E CALL$ ',! ,COMMON ,LAW ( ! ,L&4'0 --- ,9TRODUCTION TO ,G,ILB]T'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 P4 #b#b1 NOTE4  

 #d4 ,NOT ! CONQU]OR ( ! ,5GLI% PEOPLE 7AS ! FRI5DS ( LIB]TY MA9TA97 BUT IBLY ( ,H>OLD ! USURP]4 --- ,SEE ,HALE'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 *4 #e4  

 #d#a4 ,= ALL !SE CODES SEE ,WILK9S' LAWS ( ! ,ANGLO-,SAXONS4  

 0,BE+ REGULATIONS ADAPT$ TO EXI/+ 9/ITUTIONS1 ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON /ATUTES >E CONCISE & TE*NICAL1 ALLUD+ TO ! LAW :I* WAS !N LIV+ & 9 VIGOR1 RA!R ?AN DEF9+ IT4 ,! SAME CLAUSES & *APT]S >E (T5 REPEAT$ WORD = WORD1 9 ! /ATUTES ( SUBSEQU5T K+S1 %[+ ?AT 5ACTM5TS :I* BE> ! APPE>ANCE ( NOVELTY >E M]ELY DECL>ATORY4 ,CONSEQU5TLY ! APPE>ANCE ( A LAW1 SEEM+LY = ! FIR/ TIME1 IS BY NO MEANS TO BE CONSID]$ AS A PRO( ?AT ! MATT] :I* IT CONTA9S IS NEW2 NOR CAN WE TRACE ! PROGRESS ( ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON 9/ITUTIONS ) ANY DEGREE ( C]TA9TY1 BY FOLL[+ ! DATES ( ! /ATUTES 9 :I* WE F9D !M FIR/ NOTIC$4 ,ALL >GUM5TS F\ND$ ON ! APP>5T *RONOLOGY ( ! SUBJECTS 9CLUD$ 9 ! LAWS1 >E LIABLE TO GREAT FALLACIES4 ,FUR!RMORE1 A CONSID]ABLE PORTION ( ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON LAW WAS NEV] RECORD$ 9 WRIT+4 ,!RE CAN BE NO D\BT BUT ?AT RULES ( 9H]ITANCE W]E WELL E/ABLI%$ & DEF9$2 YET WE HAVE NOT A S+LE LAW1 & H>DLY A S+LE DOCUM5T FROM :I* ! C\RSE ( ! DESC5T ( L& CAN BE 9F]R$4 "9 "9 ,POSITIVE PRO( CANNOT BE OBTA9$ ( ! COMM5CEM5T ( ANY 9/ITUTION1 BECAUSE ( ! FIR/ WRITT5 LAW RELAT+ TO IT MAY POSSIBLY BE M]ELY CONFIRMATORY OR DECL>ATORY2 NEI!R CAN ! NONXI/5CE ( ANY 9/ITUTION BE 9F]R$ FROM ! ABS5CE ( DIRECT EVID5CE4 ,WRITT5 LAWS W]E MODIFI$ & CONTROLL$ BY CU/OMS ( :I* NO TRACE CAN BE DISCOV]$1 UNTIL AFT] ! LAPSE ( C5TURIES1 AL?\< ?OSE USAGES MU/ HAVE BE5 9 CON/ANT VIGOR DUR+ ! LONG 9T]VAL ( SIL5CE40 --- #a ,PALSGRAVE'S ,RISE & ,PROGRESS ( ! ,5GLI% ,COMMONWEAL?1 #e#h-#i4  

 #d#b4 ,RAP9 SAYS1 0,! CU/OMS N[ PRACTIC$ 9 ,5GL& >E1 = ! MO/ P>T1 ! SAME AS ! ,ANGLO-,SAXONS BR\<T ) !M FROM ,G]MANY40 --- ,RAP9'S ,DISS]TATION ON ! ,GOV]NM5T ( ! ,ANGLO-,SAXONS1 VOL4 #b1 ,OCT4 ,$41 P4 #a#c#h4 ,SEE ,KELHAM'S ,DISC\RSE BE=E NAM$4  

 #d#c4  ,HALLAM SAYS1 0,! C\NTY ( ,SUSSEX CONTA9S SIXTY-FIVE 7'HUNDR$S'72 ?AT ( ,DORSET =TY-?REE2 :ILE ,YORK%IRE HAS ONLY TW5TY-SIX1 & ,LANCA%IRE BUT SIX40 --- #b ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 #c#i#a4  

 #d#d4 ,EXCEPT+ ALSO MATT]S P]TA9+ TO ! COLLECTION ( ! REV5UE1 :I* W]E DET]M9$ 9 ! K+'S C\RT ( EX*EQU]4 ,BUT EV5 9 ?IS C\RT IT WAS ! LAW 0?AT NONE BE AM]C$ BUT BY HIS PE]S40 --- ,MIRRORS ( ,JU/ICE1 #d#i4  

 #d#e4  ,= ! ,5GLI% LAWS1 AL?\< NOT WRITT51 MAY1 AS IT %\LD SEEM1 & ?AT )\T ANY ABSURDITY1 BE T]M$ LAWS1 7S9CE ?IS ITSELF IS LAW --- ?AT :I* PLEASES ! PR9CE HAS ! =CE ( LAW17 ,I MEAN ?OSE LAWS :I* IT IS EVID5T W]E PROMULGAT$ BY ! ADVICE ( ! NOBLES & ! AU?ORITY ( ! PR9CE1 CONC]N+ D\BTS TO BE SETTL$ 9 !IR ASSEMBLY4 ,= IF FROM ! M]E WANT ( WRIT+ ONLY1 !Y %\LD NOT BE CONSID]$ LAWS1 !N1 UNQUE/IONABLY1 WRIT+ W\LD SEEM TO CONF] MORE AU?ORITY UPON LAWS !MSELVES1 ?AN EI!R ! EQUITY ( ! P]SONS CON/ITUT+1 OR ! REASON ( ?OSE FRAM+ !M40 ---,GLANVILLE'S ,PREFACE1 P4 #c#h4 7,GLANVILLE WAS *IEF JU/ICE ( ,H5RY ,I,I41 #a#a#h7 #b ,TURN]'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,ANGLO-,SAXONS1 #b#h4  

 #d#f4  ,MACK9TO%'S ,HI/ORY ( ,5GL&1 *4 #c4 ,L>DN]'S ,CAB9ET ,CYCLOP$IA1 #b#f#f4  

 #d#g4 ,IF ! LAWS ( ! K+ W]E RECEIV$ AS AU?ORITATIVE BY ! JURIES1 :AT OCCASION WAS !RE = HIS APPO9T+ SPECIAL COMMISSION]S = ! TRIAL ( (F5SES1 )\T ! 9T]V5TION ( A JURY1 AS HE FREQU5TLY DID1 9 MANIFE/ & ACKN[L$G$ VIOLATION ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & 0! LAW ( ! L&80 ,!SE APPO9TM5TS W]E UND\BT$LY MADE = NO O!R REASON ?AN ?AT ! JURIES W]E NOT SUFFICI5TLY SUBS]VI5T1 BUT JUDG$ ACCORD+ TO !IR [N NOTIONS ( RI<T1 9/EAD ( ! WILL ( ! K+ --- :E!R ! LATT] W]E EXPRESS$ 9 HIS /ATUTES1 OR BY HIS JUDGES4  

 #d#h4 ,( C\RSE1 ,MR4 ,REEVE MEANS TO BE UND]/OOD ?AT1 9 ! HUNDR$ C\RT1 & C\RT-LEET1 ! JURORS W]E ! JUDGES1 AS HE DECL>ES !M TO HAVE BE5 9 ! C\NTY C\RT2 O!RWISE ! 0BAILIFF0 OR 0/EW>D0 MU/ HAVE BE5 JUDGE4  

 #d#i4  ,! JURORS W]E SOMETIMES CALL$ 0ASSESSORS10 BECAUSE !Y ASSESS$1 OR DET]M9$ ! AM\NT ( F9ES & AM]CEM5TS TO BE IMPOS$4  

 #e4 0,! B>ONS ( ! ,HUNDR$0 W]E ! FREEHOLD]S4 ,HALLAM SAYS3 0,! WORD B>O1 ORIG9ALLY MEAN+ ONLY A MAN1 WAS ( V]Y L>GE SIGNIFICANCE1 & IS NOT UNFREQU5TLY APPLI$ TO COMMON FREEHOLD]S1 AS 9 ! PHRASE C\RT-B>ON40 --- #c ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 #a#d-#a#e4  

 ,BLACK/ONE SAYS3 0,! C\RT-B>ON "9 "9 IS A C\RT ( COMMON LAW1 & IT IS ! C\RT ( ! B>ONS1 BY :I* NAME ! FREEHOLD]S W]E SOMETIMES ANCI5TLY CALL$2 = ?AT IT IS HELD BE=E ! FREEHOLD]S :O [E SUIT & S]VICE TO ! MANOR40 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#c4  

 #e#a4  ,! ANCI5T JURY C\RTS KEPT NO RECORDS1 BECAUSE ?OSE :O COMPOS$ ! C\RTS C\LD NEI!R MAKE NOR READ RECORDS4 ,!IR DECISIONS W]E PRES]V$ BY ! MEMORIES ( ! JURORS & O!R P]SONS PRES5T4  

 #e#b4 ,/U>T SAYS3  

 0,! C\RTS1 OR CIVIL >RANGEM5TS1 :I* W]E MODEL$ 9 ,G]MANY1 PRES]V$ ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ! PEOPLE2 & HAV+ FOLL[$ ! ,SAXONS 9TO ,5GL&1 & CONT9U+ !IR IMPORTANCE1 !Y SUPPORT$ ! 5VI$ LIB]TY WE BOA/ (4 "9 "9  

 0,AS A *IEFTA9 L$ \T HIS RETA9]S TO ! FIELD1 & GOV]N$ !M DUR+ W>2 SO 9 PEACE HE SUMMON$ !M TOGE!R1 & EX]T$ A CIVIL JURISDICTION4 ,HE WAS AT ONCE !IR CAPTA9 & !IR JUDGE4 ,!Y CON/ITUT$ HIS C\RT2 & HAV+ 9QUIR$ ) HIM 9TO ! GUILT ( ?OSE ( !IR ORD] :OM JU/ICE HAD ACCUS$1 !Y ASSI/$ HIM TO 5=CE HIS DECREES4  

 0,?IS C\RT 7! C\RT-B>ON7 WAS IMPORT$ 9TO ,5GL&2 BUT ! 9NOVATION :I* CONQUE/ 9TRODUC$ 9TO ! FA%ION ( ! TIMES ALT]$ SOME:AT ITS APPE>ANCE4 "9 "9  

 0,! HEAD OR LORD ( ! MANOR CALL$ =? HIS ATT5DANTS TO HIS HALL4 "9 "9 ,HE 9QUIR$ 9TO ! BREA*ES ( CU/OM1 & ( JU/ICE1 :I* W]E COMMITT$ )9 ! PREC9CTS ( HIS T]RITORY2 & ) HIS FOLL[]S1 :O SAT ) HIM AS JUDGES1 HE DET]M9$ 9 ALL MATT]S ( DEBT1 & ( TRESPASS TO A C]TA9 AM\NT4 ,HE POSSESS$ A SIMIL> JURISDICTION ) ! *IEFTA9 9 ,G]MANY1 & HIS T5ANTS 5JOY$ AN EQUAL AU?ORITY ) ! ,G]MAN RETA9]S4  

 0,BUT A MODE ( ADM9I/RATION :I* 5TRU/$ SO MU* P[] TO ! GREAT C\LD NOT LONG BE EX]CIS$ )\T BLAME OR 9JU/ICE4 ,! ,G]MAN1 GUID$ BY ! C&OR ( HIS M9D1 & 5T]+ 9TO ALL HIS 5GAGEM5TS ) ! GREATE/ >DOR1 P]CEIV$ NOT1 AT FIR/1 ?AT ! *IEFTA9 TO :OM HE SUBMITT$ HIS DISPUTES MI<T BE SWAY$1 9 ! JUDGM5TS HE PRON\NC$1 BY P>TIALITY1 PREJUDICE1 OR 9T]E/2 & ?AT ! 9FLU5CE HE MA9TA9$ ) HIS FOLL[]S WAS TOO /RONG TO BE RE/RA9$ BY JU/ICE4 ,EXP]I5CE 9/RUCT$ HIM ( HIS ]ROR2 HE ACKN[L$G$ ! NECESSITY ( APPEAL+ FROM HIS LORD2 & ! C\RT ( ! ,HUNDR$ WAS ]ECT$4  

 0,?IS E/ABLI%M5T WAS =M$ BO? 9 ,G]MANY & ,5GL&1 BY ! 9HABITANTS ( A C]TA9 DIVISION1 :O EXT5D$ !IR JURISDICTION OV] ! T]RITORY !Y OCCUPI$4 .<0,IT WAS ! FREEM5 9 ,G]MANY1 & ! POSSESSORS ( L& 9 ,5GL&1 :O W]E SUITORS 7JURORS7 9 ! HUNDR$ C\RT4 ,!SE RANKS ( M5 W]E ! SAME4 ,! ALT]ATION :I* HAD HAPP5$ 9 RELATION TO PROP]TY HAD 9VE/$ ! ,G]MAN FREEM5 ) L& OR T]RITORY40.> ,!Y B\ND !MSELVES UND] A P5ALTY TO ASSEMBLE IT /AT$ TIMES2 & HAV+ ELECT$ ! WISE/ TP PRESIDE OV] !M1 !Y JUDG$1 NOT ONLY ALL CIVIL & CRIM9AL MATT]S1 BUT ( ?OSE ALSO :I* REG>D$ RELIGION & ! PRIE/HOOD4 ,! JUDICIAL P[] ?US 9VE/$ 9 ! PEOPLE WAS EXT5SIVE2 !Y W]E ABLE TO PRES]VE !IR RI<TS1 & ATT5D$ ?IS C\RT 9 >MS4  

 0,AS ! COMMUNICATION1 H[EV]1 & 9T]C\RSE1 ( ! 9DIVIDUALS ( A ,G]MAN COMMUNITY BEGAN TO BE WID]1 & MORE G5]AL1 AS !IR DEAL+S 5L>G$1 & AS DISPUTES >OSE AMONG ! MEMB]S ( DIFF]5T HUNDR$S1 ! 9SUFFICI5CY ( !SE C\RTS = ! PRES]VATION ( ORD] WAS GRADUALLY P]CEIV$4 ,! %YRE MOTE1 !RE=E1 OR C\NTY C\RT1 WAS 9/ITUT$2 & IT =M$ ! *IEF S\RCE ( JU/ICE BO? 9 ,G]MANY & ,5GL&4  

 0,! P[]S1 ACCORD+LY1 :I* HAD BE5 5JOY$ BY ! C\RT ( ! HUNDR$1 W]E CONSID]ABLY IMPAIR$4 ,IT DECID$ NO LONG] CONCEEAMG CAPITAL (F5SES2 IT DECID$ NOT CONC]N+ MATT]S ( LIB]TY1 & ! PROP]TY ( E/ATES1 OR ( SLAVES2 ITS JUDGM5TS1 9 EV]Y CASE1 BECAME SUBJECT TO REVIEW2 & IT LO/ 5TIRELY ! DECISION ( CAUSES1 :5 IT DELAY$ TOO LONG TO CONSID] !M4  

 0,EV]Y SUBJECT ( CLAIM OR CONT5TION WAS BR\<T1 9 ! FIR/ 9/ANCE1 OR BY APPEAL1 TO ! C\NTY C\RT2 & ! E>L1 OR EORLDORMAN1 :O PRESID$ !RE1 WAS ACTIVE TO PUT ! LAWS 9 EXECUTION4 ,HE REPRESS$ ! DISORD]S :I* FELL \T )9 ! CIRCUIT ( HIS AU?ORITY2 & ! LEA/ REMISSION 9 HIS DUTY1 OR ! LEA/ FRAUD HE COMMITT$1 WAS COMPLA9$ ( & PUNI%$4 ,HE WAS ELECT$ FROM AMONG ! GREAT1 & WAS ABOVE W\LD ! TEMPTATION ( A BRIBE2 BUT1 TO 5C\RAGE HIS ACTIVITY1 HE WAS PRES5T$ ) A %>E ( ! T]RITORY HE GOV]N$1 OR WAS 5TITL$ TO A PROPORTION ( ! F9ES & PR(ITS ( JU/ICE4 ,EV]Y MAN1 9 HIS DI/RICT1 WAS B\ND TO 9=M HIM CONC]N+ CRIM9ALS1 & TO ASSI/ HIM TO BR+ !M TO TRIAL2 &1 AS9RUDE & VIOL5T TIMES ! POOR & HELPLESS W]E READY TO BE OPPRESS$ BY ! /RONG1 HE WAS 9/RUCT$ P>TICUL>LY TO DEF5D !M4  

 0,HIS C\RT WAS AMBULATORY1 & ASSEMBL$ ONLY TWICE A YE>1 UNLESS ! DI/RIBUTION ( JU/ICE RE$ ?AT ITS MEET+S %\LD BE (T5]4 ,EV]Y FREEHOLD] 9 ! C\NTY WAS OBLIG$ TO ATT5D IT2 & %\LD HE REFUSE ?IS S]VICE1 HIS POSSESSIONS W]E SEIZ$1 & HE WAS =C$ TO F9D SURETY = HIS APPE>ANCE4 ,! NEI<BOR+ E>LS HELD NOT !IR C\RTS ON ! SAME DAY2 &1 :AT SEEMS V]Y S+UL>1 NO JUDGE WAS ALL[$1 AFT] MEALS1 TO EX]CISE HIS (FICE4  

 0,! DRUIDS ALSO1 OR PRIE/S1 9 ,G]MANY1 AS WE HAD =M]LY OCCASION TO REM>K1 & ! CL]GY 9 ,5GL&1 EX]CIS$ A JURISDICTION 9 ! HUNDR$ & C\NTY C\RTS4 ,!Y 9/RUCT$ ! PEOPLE 9 RELIGI\S DUTIES1 & 9 MATT]S REG>D+ ! PRIE/HOOD2 & ! PR9CES1 E>LS1 OR EORLDORM51 RELAT$ TO !M ! LAWS & CU/OMS ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,!SE JUDGES W]E MUTUALLY A *ECK TO EA* O!R2 BUT IT WAS EXPECT$ ?AT !Y %\LD AGREE 9 !IR JUDGM5TS1 & %\LD WILL+LY UNITE !IR EF=TS = ! PUBLIC 9T]E/4 .<,IT W\LD BE :OLLY ]RONE\S1 ,I ?9K1 TO 9F] FROM ?IS /ATEM5T ( ,/U>T1 ?AT EI!R ! 0PRIE/S1 PR9CES1 E>LS1 OR EORLDORM50 EX]CIS$ ANY AU?ORITY OV] ! JURY 9 ! TRIAL ( CAUSES1 9 ! WAY ( DICTAT+ ! LAW TO !M4 ,H5RY'S ACC\NT ( ?IS MATT] D\BTLESS GIVES A MU* MORE ACCURATE REPRES5TATION ( ! TRU?4 ,HE SAYS ?AT ANCI5TLY  

 0,! MEET+ 7! C\NTY C\RT7 WAS OP5$ ) A DISC\RSE BY ! BI%OP1 EXPLA9+1 \T ( ! ,SCRIPTURES & ECCLESIA/ICAL CANONS1 !IR SEV]AL DUTIES AS GOOD ,*RI/IANS & MEMB]S ( ! *UR*4 ,AFT] ?IS1 ! ALD]MAN1 OR ONE ( HIS ASSESSORS MADE A DISC\RSE ON ! LAWS ( ! L&1 & ! DUTIES ( GOOD SUBJECTS & GOOD CITIZ5S4 ,:5 !SE PRELIM9>IES W]E OV]1 !Y PROCE$$ TO TRY & DET]M9E1 FIR/ ! CAUSES ( ! *UR*1 NEXT ! PLEAS ( ! CR[N1 & LA/ ( ALL ! CONTROV]SIES ( PRIVATE P>TIES40 --- #c ,H5RY'S ,HI/ORY ( ,GREAT ,BRITA91 #c#d#h4  

 ,?IS VIEW IS CORROBORAT$ BY ,TYRRELL'S ,9TRODUCTION TO ! ,HI/ORY ( ,5GL&1 P4 #h & BY ,SP5CE'S ,ORIG9 ( ! ,LAWS & ,POLITICAL ,9/ITUTIONS ( ,MOD]N ,EUROPE1 P4 #d#d#g1 & ! NOTE ON ! SAME PAGE4 ,ALSO BY A LAW ( ,CANUTE TO ?IS EFFECT1 ,9 EV]Y C\NTY LET !RE BE1 TWICE A YE> AN ASSEMBLY1 :]EAT ! BI%OP ! E>L %ALL BE PRES5T1 ! ONE TO 9/RUCT ! PEOPLE 9 DIV9E1 ! O!R 9 HUMAN1 LAWS4 --- ,WILK9S1 P4 #a#c#f4.>  

 0,BUT ! ONCE OR E>L P]=M$ NOT1 AT ALL TIMES1 9 P]SON1 ! OBLIGATIONS ( HIS (FICE4 ,! 5JOYM5T ( EASE & ( PLEASURE1 TO :I* 9 ,G]MANY HE HAD DELIV]$ HIMSELF OV]1 :5 DIS5GAG$ FROM W>1 & ! MEAN IDEA HE CONCEIV$ ( ! DRUDG]Y ( CIVIL AFFAIRS1 MADE HIM (T5 DELEGATE TO AN 9F]IOR P]SON ! DI/RIBUTION ( JU/ICE 9 HIS DI/RICT4 ,! SAME S5TIM5TS W]E EXP]I5C$ BY ! ,SAXON NOBILITY2 & ! S]VICE :I* !Y [$ BY !IR T5URES1 & ! HI< EMPLOYM5TS !Y SU/A9$1 CALL$ !M (T5 FROM ! MANAGEM5T ( !IR C\NTIES4 ,! PROGRESS1 TOO1 ( COMM]CE1 GIV+ AN 9TRICACY TO CASES1 & SWELL+ ! CIVIL CODE1 ADD$ TO ! DIFFICULTY ( !IR (FICE1 & MADE !M AV]SE TO ITS DUTIES4 ,%]IFFS1 !RE=E1 OR DEPUTIES1 W]E FREQU5TLY APPO9T$ TO TRANSACT !IR BUS9ESS2 & ?\< !SE W]E AT FIR/ UND] SOME SUBORD9ATION TO ! E>LS1 !Y GREW AT L5G? TO BE 5TIRELY 9DEP5D5T ( !M4 ,! CONNECTION ( JURISDICTION & T]RITORY CEAS+ TO PREVAIL1 & ! CIVIL BE+ SEP>AT$ FROM ! ECCLESIA/ICAL P[]1 !Y BECAME ! SOLE & PROP] (FIC]S = ! DIRECTION ( JU/ICE 9 ! C\NTIES4  

 0,! HUNDR$1 H[EV]1 & C\NTY C\RTS1 W]E NOT EQUAL ( !MSELVES = ! PURPOSES ( JURISDICTION & ORD]4 ,IT WAS NECESS>Y ?AT A C\RT %\LD BE ]ECT$1 ( SUPREME AU?ORITY1 :]E ! DISPUTES ( ! GREAT %\LD BE DECID$1 :]E ! DISAGREE+ S5TIM5TS ( JUDGES %\LD BE RECONCIL$1 & :]E PROTECTION %\LD BE GIV5 TO ! PEOPLE AGA9/ !IR FRAUD & 9JU/ICE4  

 0,! PR9CES ACCORD+LY1 OR *IEF NOBILITY1 9 ! ,G]MAN COMMUNITIES1 ASSEMBL$ TOGE!R TO JUDGE ( SU* MATT]S4 ,! ,SAXON NOBLES CONT9U$ ?IS PR]OGATIVE2 & ! K+1 OR1 9 HIS ABS5CE1 ! *IEF JU/ICI>Y1 WAT*$ OV] !IR DELIB]ATIONS4 ,BUT IT WAS NOT ON EV]Y TRIVIAL OCCASION ?AT ?IS C\RT 9T]E/$ ITSELF4 ,9 SMALL] CONC]NS1 JU/ICE WAS REFUS$ DUR+ ?REE SESSIONS ( ! HUNDR$1 & CLAIM$ )\T EFFECT1 AT F\R C\RTS ( ! C\NTY1 BE=E !RE C\LD LIE AN APPEAL TO IT4  

 0,SO GRADUALLY W]E !SE >RANGEM5TS E/ABLI%$1 & SO NATURALLY DID ! V>Y+ CIRCUM/ANCES 9 ! SITUATION ( ! ,G]MANS & ,ANGLO-,SAXONS DIRECT ?OSE SUCCESSIVE IMPROVEM5TS :I* ! PRES]VATION ( ORD]1 & ! ADVANTAGE ( SOCIETY1 CALL$ !M TO ADOPT4 ,! ADMISSION ( ! PEOPLE ,9TO ! C\RTS ( JU/ICE PRES]V$1 AMONG ! =M]1 ?AT EQUALITY ( RANKS = :I* !Y W]E REM>KABLE2 & IT HELP$ TO OV]TURN1 AMONG ! LATT]1 ?OSE 5VI\S DI/9CTIONS :I* ! FEUDAL SY/EM T5D$ TO 9TRODUCE1 & PREV5T$ ?AT V5ALITY 9 JUDGES1 & ?OSE >BITR>Y PROCE$+S1 :I* ! GR[+ ATTA*M5T TO 9T]E/1 & ! 9FLU5CE ( ! CR[N1 MI<T O!RWISE HAVE OCCASION$40 --- ,/U>T ON ! ,CON/ITUTION ( ,5GL&1 P4 #bbb TO #b#d#e4  

 0,9 ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON P]IOD1 ACCORD+LY1 TWELVE ONLY W]E ELECT$2 & !SE1 TOGE!R VOICE ( REASON1 OR CONSCI5CE1 ALL CAUSES W]E SUBMITT$ TO !M40 ,DITTO1 P4 #b#f4  

 ,BE=E ! ORD]S ( M5 W]E V]Y NICELY DI/+UI%$1 ! JURORS W]E ELECT$ FROM ! SAME RANK4 ,:51 H[EV]1 A REGUL> SUBORD9ATION ( ORD]S WAS E/ABLI%$1 & :5 A KN[L$GE ( PROP]TY HAD 9SPIR$ ! NECESSIT\S ) 5VY1 & ! RI* ) CONTEMPT1 EV]Y MAN WAS TRI$ BY HIS EQUALS4 ,! SAME SPIRIT ( LIB]TY :I* GAVE RISE TO ?IS REGULATION ATT5D$ ITS PROGRESS4 ,NOR C\LD MON>*S ASSUME A MORE >BITR>Y ME?OD ( PROCE$+4 ',I WILL NOT' 7SAID ! ,E>L ( ,CORNWALL TO HIS SOV]EIGN7 'R5D] UP MY CA/LES1 NOR DEP>T ! K+DOM1 BUT BY JUDGM5T ( MY PE]S4' ,( ?IS 9/ITUTION1 SO WISELY CALCULAT$ = ! PRES]VATION ( LIB]TY1 ALL \R HI/ORIANS HAVE PRON\NC$ ! EULOGIUM40 --- ,DITTO1 P4#b#f#b-#c4  

 ,BLACK/ONE SAYS3  

 0,! POLICY ( \R ANCI5T CON/ITUTION1 AS REGULAT$ & E/ABLI%$ BY ! GREAT ,ALFR$1 WAS TO BR+ JU/ICE HOME TO EV]Y MAN'S DOOR1 BY CON/ITUT+ AS MANY C\RTS ( JUDICATURE AS !SE >E MANORS & T[NS 9 ! K+DOM2 :]E9 9JURIES W]E R$RESS$ 9 AN EASY & EXP$ITI\S MANN]1 BY ! SUFFRAGE ( NEI<BORS & FRI5DS4 ,!SE LITTLE C\RTS1 H[EV]1 COMMUNICAT$ ) O!RS ( A L>G] JURISDICTION1 & ?OSE ) O!RS ( A /ILL GREAT] P[]2 ASC5D+ GRADUALLY FROM ! L[E/ TO ! SUPREME C\RTS1 :I* W]E RESPECTIVELY CON/ITUT$ TO CORRECT ! ]RORS ( ! 9F]IOR ONES1 & TO DET]M9E SU* CAUSES AS1 BY REASON ( !IR WEI<T & DIFFICULTY1 DEM&$ A MORE SOLEMN DISCUSSION4 ,! C\RSE ( JU/ICE FL[+ 9 L>GE /REAMS FROM ! K+1 AS ! F\NTA91 TO HIS SUP]IOR C\RTS ( RECORD2 & BE+ !N SUBDIVID$ 9TO SMALL] *ANNELS1 TILL ! :OLE & EV]Y P>T ( ! K+DOM W]E PL5TY WAT]$ & REFRE%$4 ,AN 9/ITUTION ?AT SEEMS HI<LY AGREEABLE TO ! DICTATES ( NATURAL REASON1 AS WELL AS ( MORE 5LI<T5$ POLICY4 "9 "9 "9  

 0,!SE 9F]IOR C\RTS1 AT LEA/ ! NAME & =M ( !M1 /ILL CONT9UE 9 \R LEGAL CON/ITUTION2 BUT AS ! SUP]IOR C\RTS ( RECORD HAVE1 9 PRACTICE1 OBTA9$ A CONCURR5T ORIG9AL JURISDICTION1 & AS !RE IS1 BESIDES1 A P[] ( REMOV+ PLA9TS OR ACTIONS ?I!R FROM ALL ! 9F]IOR JURISDICTIONS2 UPON !SE ACC\NTS 7AMONG O!RS7 IT HAS HAPP5$ ?AT !SE PETTY TRIBUNALS HAVE FALL5 9TO DECAY1 & ALMO/ 9TO OBLIVION2 :E!R = ! BETT] OR ! WORSE MAY BE MATT] ( SOME SPECULATION1 :5 WE CONSID]1 ON ! ONE H&1 ! 9CREASE ( EXP5SE & DELAY1 &1 ON ! O!R1 ! MORE ABLE & IMP>TIAL DECISIONS ?AT FOLL[ FROM ?IS *ANGE ( JURISDICTION4  

 0,! ORD] ,I %ALL OBS]VE 9 DISC\RS+ ON !SE SEV]AL C\RTS1 CON/ITUT$ = ! R$RESS ( CIVIL 9JURIES1 7= ) ?OSE ( A JURISDICTION M]ELY CRIM9AL ,I %ALL NOT AT PRES5T CONC]N MYSELF17 .<,!RE WAS NO DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! CIVIL & CRIM9AL C\RTS1 AS TO ! RI<TS OR P[]S ( JURIES4.> WILL BE BY BEG9N+ ) ! L[E/1 & ?OSE :OSE JURISDICTION1 ?\< PUBLIC & G5]ALLY DISP]S$ ?R\< ! K+DOM1 IS YET 7) REG>D TO EA* P>TICUL> C\RT7 CONF9$ TO V]Y N>R[ LIMITS2 & SO ASC5D+ GRADUALLY TO ?OSE ( ! MO/ EXT5SIVE & TRANSC5D5T P[]40 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c TO #c#b4  

 0,! C\RT-B>ON IS A C\RT 9CID5T TO EV]Y MANOR 9 ! K+DOM1 TO BE HOLD5 BY ! /EW>D )9 ! SAID MANOR4 ,?IS C\RT-B>ON IS ( TWO NATURES2 ! ONE IS A CU/OM>Y C\RT1 ( :I* WE =M]LY SPOKE1 APP]TA9+ 5TIRELY TO ! COPY-HOLD]S1 9 :I* !IR E/ATES >E TRANSF]R$ BY SURR5D] & ADMITTANCE1 & O!R MATT]S TRANSACT$ RELATIVE TO !IR T5URES ONLY4 ,! O!R1 ( :I* WE N[ SPEAK1 IS A C\RT ( COMMON LAW1 & IT IS A C\RT ( ! B>ONS1 BY :I* NAME ! FREEHOLD]S W]E SOMETIMES ANCI5TLY CALL$2 = ?AT IT IS HELD BY ! FREEHOLD]S :O [E SUIT & S]VICE TO ! MANOR1 ! /EW>D BE+ RA!R ! REGI/R> ?AN ! JUDGE4 ,!SE C\RTS1 ?\< 9 !IR NATURE DI/9CT1 >E FREQU5TLY CONF\ND$ TOGE!R4 ,! C\RT WE >E N[ CONSID]+1 VIZ41 ! FREEHOLD]S C\RT1 WAS COMPOS$ ( ! LORD'S T5ANTS1 :O W]E ! P>ES 7EQUALS7 ( EA* O!R1 & W]E B\ND BY !IR FEUDAL T5URE TO ASSI/ !IR LORD 9 ! DISP5SATION ( DOME/IC JU/ICE4 ,?IS WAS =M]LY HELD EV]Y ?REE WEEKS2 & ITS MO/ IMPORTANT BUS9ESS IS TO DET]M9E1 BY WRIT ( RI<T1 ALL CONTROV]SIES RELAT+ TO ! RI<T ( L&S )9 ! MANOR4 ,IT MAY ALSO HOLD PLEA ( ANY P]SONAL ACTIONS1 ( DEBT1 TRESPASS 9 ! CASE1 OR ! LIKE1 :]E ! DEBT OR DAMAGES DO NOT AM\NT TO =TY %ILL+S2 :I* IS ! SAME SUM1 OR ?REE M>KS1 ?AT B\ND$ ! JURISDICTION ( ! ANCI5T ,GO?IC C\RTS 9 !IR L[E/ 9/ANCE1 OR FI]D+ C\RTS1 SO CALL$ BECAUSE F\R W]E 9/ITUT$ )9 EV]Y SUP]IOR DI/RICT OR HUNDR$40 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#c1 #c#a4  

 0,A HUNDR$ C>T IS ONLY A L>G] C\RT-B>ON1 BE+ HELD = ALL ! 9HABITANTS ( A P>TICUL> HUNDR$1 9/EAD ( A MANOR4 ,! FREE SUITORS >E H]E ALSO ! JUDGES1 & ! /EW>D ! REGI/R>1 AS 9 ! CASE ( A C\RT-B>ON4 ,IT IS LIKEWISE NO C\RT ( RECORD1 RESEMBL+ ! =M] AT ALL PO9TS1 EXCEPT ?AT 9 PO9T ( T]RITORY IT IS ( GREAT] JURISDICTION4 ,?IS IS SAID BY ,SIR ,$W>D ,COKE TO HAVE BE5 D]IV$ \T ( ! C\NTY C\RT = ! EASE ( ! PEOPLE1 ?AT !Y MI<T HAVE JU/ICE DONE TO !M AT !IR [N DOORS1 )\T ANY *>GE OR LOSS ( TIME2 BUT ITS 9/ITUTION WAS PROBABLY COEVAL ) ?AT ( HUNDR$S !MSELVES1 :I* W]E =M]LY OBS]V$ TO HAVE BE5 9TRODUC$1 ?\< NOT 9V5T$1 BY ,ALFR$ BE+ D]IV$ FROM ! POLITY ( ! ANCI5T ,G]MANS4 ,! C5T5I1 WE MAY REMEMB]1 W]E ! PR9CIPAL 9HABITANTS ( A DI/RICT COMPOS$ ( DIFF]5T VILLAGES1 ORIG9ALLY 9 NUMB] A HUNDR$1 BUT AFT]W>DS ONLY CALL$ BY ?AT NAME1 & :O PROBABLY GAVE ! SAME D5OM9ATION TO ! DI/RICT \T ( :I* !Y W]E *OS54 ,CES> SPEAKS POSITIVELY ( ! JUDICIAL P[] EX]CIS$ 9 !IR HUNDR$ C\RTS & C\RT-B>ON4 ',PR9CEPS REGIORUM ATQUE PAGORUM' 7:I* WE MAY FAIRLY CON/RUE ! LORDS ( HUNDR$S & MANORS7 '9T] SUOS JUS DICUNT1 CONTROV]SIAS QUE M9UUNT' 7,! *IEFS ( ! C\NTRY & ! VILLAGES DECL>E ! LAW AMONG !M1 & ABATE CONTROV]SIES47 ,& ,TACITUS1 :O HAD EXAM9$ !IR CON/ITUTION /ILL MORE ATT5TIVELY1 9=MS US NOT ONLY ( ! AU?ORITY ( ! LORDS1 BUT ?AT ( ! C5T5I1 ! HUNDR$]S1 OR JURY1 :O W]E TAK5 \T ( ! FREEHOLD]S1 & HAD !MSELVES A %>E 9 ! DET]M9ATION4 ',ELIGUNTUR 9 CONCILIIS ET PR9CEPS1 QUI JURA P] PAGOS VICOSQUE R$DUNT1 C5T5I S+ULIS1 EX PLEBE COMITES CONCILIUM SIMUL ET AUCTORITAS ADSUNT4' 7,! PR9CES >E *OS5 9 ! ASSEMBLIES1 :O ADM9I/] ! LAWS ?R\<\T ! T[NS & VILLAGES1 & ) EA* ONE >E ACT$ AN HUNDR$ COMPANIONS1 TAK5 FROM ! PEOPLE1 = PURPOSES BO? ( C\NSEL & AU?ORITY47 ,?IS HUNDR$ C\RT WAS D5OM9AT$ HA]$A 9 ! ,GO?IC CON/ITUTION4 ,BUT ?IS C\RT1 AS CAUSES >E EQUALLY LIABLE TO REMOVAL FROM H5CE AS FROM ! COMMON C\RT-B>ON1 & BY ! SAME WRITS1 & MAY ALSO BE REVIEW$ BY WRIT ( FALSE JUDGM5T1 IS !RE=E FALL5 9TO EQUAL DISUSE ) REG>D TO ! TRIAL ( ACTIONS40 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#d1 #c#e4  

 0,! C\NTY C\RT IS A C\RT 9CID5T TO ! JURISDICTION ( ! %]IFF4 ,IT IS NOT A C\RT ( RECORD1 BUT MAY HOLD PLEAS ( DEBT1 OR DAMAGES1 UND] ! VALUE ( =TY %ILL+S2 OV] SOME ( :I* CAUSES !SE 9F]IOR C\RTS HAVE1 BY ! EXPRESS WORDS ( ! /ATUTE ( ,GL\CE/]1 7#f ,$W>D ,I41 *4 #h17 A JURISDICTION TOTALLY EXCLUSIVE ( ! K+'S SUP]IOR C\RTS4 "9 "9 ,! C\NTY C\RT MAY ALSO HOLD PLEA ( MANY REAL ACTIONS1 & ( ALL P]SONAL ACTIONS TO ANY AM\NT1 BY VIRTUE ( A SPECIAL WRIT1 CALL$ A JU/ICIES1 :I* IS A WRIT EMP[]+ ! %]IFF1 = ! SAKE ( DISPAT*1 TO DO ! SAME JU/ICE 9 HIS C\NTY C\RT AS MI<T O!RWISE BE HAD AT ,WE/M9/]4 ,! FREEHOLD]S ( ! C\NTRY C\RT >E ! REAL JUDGES 9 ?IS C\RT1 & ! %]IFF IS ! M9I/]IAL (FIC]4 "9 "9 "9 ,9 MOD]N TIMES1 AS PROCE$+S >E REMOVABLE FROM H5CE 9TO ! K+'S SUP]IOR C\RTS1 BY WRIT ( PONE OR RECORD>I1 9 ! SAME MANN] AS FROM HUNDR$ C\RTS & C\RTS-B>ON1 & AS ! SAME WRIT ( FALSE JUDGM5T MAY BE HAD 9 NATURE ( A WRIT ( ]ROR1 ?IS HAS OCCASION$ ! SAME DISUSE ( BR++ ACTIONS !RE940 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#f1 #c#g4  

 0,UPON ! :OLE1 WE CANNOT BUT ADMIRE ! WISE ECONOMY & ADMIRABLE PROVISION ( \R ANCE/ORS 9 SETTL+ ! DI/RIBUTION ( JU/ICE 9 A ME?OD SO WELL CALCULAT$ = *EAPNESS1 EXP$ITION1 & EASE4 ,BY ! CON/ITUTION :I* !Y E/ABLI%$1 ALL TRIVIAL DEBTS1 & 9JURIES ( SMALL CONSEQU5CE1 W]E TO BE RECOV]$ OR R$RESS$ 9 #aEV]Y MAN'S [N C\NTY1 HUNDR$1 OR P]HAPS P>I%4 --- #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #e#i4  

 #e#c4  #a ,BLACK/ONE1 #f#c-#f#g4  

 #e#d4  ,?IS QUA9T & CURI\S BOOK 7,SMI?'S ,COMMONWEAL? ( ,5GL&7 DESCRIBES ! M9UTIAE ( TRIALS1 GIV+ 9 DETAIL ! MODE ( IMPANELI+ ! JURY1 & !N ! CONDUCT ( ! LAWY]S1 WITNESSES1 & C\RT4 ,I GIVE ! FOLL[+ EXTRACTS1 T5D+ TO %[1 ?AT ! JUDGES IMPOSE NO LAW UPON ! JURIES1 9 EI!R CIVIL OR CRIM9AL CASES1 BUT ONLY REQUIRE !M TO DET]M9E ! CAUSES ACCORD+ TO !IR CONSCI5CES4  

 ,9 CIVIL CAUSES HE SAYS3  

 0,:5 IT IS ?\<T ?AT IT IS 5\< PLEAD$ BE=E !M1 & ! WITNESSES HAVE SAID :AT !Y CAN1 ONE ( ! JUDGES1 ) A BRIEF & PI?Y RECAPITULATION1 RECITE? TO ! TWELVE 9 SUM ! >GUM5TS ( ! S]GEANTS ( EI!R SIDE1 ?AT :I* ! WITNESSES HAVE DECL>$1 & ! *IEF PO9TS ( ! EVID5CE %[$ 9 WRIT+1 & ONCE AGA9 PUTTE? !M 9 M9D ( ! ISSUE1 & SOMETIME GIVE? IT !M 9 WRIT+1 DELIV]+ TO !M ! EVID5CE :I* IS %[$ ON EI!R P>T1 IF ANY BE1 7EVID5CE H]E IS CALL$ WRIT+S ( CONTRACTS1 AU!NTICAL AFT] ! MANN] ( ,5GL&1 ?AT IS TO SAY1 WRITT51 SEAL$1 & DELIV]$17 & BIDDE? !M GO TOGE!R40 --- P4 #g#d4  

 ,?IS IS ! :OLE ACC\NT GIV5 ( ! *>GE TO ! JURY4  

 ,9 CRIM9AL CASES1 AFT] ! WITNESSES HAVE BE5 HE>D1 & ! PRISON] HAS SAID :AT HE PLEASES 9 HIS DEF5SE1 ! BOOK PROCE$S3  

 0,:5 ! JUDGE HA? HE>D !M SAY 5\<1 HE ASKE? IF !Y CAN SAY ANY MORE3 ,IF !Y SAY NO1 !N HE TURNE? HIS-TO ! 9QUE/ ',GOOD M51 7SAI? HE17 YE ( ! 9QUE/1 YE HAVE HE>D :AT !SE M5 SAY AGA9/ ! PRISON]4 ,Y\ HAVE ALSO HE>D :AT ! ,PRISON] CAN SAY = HIMSELF4 ,HAVE AN EYE TO Y\R OA?1 & TO Y\R DUTY1 & DO ?AT :I* %ALL ,GOD PUT 9 Y\R M9DS TO ! DIS*>GE ( Y\R CONSCI5CES1 & M>K WELL :AT IS SAID4'0 ---P4 #i#b4  

 ,?IS IS ! :OLE ACC\NT GIV5 ( ! *>GE 9 A CRIM9AL CASE4  

 ,! FOLL[+ /ATEM5T GOES TO CONFIRM ! SAME IDEA1 ?AT JURORS 9 ,5GL& HAVE =M]LY UND]/OOD IT TO BE !IR RI<T & DUTY TO JUDGE ONLY ACCORD+ TO !IR CONSCI5CES1 & NOT TO SUBMIT TO ANY DICTATION FROM ! C\RT1 EI!R AS TO LAW OR FACT  

 0,IF HAV+ PREGNANT EVID5CE1 NEV]!LESS1 ! TWELVE DO ACQUIT ! MALEFACTOR1 :I* !Y WILL DO SOMETIME1 ESPECIALLY IF !Y P]CEIVE EI!R ONE ( ! JU/ICES OR ( ! JUDGES1 OR SOME O!R MAN1 TO PURSUE TOO MU* & TOO MALICI\SLY ! DEA? ( ! PRISON]1 "9 "9 ! PRISON] ESCAPE?2 BUT ! TWELVE 7>E7 NOT ONLY REBUK$ BY ! JUDGES1 BUT ALSO ?REAT5$ ( PUNI%M5T2 & MANY TIMES COMM&$ TO APPE> 9 ! ,/>-,*AMB]1 OR BE=E ! ,PRIVY ,C\NCIL = ! MATT]4 ,BUT ?IS ?REAT5+ *ANCE? (T5] ?AN ! EXECUTION !RE(2 & ! TWELVE ANSW] ) MO/ G5TLE WORDS1 !Y DID IT ACCORD+ TO !IR CONSCI5CES1 & PRAY ! JUDGES TO BE GOOD UNTO !M1 !Y DID AS !Y ?\<T RI<T1 & AS !Y ACCORD$ ALL1 & SO IT PASSE? AWAY = ! MO/ P>T40 --- P4 L4  

 ,! ACC\NT GIV5 ( ! TRIAL ( PE] ( ! REALM CORROBORATES ! SAME PO9T3  

 0,IF ANY DUKE1 M>QUIS1 OR ANY O!R ( ! DEGREES ( A B>ON1 OR ABOVE1 LORD ( ! ,P>LIAM5T1 BE APPEA*$ ( TREASON1 OR ANY O!R CAPITAL CRIME1 HE IS JUDG$ BY HIS ,PE]S & EQUALS2 ?AT IS1 ! YEOMANRY DO? NOT GO UPON HIM1 BUT AN 9QUE/ ( ! LORDS ( ,P>LIAM5T1 & !Y GIVE !IR VOICE NOT ONE = ALL1 BUT EA* SEV]ALLY AS !Y DO 9 ,P>LIAM5T1 BE+ 7BEG9N+7 AT ! Y\NGE/ LORD4 ,& = JUDGE ONE LORD SITTE?1 :O IS CON/ABLE ( ,5GL& = ?AT DAY4 ,! JUDGM5T ONCE GIV51 HE BREAKE? HIS /AFF1 & ABDICATE? HIS (FICE4 ,9 ! RE/ !RE IS NO DIFF]5CE FROM ?AT ABOVE WRITT510 7?AT IS1 9 ! CASE ( A FREEMAN4 --- P4 #i#h4  

 #e#e4  ,! PRES5T =M ( ! JURORS' OA? IS ?AT !Y %ALL 'GIVE A TRUE V]DICT ACCORD+ TO ! EVID5CE40 ,AT :AT TIME ?IS =M WAS 9TRODUC$ IS UNC]TA92 BUT = SEV]AL C5TURIES AFT] ! ,CONQUE/1 ! JURORS1 BO? 9 CIVIL & CRIM9AL CASE1 W]E SWORN M]ELY TO SPEAK ! TRU? 7,GLANVILLE1 LIB4 #b1 CAP4 #a#g2 ,BRACTON1 LIB4 #c1 CAP4 #b#b2 LIB4#d1 P4 #b#h#g1 #b#i#a2 ,BRITTON1 P4 #a#c#e47 ,H5CE !IR DECISION WAS ! ACCURATELY T]M$ V]$ICTUM1 OR V]DICT1 ?AT IS 'A ?+ TRULY SAID'2 :]E ! PHRASE 'TRUE V]DICT' 9 ! MOD]N OA? IS NOT AN ACCURATE EXPRESSION4 ---,POLITICAL ,DICTION>Y1 WORD ,JURY4  

 #e#f4  ,( C\RSE1 !RE CAN BE NO LEGAL TRIAL BY JURY1 9 EI!R CIVIL OR CRIM9AL CASES1 :]E ! >E SWORN TO TRY ! CASES 0ACCORD+ TO LAW40  

 #e#g4  ,COKE1 AS LATE AS #a#e#h#h1 ADMITS ?AT AM]CEM5TS MU/ BE FIX$ BY ! PE]S 7#h ,COKE'S ,REP4 #c#h1 #b ,9/4 #b#g72 BUT HE ATTEMPTS1 :OLLY )\T SUCCESS1 AS IT SEEMS TO ME1 TO %[ A DIFF]5CE BETWE5 F9ES & AM]CEM5TS4 ,! /ATUTES >E V]Y NUM]\S1 RUNN+ ?R\< ! ?REE OR F\R HUNDR$ YE>S IMM$IATELY SUCCE$+ ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 9 :I* F9ES1 RANSOMS1 & AM]CEM5TS >E SPOK5 ( AS IF !Y W]E ! COMMON PUNI%M5TS ( (F5SES1 & AS IF !Y ALL MEANT ! SAME ?+4 ,IF H[EV]1 ANY TE*NICAL DIFF]5CE C\LD BE MADE \T BETWE5 !M1 !RE IS CLE>LY NONE 9 PR9CIPLE2 & ! WORD AM]CEM5T1 AS US$ 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 MU/ BE TAK5 9 ITS MO/ COMPREH5SIVE S5SE4  

 #e#h4  0,COMMON RI<T0 WAS ! COMMON LAW4 #a ,COKE'S ,9/4 #adb A4 #b DO4 #e#e1 #f4  

 #e#i4  ,! OA? ( ! JU/ICES IS 9 !SE WORDS3  

 0,YE %ALL SWE>1 ?AT WELL & LAWFULLY YE %ALL S]VE \R LORD ! K+ & HIS PEOPLE1 9 ! (FICE ( JU/ICE1 & ?AT LAWFULLY YE %ALL C\NSEL ! K+ 9 HIS BUS9ESS1 & ?AT YE %ALL NOT C\NSEL NOR ASS5T TO ANY?+ :I* MAY TURN HIM 9 DAMAGE OR DI%]ISON 9 ANY MANN]1 WAY1 OR COLOR4 ,& ?AT YE %ALL NOT KN[ ! DAMAGE OR DI%]ISON ( HIM1 :]E( YE %ALL NOT CAUSE HIM TO BE W>N$ BY Y\RSELF1 OR BY O!R2 & ?AT YE %ALL DO EQUAL LAW & EXECUTION ( RI<T TO ALL HIS SUBJECTS1 RI* & POOR1 )\T HAV+ REG>D TO ANY P]SON4 ,& ?AT YE TAKE NOT BY Y\RSELF1 OR BY O!R1 PRIVILY NOR AP]TLY1 GIFT NOR REW>D ( GOLD NOR SILV]1 NOR ( ANY O!R ?+ ?AT MAY TURN TO Y\R PR(IT1 UNLESS IT BE MEAT OR DR9K1 & ?AT ( SMALL VALUE1 ( ANY MAN ?AT %ALL HAVE ANY PLEA OR PROCESS HANG+ BE=E Y\1 AS LONG AS ! SAME PROCESS %ALL BE SO HANG+1 NOR AFT] = ! SAME CAUSE4 ,& ?AT YE TAKE NO FEE1 AS LONG AS YE %ALL BE JU/ICE1 NOR ROBE ( ANY MAN GREAT OR SMALL1 BUT ( ! K+ HIMSELF4 ,& ?AT YE GIVE NONE ADVICE OR C\NSEL TO NO MAN GREAT OR SMALL1 9 NO CASE :]E ! K+ IS P>TY4 ,& 9 CASE ?AT ANY1 ( :AT E/ATE OR CONDITION !Y BE1 COME BE=E Y\ 9 Y\R SESSIONS ) =CE & >MS1 OR O!RWISE AGA9/ ! PEACE1 OR AGA9/ ! =M ( ! /ATUTE !RE( MADE1 TO DI/URB EXECUTION ( ! COMMON LAW10 7M>K ! T]M1 0COMMON LAW107 0OR TO M5ACE ! PEOPLE ?AT !Y MAY NOT PURSUE ! LAW1 ?AT YE %ALL CAUSE !IR BODIES TO BE >RE/$ & PUT 9 PRISON2 & 9 CASE !Y BE SU* ?AT YE CANNOT >RE/ !M1 ?AT YE C]TIFY ! K+ ( !IR NAMES1 & ( !IR MISPRISION1 HA/ILY1 SO ?AT HE MAY !RE( ORDA9 A CONV5ABLE REM$Y4 ,& ?AT YE BY Y\RSELF1 NOR BY O!R1 PRIVILY NOR AP]TLY1 MA9TA9 ANY PLEA OR QU>REL HANG+ 9 ! K+'S C\RT1 OR ELSE:]E 9 ! C\NTRY4 ,& ?AT YE D5Y NO MAN COMMON RI<T BY ! K+'S LETT]S1 NOR NONE O!R MAN'S1 NOR = NONE O!R CAUSE2 & 9 CASE ANY LETT]S COME TO Y\ CONTR>Y TO ! LAW10 7?AT IS1 0! COMMON LAW0 BE=E M5TION$17 ?AT YE DO NO?+ BY SU* LETT]S1 BUT C]TIFY ! K+ !RE(1 & PROCE$ TO EXECUTE ! LAW1 7! 0COMMON LAW0 BE=E M5TION$17 0NOT)/&+ ! SAME LETT]S4 ,& ?AT YE %ALL DO & PROCURE ! PR(IT ( ! K+ & ( HIS CR[N1 ) ALL ?+S :]E YE MAY REASONABLY DO ! SAME4 ,& 9 CASE YE BE FROM H5CE=? F\ND 9 DEFAULT 9 ANY ( ! PO9TS A=ESAID1 YE %ALL BE AT ! K+'S WILL ( BODY1 L&S1 & GOODS1 !RE( TO BE DONE AS %ALL PLEASE HIM1 AS ,GOD Y\ HELP & ALL SA9TS4 --- #ah ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 /4 #d 7#a#c#d#d47  

 #f4 ,?AT ! T]MS 0,LAW0 & 0,RI<T10 AS US$ 9 ?IS /ATUTE1 MEAN ! COMMON LAW1 IS %[N BY ! PREAMBLE1 :I* DECL>ES ! MOTIVE ( ! /ATUTE TO BE ?AT 0! ,LAW ( ! ,L&1 7! COMMON LAW17 :I* WE 7! K+7 BY \R OA? >E B\ND TO MA9TA910 MAY BE ! BETT] KEPT1 @&C4  

 #f#a4 ,! FOLL[+ IS A COPY ( ! ORIG9AL3  

 ,=MA ,JURAM5TI ,REGIS ,ANGLIAE 9 ,CORONACIONE SUA3  

 7,AL*IEPISCOPUS ,CANTU>IAE1 AD QUO DE JURE ET CONSUETUD9E ,ECCLESIAE ,CANTU>IAE1 ANTIQUA ET APPROBATA1 P]T9ET ,REGES ,AGLIAE 9UNG]E ET CORON>E1 DIE CORONACIONIS ,REGIS1 ANTEQUE ,REX CORONETUR1 FACIET ,REGI LNT]ROGATIONES SUBSCRIPTAS47  

 ,SI LEGES ET CONSUETUD9ES AB ANTIQUIS JU/IS ET ,DEO DEVOTIS ,REGIBUS PLEBI ,AGLICANO CONCESSAS1 CUM SACRAM5TI CONFIRMACIONE EIDEM PLEBI CONC$]E ET S]V>E 7VOLU]IS37 ,ET PRAES]TIM LEGES ET CONSUETUD9ES ET LIB]TATES A GLORIOSO ,REGE ,$W>DO CL]O POPULOQUE CONCESSAS8  

 7,ET RESPONDEAT ,REX17 ,CONC$O ET S]V>E VOLO1 ET SACRAM5TO CONFIRM>E4  

 ,S]VABIS ,ECCLESIAE ,DEI1 ,CL]OQUE1 ET ,POPULO1 PACEM EX 9TEGRO ET CONCORDIAM 9 ,DEO SECUNDUM VI]S TUAS8  

 7,ET RESPONDEAT ,REX17 ,S]VABO4  

 ,FACIES FI]I 9 OMNIBUS ,JUDICIIS TUIS EQUAM ET RECTAM JU/ICIAM1 ET DISCRECIONEM1 9 MIS]ICORDIA ET V]ITATE1 SECUNDUM VI]S TUAS8  

 7,ET RESPONDEAT ,REX17 ,FACIAM4  

 ,CONC$IS JU/AS1 LEGES ET CONSUETUD9ES ESSE T55DAS1 ET PROMITTIS P] TE EAS ESSE PROTEG5DAS1 ET AD HONOREM ,DEI CORROBOR&AS1 QUAS LGUS ELEGIT1 SECUNDUM VI]S TUAS8  

 7,ET RESPONDEAT ,REX17 ,CONC$O ET PROMITTO40  

 #f#b4 ,IT W\LD APPE>1 FROM ! TEXT1 ?AT ! ,*>T] ( ,LIB]TIES & ! ,*>T] ( ! ,=E/ W]E SOMETIMES CALL$ 0LAWS ( ! L&40  

 #f#c4  ,AS ! ANCI5T CORONATION OA?1 GIV5 9 ! TEXT1 HAS COME D[N FROM ! ,BON TIMES1 ! FOLL[+ REM>KS ( ,PALGRAVE WILL BE P]T95T1 9 CONNECTION ) ! OA?1 AS ILLU/RAT+ ! FACT ?AT1 9 ?OSE TIMES1 NO SPEA,I AU?ORITY ATTA*$ TO ! LAWS ( ! K+3  

 0,! ,IMP]IAL ,WIT5AGEMOT WAS NOT A LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY1 9 ! /RICT S5SE ( ! T]M1 = ! :OLE ,ANGLO-,SAXON EMPIRE4 ,PROMULGAT+ HIS $ICTS AMID HIS PE]S & PRELATES1 ! K+ USES ! LANGUAGE ( COMM&2 BUT ! !ORETICAL PR]OGATIVE WAS MODIFI$ BY USAGE1 & ! PRACTICE ( ! CON/ITUTION REQUIR$ ?AT ! LAW %\LD BE ACCEPT$ BY ! LEGISLATURES 7C\RTS7 ( ! SEV]AL K+DOMS4 "9 "9 ,! ',BASILEUS' SPEAKS 9 ! TONE ( PR]OGATIVE3 ,$G> DOES NOT M]ELY RECOMM5D1 HE COMM&S ?AT ! LAW %ALL BE ADOPT$ BY ALL ! PEOPLE1 :E!R ,5GLI%1 ,DANES1 OR ,BRITONS1 9 EV]Y P>T ( HIS EMPIRE4 LET ?IS /ATUTE BE OBS]V$1 HE CONT9UES1 BY ,E>L ,OSLAC1 & ALL ! HO/ :O DWELL UND] HIS GOV]NM5T1 & LET IT BE TRANSMITT$ BY WRIT TO ! EALDORM5 ( ! O!R SUBORD9ATE /ATES4 ,& YET1 9 DEFIANCE ( ?IS POSITIVE 9JUNCTION1 ! LAWS ( ,$G> W]E NOT ACCEPT$ 9 ,M]CIA UNTIL ! REIGN ( ,CANUTE ! ,DANE4 ,IT MI<T BE SAID ?AT ! C\RSE SO ADOPT$ MAY HAVE BE5 AN EXCEPTION TO ! G5]AL RULE1 BUT 9 ! SCANTY & IMP]FECT ANNALS ( ,ANGLO-,SAXON LEGISLATION1 WE %ALL BE ABLE TO F9D SO MANY EXAMPLES ( SIMIL> PROCE$+S1 ?AT ?IS MODE ( 5ACTM5T MU/ BE CONSID]$ AS DICTAT$ BY ! CON/ITUTION ( ! EMPIRE4 ,$W>D WAS ! SUPREME LORD ( ! ,NOR?UMBRIANS1 BUT MORE ?AN A C5TURY ELAPS$ BE=E !Y OBEY$ HIS DECREES4 ,! LAWS ( ! GLORI\S ,A!L/ANE HAD NO EFFECT 9 ,K5T1 7C\NTY17 ! DEP5D5T APPANAGE ( HIS CR[N1 UNTIL SANCTION$ BY ! ,WITAN ( ! %IRE 7C\NTY C\RT74 ,& ! P[] ( ,CANUTE HIMSELF1 ! ',K+ ( ALL ,5GL&1' DOES NOT SEEM TO HAVE COMPELL$ ! ,NOR?UMBRIANS TO RECEIVE HIS CODE1 UNTIL ! REIGN ( ! ,CONFESSOR1 :5 SU* ACCEPTANCE BECAME A P>T ( ! COMPACT UPON ! ACCESSION ( A NEW E>L4  

 ,LEGISLATION CON/ITUT$ BUT A SMALL PORTION ( ! ORD9>Y BUS9ESS TRANSACT$ BY ! ,IMP]IAL ,WIT5AGEMOT4 ,! WISDOM ( ! ASSEMBLY WAS %[N 9 AVOID+ UNNECESS>Y *ANGE4 ,CONSI/+ ,PR9CIPALLY ( TRADITION>Y USAGES & ANCE/ORIAL CU/OMS1 ! LAW WAS UPHELD BY OP9ION4 ,! PEOPLE CONSID]$ !IR JURISPRUD5CE AS A P>T ( !IR 9H]ITANCE4 ,!IR PRIVILEGES & !IR DUTIES W]E CLOSELY CONJO9$2 MO/ FREQU5TLY1 ! /ATUTES !MSELVES W]E ONLY AFFIRMANCES ( ANCI5T CU/OMS1 OR DECL>ATORY 5ACTM5TS4 ,9 ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON COMMONWEAL?1 !RE=E1 ! LEGISLATIVE FUNCTIONS ( ! ,WIT5AGEMOT W]E ( F> LESS IMPORTANCE ?AN ! O!R BRAN*ES ( ITS AU?ORITY4 "9 "9 ,! MEMB]S ( ! ,WIT5AGEMOT W]E ! ',P>ES ,CURIAE' 7,PE]S ( ,C\RT7 ( ! K+DOM4 ,H[ F>1 ON !RE OCCASIONS1 !IR OP9ION OR !IR EQUITY CONTROLL$ ! P[] ( ! CR[N1 CANNOT BE ASC]TA9$4 ,BUT ! =M ( 9S]T+ !IR NAMES 9 ! ',TE/+ ,CLAUSE' WAS RETA9$ UND] ! ,ANGLO-,NORMAN REIGNS2 & ! SOV]EIGN1 :O SUBMITT$ HIS ,*>T] TO ! JUDGM5T ( ! ,PROC]ES1 PR(ESS$ TO BE GUID$ BY ! OP9ION :I* !Y GAVE4 ,AS ! ',P>ES' ( ! EMPIRE1 ! ,WIT5AGEMOT DECID$ ! DISPUTES BETWE5 ! GREAT VASSALS ( ! CR[N4 "9 "9 ,! JURISDICTION EX]CIS$ 9 ! ,P>LIAM5T ( ,$W>D ,I41 :5 ! B>ONY ( A ,LORD-,M>*] BECAME ! SUBJECT ( LITIGATION1 IS 5TIRELY ANALOG\S TO ! PROCE$+S ?US ADOPT$ BY ! GREAT C\NCIL ( ,$W>D1 ! SON ( ,ALFR$1 ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON K+4  

 ,9 ?IS ASSEMBLY1 ! K+1 ! PRELATES1 ! DUKES1 ! EALDORM51 & ! OPTIMATES PASS$ JUDGM5T UPON ALL GREAT (F5D]S4 "9 "9  

 ,! SOV]EIGN C\LD NOT COMPEL ! OB$I5CE ( ! DIFF]5T NATIONS COMPOS+ ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON EMPIRE4 ,H5CE1 IT BECAME MORE NECESS>Y = HIM TO CONCILIATE !IR OP9IONS1 IF HE SOLICIT$ ANY S]VICE FROM A VASSAL PR9CE OR A VASSAL /ATE BEYOND ! ORD9>Y T]MS ( ! COMPACT2 /ILL MORE SO1 :5 HE NE$$ ! SUPPORT ( A FREE BUR< OR CITY4 ,& WE MAY VIEW ! ASSEMBLY 7! ,WIT5AGEMOT7 AS P>TAK+ ( ! *>ACT] ( A POLITICAL CONGRESS1 9 :I* ! LIEGEM5 ( ! CR[N1 OR ! COMMUNITIES PROTECT$ BY ! ',BASILEUS1' 7SOV]EIGN17 W]E ASK$ OR P]SUAD$ TO RELIEVE ! EXIG5CES ( ! /ATE1 OR TO CONSID] ?OSE MEASURES :I* MI<T BE REQUIR$ = ! COMMON WEAL4 ,! SOV]EIGN WAS COMPELL$ TO P>LEY ) HIS DEP5D5TS4  

 ,IT MAY BE D\BT$ :E!R ANY ONE MEMB] ( ! EMPIRE HAD P[] TO LEGISLATE = ANY O!R MEMB]4 ,! ,REGULUS ( ,CUMBRIA WAS UNAFFECT$ BY ! VOTE ( ! ,E>L ( ! ,EA/ ,ANGLIAE1 IF HE *OSE TO /& \T AGA9/ IT4 ,!SE DIGNIT>IES CON/ITUT$ A CONGRESS1 9 :I* ! SOV]EIGN C\LD TREAT MORE CONV5I5TLY & EFFECTUALLY ) HIS VASSALS ?AN BY SEP>ATE NEGOTIATIONS4 "9 "9 ,BUT ! DET]M9ATIONS ( ! ,WITAN B\ND ?OSE ONLY :O W]E PRES5T1 OR :O CONCURR$ 9 ! PROPOSITION2 & A VASSAL D5Y+ HIS ACT TO ! GRANT1 MI<T ASS]T ?AT ! 5GAGEM5T :I* HE HAD CONTRACT$ ) HIS SUP]IOR DID NOT 9VOLVE ANY PECUNI>Y SUBSIDY1 BUT ONLY R5D]$ HIM LIABLE TO P]=M S]VICE 9 ! FIELD40 --- #a ,PALGRAVE'S ,RISE & ,PROGRESS ( ! ,5GLI% ,COMMONWEAL?1 #fcg TO #f#d#b4  

 #f#d4  ,M>*ES1 ! LIMITS1 OR B\ND>IES1 BETWE5 ,5GL& & ,WALES4  

 #f#e4  ,?AT ! K+S W\LD HAVE HAD NO SCRUPLES TO 5ACT LAWS = ! SPECIAL PURPOSE ( PLUND]+ ! PEOPLE1 BY MEANS ( ! JUDGM5TS ( JURIES' IF !Y C\LD HAVE GOT JURIES TO ACKN[L$GE ! AU?ORITY ( !IR LAWS1 IS EVID5T FROM ! AUDACITY ) :I* !Y PLUND]$ !M1 )\T ANY JUDGM5TS ( JURIES TO AU?ORIZE !M1  

 ,IT IS NOT NECK TO OCCUPY SPACE H]E TO GIVE DETAILS AS TO !SE ROBB]IES2 BUT1 ONLY SOME EVID5CE ( ! G5]AL FACT4  

 ,HALLAM SAYS1 ?AT 0,= ! FIR/ ?REE REIGNS 7( ! ,NORMAN K+S7 "9 "9 ! 9TOL]ABLE EXACTIONS ( TRIBUTE1 ! RAP9E ( PURVEYANCE1 ! 9IQUITY ( ROYAL C\RTS1 >E1 CONT9UALLY 9 ! M\?S ( ! HI/ORIANS4 0,GOD SEES ! WRET*$ PEOPLE10 SAYS ! ,SAXON ,*RONICL]1 0MO/ UNJU/LY OPPRESS$2 FIR/ !Y >E DESPOIL$ ( !IR POSSESIONS1 & !N BUT*]$4 ,?IS WAS A GRIEV\S YE> 7#a#a#b#d74 ,:OEV] HAD ANY PROP]TY1 LO/ IT BY HEAVY TAXES & UNJU/ DECREES4 --- #b ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 #d#c#e-#f4  

 0,9 ! SUCCE$+ REIGN ( ,JOHN1 ALL ! RAPACI\S EXACTIONS USUAL TO !SE ,NORMAN K+S W]E NOT ONLY R$\BL$1 BUT M+L$ ) \TRAGES ( TYRANNY /ILL MORE 9TOL]ABLE4 "9 "9  

 0,9 #abg ,JOHN TOOK A SEV5? ( ! MOVABLES ( LAY & SPIRITUAL P]SONS1 ALL MURMUR+1 BUT NONE D>+ TO SPEAK AGA9/ IT40 --- ,DITTO1 #d#d#f4  

 ,9 ,HUME'S ACC\NT ( ! EXTORTIONS ( ?OSE TIMES1 ! FOLL[+ P>AGRAPH OCCURS3  

 0,BUT ! MO/ B>EFAC$ ACTS ( TYRANNY & OPPRESSION W]E PRACTIC$ AGA9/ ! ,JEWS1 :O W]E 5TIRELY \T ( ! PROTECTION ( ! LAW1 & W]E AB&ON$ TO ! IMMEASURABLE RAPACITY ( ! K+ & HIS M9I/]S4 ,BESIDES MANY O!R 9DIGNITIES1 TO :I* !Y W]E CONT9UALLY EXPOS$1 IT APPE>S ?AT !Y W]E ONCE ALL ?R[N 9TO PRISON1 & ! SUM ( #f#f1 M>KS EXACT$ = !IR LIB]TY4 ,AT ANO!R TIME1 ,ISAAC1 ! ,JEW1 PAID ALONE #ea M>KS2 ,BRUN1 #c M>KS2 ,JURNET1 #b2 ,B5NET1 #e4 ,AT ANO!R1 ,LICORICA1 WID[ ( ,DAVID1 ! ,JEW ( ,OX=D1 WAS REQUIR$ TO PAY #f M>KS40 --- ,HUME'S ,HI/4 ,5G41 ,APP5DIX #b4  

 ,FUR!R ACC\NTS ( ! EXTORTIONS & OPPRESSIONS ( ! K+S MAY BE F\ND 9 ,HUME'S ,HI/ORY1 ,APP5DIX #b1 & 9 ,HALLAM'S ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 VOL4 #b1 P4#d#c#e TO #d#d#f4  

 ,BY ,MAGNA ,C>TA ,JOHN B\ND HIMSELF TO MAKE RE/ITUTION = SOME ( ! SPOLIATIONS HE HAD COMMITT$ UPON 9DIVIDUALS 0)\T ! LEGAL JUDGM5T ( !IR PE]S40 --- ,SEE ,MAGNA ,C>TA ( ,JOHN1 B4 #f1 #f#a1 #fe & #f#f4  

 ,ONE ( ! GREAT *>GES1 ON ACC\NT ( :5 ! NATION ROSE AGA9/ ,JOHN1 WAS1 ?AT HE PLUND]$ 9DIVIDUALS ( !IR PROP]TY1 0)\T LEGAL JUDGM5T ( !IR PE]S40 ,N[ IT WAS EVID5TLY V]Y WEAK & %ORT-SI<T$ 9 ,JOHN TO EXPOSE HIMSELF TO SU* *>GES1 IF HIS LAWS W]E REALLY OBLIGATORY UPON ! PE]S2 BECAUSE1 9 ?AT CASE1 HE C\LD HAVE 5ACT$ ANY LAWS ?AT W]E NECESS>Y = HIS PURPOSE1 & !N1 BY CIVIL SUITS1 HAVE BR\<T ! CASES BE=E JURIES = !IR JUDGM5T10 & ?US HAVE ACCOMPLI%$ ALL HIS ROBB]IES 9 A P]FECTLY LEGAL MANN]4  

 ,!RE W\LD EVID5TLY HAVE BE5 NO S5SE 9 !SE COMPLA9TS1 ?AT HE DEPRIV$ M5 ( !IR PROP]TY 0)\T LEGAL JUDGM5T ( !IR PE]S10 IF HIS LAWS HAD BE5 B9D+ UPON ! PE]S2 BECAUSE HE C\LD !N HAVE MADE ! SAME SPOLATIONS AS WELL ) ! JUDGM5T ( ! PE]S AS )\T IT4 ,TAK+ ! JUDGM5T ( ! PE]S 9 ! MATT]1 W\LD HAVE BE5 ONLY A RIDICUL\S & USELESS =MALITY1 IF !Y W]E TO EX]CISE NO DISCRETION OR CONSCI5CE ( !IR [N1 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! LAWS ( ! K+4  

 ,IT MAY H]E BE M5TION$1 9 PASS+1 ?AT ! SAME W\LD BE TRUE 9 CRIM9AL MATT]S1 IF ! K+'S LAWS W]E OBLIGATORY UPON JURIES4  

 ,AS AN ILLU/RATION ( :AT TYRANNY ! K+S W\LD SOMETIMES PRACTICE1 ,HUME SAYS3  

 0,IT APPE>S FROM ! ,GREAT ,*>T] ITSELF1 ?AT NOT ONLY ,JOHN1 A TYRANNICAL PR9CE1 & ,RI*>D1 A VIOL5T ONE1 BUT !IR FA!R ,H5RY1 UND] :OSE REIGN ! PREVAL5CE ( GROSS ABUSES IS ! LEA/ TO BE SUSPECT$1 W]E ACCU/OM$1 FROM !IR SOLE AU?ORITY1 )\T PROCESS ( LAW1 TO IMPRISON1 BANI%1 & ATTA9T ! FREEM5 ( !IR K+DOM4 -- ,HUME1 ,APP5DIX #b4  

 ,! PROVISION1 ALSO1 9 ! #f#d? *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ?AT ALL UNJU/ & ILLEGAL F9ES1 & ALL AM]CEM5TS1 IMPOS$ UNJU/LY1 & CONTR>Y TO ! ,LAW ( ! ,L&1 %ALL BE 5TIRELY =GIV510 @&C42 & ! PROVISION1 9 *APT] #f#a1 ?AT ! K+ 0WILL CAUSE FULL JU/ICE TO BE ADM9I/]$0 9 REG>D TO 0ALL ?OSE ?+S1 ( :I* ANY P]SON HAS1 )\T LEGAL JUDGM5T ( HIS PE]S1 BE5 DISPOSE OR DEPRIV$1 EI!R BY ,K+ ,H5RY1 \R FA!R1 OR \R BRO!R1 ,K+ ,RI*>D10 9DICATE ! TYRANNICAL PRACTICES ?AT PREVAIL$4  

 ,WE >E TOLD ALSO ?AT ,JOHN HIMSELF 0HAD DISPOSSESS$ SEV]AL GREAT M5 )\T ANY JUDGM5T ( !IR PE]S1 CONDEMN$ O!RS TO CRUEL DEA?S1 "9 "9 9SOMU* ?AT HIS TYRANNICAL WILL /OOD 9/EAD ( A LAW40 --- ,E*>D'S ,HI/ORY ( ,5GL&1 #a#f4  

 ,N[ ALL !SE ?+S W]E V]Y UNNECESS>Y & FOOLI%1 IF HIS LAWS W]E B9D+ UPON JURIES2 BECAUSE1 9 ?AT CASE1 HE C\LD HAVE PROCUR$ ! CONVICTION ( !SE M5 9 A LEGAL MANN]1 & ?US HAVE SAV$ ! NECESSITY ( SU* USURPATION4 ,9 %ORT1 IF ! LAWS ( ! K+ HAD BE5 B9D+ UPON JURIES1 !RE IS NO ROBB]Y1 V5GEANCE1 OR OPPRESSION1 :I* HE C\LD NOT HAVE ACCOMPLI%$ ?R\< ! JUDGM5TS ( JURIES4 ,?IS CONSID]ATION IS SUFFICI5T ( ITSELF1 TO PROVE ?AT ! LAWS ( ! K+ W]E ( NO AU?ORITY OV] A JURY1 9 EI!R CIVIL OR CRIM9AL CASES1 UNLESS ! JURIES REG>D$ ! LAWS AS JU/ 9 !MSELVES4  

 #f#f4 ,BY ! ,MAGNA ,C>TA ( ,H5RY ,I,I,I1 ?IS IS *ANG$ TO ONCE A YE>4  

 #f#g4  ,FROM ! PROVISION ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 CIT$ 9 ! TEXT1 IT MU/ BE 9F]R$ ?AT !RE CAN BE NO LEGAL TRIAL BY JURY1 9 CIVIL CASES1 IF ONLY ! K+'S JU/ICES PRESIDE2 ?AT1 TO MAKE ! TRIAL LEGAL1 !RE MU/ BE O!R P]SONS1 *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE1 TO SIT ) !M2 ! OBJECT BE+ TO PREV5T ! JURY'S BE+ DECEIV$ BY ! JU/ICES4 ,I ?9K WE MU/ ALSO 9F] ?AT ! K+'S JU/ICES C\LD SIT ONLY 9 ! ?REE ACTIONS SPECIALLY M5TION$4 ,WE CANNOT GO BEYOND ! LETT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 9 MAK+ 9NOVATIONS UPON ! COMMON LAW1 :I* REQUIR$ ALL PRESID+ (FIC]S 9 JURY TRIALS TO BE ELECT$ BY ! PEOPLE4  

 #f#h4  ,! E>LS1 %]IFFS1 & HEAD-BOR\<S W]E ANNUALLY ELECT$ 9 ! FULL FOLCMOTE1 7PEOPLE'S MEET+740 -- ,9TRODUCTION TO ,GILB]T'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 P4 #b1 NOTE4  

 0,IT WAS ! ESPECIAL PROV9CE ( ! E>LDOM5 OR E>L TO ATT5D ! %YRE-MEET+1 7! C\NTY C\RT17 TWICE A YE>1 & !RE (FICIATE AS ! C\NTY JUDGE 9 EXP\ND+ ! SECUL> LAWS1 AS APPE>S BY ! FIF? ( ,$G>'S LAWS40 --- ,SAME1 P4 #b1 NOTE4  

 0,EV]Y W>D HAD ITS PROP] ALD]MAN1 :O WAS *OS51 & NOT IMPOS$ BY ! PR9CE40 ,SAME1 P4 #d1 TEXT4  

 0,AS ! ALD]M51 OR E>LS1 W]E ALWAYS *OS50 7BY ! PEOPLE7 0FROM AMONG ! GREATE/ ?ANES1 :O 9 ?OSE TIMES W]E G5]ALLY MORE ADDICT$ TO >MS ?AN TO LETT]S1 !Y W]E BUT ILL-QUALIFI$ = ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE1 & P]=M+ ! CIVIL DUTIES ( !IR (FICE40 --- #c ,H5RY'S ,HI/ORY ( ,GREAT ,BRITA91 #c#d#c4  

 0,BUT NONE ( !SE ?ANES W]E ANNUALLY ELECT$ 9 ! FULL FOLCMOTE1 7PEOPLE'S MEET+17 AS ! E>LS1 %]IFFS1 & HEAD-BOR\<S W]E2 NOR DID ,K+ ,ALFR$ 7AS ?IS AU?OR SUGGE/S7 DEPRIVE ! PEOPLE ( ! ELECTION ( ?OSE LA/ M5TION$ MAGI/RATES & NOBLES1 MU* LESS DID HE APPO9T !M HIMSELF40 --- ,9TROD4 TO ,GILB]T'S ,HI/4 ,COM4 ,PLEAS1 P4 #b1 NOTE4  

 0,! %]IFF WAS USUALLY NOT APPO9T$ BY ! LORD1 BUT ELECT$ BY ! FREEHOLD]S ( ! DI/RICT40 - ,POLITICAL ,DICTION>Y1 WORD ,%]IFF4  

 0,AMONG ! MO/ REM>KABLE ( ! ,SAXON LAWS WE MAY RECKON "9 "9 ! ELECTION ( !IR MAGI/RATES BY ! PEOPLE1 ORIG9ALLY EV5 ?AT ( !IR K+S1 TILL DE>-B\<T EXP]I5CE EV9C$ ! CONV5I5CE & NECESSITY ( E/ABLI%+ AN H]$IT>Y SUCCESSION TO ! CR[N4 ,BUT ?AT 7! ELECTION7 ( ALL SUBORD9ATE MAGI/RATES1 !IR MILIT>Y (FIC]S OR H]ETO*S1 !IR %]IFFS1 !IR CONS]VATORS ( ! PEACE1 !IR CORON]S1 !IR PORTREEVES 7S9CE *ANG$ 9TO MAYORS & BAILIFFS17 & EV5 !IR TI?+-M5 & BOR%OLD]S AT ! LA/1 CONT9U$1 SOME1 ! ,NORMAN QUE/1 O!RS = TWO C5TURIES AFT] & SOME REMA9 TO ?IS DAY40 - #d ,BLACK/ONE1 #dac  

 0,! ELECTION ( %]IFFS WAS LEFT TO ! PEOPLE1 ACCORD+ TO ANCI5T USAGE40 -- ,/4 ,WE/4 #a1 C4 #b#g4 -- ,CRABBE'S ,HI/ORY ( ,5GLI% ,LAW1 #a#h#a4  

 #f#i4  ,JUDGES DO NOT EV5 LIVE UP TO ?AT P>T ( !IR [N MAXIM1 :I* REQUIRES JURORS TO TRY ! MATT] ( FACT4 ,BY DICTAT+ TO !M ! LAWS ( EVID5CE1 --- ?AT IS1 BY DICTAT+ :AT EVID5CE !Y MAY HE>1 & :AT !Y MAY NOT HE>1 & ALSO BY DICTAT+ TO !M RULES = WEI<+ SU* EVID5CE AS !Y P]MIT !M TO HE>1 --- !Y ( NECESSITY DICTATE ! CONCLUSION TO :I* !Y %ALL >RIVE4 ,& ?US ! C\RT REALLY TRIES ! QUE/ION ( FACT1 AS WELL AS ! QUE/ION ( LAW1 9 EV]Y CAUSE4 ,IT IS CLE>LY IMPOSSIBLE1 9 ! NATURE ( ?+S1 = A JURY TO TRY A QUE/ION ( FACT1 )\T TRY+ EV]Y QUE/ION ( LAW ON :I* ! FACT DEP5DS4  

 #g4  ,MO/ DISAGREEM5TS ( JURIES >E ON MATT]S ( FACT1 :I* >E ADMITT$ TO BE )9 !IR PROV9CE4 ,WE HAVE LITTLE OR NO EVID5CE ( !IR DISAGREEM5TS ON MATT]S ( NATURAL JU/ICE4 ,! DISAGREEM5TS ( C\RTS ON MATT]S ( LAW1 AF=D LITTLE OR NO EVID5CE ?AT JURIES W\LD ALSO DISAGREE ON MATT]S ( LAW -- ?AT IS1 ( JU/ICE2 BECAUSE ! DISAGREEM5TS ( C\RTS >E G5]ALLY ON MATT]S ( LEGISLATION & NOT ON ?OSE PR9CIPLES ( AB/RACT JU/ICE1 BY :I* JURIES W\LD BE GOV]N$1 & 9 REG>D TO :I* ! M9DS ( M5 >E NE>LY UNANIM\S4  

 #g#a4  ,?IS IS ! PR9CIPLE ( ALL VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATIONS :ATSOEV]4 ,NO VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION WAS EV] =M$1 & 9 ! NATURE ( ?+S !RE NEV] CAN BE ONE =M$1 = ! ACCOMPLI%M5T ( ANY OBJECTS EXCEPT ?OSE 9 :I* ALL ! P>TIES TO ! ASSOCIATION >E AGRE$4 ,GOV]NM5T1 !RE=E1 MU/ BE KEPT )9 !SE LIMITS1 OR IT IS NO LONG] A VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION ( ALL :O CONTRIBUTE TO ITS SUPPORT1 BUT A M]E TYRANNY E/ABLI%$ BY A P>T OV] ! RE/4  

 ,AN1 OR NE>LY ALL1 VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATIONS GIVE TO A MAJORITY1 OR TO SOME O!R PORTION ( ! MEMB]S LESS ?AN ! :OLE1 ! RI<T TO USE SOME LIMIT$ DISCRETION AS TO ! MEANS TO BE US$ TO ACCOMPLI% ! 5DS 9 VIEW2 BUT ! 5DS !MSELVES TO BE ACCOMPLI%$ >E ALWAYS PRECISELY DEF9$1 & >E SU* AS EV]Y MEMB] NE>LY AGREES TO1 ELSE HE W\LD NOT VOLUNT>ILY JO9 ! ASSOCIATION4  

 ,JU/ICE IS ! OBJECT ( GOV]NM5T1 & ?OSE :O SUPPORT ! GOV]NM5T1 MU/ BE AGRE$ AS TO ! JU/ICE TO BE EXECUT$ BY IT1 OR !Y CANNOT NOT RI<TFULLY UNITE 9 MA9TA9+ ! GOV]NM5T ITSELF4  

 #g#b4  ,JONES ON ,BAILM5TS1 #a#c#c4  

 #g#c4  ,K5T1 DESCRIB+ ! DIFFICULTY ( CON/RU+ ! WRITT5 LAW1 SAYS3  

 0,SU* IS ! IMP]FECTION ( LANGUAGE1 & ! WANT ( TE*NICAL SKILL 9 ! MAK]S ( ! LAW1 ?AT /ATUTES (T5 GIVE OCCASION TO ! MO/ P]PLEX+ & DI/RESS+ D\BTS & DISCUSSIONS1 >IS+ FROM ! AMBIGUITY ?AT ATT5DS !M4 ,IT REQUIRES GREAT EXP]I5CE1 AS WELL AS ! COMM& ( A P]SPICU\S DICTION1 TO FRAME A LAW 9 SU* CLE> & PRECISE T]MS1 AS TO SECURE IT FROM AMBIGU\S EXPRESSIONS1 & FROM ALL D\BTS & CRITICISMS UPON ITS MEAN+ 0 -- ,K5T1 #d#f4  

 ,! FOLL[+ EXTRACT FROM A SPEE* ( ,LORD ,BR\<AM1 9 ! ,H\SE ( ,LORDS1 CONFESSES ! SAME DIFFICULTY3  

 ,!RE WAS ANO!R SUBJECT1 WELL WOR?Y ( ! CONSID]ATION ( GOV]NM5T DUR+ ! RECESS1 -- ! EXP$I5CY1 OR RA!R ! ABSOLUTE NECESSITY1 ( SOME >RANGEM5T = ! PREP>ATION ( BILLS1 NOT M]ELY PRIVATE1 BUT PUBLIC BILLS1 9 ORD] ?AT LEGISLATION MI<T BE CONSI/5T & SY/EMATIC1 & ?AT ! C\RTS MI<T NOT HAVE SO L>GE A PORTION ( !IR TIME OCCUPI$ 9 5DEAVOR+ TO CON/RUE ACTS ( ,P>LIAM5T1 9 MANY CASES UNCON/RUABLE1 & 9 MO/ CASES DIFFICULT TO BE CON/RU$40-- ,LAW ,REPORT]1 #a#h#d#h1 P4 #e#b#e4  

 #g#d4  ,?IS CONDEMNATION ( WRITT5 LAWS MU/1 ( C\RSE1 BE UND]/OOD AS APPLY+ ONLY TO CASES :]E PR9CIPLES & RI<TS >E 9VOLV$1 & NOT AS CONDEMN+ ANY GOV]NM5TAL >RANGEM5TS1 OR 9/RUM5TALITIES1 ?AT >E CONSI/5T ) NATURAL RI<T1 & :I* MU/ BE AGRE$ UPON = ! PURPOSE ( C>RY+ NATURAL LAW 9TO EFFECT4 ,!SE ?+S MAY BE V>I$1 AS EXP$I5CY MAY DICTATE1 SO ONLY ?AT !Y BE ALL[$ TO 9FR+E NO PR9CIPLE ( JU/ICE4 ,& !Y MU/1 ( C\RSE1 BE WRITT51 BECAUSE !Y DO NOT EXI/ AS FIX$ PR9CIPLES1 OR LAWS 9 NATURE4  

 #g#e4  ,ON ! ,5GLI% ,CON/ITUTION4  

 #g#f4  ,AL?\< ALL ! FREEM5 >E LEGALLY ELIGIBLE AS JURORS1 ANY ONE MAY NEV]!LESS BE *ALL5G$ & SET ASIDE1 AT ! TRIAL1 = ANY SPECIAL P]SONAL DISQUALIFICATION2 SU* AS M5TAL OR PHYSICAL 9ABILITY TO P]=M ! DUTIES2 HAV+ BE5 CONVICT$1 OR BE+ UND] *>GE1 ( CRIME2 9T]E/1 BIAS1 @&C4 ,BUT IT IS CLE> ?AT ! COMMON LAW ALL[S NONE ( !SE PO9TS TO BE DET]M9$ BY ! C\RT1 BUT ONLY BY 0TRI]S40  

 #g#g4  ,:AT WAS ! PRECISE MEAN+ ( ! ,SAXON WORD1 :I* ,I HAVE H]E CALL$ ELD]LY1 ,I DO NOT KN[4 ,9 ! ,LAT9 TRANSLATIONS IT IS R5D]$ BY S5IORES1 :I* MAY P]HAPS MEAN SIMPLY ?OSE :O HAVE ATTA9$ !IR MAJORITY4  

 #g#h4 ,9 #adhc IT WAS 5ACT$1 BY A /ATUTE 5TITL$ 0,( :AT CR$IT & E/ATE ?OSE JURORS MU/ BE :I* %ALL BE IMPANEL$ 9 ! ,%]IFF'S ,TURN40  

 0,?AT NO BAILIFF NOR O!R (FIC] FROM H5CE=? RETURN OR IMPANEL ANY SU* P]SON 9 ANY %IRE ( ,5GL&1 TO BE TAK5 OR PUT 9 OR UPON ANY 9QUIRY 9 ANY ( ! SAID ,TURNS1 BUT SU* AS BE ( GOOD NAME & FAME1 & HAV+ L&S & T5EM5TS ( FREEHOLD )9 ! SAME %IRES1 TO ! YE>LY VALUE ( TW5TY %ILL+S AT ! LEA/1 OR ELSE L&S & T5EM5TS HOLD5 BY CU/OM ( MANOR1 COMMONLY CALL$ COPY-HOLD1 )9 ! SAID %IRES1 TO ! YE>LY VALUE ( TW5TY-SIX %ILL+S EI<T P5CE OV] ALL *>GES AT ! LEA/40 -- #a ,RI*>D ,I,I,I41 *4 #d4 7#a#d#h#c 7  

 ,9 #adhf IT WAS 5ACT$1 0 ,?AT ! JU/ICES ( ! PEACE ( EV]Y %IRE ( ?IS REALM = ! TIME BE+ MAY TAKE1 BY !IR DISCRETION1 AN 9QUE/1 :]E( EV]Y MAN %ALL HAVE L&S & T5EM5TS TO ! YE>LY VALUE ( =TY %ILL+S AT ! LEA/1 TO 9QUIRE ( ! CONCEALM5TS ( O!RS10 @&C41 @&C41 -- #c ,H5RY ,V,I,I1 *4 #a4 7#a#d#h#f47  

 ,A /ATUTE PASS$ 9 #a#d#i#d1 9 REG>D TO JURORS 9 ! CITY ( ,LONDON1 5ACTS3  

 0,?AT NO P]SON NOR P]SONS H]EAFT] BE IMPANEL$1 SUMMON$1 OR SWORN 9 ANY JURY OR 9QUE/ 9 C\RTS )9 ! SAME CITY1 7( ,LONDON17 EXCEPT HE BE ( L&S1 T5EM5TS1 OR GOODS & *ATTELS1 TO ! VALUE ( =TY M>KS2 .<"9,A M>K WAS ?IRTE5 %ILL+ & F\R P5CE4.> & ?AT NO P]SON OR P]SONS H]EAFT] BE IMPANEL$1 SUMMON$1 NOR SWORN 9 ANY JURY OR 9QUE/ 9 ANY C\RT )9 ! SAID CITY1 = L&S OR T5EM5TS1 OR ACTION P]SONAL1 :]E9 ! DEBT OR DAMAGE AM\NTE? TO ! SUM ( =TY M>KS1 OR ABOVE1 EXCEPT HE BE 9 L&S T5EM5TS1 GOODS1 OR *ATTELS1 TO ! VALUE ( ONE HUNDR$ M>KS40 -- #aa ,H5RY ,V,I,I4 *4 #b#a4 7#a#d#i#d47  

 ,! /ATUTE #d ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I1 *4 #c1 SEC4 #d1 7#a#e#a#b7 REQUIRES JURORS 9 ,LONDON TO HAVE 0GOODS TO ! VALUE ( ONE HUNDR$ M>KS40  

 ,9 #adid IT WAS 5ACT$ ?AT 0,IT %ALL BE LAWFUL TO EV]Y %]IFF ( ! C\NTIES ( ,S\?AMPTON1 ,SURREY41 & ,SUSSEX1 TO IMPANEL & SUMMONS TW5TY-F\R LAWFUL M5 ( SU*1 9HABIT+ )9 ! PREC9CT ( HIS OR !IR TURNS1 AS [E SUIT1 TO ! SAME TURN1 :]E( EV]Y ONE HA? L&S OR FREEHOLD TO ! YE>LY VALUE ( T5 %ILL+S1 OR COPYHOLD L&S TO ! YE>LY VALUE ( ?IRTE5 %ILL+S F\R P5CE1 ABOVE ALL *>GES )9 ANY ( ! SAID C\NTIES1 OR M5 ( LESS LIVELIHOOD1 IF !RE BE NOT SO MANY !RE1 NOT )/&+ ! /ATUTE ( #a ,RI*>D ,I,I,I41 *4 #d4 ,TO 5DURE TO ! NEXT P>LIAM5T40 #aa ,H5RY ,V,I,I41 *4 #b#d4 7#a#d#i#d47 ,?IS /ATUTE WAS CONT9U$ 9 =CE BY #ai ,H5RY ,V,I,I41 *4 #af 7#a#e#c47  

 ,9 #aeca IT WAS 5ACT$1 0,?AT EV]Y P]SON OR P]SON BE+ ! K+'S NATURAL SUBJECT BORN1 :I* EI!R BY ! NAME ( CITIZ51 OR ( A FREEMAN1 OR ANY O!R NAME1 DO? 5JOY & USE ! LIB]TIES & PRIVILEGES ( ANY CITY1 BOR\<1 OR T[N CORPORATE1 :]E HE DWELLE? & MAKE? HIS ABODE1 BE+ WOR? 9 MOVABLE GOODS & SUB/ANCE TO ! CLE> VALUE ( =TY P\NDS1 BE H5CE=? ADMITT$ 9 TRIALS ( MURD]S & FELONIES 9 EV]Y SESSIONS & JAIL DELIV]Y1 TO BE KEPT & HOLD5 9 & = ! LIB]TY ( SU* CITIES1 BOR\<S1 & T[NS CORPORATE1 ALBEIT !Y HAVE NO FREEHOLD2 ANY ACT1 /ATUTE1 USE1 CU/OM1 OR ORD9ANCE TO ! CONTR>Y H]E( NOT)/&+40 #bc ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I41 *4 #a#c4 7#a#e#c#a47  

 ,9 #aehe IT WAS 5ACT$1 0,?AT 9 ALL CASES :]E ANY JURORS TO BE RETURN$ = TRIAL ( ANY ISSUE OR ISSUES JO9$ 9 ANY ( ! ,QUE5'S MAJE/Y'S C\RTS ( ,K+'S ,B5*1 ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 & ! ,EX*EQU]1 OR BE=E JUDICES ( ASSIZE1 BY ! LAWS ( ?IS REALM N[ 9 =CE1 \<T TO HAVE E/ATE ( FREEHOLD 9 L&S1 T5EM5TS1 OR H]$ITAM5TS1 ( ! CLE> YE>LY VALUE ( =TY %ILL+S1 ?AT 9 EV]Y SU* CASE ! JURORS ?AT %ALL BE RETURN$ FROM & AFT] ! 5D ( ?IS PRES5T SESSION ( P>LIAM5T1 %ALL EV]Y ( !M HAVE E/ATE ( FREEHOLD 9 L&S1 T5EM5TS1 OR H]$ITAM5TS1 TO ! CLE> YE>LY VALUE ( F\R P\NDS AT ! LEA/40 #bg ,ELIZABE?1 *4 #f4 7#a#e#h#e47  

 ,9 #a#f#f#d-#e IT WAS 5ACT$ 0,?AT ALL JURORS 7O!R ?AN /RANG]S UPON TRIALS P] M$IETATEM L9QUAE7 :O >E TO BE RETURN$ = ! TRIALS ( ISSUES JO9$ 9 ANY ( 7HIS7 MAJE/Y'S C\RTS ( K+'S B5*1 COMMON PLEAS1 OR ! EX*EQU]1 OR BE=E JU/ICES ( ASSIZE1 NISI PRIUS1 OY] & T]M9]1 JAIL DELIV]Y1 OR G5]AL OR QU>T] SESSIONS ( ! PEACE FROM & AFT] ! TW5TIE? DAY ( ,APRIL1 :I* %ALL BE 9 ! YE> ( \R ,LORD ONE ?\S& SIX HUNDR$ & SIXTY-FIVE1 9 ANY C\NTY ( ?IS REALM ( ,5GL&1 %ALL EV]Y ( !M !N HAVE1 9 !IR [N NAME1 OR 9 TRU/ = !M1 )9 ! SAME C\NTY1 TW5TY P\NDS1 BY ! YE>1 AT LEA/1 ABOVE REPRISES1 9 !IR [N OR !IR WIVES RI<T1 ( FREEHOLD L&S1 OR ( ANCI5T DEMESNE1 OR ( R5TS 9 FEE1 FEE-TAIL1 OR = LIFE4 ,& ?AT 9 EV]Y C\NTY )9 ! DOM9ION ( ,WALES EV]Y SU* JUROR %ALL !N HAVE1 )9 ! SOME1 EI<T P\NDS BY ! YE>1 AT ! LEA/1 ABOVE REPRISES1 9 MANN] A=ESAID4 ,ALL :I* P]SONS HAV+ SU* E/ATE AS A=ESAID >E H]EBY 5ABL$ & MADE LIABLE TO BE RETURN$ & S]VE AS JURORS = ! TRIAL ( ISSUES BE=E ! JU/ICES A=ESAID1 ANY LAW OR /ATUTE TO ! CONTR>Y 9 ANY WISE NOT)/&+10 #af & #ag ,*>LES ,I,I41 *4 #e4 7#a#f#f#d-#e17  

 ,BY A /ATUTE PASS$ 9 #a#f#i#b1 JURORS 9 ,5GL& >E TO HAVE L&$ E/ATES ( ! VALUE ( T5 P\NDS A YE>1 & JURORS 9 ,WALES TO HAVE SIMIL> E/ATES ( ! REALM ( SIX P\NDS A YE>4 #d & #e ,WILLIAM & ,M>Y1 *4 #b#d1 SEC4 #a#d1 7#a#f#i#b17  

 ,BY ! SAME /ATUTE1 7SEC4 #a#h17 P]SONS MAY BE RETURN$ TO S]VE UPON ! TALES 9 ANY C\NTY ( ,5GL&1 :O %ALL HAVE )9 ! SAME C\NTY1 FIVE P\NDS BY ! YE>1 ABOVE REPRISES1 9 ! MANN] A=ESAID4  

 ,BY ,/4 #c ,GEORGE ,I,I41 *4 #b#e1 SEC4 #a1 #b1 NO ONE IS TO BE A JUROR 9 ,LONDON1 :O %ALL NOT BE 0AN H\SEHOLD] )9 ! SAID CITY1 & HAVE L&S1 T5EM5TS1 OR P]SONAL E/ATE1 TO ! VALUE ( ONE HUNDR$ P\NDS40  

 ,BY ANO!R /ATUTE1 APPLICABLE ONLY TO ! C\NTY ( ,MIDDLESEX1 IT IS 5ACT$1 0,?AT ALL LEASEHOLD]S1 UPON LEASES :]E ! IMPROV$ R5TS OR VALUE %ALL AM\NT TO FIFTY P\NDS OR UPW>DS P] ANNUM1 OV] & ABOVE ALL GR\ND R5TS OR O!R RES]VATIONS PAYABLE BY VIRTUE ( ! SAID LEASES1 %ALL BE LIABLE & OBLIG$ TO S]VE UPON JURIES :5 !Y %ALL BE LEGALLY SUMMON$ = ?AT PURPOSE410 #d ,GEORGE ,I,I41 *4 #g1 SEC1 #c4 7#a#g#c#a47  

 #g#i4  ,SUPPOSE !SE /ATUTES1 9/EAD ( DISFRAN*IZ+ ALL :OSE FREEHOLDS W]E ( LESS ?AN ! /&>D VALUE FIX$ BY ! /ATUTES1 HAD DISFRAN*IZ$ ALL :OSE FREEHOLDS W]E ( GREAT] VALUE ?AN ! SAME /&>D W\LD ANYBODY EV] HAVE D\BT$ ?AT SU* LEGISLATION WAS 9CONSI/5T ) ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION2 OR ?AT IT AM\NT$ TO AN 5TIRE ABOLITION ( ! TRIAL BY JURY8 ,C]TA9LY NOT4 ,YET IT WAS AS CLE>LY 9CONSI/5T ) ! COMMON LAW1 OR ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION1 TO DISFRAN*IZE ?OSE :OSE FREEHOLDS FELL BEL[ ANY >BITR>Y /&>D FIX$ BY ! GOV]NM5T1 AS IT W\LD HAVE BE5 TO DISFRAN*IZE ALL :OSE FREEHOLDS ROSE ABOVE ?AT /&>D4  

 #h4  ,L+>D SAYS3 0,!SE COMPURGATORS OR JURORS "9 "9 W]E SOMETIMES "9 "9 DRAWN BY LOT40 #a ,L+>D'S ,HI/ORY ( ,5GL&1 P4 #c4  

 #h#a4  ,*APT] #d1 P4 #a#b1 NOTE4  

 #h#b4 ,! PRO(S ( ?IS PR9CIPLE ( ! COMMON LAW HAVE ALREADY BE5 GIV5 ON PAGE #a#b1 NOTE4  

 ,!RE IS MU* CONFUSION & CONTRADICTION AMONG AU?ORS AS TO ! MANN] 9 :I* %]IFFS & O!R (FIC]S W]E APPO9T$2 SOME MA9TA9+ ?AT !Y W]E APPO9T$ BY ! K+1 O!RS ?AT !Y W]E ELECT$ BY ! PEOPLE4 ,I IMAG9E ?AT BO? !SE OP9IONS >E CORRECT1 & ?AT SEV]AL ( ! K+'S (FIC]S BORE ! SAME (FICIAL NAMES AS ?OSE *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE2 & ?AT ?IS IS ! CAUSE ( ! CONFUSION ?AT HAS >IS5 ON ! SUBJECT4  

 ,IT SEEMS TO BE A P]FECTLY WELL E/ABLI%$ FACT ?AT1 AT COMMON LAW1 SEV]AL MAGI/RATES1 BE>+ ! NAMES ( ALD]M51 %]IFF1 /EW>DS1 CORON]S & BAILIFFS1 W]E *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE2 & YET IT APPE>S1 FROM ,MAGNA ,C>TA ITSELF1 ?AT SOME ( ! K+'S (FIC]S 7( :OM HE MU/ HAVE HAD MANY7 W]E ALSO CALL$ 0%]IFFS1 CON/ABLES1 CORON]S1 & BAILIFFS40  

 ,BUT ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 9 V>I\S 9/ANCES1 SPEAKS ( %]IFFS & BAILIFFS AS 0\R %]IFF'S & BAILIFFS20 ?US APP>5TLY 9T5D+ TO RECOGNIZE ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 (FIC]S ( ! K+1 BE>+ ?OSE NAMES1 & O!R (FIC]S1 BE>+ ! SAME (FICIAL NAMES1 BUT *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE4 ,?US IT SAYS ?AT 0NO %]IFF OR BAILIFF ( \RS1 OR ANY O!R 7(FIC]71 %ALL TAKE HORSES OR C>TS ( ANY FREEMAN = C>RIAGE1 UNLESS ) ! CONS5T ( ! FREEMAN HIMSELF40 ---,JOHN'S ,*>T]1 *4 #c#f4  

 ,9 A K+DOM SUBDIVID$ 9TO SO MANY C\NTIES1 HUNDR$S1 TI?+S1 MANORS1 CITIES & BOR\<S1 EA* HAV+ A JUDICIAL OR POLICE ORGANIZATION ( ITS [N1 IT IS EVID5T ?AT MANY ( ! (FIC]S MU/ HAVE BE5 *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE1 ELSE ! GOV]NM5T C\LD NOT HAVE MA9L9$ ITS POPUL> *>ACT]4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 IT IS EVID5T ?AT ! K+1 ! EXECUTIVE P[] ( ! NATION1 MU/ HAVE HAD L>GE NUMB]S ( (FIC]S ( HIS [N 9 EV]Y P>T ( ! K+DOM4 ,& IT IS P]FECTLY NATURAL ?AT !SE DIFF]5T SETS ( (FIC]S %\LD1 9 MANY 9/ANCES1 BE> ! SAME (FICIAL NAMES2 &1 CONSEQU5TLY ?AT ! K+1 :5 SPEAK+ ( HIS [N (FIC]S1 AS DI/+UI%$1 FROM ?OSE *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE1 %\LD CALL !M 0\R %]IFFS1 BAILIFFS10 @&C21 AS HE DOES 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA4  

 ,I APPREH5D ?AT 9ATT5TION TO !SE CONSID]ATIONS HAS BE5 ! CAUSE ( ALL ! CONFUSION ( IDEAS ?AT HAS >IS5 ON ?IS SUBJECT1 A CONFUSION V]Y EVID5T 9 ! FOLL[+ P>AGRAPH FROM ,DUNHAM1 :I* MAY BE GIV5 AS AN ILLU/RATION ( ?AT :I* IS EXHIBIT$ BY O!RS ON ! SAME PO9TS4  

 0,SUBORD9ATE TO ! EALDORM5 W]E ! G]EFAS1 ! %]IFFS1 OR REEVES1 ( :OM !RE W]E SEV]AL 9 EV]Y %IRE1 OR C\NTY4 ,!RE WAS ONE 9 EV]Y BOR\<1 AS A JUDGE4 ,!RE WAS ONE AT EV]Y GATE1 :O WITNESS$ PUR*ASES \TSIDE ! WALLS2 & !RE WAS ONE1 HI<] ?AN EI!R ---! HI< %]IFF1 ---:O WAS PROBABLY ! REEVE ( ! %IRE4 ,?IS LA/ APPE>S TO HAVE BE5 APPO9T$ BY ! K+4 ,!IR FUNCTIONS W]E TO EXECUTE ! DECREES ( ! K+1 OR EALDORM51 TO >RE/ PRISON]S1 TO REQUIRE BAIL = !IR APPE>ANCE AT ! SESSIONS1 TO COLLECT F9ES OR P5ALTIES LEVI$ BY ! C\RT ( ! %IRE1 TO PRES]VE ! PUBLIC PEACE1 & TO PRESIDE 9 A SUBORD9ATE TRIBUNAL ( !IR [N40 ,DURHAM'S ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 SEC4 #b1 ,B4 #b1 *4 #a4 #eg ,L>DN]'S ,CAB4 ,CYC41 P #d#a4  

 ,! CONFUSION ( DUTIES ATTRIBUT$ TO !SE (FIC]S 9DICATES CLE>LY 5\< ?AT DIFF]5T (FIC]S1 BE>+ ! SAME (FICIAL NAMES1 MU/ HAVE HAD DIFF]5T DUTIES1 & HAVE D]IV$ !IR AU?ORITY FROM DIFF]5T S\RCES1 ---TO WIT1 ! K+1 & ! PEOPLE4  

 #h#c4  ,D>RE9 PRES5TEM5T WAS AN 9QUE/ TO DISCOV] :O PRES5T$ ! LA/ P]SON TO A *UR*2 MORT DE ANCE/OR1 :E!R ! LA/ POSSESSOR WAS SEIZ$ ( L& 9 DEMESNE ( HIS [N FEE2 & NOVEL DISSEIZ91 :E!R ! CLAIMANT HAD BE5 UNJU/LY DISSEIZ$ ( HIS FREEHOLD4  

 #h#d4  ,HE HAS NO P[] TO DO IT1 EI!R )1 OR )\T1 ! K+'S COMM&4 ,! PROHIBITION IS ABSOLUTE1 CONTA9+ NO SU* QUALIFICATION AS IS H]E 9T]POLAT$1 VIZ41 0)\T ! K+'S COMM&40 ,IF IT C\LD BE DONE ) ! K+'S COMM&1 ! K+ W\LD BE 9VE/$ ) >BITR>Y P[] 9 ! MATT]4  

 #h#e4  ,! ABSURDITY ( ?IS DOCTR9E ( ,COKE IS MADE MORE APP>5T BY ! FACT ?AT1 AT ?AT TIME1 ! 0JU/ICES0 & O!R P]SONS APPO9T$ BY ! K+ TO HOLD C\RTS W]E NOT ONLY DEP5D5T UPON ! K+ = !IR (FICES1 & REMOVABLE AT HIS PLEASURE1 BUT ?AT ! USUAL CU/OM WAS1 NOT TO APPO9T !M ) ANY VIEW TO P]MAN5CY1 BUT ONLY TO GIVE !M SPECIAL COMMISSIONS = TRY+ A S+LE CAUSE1 OR = HOLD+ A S+LE T]M ( A C\RT1 OR = MAK+ A S+LE CIRCUIT2 :I*1 BE+ DONE1 !IR COMMISSIONS EXPIR$4 ,! K+1 !RE=E1 C\LD1 & UND\BT$LY DID1 APPO9T ANY 9DIVIDUAL HE PLEAS$1 TO TRY ANY CAUSE HE PLEAS$1 ) A SPECIAL VIEW TO ! V]DICTS HE DESIR$ TO OBTA9 9 ! P>TICUL> CASES4  

 ,?IS CU/OM ( COMMISSION+ P>TICUL> P]SONS TO HOLD JURY TRIALS1 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 7& PROBABLY ALSO 9 CIVIL ONES17 WAS ( C\RSE A USURPATION UPON ! COMMON LAW1 BUT HAD BE5 PRACTIC$ MORE OR LESS FROM ! TIME ( ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR4 ,PALGRAVE SAYS3  

 0,! FREQU5T ABS5CE ( ,WILLIAM FROM HIS 9SUL> DOM9IONS OCCASION$ ANO!R MODE ( ADM9I/RATION1 :I* ULTIMATELY PRODUC$ /ILL GREAT] *ANGES 9 ! LAW4 ,IT WAS ! PRACTICE ( APPO9T+ JU/ICI>S TO REPRES5T ! K+'S P]SON1 TO HOLD HIS C\RT1 TO DECIDE HIS PLEAS1 TO DISP5SE JU/ICE ON HIS BEHALF1 TO COMM& ! MILIT>Y LEVIES1 & TO ACT AS CONS]VATORS ( ! PEACE 9 ! K+'S NAME4 4 4 4 .<,9 ?IS EXTRACT1 ,PALGRAVE SEEMS TO ASSUME ?AT ! K+ HIMSELF HAD A RI<T TO SIT AS JUDGE1 9 JURY TRIALS1 9 ! C\NTY C\RTS1 9 BO? CIVIL & CRIM9AL CASES4 ,I APPREH5D HE HAD NO SU* P[] AT ! COMMON LAW1 BUT ONLY TO SIT 9 ! TRIAL ( APPEALS1 & 9 ! TRIAL ( PE]S1 & ( CIVIL SUITS 9 :I* PE]S W]E P>TIES1 & POSSIBLY 9 ! C\RTS ( ANCI5T DEMESNE4.> ,! JU/ICES :O W]E ASSIGN$ 9 ! NAME ( ! SOV]EIGN1 & :OSE P[]S W]E REVOCABLE AT HIS PLEASURE1 D]IV$ !IR AU?ORITY M]ELY FROM !IR GRANT4 4 4 4,SOME ( ?OSE JUDGES W]E USUALLY DEPUT$ = ! PURPOSE ( RELIEV+ ! K+ FROM ! BURD5 ( HIS JUDICIAL FUNCTIONS4 4 4 4,! NUMB] AS WELL AS ! V>IETY ( NAMES ( ! JU/ICES APPE>+ 9 ! E>LY *IROGRAPHS ( ',CONCORDS1' LEAVE REASON = D\BT+ :E!R1 ANT]IOR TO ! REIGN ( ,H5RY ,I,I,I41 7#a#b#a#f TO #a#b#g#b17 A C\RT1 :OSE MEMB]S W]E *ANG+ AT ALMO/ EV]Y SESSION1 CAN BE SAID TO HAVE BE5 P]MAN5TLY CON/ITUT$4 ,IT SEEMS MORE PROBABLE ?AT ! 9DIVIDUALS :O COMPOS$ ! TRIBUNAL W]E SELECT$ AS SUIT$ ! PLEASURE ( ! SOV]EIGN1 & ! CONV5I5CE ( ! CL]KS & B>ONS2 & ! HI/ORY ( \R LEGAL ADM9I/RATION WILL BE MU* SIMPLIFI$1 IF WE CONSID] ALL ?OSE C\RTS :I* W]E AFT]W>DS D5OM9AT$ ! ,EX*EQU]1 ! ,K+'S ,B5*1 ! ,COMMON ,PLEAS1 & ! ,*ANC]Y1 AS BE+ ORIG9ALLY COMMITTEES1 SELECT$ BY ! K+ :5 OCCASION REQUIR$1 \T ( A L>GE BODY1 = ! DISPAT* ( PECULI> BRAN*ES ( BUS9ESS1 & :I* COMMITTEES1 BY DEGREES1 ASSUM$ AN 9DEP5D5T & P]MAN5T EXI/5CE4 4 4 4,JU/ICES IT9]ANT1 :O1 DISPAT*$ ?R\<\T ! L&1 DECID$ ! ' ,PLEAS ( ! ,CR[N1' MAY BE OBSCURELY TRAC$ 9 ! REIGN ( ! ,CONQU]OR2 NOT1 P]HAPS1 APPO9T$ ) MU* REGUL>ITY1 BUT DISPAT*$ UPON PECULI> OCCASIONS & EM]G5CIES40 ---#a ,PALGRAVE'S ,RISE & ,PROGRESS1 @&C41 P4 #bhi TO #b#i#c4  

 ,! FOLL[+ /ATUTE1 PASS$ 9 #a#c#e#d1 7#a#c#i YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA17 %[S ?AT EV5 AFT] ?IS USURPATION ( APPO9T+ 0JU/ICES 0 ( HIS [N1 TO TRY CRIM9AL CASES1 HAD PROBABLY BECOME SOME:AT E/ABLI%$ 9 PRACTICE1 9 DEFIANCE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ! K+ WAS 9 ! HABIT ( GRANT+ SPECIAL COMMISSIONS TO /ILL O!R P]SONS1 7ESPECIALLY TO %]IFFS1 ---HIS %]IFFS1 NO D\BT17 TO TRY P>TICUL> CASES3  

 0,BECAUSE ?AT ! PEOPLE ( ! REALM HAVE SUFF]$ MANY EVILS & MIS*IEFS1 = ?AT %]IFFS ( DIV]SE C\NTIES1 BY VIRTUE ( COMMISSIONS & G5]AL WRITS GRANT$ TO !M AT !IR [N SUIT1 = !IR S+UL> PR(IT TO GA9 ( ! PEOPLE1 HAVE MADE & TAK5 DIV]SE 9QUE/S TO CAUSE TO 9DICT ! PEOPLE AT !IR WILL1 & HAVE TAK5 F9E & RANSOM ( !M TO !IR [N USE1 & HAVE DELIV]$ !M2 :]EAS SU* P]SONS 9DICT$ W]E NOT BR\<T BE=E ! K+'S JU/ICES TO HAVE !IR DELIV]ANCE1 IT IS ACCORD$ & E/ABLI%$1 = TO ES*EW ALL SU* EVILS & MIS*IEFS1 ?AT SU* COMMISSIONS & WRITS BE=E ?IS TIME MADE %ALL BE UTT]LY REPEAL$1 & ?AT FROM H5CE=? NO SU* COMMISSIONS %ALL BE GRANT$40 ---,/4 #bh ,$W>D ,I,I,I41 *4 #i1 7#a#c#e#d47  

 ,H[ SILLY TO SUPPOSE ?AT ! ILLEGALITY ( !SE COMMISSIONS TO TRY CRIM9AL EASES1 C\LD HAVE BE5 AVOID$ BY SIMPLY GRANT+ !M TO P]SONS UND] ! TITLE ( 0JU/ICES10 9/EAD ( GRANT+ !M TO 0%]IFFS40 ,! /ATUTE WAS EVID5TLY A *EAT1 OR AT LEA/ DESIGN$ AS SU*1 9ASMU* AS IT VIRTUALLY ASS]TS ! RI<T ( ! K+ TO APPO9T HIS TOOLS1 UND] ! NAME ( 0JU/ICES10 TO TRY CRIM9AL CASES1 :ILE IT DISAV[S HIS RI<T TO APPO9T !M UND] ! NAME ( 0%]IFFS40  

 ,MILL> SAYS3 0,:5 ! K+'S B5* CAME TO HAVE ITS USUAL RESID5CE AT ,WE/M9/]1 ! SOV]EIGN WAS 9DUC$ TO GRANT SPECIAL COMMISSIONS1 = TRY+ P>TICUL> CRIMES1 9 SU* P>TS ( ! C\NTRY AS W]E F\ND MO/ CONV5I5T2 & ?IS PRACTICE WAS GRADUALLY MODEL$ 9TO A REGUL> APPO9TM5T ( C]TA9 COMMISSION]S1 EMP[]$1 AT /AT$ SEASONS1 TO P]=M CIRCUITS OV] ! K+DOM1 & TO HOLD C\RTS 9 P>TICUL> T[NS1 = ! TRIAL ( ALL SORTS ( CRIMES4 ,!SE JUDGES ( ! CIRCUIT1 H[EV]1 NEV] OBTA9$ AN ORD9>Y JURISDICTION1 BUT CONT9U$1 ON EV]Y OCCASION1 TO D]IVE !IR AU?ORITY FROM TWO SPECIAL COMMISSIONS3 ?AT ( OY] & T]M9]1 BY :I* !Y W]E APPO9T$ TO HE> & DET]M9E ALL TREASONS1 FELONIES & MISDEMEANORS1 )9 C]TA9 DI/RICTS2 & ?AT ( JAIL DELIV]Y1 BY :I* !Y W]E DIRECT$ TO TRY EV]Y PRISON] CONF9$ 9 ! JAILS ( ! SEV]AL T[NS FALL+ UND] !IR 9SPECTION40 ---,MILL>'S ,HI/4 ,VIEW ( ,5G4 ,GOV41 VOL4 #b1 *4 #g1 P4 #b#h#b4  

 ,! FOLL[+ EXTRACT FROM ,GILB]T %[S TO :AT L5G?S ( USURPATION ! K+S W\LD SOMETIMES GO1 9 !IR ATTEMPTS TO GET ! JUDICIAL P[] \T ( ! H&S ( ! PEOPLE1 & 5TRU/ IT TO 9/RUM5TS ( !IR [N *OOS+3  

 0,FROM ! TIME ( ! ,SAXONS10 7?AT IS1 FROM ! COMM5CEM5T ( ! REIGN ( ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR17 0TILL ! REIGN ( ,$W>D ! FIR/1 7#a#b#g#b TO #a#c#g17 ! SEV]AL C\NTY C\RTS & %]IFFS C\RTS DID DECL9E 9 !IR 9T]E/ & AU?ORITY4 ,! ME?ODS BY :I* !Y W]E BROK5 W]E TWO-FOLD4 ,FIR/1 BY GRANT+ COMMISSIONS TO ! %]IFFS BY WRIT ( ,J,U,/,I,C,I,E,S1 :]EBY ! %]IFF HAD A P>TICUL> JURISDICTION GRANT$ HIM TO BE JUDGE ( A P>TICUL> CAUSE1 9DEP5D5T ( ! SUITORS ( ! C\NTY C\RT10 7?AT IS1 )\T A JURY27 0& !SE COMMISSIONS W]E AFT] ! ,NORMAN =M1 BY :I* 7ACCORD+ TO :I*7 ALL P[] ( JUDICATURE WAS IMM$IATELY D]IV$ FROM ! K+40 ---,GILB]T ON ! ,C\RT ( ,*ANC]Y1 P4 L4  

 ,! SEV]AL AU?ORITIES N[ GIV5 %[ ?AT IT WAS ! CU/OM ( ! ,NORMAN K+S1 NOT ONLY TO APPO9T P]SONS TO SIT AS JUDGES 9 JURY TRIALS1 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 BUT ?AT !Y ALSO COMMISSION$ 9DIVIDUALS TO SIT 9 S+UL> & P>TICUL> EASES1 AS OCCASION REQUIR$2 & ?AT !Y !RE=E READILY C\LD1 & NATURALLY W\LD1 & !RE=E UND\BT$LY DID1 COMMISSION 9DIVIDUALS ) A SPECIAL VIEW TO !IR ADAPTATION OR CAPACITY TO PROCURE SU* JUDGM5TS AS ! K+S DESIR$4  

 ,! EXTRACT FROM ,GILB]T SUGGE/S ALSO ! USURPATION ( ! ,NORMAN K+S1 9 !IR ASSUMPTION ?AT !Y1 7& NOT ! PEOPLE1 AS BY ! COMMON LAW17 W]E ! F\NTA9S ( JU/ICE4 ,IT WAS ONLY BY VIRTUE ( ?IS ILLEGAL ASSUMPTION ?AT !Y C\LD CLAIM TO APPO9T !IR TOOLS TO HOLD C\RTS4  

 ,ALL !SE ?+S %[ H[ P]FECTLY LAWLESS & >BITR>Y ! K+S W]E1 BO? BE=E & AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 & H[ NECESS>Y TO LIB]TY WAS ! PR9CIPLE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA & ! COMMON LAW1 ?AT NO P]SON APPO9T$ BY ! K+ %\LD HOLD JURY TRIALS 9 CRIM9AL CASES4  

 #h#f4  ,! OP9IONS & DECISIONS ( JUDGES & C\RTS >E UNDES]V+ ( ! LEA/ RELIANCE1 7BEYOND ! 9TR9SIC M]IT ( ! >GUM5TS (F]$ TO SU/A9 !M17 & >E UNWOR?Y EV5 TO BE QUOT$ AS EVID5CE ( ! LAW1 :5 ?OSE OP9IONS OR DECISIONS >E FAVORABLE TO ! P[] ( ! GOV]NM5T1 OR UNFAVORABLE TO ! LIB]TIES ( ! PEOPLE4 ,! ONLY REASONS ?AT !IR OP9IONS1 :5 9 FAVOR ( LIB]TY1 >E 5TITL$ TO ANY CONFID5CE1 >E1 FIR/1 ?AT ALL PRESUMPTIONS ( LAW >E 9 FAVOR ( LIB]TY2 &1 SECOND1 ?AT ! ADMISSIONS ( ALL M51 ! 9NOC5T & ! CRIM9AL ALIKE1 :5 MADE AGA9/ !IR [N 9T]E/S1 >E 5TITL$ TO BE RECEIV$ AS TRUE1 BECAUSE IT IS CONTR>Y TO HUMAN NATURE = A MAN TO CONFESS ANY?+ BUT TRU? AGA9/ HIMSELF4  

 ,MORE SOLEMN F>CES1 OR MORE GROSS IMPO/URES1 W]E NEV] PRACTIC$ UPON MANK9D1 ?AN >E ALL1 OR V]Y NE>LY ALL1 ?OSE ORACUL> RESPONSES BY :I* C\RTS ASSUME TO DET]M9E ?AT C]TA9 /ATUTES1 9 RE/RA9T ( 9DIVIDUAL LIB]TY1 >E )9 ! CON/ITUTIONAL P[] ( ! GOV]NM5T1 & >E !RE=E VALID & B9D+ UPON ! PEOPLE4  

 ,! REASON :Y !SE C\RTS >E SO 9T5SELY S]VILE & CORRUPT1 IS1 ?AT !Y >E NOT ONLY P>TS (1 BUT ! V]IE/ CREATURES (1 ! V]Y GOV]NM5TS :OSE OPPRESSIONS !Y >E ?US SEEK+ TO UPHOLD4 ,!Y RECEIVE !IR (FICES & SAL>IES FROM1 & >E IMPEA*ABLE & REMOVABLE BY1 ! V]Y GOV]NM5TS UPON :OSE ACTS !Y AFFECT TO SIT 9 JUDGM5T4 ,( C\RSE1 NO ONE ) HIS EYES OP5 EV] PLACES HIMSELF 9 A POSITION SO 9COMPATIBLE ) ! LIB]TY ( DECL>+ HIS HONE/ OP9ION1 UNLESS HE DO IT ) ! 9T5TION ( BECOM+ A M]E 9/RUM5T 9 ! H&S ( ! GOV]NM5T = ! EXECUTION ( ALL ITS OPPRESSIONS4  

 ,AS PRO( ( ?IS1 LOOK AT ! JUDICIAL HI/ORY ( ,5GL& = ! LA/ FIVE HUNDR$ YE>S1 & ( ,AM]ICA FROM ITS SETTLEM5T4 ,9 ALL ?AT TIME 7SO F> AS ,I KN[1 OR PRESUME7 NO B5* ( JUDGES1 7PROBABLY NOT EV5 ANY S+LE JUDGE17 DEP5D5T UPON ! LEGISLATURE ?AT PASS$ ! /ATUTE1 HAS EV] DECL>$ A S+LE P5AL /ATUTE 9VALID1 ON ACC\NT ( ITS BE+ 9 CONFLICT EI!R ) ! COMMON LAW1 :I* ! JUDGES 9 ,5GL& HAVE BE5 SWORN TO PRES]VE1 OR ) ! WRITT5 CON/ITUTIONS1 7RECOGNIZ+ M5'S NATURAL RI<TS17 :I* ! ,AM]ICAN JUDGES W]E UND] OA? TO MA9TA94 ,EV]Y OPPRESSION1 EV]Y ATROCITY EV51 ?AT HAS EV] BE5 5ACT$ 9 EI!R C\NTRY1 BY ! LEGISLATIVE P[]1 9 ! %APE ( A CRIM9AL LAW1 7OR1 9DE$1 9 ALMO/ ANY O!R %APE17 HAS BE5 AS SURE ( A SANCTION FROM ! JUDICI>Y ?AT WAS DEP5D5T UPON1 & IMPEA*ABLE BY1 ! LEGISLATURE ?AT 5ACT$ ! LAW1 AS IF !RE W]E A PHYSICAL NECESSITY ?AT ! LEGISLATIVE 5ACTM5T & ! JUDICIAL SANCTION %\LD GO TOGE!R4 ,PRACTICALLY SPEAK+1 ! SUM ( !IR DECISIONS1 ALL & S+UL>1 HAS BE51 ?AT !RE >E NO LIMITS TO ! P[] ( ! GOV]NM5T1 & ?AT ! PEOPLE HAVE NO RI<TS EXCEPT :AT ! GOV]NM5T PLEASES TO ALL[ TO !M4  

 ,IT IS EXTREME FOLLY = A PEOPLE TO ALL[ SU* DEP5D5T1 S]VILE1 & P]JUR$ CREATURES TO SIT EI!R 9 CIVIL OR CRIM9AL TRIALS2 BUT TO ALL[ !M TO SIT 9 CRIM9AL TRIALS1 & JUDGE ( ! PEOPLE'S LIB]TIES1 IS NOT M]ELY FATUITY1 ---IT IS SUICIDE4  

 #h#g4  ,COKE1 SPEAK+ ( ! WORD BAILIFFS1 AS US$ 9 ! /ATUTE ( #a ,WE/M9/]1 *4 #c#e1 7#a#b#g#e17 SAYS3  

 0,H]E BAILIFFS >E TAK5 = ! JUDGES ( ! C\RT1 AS MANIFE/LY APPE>E? H]EBY40 ---#b ,9/41 #b#b#i4  

 ,COKE ALSO SAYS1 0,IT IS A MAXIM 9 LAW1 ALIQUIS NON DEBET ESSE JUDEX 9 PROPRIA CAUSA1 7NO ONE \<T TO BE JUDGE 9 HIS [N CAUSE27 & !RE=E A F9E LEVI$ BE=E ! BAYLIFES ( ,SALOP WAS REV]S$1 BECAUSE ONE ( ! BAYLIFES WAS P>TY TO ! F9E1 QUIA NON POTE/ ESSE JUDEX ET P>S10 7BECAUSE ONE CANNOT BE JUDGE & P>TY47 #a ,9/41 #ada A4  

 ,9 ! /ATUTE ( ,GL\CE/]1 *4 #aa & #a#b1 7#a#b#g#h17 0! MAYOR & BAILIFFS ( ,LONDON 7UND\BT$LY *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE1 OR AT ANY RATE NOT APPO9T$ BY ! K+7 >E MANIFE/LY SPOK5 ( AS JUDGES1 OR MAGI/RATES1 HOLD+ JURY TRIALS1 AS FOLL[S3  

 ,*4 ,I,I4 0,IT IS PROVID$1 ALSO1 ?AT IF ANY MAN LEASE HIS T5EM5T 9 ! CITY ( ,LONDON1 = A T]M ( YE>S1 & HE TO :OM ! FREEHOLD BELONGE? CAUSE? HIMSELF TO BE IMPLEAD$ BY COLLUSION1 & MAKE? DEFAULT AFT] DEFAULT1 OR COME? 9TO C\RT & GIVE? IT UP1 = TO MAKE ! T]MOR 7LESSEE7 LOSE HIS T]M1 7LEASE17 & ! DEM&ANT HA? HIS SUIT1 SO ?AT ! T]MOR MAY RECOV] BY WRIT ( COV5ANT2 ! MAYOR & BAILIFFS MAY 9QUIRE BY A GOOD 9QUE/1 7JURY17 9 ! PRES5CE ( ! T]MOR & ! DEM&ANT1 :E!R ! DEM&ANT MOV$ HIS PLEA UPON GOOD RI<T ?AT HE HAD1 OR BY COLLUSION1 OR FRAUD1 TO MAKE ! T]MOR LOSE HIS T]M2 & IF IT BE F\ND BY ! 9QUE/ 7JURY7 ?AT ! DEM&ANT MOV$ HIS PLEA UPON GOOD RI<T ?AT HE HAD1 ! JUDGM5T %ALL BE GIV5 =?)2 & IF IT BE F\ND BY ! 9QUE/ 7JURY7 ?AT HE IMPLEAD$ HIM 7SELF 7 BY FRAUD1 TO PUT ! T]MOR FROM HIS T]M1 !N %ALL ! T]MOR 5JOY HIS T]M1 & ! EXECUTION ( JUDGM5T = ! DEM&ANT %ALL BE SUSP5D$ UNTIL ! T]M BE EXPIR$40 ---#d ,$W>D ,I41 *4 #a#a1 7#a#b#g#h47  

 ,COKE1 9 HIS COMM5T>Y ON ?IS *APT]1 CALLS ?IS C\RT ( 0! MAYOR & BAILIFFS0 ( ,LONDON1 0! C\RT ( ! HU/+S1 ! GREATE/ & HI<E/ C\RT 9 ,LONDON20 & ADDS1 0O!R CITIES HAVE ! LIKE C\RT1 & SO CALL$1 AS ,YORK1 ,L9COLN1 ,W9*E/]1 @&E24 ,H]E ! CITY ( ,LONDON IS NAM$2 BUT IT APPE>E? BY ?AT :I* HA? BE5 SAID \T ( ,FLETA1 ?AT ?IS ACT EXT5DS TO SU* CITIES & BOR\<S PRIVILEG$1 ---?AT IS1 SU* AS HAVE SU* PRIVILEGE TO HOLD PLEA AS ,LONDON HA?40 ---#b ,9/41 #c#b#b4  

 ,! #a#b? *APT] ( ! SAME /ATUTE IS 9 ! FOLL[+ WORDS1 :I* PLA9LY RECOGNIZE ! FACT ?AT 0! MAYOR & BAILIFFS ( ,LONDON0 >E JUDICIAL (FIC]S HOLD+ C\RTS 9 ,LONDON4  

 0,IT IS PROVID$1 ALSO1 ?AT IF A MAN1 IMPLEAD$ = A T5EM5T 9 ! SAME CITY1 7,LONDON17 DO? V\* A =EIGN] TO W>RANTY1 ?AT HE %ALL COME 9TO ! *ANC]Y1 & HAVE A WRIT TO SUMMON HIS W>RANTOR AT A C]TA9 DAY BE=E ! JU/ICES ( ! B5*1 & ANO!R WRIT TO ! MAYOR & BAILIFF ( ,LONDON1 ?AT !Y %ALL SURCEASE 7SUSP5D PROCE$+S7 9 ! MATT] ?AT IS BE=E !M BY WRIT1 UNTIL ! PLEA ( ! W>RANTEE BE DET]M9$ BE=E ! JU/ICES ( ! B5*2 & :5 ! PLEA AT ! B5* %ALL BE DET]M9$1 !N %ALL HE ?AT IS V\*$ BE COMM&$ TO GO 9TO ! CITY10 7?AT IS1 BE=E 0! MAYOR & BAILIFFS' 0 C\RT17 0TO ANSW] UNTO ! *IEF PLEA2 & A WRIT %ALL BE AW>D$ AT ! SUIT ( ! DEM&ANT BY ! JU/ICES UNTO ! MAYOR & BAILIFFS1 ?AT !Y %ALL PROCE$ 9 ! PLEA10 @&C24 ---#f ,$W>D ,I41 *4 #a#b1 7#a#b#g#h47  

 ,COKE1 9 HIS COMM5T>Y ON ?IS *APT]1 ALSO SPEAKS REPEAT$LY ( 0! MAYOR & BAILIFFS0 AS JUDGES HOLD+ C\RTS1 & ALSO SPEAKS ( ?IS *APT] AS APPLICABLE NOT ONLY TO 0! CITIE ( ,LONDON1 SPECIALLY NAM$ = ! CAUSE A=ESAID1 BUT EXT5D$ BY EQUITY TO ALL O!R PRIVILEG$ PLACES10 7?AT IS1 PRIVILEG$ TO HAVE A C\RT ( 0MAYOR & BAIL -  IFFS107 0:]E =EIGN V\*] IS MADE1 AS TO ,*E/]1 ,DURHAM1 ,SALOP10 @&C4 ---#b ,9/41 #c#b#e-#g4  

 ,B,A,I,L,I,E4 ---,9 ,SCOT* LAW1 A MUNICIPAL MAGI/RATE1 CORRESPOND+ ) ! ,5GLI% ALD]MAN4 .<,ALD]MAN WAS A TITLE ANCI5TLY GIV5 TO V>I\S JUDICIAL (FIC]S1 AS ! ,ALD]MAN ( ALL ,5GL&1 ,ALD]MAN ( ! ,K+1 ,ALD]MAN ( ! ,C\NTY1 ,ALD]MAN ( ! ,CITY OR ,BOR\<1 ALD]MAN ( ! ,HUNDR$ OR ,WAP5TAKE4 ,!SE W]E ALL JUDICIAL (FIC]S4 ,SEE ,LAW ,DICTION>IES4.> ---,BURRILL'S ,LAW ,DICTION>Y4  

 ,B,A,I,L,L,I,F,F,E ---,BAILLIF4 ,FR4 ,A BAILIFF3 A M9I/]IAL (FIC] ) DUTIES SIMIL> TO ?OSE ( A %]IFF4 4 4 4,! JUDGE ( A C\RT4 ,A MUNICIPAL MAGI/RATE1 @&C4 ---,BURRILL'S ,LAW ,DICT4  

 ,B,A,I,L,I,F,F 4 4 4 ,! WORD BAILIFF IS ( ,NORMAN ORIG91 & WAS APPLI$ 9 ,5GL&1 AT AN E>LY P]IOD1 7AFT] ! EXAMPLE1 IT IS SAID1 ( ! ,FR5*17 TO ! *IEF MAGI/RATES ( C\NTIES1 OR %IRES1 SU* AS ! ALD]MAN1 ! REEVE1 OR %]IFF1 & ALSO ( 9F]IOR JURISDICTIONS1 SU* AS HUNDR$S & WAP5TAKES4 ---,SPELMAN1 VOC4 ,BALIVUS2 #a ,BL4 ,COM41#c#d#d4 ,SEE ,BAILLI1 ,BALLIVUS4 ,! ,LAT9 BALLIVUS OCCURS1 9DE$1 9 ! LAWS ( ,$W>D ! ,CONFESSOR1 BUT ,SPELMAN ?9KS IT WAS 9TRODUC$ BY A LAT] H&4 ,BALLIVA 7BAILIWICK7 WAS ! WORD =M$ FROM BALLIVUS1 TO D5OTE ! EXT5T ( T]RITORY COMPRIS$ )9 A BAILIFF'S JURISDICTION2 & BAILIWICK IS /ILL RETA9$ 9 WRITS & O!R PROCE$+S1 AS ! NAME ( A %]IFF'S C\NTY4 ---#a ,BL4 ,COM41 #c#d#d4 ,SEE ,BALLIVA4 ,! (FICE ( BAILIFF WAS AT FIR/ /RICTLY1 ?\< NOT EXCLUSIVELY1 A JUDICIAL ONE4 ,9 ,FRANCE1 ! WORD HAD ! S5SE ( :AT ,SPELMAN CALLS JU/ITIA TUTEL>IS4 ,BALLIVUS OCCURS FREQU5TLY 9 ! ,REGIAM ,MAJE/ATEM1 9 ! S5SE ( A JUDGE4 ---,SPELMAN4 ,9 ITS S5SE ( A DEPUTY1 IT WAS =M]LY APPLI$1 9 ,5GL&1 TO ?OSE (FIC]S :O1 BY VIRTUE ( A DEPUTATION1 EI!R FROM ! %]IFF OR ! LORDS ( PRIVATE JURISDICTIONS1 EX]CIS$ )9 ! HUNDR$1 OR :ATEV] MI<T BE ! LIMITS ( !IR BAILIWICK1 C]TA9 JUDICIAL & M9I/]IAL FUNCTIONS4 ,) ! DISUSE ( PRIVATE & LOCAL JURISDICTIONS1 ! MEAN+ ( ! T]M BECAME COMMONLY RE/RICT$ TO SU* P]SONS AS W]E DEPUT$ BY ! %]IFF TO ASSI/ HIM 9 ! M]ELY M9I/]IAL PORTION ( HIS DUTY2 SU* AS ! SUMMON+ ( JURIES1 & ! EXECUTION ( WRITS4 ---,BR&E4 4 4 4 ,! WORD BAILIFF IS ALSO APPLI$ 9 ,5GL& TO ! *IEF MAGI/RATES ( C]TA9 T[NS & JURISDICTIONS1 TO ! KEEP]S ( CA/LES1 =E/S & O!R PLACES1 & TO ! /EW>DS OR AG5TS ( LORDS ( MANORS4 ---,BURRILL'S ,LAW ,DICT4  

 0,B,A,I,L,I,F,F1 7FROM ! ,LAT4 BALLIVUS2 ,FR4 BAILLIF1 I4 E41 ,PRAEFECTUS PROV9CIAE17 SIGNIFIES AN (FIC] APPO9T$ = ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE )9 A C]TA9 DI/RICT4 ,! (FICE1 AS WELL AS ! NAME1 APPE>S TO HAVE BE5 D]IV$ FROM ! ,FR5*10 @&C4 ---,BREW/]'S ,5CYCLOP$IA4  

 ,MILL> SAYS1 0,! ,FR5* MON>*S1 AB\T ?IS P]IOD1 W]E NOT CONT5T ) ! P[] ( RECEIV+ APPEALS FROM ! SEV]AL C\RTS ( !IR B>ONS4 ,AN EXP$I5T WAS DEVIS$ ( S5D+ ROYAL BAILIFFS 9TO DIFF]5T P>TS ( ! K+DOM1 ) A COMMISSION TO TAKE COGNIZANCE ( ALL ?OSE CAUSES 9 :I* ! SOV]EIGN WAS 9T]E/$1 & 9 REALITY = ! PURPOSE ( ABRIDG+ & LIMIT+ ! SUBORD9ATE JURISDICTION ( ! NEI<BOR+ FEUDAL SUP]IORS4 ,BY AN $ICT ( ,PHILLIP ,AUGU/US1 9 ! YE> #a#a#i1 ?OSE BAILIFFS W]E APPO9T$ 9 ALL ! PR9CIPAL T[NS ( ! K+DOM40 ---,MILL>'S ,HI/4 ,VIEW ( ! ,5G4 ,GOV41 VOL4 II41 *4 #h1 P4 #a#b#f4  

 0,B,A,I,L,I,F,F ---(FICE4 ---,MAGI/RATES :O =M]LY ADM9I/]$ JU/ICE 9 ! P>LIAM5TS OR C\RTS ( ,FRANCE1 ANSW]+ TO ! ,5GLI% %]IFFS1 AS M5TION$ BY ,BRACTON40 ---,B\VI]'S ,LAW ,DICT4  

 0,!RE BE SEV]AL (FIC]S CALL$ BAILIFFS1 :OSE (FICES & EMPLOYM5TS SEEM QUITE DIFF]5T FROM EA* O!R 4 4 4 ,! *IEF MAGI/RATE1 9 DIV]SE ANCI5T CORPORATIONS1 >E CALL$ BAILIFFS1 AS 9 ,IPSWI*1 ,Y>M\?1 ,COL*E/]1 @&C24 ,!RE >E1 LIKEWISE1 (FIC]S ( ! =E/1 :O >E T]M$ BAILIFFS40 ---#a ,BACON'S ,ABRIDGM5T1 #dih #i4  

 0 ,B,A,I,L,I,F,F SIGNIFIES A KEEP] OR SUP]9T5D5T1 & IS DIRECTLY D]IV$ FROM ! ,FR5* WORD BAILLI1 :I* APPE>S TO COME FROM ! WORD BALIVUS1 & ?AT FROM BAGALUS1 A ,LAT9 WORD SIGNIFY+ G5]ALLY A GOV]NOR1 TUTOR1 OR SUP]9T5D5T 4 4 4 ,! ,FR5* WORD BAILLI IS ?US EXPLA9$ BY ,RI*ELET1 7,DICTIONAIRE1 @&C437 ,BAILLI4 ---,HE :O 9 A PROV9CE HAS ! SUP]9T5D5CE ( JU/ICE1 :O IS ! ORD9>Y JUDGE ( ! NOBLES1 :O IS !IR HEAD = ! BAN & >RI]E BAN1 .<0,BAN & >RI]E BAN1 A PROCLAMATION1 :]EBY ALL ?AT HOLD L&S ( ! CR[N1 7EXCEPT SOME PRIVILEG$ (FIC]S & CITIZ5S17 >E SUMMON$ TO MEET AT A C]TA9 PLACE 9 ORD] TO S]VE ! K+ 9 HIS W>S1 EI!R P]SONALLY1 OR BY PROXY40 ---,BOY]4.> & :O MA9TA9S ! RI<T & PROP]TY ( O!RS AGA9/ ?OSE :O ATTACK !M4 4 4 4 ,ALL ! V>I\S (FIC]S :O >E CALL$ BY ?IS NAME1 ?\< DIFF]+ AS TO ! NATURE ( !IR EMPLOYM5TS1 SEEM TO HAVE SOME K9D ( SUP]9T5D5CE 5TRU/$ TO !M BY !IR SUP]IOR40 ---,POLITICAL ,DICTION>Y4  

 0,B,A,I,L,I,F,F1 BALIVUS4 ,FROM ! ,FR5* WORD BAYLIFF1 ?AT IS1 PRAEFECTUS PROV9CIAE1 & AS ! NAME1 SO ! (FICE ITSELF WAS ANSW]ABLE TO ?AT ( ,FRANCE1 :]E !RE W]E EI<T P>LIAM5TS1 :I* W]E HI< C\RTS FROM :5CE !RE LAY NO APPEAL1 & )9 ! PREC9CTS ( ! SEV]AL P>TS ( ?AT K+DOM :I* BELONG$ TO EA* P>LIAM5T1 !RE W]E SEV]AL PROV9CES TO :I* JU/ICE WAS ADM9I/]$ BY C]TA9 (FIC]S CALL$ BAILIFFS2 & 9 ,5GL& WE HAVE SEV]AL C\NTIES 9 :I* JU/ICE HA? BE51 & /ILL IS1 9 SMALL SUITS1 ADM9I/]$ TO ! 9HABITANTS BY ! (FIC] :OM WE N[ CALL %]IFF1 OR VISC\NT2 7ONE ( :I* NAMES DESC5DS FROM ! ,SAXONS1 ! O!R FROM ! ,NORMANS47 ,&1 ?\< ! %]IFF IS NOT CALL$ BAILIFF1 YET IT WAS PROBABLE ?AT WAS ONE ( HIS NAMES ALSO1 BECAUSE ! C\NTY IS (T5 CALL$ BALLIVA2 AS 9 ! RETURN ( A WRIT1 :]E ! P]SON IS NOT >RE/$1 ! %]IFF SAI?1 9FRA-NOM9ATUS1 ,A4 ,B4 NON E/ 9V5TUS 9 BALLIVA MEA1 @&C42 7! )9 NAM$ ,A4 ,B4 IS NOT F\ND 9 MY BAILIWICK1 @&C247 ,& 9 ! /ATUTE ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 *4 #b#h1 & #ad ,$4 #h1 *4 #i1 ! WORD BAILIFF SEEMS TO COMPRISE AS WELL %]IFFS1 AS BAILIFFS ( HUNDR$S4  

 0,BAILIES1 9 ,SCOTL&1 >E MAGI/RATES ( BUR<S1 POSSESS$ ( C]TA9 JURISDICTIONS1 HAV+ ! SAME P[] )9 !IR T]RITORY AS %]IFFS 9 ! C\NTY4 4 4 4  

 0,AS ,5GL& IS DIVID$ 9TO C\NTIES1 SO EV]Y C\NTY IS DIVID$ 9TO HUNDR$S2 )9 :I*1 9 ANCI5T TIMES1 ! PEOPLE HAD JU/ICE ADM9I/]$ TO !M BY ! SEV]AL (FIC]S ( EV]Y HUNDR$1 :I* W]E ! BAILIFFS4 ,& IT APPE>S BY ,BRACTON1 7LIB4 #c1 TRACT4 #b1 *4 #c#d17 ?AT BAILIFFS ( HUNDR$S MI<T ANCI5TLY HOLD PLEA ( APPEAL & APPROV]S2 BUT S9CE ?AT TIME ! HUNDR$ C\RTS1 EXCEPT C]TA9 FRAN*ISES1 >E SWALL[$ 9 ! C\NTY C\RTS2 & N[ ! BAILIFF'S NAME & (FICE IS GR[N 9TO CONTEMPT1 !Y BE+ G5]ALLY (FIC]S TO S]VE WRITS1 @&C41 )9 !IR LIB]TIES2 ?\<1 9 O!R RESPECTS1 ! NAME IS /ILL 9 GOOD E/EEM1 = ! *IEF MAGI/RATES 9 DIV]SE T[NS >E CALL$ BAILIFFS2 & SOMETIMES ! P]SONS TO :OM ! K+'S CA/LES >E COMMITT$ >E T]M$ BAILIFFS1 AS ! BAILIFF ( ,DOV] ,CA/LE1 @&C241  

 0,( ! ORD9>Y BAILIFFS !RE >E SEV]AL SORTS1 VIZ41 BAILIFFS ( LIB]TIES2 %]IFFS' BAILIFFS2 BAILIFFS ( LORDS ( MANORS2 BAILIFFS ( HUSB&RY1 @&C24  

 0,BAILIFFS ( LIB]TIES OR FRAN*ISES >E TO BE SWORN TO TAKE DI/RESSES1 TRULY IMPANEL JURORS1 MAKE RETURNS BY 9D5TURE BETWE5 !M & %]IFFS1 @&C4 4 4 4  

 0,BAILIFFS ( C\RTS B>ON SUMMON ?OSE C\RTS1 & EXECUTE ! PROCESS !RE(44 4 4 4  

 0,BESIDES !SE1 !RE >E ALSO BAILIFFS ( ! =E/ 4 4 4 0 ---,JACOB'S ,LAW ,DICT4 ,TOML9'S DO4  

 0,B,A,I,L,I,W,I,C,K1 BALLIVA1 ---IS NOT ONLY TAK5 = ! C\NTY1 BUT SIGNIFIES G5]ALLY ?AT LIB]TY :I* IS EXEMPT$ FROM ! %]IFF ( ! C\NTY1 OV] :I* ! LORD ( ! LIB]TY APPO9TE? A BAILIFF1 ) SU* P[]S )9 HIS PREC9CT AS AN UND]-%]IFF EX]CISE? UND] ! %]IFF ( ! C\NTY2 SU* AS ! BAILIFF ( ,WE/M9/]40 ---,JACOB'S ,LAW ,DICT4 ,TOML9'S DO4  

 0,A BAILIFF ( A ,LEET1 ,C\RT-B>ON1 ,MANOR1 ,BALIVUS ,LETAE1 ,B>ONIS1 ,MAN]II4 ---,HE IS ONE ?AT IS APPO9T$ BY ! LORD1 OR HIS /EW>D1 )9 EV]Y MANOR1 TO DO SU* (FICES AS APP]TA9 !REUNTO1 AS TO SUMMON ! C\RT1 W>N ! T5ANTS & RESIANTS2 ALSO1 TO SUMMON ! ,LEET & ,HOMAGE1 LEVY F9ES1 & MAKE DI/RESSES1 @&C241 ( :I* Y\ MAY READ AT L>GE 9 ,KIT*5'S ,C\RT-LEET & ,C\RT-B>ON40 ---,A ,LAW ,DICTION>Y1 ANONYM\S1 79 ,SUFFOLK ,LAW ,LIBR>Y47  

 0,B,A,I,L,L,I,F,F ---,9 ,5GL& AN (FIC] APPO9T$ BY ! %]IFF4 ,BAILIFF'S >E EI!R SPECIAL1 & APPO9T$1 = !IR ADROITNESS1 TO >RE/ P]SONS2 OR BAILIFFS ( HUNDR$S1 :O COLLECT F9ES1 SUMMON JURIES1 ATT5D ! ASSIZES1 & EXECUTE WRITS & PROCESSES4 ,! %]IFF 9 ,5GL& IS ! K+'S BAILIFF4 4 4 4  

 0,! (FICE ( BAILIFF =M]LY WAS HI< & HONORABLE 9 ,5GL&1 & (FIC]S UND] ?AT TITLE ON ! CONT95T >E /ILL 9VE/$ ) IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS40 ---,WEB/]4  

 0,B,A,I,L,L,I1 7,SCOTL&47 ---,AN ALD]MAN2 A MAGI/RATE :O IS SECOND 9 RANK 9 A ROYAL BUR<40 ---,WORCE/]4  

 0,BAILI1 OR ,BAILIFF4 ---7,SORTE D'(FICI] DE JU/ICE47 ,A BAILIFF2 A SORT ( MAGI/RATE40 ---,BOY]'S ,FR5* ,DICT4  

 0,BY SOME OP9IONS1 A BAILIFF1 9 ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 *4 #b#h1 SIGNIFIES ANY JUDGE40 ---,CUNN+HAM'S ,LAW ,DICT4  

 0,B,A,I,L,I,F,F4 ---,9 ! C\RT ( ! ,GREEK EMP]ORS !RE WAS A GR& BAJULOS1 FIR/ TUTOR ( ! EMP]OR'S *ILDR54 ,! SUP]9T5D5T ( =EIGN M]*ANTS SEEMS ALSO TO HAVE BE5 CALL$ BAJULOS2 &1 AS HE WAS APPO9T$ BY ! ,V5ETIANS1 ?IS TITLE 7BALIO7 WAS TRANSF]R$ TO ! ,V5ETIAN AMBASSADOR4 ,FROM ,GREECE1 ! (FICIAL BAJULOS 7BALLIVUS1 BAILLI1 9 ,FRANCE2 BAILIFF1 9 ,5GL&17 WAS 9TRODUC$ 9TO ! S\? ( ,EUROPE1 & D5OT$ A SUP]9T5D5T2 H5CE ! EI<T BALLIVI ( ! KNI<TS ( ,/4 ,JOHN1 :I* CON/ITUTE ITS SUPREME C\NCIL4 ,9 ,FRANCE1 ! ROYAL BAILIFFS W]E COMM&]S ( ! MILITIA1 ADM9I/RATORS OR /EW>DS ( ! DOMA9S1 & JUDGES ( !IR DI/RICTS4 ,9 ! C\RSE ( TIME1 ONLY ! FIR/ DUTY REMA9$ TO ! BAILIFF2 H5CE HE WAS BAILLI D'EPEE1 & LAWS W]E ADM9I/]$ 9 HIS NAME BY A LAWY]1 AS HIS DEPUTY1 LIEUT5ANT DE ROBE4 ,! SEIGNIORIES1 ) :I* HI< C\RTS W]E CONNECT$1 EMPLOY$ BAILIFFS1 :O ?US CON/ITUT$1 ALMO/ EV]Y:]E1 ! L[E/ ORD] ( JUDGES4 ,FROM ! C\RTS ( ! NOBILITY1 ! APPELLATION PASS$ TO ! ROYAL C\RTS2 FROM !NCE TO ! P>LIAM5TS4 ,9 ! GREAT] BAILIWICKS ( CITIES ( IMPORTANCE1 ,H5RY ,I,I4 E/ABLI%$ A COLLEGIAL CON/ITUTION UND] ! NAME ( PRESIDIAL C\RTS4 4 4 4,! NAME ( BAILIFF WAS 9TRODUC$ 9TO ,5GL& ) ,WILLIAM ,I4 ,! C\NTIES W]E ALSO CALL$ BAILIWICKS1 7BAILIVAE17 :ILE ! SUBDIVISIONS W]E CALL$ HUNDR$S1 BUT1 AS ! C\RTS ( ! HUNDR$S HAVE LONG S9CE CEAS$1 ! ,5GLI% BAILIFFS >E ONLY A K9D ( SUBORD9ATE (FIC]S ( JU/ICE1 LIKE ! ,FR5* HUISSI]S4 ,!SE CORRESPOND V]Y NE>LY TO ! (FIC]S CALL$ CON/ABLES 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4 ,EV]Y %]IFF HAS SOME( !M UND] HIM1 = :OM HE IS ANSW]ABLE4 ,9 SOME CITIES ! HI<E/ MUNICIPAL (FIC] YET BE>S ?IS NAME1 AS ! HI< BAILIFF ( ,WE/M9/]4 ,9 ,LONDON1 ! ,LORD ,MAYOR IS AT ! SAME TIME BAILIFF2 7:I* TITLE HE BORE BE=E ! PRES5T BECAME USUAL17 & ADM9I/]S1 9 ?IS QUALITY1 ! CRIM9AL JURISDICTION ( ! CITY1 9 ! C\RT ( OLD ,BAILEY1 :]E !RE >E1 ANNUALLY1 EI<T SITT+S ( ! C\RT1 = ! CITY ( ,LONDON & ! C\NTY ( ,MIDDLESEX4 ,USUALLY1 ! RECORD] ( ,LONDON SUPPLIES HIS PLACE AS JUDGE4 ,9 SOME 9/ANCES ! T]M BAILIFF1 9 ,5GL&1 IS APPLI$ TO ! *IEF MAGI/RATES ( T[NS1 OR TO ! COMM&]S ( P>TICUL> CA/LES1 AS ?AT ( ,DOV]4 ,! T]M BAILLIE1 9 ,SCOTL&1 IS APPLI$ TO A JUDICIAL POLICE-(FIC]1 HAV+ P[]S V]Y SIMIL> TO ?OSE ( JU/ICES ( PEACE 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES40 ---,5CYCLOP$IA ,AM]ICANA4  

 #h#h4  ,P]HAPS IT MAY BE SAID 7& SU*1 IT HAS ALREADY BE5 SE51 IS ! OP9ION ( ,COKE & O!RS7 ?AT ! *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 ?AT 0NO BAILIFF FROM H5CE=? %ALL PUT ANY MAN TO HIS OP5 LAW1 7PUT HIM ON TRIAL17 NOR TO AN OA? 7?AT IS1 AN OA? ( SELF- EXCULPATION7 UPON HIS 7! BAILIFF'S7 [N ACCUSATION OR TE/IMONY1 )\T CR$IBLE WITNESSES BR\<T 9 TO PROVE ! *>GE10 IS ITSELF A 0PROVISION 9 REG>D TO ! K+'S JU/ICES SITT+ 9 CRIM9AL TRIALS10 & !RE=E IMPLIES ?AT !Y >E TO SIT 9 SU* TRIALS4  

 ,BUT1 AL?\< ! WORD BAILIFF 9CLUDES ALL JUDICIAL1 AS WELL AS O!R1 (FIC]S1 & W\LD !RE=E 9 ?IS CASE APPLY TO ! K+'S JU/ICES1 IF !Y W]E TO SIT 9 CRIM9AL TRIALS2 YET ?IS P>TICUL> *APT] ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA EVID5TLY DOES NOT CONTEMPLATE 0BAILIFFS0 :ILE ACT+ 9 !IR JUDICIAL CAPACITY1 7= !Y W]E NOT ALL[$ TO SIT 9 CRIM9AL TRIALS AT ALL17 BUT ONLY 9 ! *>ACT] ( WITNESSES1 & ?AT ! MEAN+ ( ! *APT] IS1 ?AT ! SIMPLE TE/IMONY 7SIMPLICI LOQUELA7 ( 0NO BAILIFF10 7( :ATEV] K9D17 UNSUPPORT$ BY O!R & 0CR$IBLE WITNESSES10 %ALL BE SUFFICI5T TO PUT ANY MAN ON TRIAL1 OR TO HIS OA? ( SELF-EXCULPATION40 .<,AT ! COMMON LAW1 P>TIES1 9 BO? CIVIL & CRIM9AL CASES1 W]E ALL[$ TO SWE> 9 !IR [N BEHALF2 & IT WILL BE SO AGA91 IF ! TRUE TRIAL BY JURY %\LD BE REE/ABLI%$4.>  

 ,IT WILL BE NOTIC$ ?AT ! WORDS ( ?IS *APT] >E NOT1 0NO BAILIFF ( \RS10 ---?AT IS1 ( ! K+1 ---AS 9 SOME O!R *APT]S ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA2 BUT SIMPLY 0NO BAILIFF10@&C4 ,! PROHIBITION1 !RE=E1 APPLI$ TO ALL 0BAILIFFS10 -- TO ?OSE *OS5 BY ! PEOPLE1 AS WELL AS ?OSE APPO9T$ BY ! K+4 ,& ! PROHIBITION IS OBVI\SLY F\ND$ UPON ! IDEA 7A V]Y S\ND ONE 9 ?AT AGE C]TA9LY1 & PROBABLY ALSO 9 ?IS7 ?AT PUBLIC (FIC]S 7:E!R APPO9T$ BY K+ OR PEOPLE7 HAVE G5]ALLY1 OR AT LEA/ FREQU5TLY1 TOO MANY 9T]E/S & ANIMOSITIES AGA9/ ACCUS$ P]SONS1 TO MAKE IT1 SAFE TO CONVICT ANY MAN ON !IR TE/IMONY ALONE4  

 ,! IDEA ( ,COKE & O!RS1 ?AT ! OBJECT ( ?IS *APT] WAS SIMPLY TO =BID MAGI/RATES TO PUT A MAN ON TRIAL1 :5 !RE W]E NO WITNESSES AGA9/ HIM1 BUT ONLY ! SIMPLE ACCUSATION OR TE/IMONY ( ! MAGI/RATES !MSELVES1 BE=E :OM HE WAS TO BE TRI$1 IS PREPO/]\S2 = ?AT W\LD BE EQUIVAL5T TO SUPPOS+ ?AT MAGI/RATES ACT$ 9 ! TRIPLE *>ACT] ( JUDGE1 JURY & WITNESSES1 9 ! SAME TRIAL2 & ?AT1 !RE=E1 9 SU* CASE1 !Y NE$$ TO BE PROHIBIT$ FROM CONDEMN+ A MAN ON !IR [N ACCUSATION OR TE/IMONY ALONE4 ,BUT SU* A PROVISION W\LD HAVE BE5 UNNECESS>Y & S5SELESS1 = TWO REASONS2 FIR/1 BECAUSE ! BAILIFFS OR MAGI/RATES HAD NO P[] TO 0HOLD PLEAS ( ! CR[N10 /ILL LESS TO TRY OR CONDEMN A MAN2 ?AT P[] RE/+ :OLLY ) ! JURIES2 SECOND1 BECAUSE IF BAILIFFS OR MAGI/RATES C\LD TRY & CONDEMN A MAN1 )\T A JURY1 ! PROHIBITION UPON !IR DO+ SO UPON !IR [N ACCUSATION OR TE/IMONY ALONE1 W\LD GIVE NO ADDITIONAL PROTECTION TO ! ACCUS$1 SO LONG AS !SE SAME BAILIFFS OR MAGI/RATES W]E ALL[$ TO DECIDE :AT WEI<T %\LD BE GIV51 BO? TO !IR [N TE/IMONY & ?AT ( O!R WITNESSES1 =1 IF !Y WI%$ TO CONVICT1 !Y W\LD ( C\RSE DECIDE ?AT ANY TE/IMONY1 H[EV] FRIVOL\S OR IRRELEVANT1 9 ADDITION TO !IR [N1 WAS SUFFICI5T4 ,C]TA9LY A MAGI/RATE C\LD ALWAYS PROCURE WITNESSES 5\< TO TE/IFY TO SOME?+ OR O!R1 :I* HE HIMSELF C\LD DECIDE TO BE CORROBORATIVE ( HIS [N TE/IMONY4 ,& ?US ! PROHIBITION W\LD BE DEFEAT$ 9 FACT1 ?\< OBS]V$ 9 =M4  

 #hi 
  ,9 ?IS *APT] ,I HAVE CALL$ ! JU/ICES 0PRESID+ (FIC]S10 SOLELY = ! WANT ( A BETT] T]M4 ,!Y >E NOT 0PRESID+ (FIC]S10 9 ! S5SE ( HAV+ ANY AU?ORITY OV] ! JURY2 BUT >E ONLY ASSI/ANTS TO1 & TEA*]S & S]VANTS (1 ! JURY4 ,! =EMAN ( ! JURY IS PROP]LY ! 0,PRESID+ ,(FIC]10 SO F> AS !RE IS SU* AN (FIC] AT ALL4 ,! %]IFF HAS NO AU?ORITY EXCEPT OV] O!R P]SONS ?AN ! JURY4  

 #i4  #b ,SULLIVAN ,LECTURES1 #b#c#d-#e4 #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #b#g#d-#e1 #c#g#f4 ,SULLIVAN SAYS ?AT BO? PLA9TIFF'S & DEF5DANTS W]E LIABLE TO AM]CEM5T4 ,BLACK/ONE SPEAKS ( PLA9TIFFS BE+ LIABLE1 )\T SAY+ :E!R DEF5DANTS W]E SO OR NOT4 ,:AT ! RULE REALLY WAS ,I DO NOT KN[4 ,!RE W\LD SEEM TO BE SOME REASON 9 ALL[+ DEF5DANTS TO DEF5D !MSELVES1 AT !IR [N *>GES1 )\T EXPOS+ !MSELVES TO AM]CEM5T 9 CASE ( FAILURE4  

 #i#a4  ,:5 ANY O!R WITNESSES ?AN FREEHOLD]S W]E REQUIR$ 9 A CIVIL SUIT1 ,I AM NOT AW>E ( ! MANN] 9 :I* !IR ATT5DANCE WAS PROCUR$2 BUT IT WAS D\BTLESS DONE AT ! EXP5SE EI!R ( ! /ATE OR ( ! WITNESSES !MSELVES4 ,& IT WAS D\BT LESS ! SAME 9 CRIM9AL CASES4  

 #i#b4 0,ALL CLAIMS W]E E/ABLI%$ 9 ! FIR/ /AGE BY ! OA? ( ! PLA9TIFF1 EXCEPT :5 O!RWISE SPECIALLY DIRECT$ BY ! LAW4 ,! OA?1 BY :I* ANY CLAIM WAS SUPPORT$1 WAS CALL$ ! =E-OA?1 OR ' ,PRAEJURAM5TUM1' & IT WAS ! F\NDATION ( HIS SUIT4 ,ONE ( ! CASES :I* DID NOT REQUIRE ?IS 9ITIATORY CONFIRMATION1 WAS :5 CATTLE C\LD BE TRACK$ 9TO ANO!R MAN'S L&1 & !N ! FOOT-M>K /OOD = ! =E-OA?40 ---#b ,PALGRAVE'S ,RISE & ,PROGRESS1 @&C41 #a#a#d4  

 #i#c4  ,AMONG ! NECESS>Y EXP5SES ( SUITS1 %\LD BE RECKON$ REASONABLE COMP5SATION TO C\NSEL1 = !Y >E NE>LY OR QUITE AS IMPORTANT TO ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE1 AS >E JUDGES1 JURORS1 OR WITNESSES2 & ! UNIV]SAL PRACTICE ( EMPLOY+ !M1 BO? ON ! P>T ( GOV]NM5TS & ( PRIVATE P]SONS1 %[S ?AT !IR IMPORTANCE IS G5]ALLY UND]/OOD4 ,AS A M]E MATT] ( ECONOMY1 TOO1 IT W\LD BE WISE = ! GOV]NM5T TO PAY !M1 RA!R ?AN !Y %\LD NOT BE EMPLOY$2 BECAUSE !Y COLLECT & >RANGE ! TE/IMONY & ! LAW BE=EH&1 SO AS TO BE ABLE TO PRES5T ! :OLE CASE TO ! C\RT & JURY 9TELLIGIBLY1 & 9 A %ORT SPACE ( TIME4 ,:]EAS1 IF !Y W]E NOT EMPLOY$1 ! C\RT & JURY W\LD BE UND] ! NECESSITY EI!R ( SP5D+ MU* MORE TIME ?AN N[ 9 ! 9VE/IGATION ( CAUSES1 OR ( DISPAT*+ !M 9 HA/E1 & ) LITTLE REG>D TO JU/ICE4 ,!Y W\LD BE V]Y LIKELY TO DO ! LATT]1 ?US DEFEAT+ ! :OLE OBJECT ( ! PEOPLE 9 E/ABLI%+ C\RTS4  

 ,TO PREV5T ! ABUSE ( ?IS RI<T1 IT %\LD P]HAPS BE LEFT DISCRETION>Y ) ! JURY 9 EA* CASE TO DET]M9E :E!R ! C\NSEL %\LD RECEIVE ANY PAY ---&1 IF ANY1 H[ MU* ---FROM ! GOV]NM5T4  

 #i#d4  ,?IS PRESUMPTION1 F\ND$ UPON AGE ALONE1 IS AS ABSURD 9 CIVIL MATT]S AS 9 CRIM9AL4 ,:AT CAN BE MORE 5TIRELY LUDICR\S ?AN ! IDEA ?AT ALL M5 7NOT MANIFE/LY IMBECILE7 BECOME M5TALLY COMPET5T TO MAKE ALL CONTRACTS :ATSOEV] ON ! DAY !Y BECOME TW5TY-ONE YE>S ( AGE8 ---& ?AT1 PREVI\S TO ?AT DAY1 NO MAN BECOMES COMPET5T TO MAKE ANY CONTRACT :ATEV]1 EXCEPT = ! PRES5T SUPPLY ( ! MO/ OBVI\S WANTS ( NATURE8 ,9 REASON1 A MAN'S LEGAL COMPET5CY TO MAKE B9D+ CONTRACTS1 9 ANY & EV]Y CASE :ATEV]1 DEP5DS :OLLY UPON HIS M5TAL CAPACITY TO MAKE REASONABLE CONTRACTS 9 EA* P>TICUL> CASE4 ,IT ( C\RSE REQUIRES MORE CAPACITY TO MAKE A REASONABLE CONTRACT 9 SOME CASES ?AN 9 O!RS4 ,IT REQUIRES1 = EXAMPLE1 MORE CAPACITY TO MAKE A REASONABLE CONTRACT 9 ! PUR*ASE ( A L>GE E/ATE1 ?AN 9 ! PUR*ASE ( A PAIR ( %OES4 ,BUT ! M5TAL CAPACITY TO MAKE A REASONABLE CONTRACT1 9 ANY P>TICUL> CASE1 IS1 9 REASON1 ! ONLY LEGAL CRIT]ION ( ! LEGAL COMPET5CY TO MAKE A B9D+ CONTRACT 9 ?AT CASE4 ,! AGE1 :E!R MORE OR LESS ?AN TW5TY-ONE YE>S1 IS ( NO LEGAL CONSEQU5CE :ATEV]1 EXCEPT ?AT IT IS 5TITL$ TO SOME CONSID]ATION AS EVID5CE ( CAPACITY4  

 ,IT MAY BE M5TION$1 9 ?IS CONNECTION1 ?AT ! RULES ?AT PREVAIL1 ?AT EV]Y MAN IS 5TITL$ TO FRE$OM FROM P>5TAL AU?ORITY AT TW5TY-ONE YE>S ( AGE1 & NO ONE BE=E ?AT AGE1 >E ( ! SAME CLASS ( ABSURDITIES ) ?OSE ?AT HAVE BE5 M5TION$4 ,! ONLY GR\ND ON :I* A P>5T IS EV] 5TITL$ TO EX]CISE AU?ORITY OV] HIS *ILD1 IS ?AT ! *ILD IS 9CAPABLE ( TAK+ REASONABLE C>E ( HIMSELF4 ,! *ILD W\LD BE 5TITL$ TO HIS FRE$OM FROM HIS BIR?1 IF HE W]E AT ?AT TIME CAPABLE ( TAK+ REASONABLE C>E ( HIMSELF4 ,SOME BECOME CAPABLE ( TAK+ C>E ( !MSELVES AT AN E>LI] AGE ?AN O!RS4 ,& :5EV] ANY ONE BECOMES CAPABLE ( TAK+ REASONABLE C>E ( HIMSELF1 & NOT UNTIL !N1 HE IS 5TITL$ TO HIS FRE$OM1 BE HIS AGE MORE OR LESS4  

 ,!SE PR9CIPLES W\LD PREVAIL UND] ! TRUE TRIAL BY JURY1 ! JURY BE+ ! JUDGES ( ! CAPACITY ( EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL :OSE CAPACITY %\LD BE CALL$ 9 QUE/ION4  

 #i#e4  ,9 CONTRA/ TO ! DOCTR9ES ( ! TEXT1 IT MAY BE PROP] TO PRES5T MORE DI/9CTLY ! DOCTR9ES ?AT >E MA9TA9$ BY JUDGES1 & ?AT PREVAIL 9 C\RTS ( JU/ICE4  

 ,( C\RSE1 NO JUDGE1 EI!R ( ! PRES5T DAY1 OR P]HAPS )9 ! LA/ FIVE HUNDR$ YE>S1 HAS ADMITT$ ! RI<T ( A JURY TO JUDGE ( ! JU/ICE ( A LAW1 OR TO HOLD ANY LAW 9VALID = ITS 9JU/ICE4 ,EV]Y JUDGE ASS]TS ! P[] ( ! GOV]NM5T TO PUNI% = ACTS ?AT >E 9TR9SICALLY 9NOC5T1 & :I* !RE=E 9VOLVE OR EV9CE NO CRIM9AL 9T5T4 ,TO ACCOMMODATE ! ADM9I/RATION ( LAW TO ?IS PR9CIPLE1 ALL JUDGES1 SO F> AS ,I AM AW>E1 HOLD IT TO BE UNNECESS>Y ?AT AN 9DICTM5T %\LD *>GE1 OR ?AT A JURY %\LD F9D1 ?AT AN ACT WAS DONE ) A CRIM9AL 9T5T1 EXCEPT 9 ?OSE CASES :]E ! ACT IS MALUM 9 SE1 ---CRIM9AL 9 ITSELF4 ,9 ALL O!R CASES1 SO F> AS ,I AM AW>E1 !Y HOLD IT SUFFICI5T ?AT ! 9DICTM5T *>GE1 & CONSEQU5TLY ?AT ! JURY F9D1 SIMPLY ?AT ! ACT WAS DONE 0CONTR>Y TO ! =M ( ! /ATUTE 9 SU* CASE MADE & PROVID$20 9 O!R WORDS1 CONTR>Y TO ! ORD]S ( ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,ALL !SE DOCTR9ES PREVAIL UNIV]SALLY AMONG JUDGES1 & >E1 ,I ?9K1 UNI=MLY PRACTIC$ UPON 9 C\RTS ( JU/ICE2 & !Y PLA9LY 9VOLVE ! MO/ ABSOLUTE DESPOTISM ON ! P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T4  

 ,BUT !RE IS /ILL ANO!R DOCTR9E ?AT EXT5SIVELY1 & P]HAPS MO/ G5]ALLY1 PREVAILS 9 PRACTICE1 AL?\< JUDGES >E NOT AGRE$ 9 REG>D TO ITS S\NDNESS4 ,IT IS ?IS3 ?AT IT IS NOT EV5 NECESS>Y ?AT ! JURY %\LD SEE OR KN[1 = !MSELVES1 :AT ! LAW IS ?AT IS *>G$ TO HAVE BE5 VIOLAT$2 NOR TO SEE OR KN[1 = !MSELVES1 ?AT ! ACT *>G$ WAS 9 VIOLATION ( ANY LAW :ATEV]2 ---BUT ?AT IT IS SUFFICI5T ?AT !Y BE SIMPLY TOLD BY ! JUDGE ?AT ANY ACT :ATEV]1 *>G$ 9 AN 9DICTM5T1 IS 9 VIOLATION ( LAW1 & ?AT !Y >E !N B\ND BL9DLY TO RECEIVE ! DECL>ATION AS TRUE1 & CONVICT A MAN ACCORD+LY1 IF !Y F9D ?AT HE HAS DONE ! ACT *>G$4  

 ,?IS DOCTR9E IS ADOPT$ BY MANY AMONG ! MO/ EM95T JUDGES1 & ! REASONS = IT >E ?US GIV5 BY ,LORD ,MANSFIELD3  

 0,!Y 7! JURY7 DO NOT KN[1 & >E NOT PRESUM$ TO KN[1 ! LAW4 ,!Y >E NOT SWORN TO DECIDE ! LAW20 .<,?IS DECL>ATION ( ,MANSFIELD1 ?AT JURIES 9 ,5GL& 0>E NOT SWORN TO DECIDE ! LAW0 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 IS A PLA9 FALSEHOOD4 ,!Y >E SWORN TO TRY ! :OLE CASE AT ISSUE BETWE5 ! K+ & ! PRISON]1 & ?AT 9CLUDES ! LAW AS WELL AS ! FACT4 ,SEE JUROR'S OA?1 PAGE #h#e4.> !Y >E NOT REQUIR$ TO DO IT4 4 4 4,! JURY \<T NOT TO ASSUME ! JURISDICTION ( LAW4 ,!Y DO NOT KN[1 & >E NOT PRESUM$ TO KN[1 ANY?+ ( ! MATT]4 ,!Y DO NOT UND]/& ! LANGUAGE 9 :I* IT IS CONCEIV$1 OR ! MEAN+ ( ! T]MS4 ,!Y HAVE NO RULE TO GO BY BUT !IR PASSIONS & WI%ES40 ---#h ,T]M ,REP41 #d#b#h1 NOTE4  

 ,:AT IS ?IS BUT SAY+ ?AT ! PEOPLE1 :O >E SUPPOS$ TO BE REPRES5T$ 9 JURIES1 & :O 9/ITUTE & SUPPORT ! GOV]NM5T1 7( C\RSE = ! PROTECTION ( !IR [N RI<TS & LIB]TIES1 AS !Y UND]/& !M1 = PLA9LY NO O!R MOTIVE CAN BE ATTRIBUT$ TO !M17 >E REALLY ! SLAVES ( A DESPOTIC P[]1 :OSE >BITR>Y COMM&S EV5 !Y >E NOT SUPPOS$ COMPET5T TO UND]/&1 BUT = ! TRANSGRESSION ( :I* !Y >E NEV]!LESS TO BE PUNI%$ AS CRIM9ALS  

 ,?IS IS PLA9LY ! SUM ( ! DOCTR9E1 BECAUSE ! JURY >E ! PE]S 7EQUALS7 ( ! ACCUS$1 & >E !RE=E SUPPOS$ TO KN[ ! LAW AS WELL AS HE DOES1 & AS WELL AS IT IS KN[N BY ! PEOPLE AT L>GE4 ,IF !Y 7! JURY7 >E NOT PRESUM$ TO KN[ ! LAW1 NEI!R ! ACCUS$ NOR ! PEOPLE AT L>GE CAN BE PRESUM$ TO KN[ IT4 ,H5CE1 IT FOLL[S ?AT ONE PR9CIPLE ( ! TRUE TRIAL BY JURY IS1 ?AT NO ACCUS$ P]SON %ALL BE HELD RESPONSIBLE = ANY O!R OR GREAT] KN[L$GE ( ! LAW ?AN IS COMMON TO HIS POLITICAL EQUALS1 :O WILL G5]ALLY BE M5 ( NE>LY SIMIL> CONDITION 9 LIFE4 ,BUT ! DOCTR9E ( ,MANSFIELD IS1 ?AT ! BODY ( ! PEOPLE1 FROM :OM JURORS >E TAK51 >E RESPONSIBLE TO A LAW1 :I* IT IS AGRE$ !Y CANNOT UND]/&4 ,:AT IS ?IS BUT DESPOTISM8 ---& NOT M]ELY DESPOTISM1 BUT 9SULT & OPPRESSION ( ! 9T5SE/ K9D8  

 ,?IS DOCTR9E ( ,MANSFIELD IS ! DOCTR9E ( ALL :O D5Y ! RI<T ( JURIES TO JUDGE ( ! LAW1 AL?\< ALL MAY NOT *OOSE TO EXPRESS IT 9 SO BLUNT & UNAMBIGU\S T]MS4 ,BUT ! DOCTR9E EVID5TLY ADMITS ( NO O!R 9T]PRETATION OR DEF5SE4  

 #i#f4  ,MACK9TO%'S ,HI/4 ( ,5G41 *4 #c4 #de ,L>DN]'S ,CAB4 ,CYC41 #c#e#d4  

 #i#g4  0,=TY %ILL+ FREEHOLD]S0 W]E ?OSE 0PEOPLE DWELL+ & RESID5T 9 ! SAME C\NTIES1 :]E( EV]Y ONE ( !M %ALL HAVE FREE L& OR T5EM5T TO ! VALUE ( =TY %ILL+S BY ! YE> AT ! LEA/ ABOVE ALL *>GES40 ,BY /ATUTE #h ,H5RY #f1 *4 #g1 7#a#d#b#i17 !SE FREEHOLD]S ONLY W]E ALL[$ TO VOTE = MEMB]S ( ,P>LIAM5T FROM ! C\NTIES4  

 #i#h4  ,HE PROBABLY SPEAKS 9 ITS FAVOR ONLY TO BL9D ! EYES ( ! PEOPLE TO ! FRAUDS HE HAS ATTEMPT$ UPON ITS TRUE MEAN+4  

 #i#i4  ,IT WILL BE NOTIC$ ?AT ,COKE CALLS !SE CONFIRMATIONS ( ! *>T] 0ACTS ( P>LIAM5T10 9/EAD ( ACTS ( ! K+ ALONE4 ,?IS NE$S EXPLANATION4  

 ,IT WAS ONE ( ,COKE'S RIDICUL\S PRET5SES1 ?AT LAWS ANCI5TLY 5ACT$ BY ! K+1 AT ! REQUE/1 OR ) ! CONS5T1 OR BY ! ADVICE1 ( HIS P>LIAM5T1 WAS 0AN ACT ( P>LIAM5T10 9/EAD ( ! ACT ( ! K+4 ,& 9 ! EXTRACTS CIT$1 HE C>RIES ?IS IDEA SO F> AS TO PRET5D ?AT ! V>I\S CONFIRMATIONS ( ! ,GREAT ,*>T] W]E 0ACTS ( P>LIAM5T10 9/EAD ( ! ACTS ( ! K+S4 ,HE MI<T AS WELL HAVE PRET5D$ ?AT ! ORIG9AL GRANT ( ! ,*>T] WAS AN 0ACT ( P>LIAM5T2 0BECAUSE IT WAS NOT ONLY GRANT$ AT ! REQUE/1 & ) ! CONS5T1 & BY ! ADVICE1 BUT ON ! COMPULSION EV51 ( ?OSE :O COMMONLY CON/ITUT$ HIS P>LIAM5TS4 ,YET ?IS DID NOT MAKE ! GRANT ( ! *>T] 0AN ACT ( P>LIAM5T40 ,IT WAS SIMPLY AN ACT ( ! K+4  

 ,! OBJECT ( ,COKE1 9 ?IS PRET5SE1 WAS TO FURNI% SOME COLOR = ! PALPABLE FALSE- HOOD ?AT ! LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY1 :I* P>LIAM5T WAS TRY+ TO ASSUME 9 HIS [N DAY1 & :I* IT F9ALLY SUCCE$$ 9 OBTA9+1 HAD A PREC$5T 9 ! ANCI5T CON/ITUTION ( ! K+DOM4  

 ,!RE W\LD BE AS MU* REASON 9 SAY+ ?AT1 BECAUSE ! ANCI5T K+S W]E 9 ! HABIT ( PASS+ LAWS 9 SPECIAL ANSW] TO ! PETITIONS ( !IR SUBJECTS1 !RE=E ?OSE PETITION]S W]E A P>T ( ! LEGISLATIVE P[] ( ! K+DOM4  

 ,ONE GREAT OBJECTION TO ?IS >GUM5T ( ,COKE1 = ! LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY ( ! ANCI5T P>LIAM5TS1 IS ?AT A V]Y L>GE ---PROBABLY MU* ! L>G] ---NUMB] ( LEGISLATIVE ACTS W]E DONE )\T ! ADVICE1 CONS5T1 REQUE/1 OR EV5 PRES5CE1 ( A P>LIAM5T4 ,NOT ONLY W]E MANY =MAL /ATUTES PASS$ )\T ANY M5TION ( ! CONS5T OR ADVICE ( P>LIAM5T1 BUT A SIMPLE ORD] ( ! K+ 9 C\NCIL1 OR A SIMPLE PROCLAMATION1 WRIT1 OR LETT] UND] SEAL1 ISSU$ BY HIS COMM&1 HAD ! SAME =CE AS :AT ,COKE CALLS 0AN ACT ( P>LIAM5T40 ,& ?IS PRACTICE CONT9U$1 TO A CONSID]ABLE EXT5T AT LEA/1 D[N TO ,COKE'S [N TIME4  

 ,! K+S W]E ALWAYS 9 ! HABIT ( CONSULT+ !IR P>LIAM5TS1 MORE OR LESS1 9 REG>D TO MATT]S ( LEGISLATION1 ---NOT BECAUSE !IR CONS5T WAS CON/ITUTIONALLY NECESS>Y1 BUT 9 ORD] TO MAKE 9FLU5CE 9 FAVOR ( !IR LAWS1 & ?US 9DUCE ! PEOPLE TO OBS]VE !M1 & ! JURIES TO 5=CE !M4  

 ,! G5]AL DUTIES ( ! ANCI5T P>LIAM5TS W]E NOT LEGISLATIVE1 BUT JUDICIAL1 AS WILL BE %[N MORE FULLY H]EAFT]4 ,! PEOPLE W]E NOT REPRES5T$ 9 ! P>LIAM5TS AT ! TIME ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 BUT ONLY ! >*BI%OPS1 BI%OPS1 E>LS1 B>ONS1 & KNI<TS2 SO ?AT LITTLE OR NO?+ W\LD HAVE BE5 GA9$ = LIB]TY BY ,COKE'S IDEA ?AT P>LIAM5T HAD A LEGISLATIVE P[]4 ,HE W\LD ONLY HAVE SUB/ITUT$ AN >I/OCRACY = A K+4 ,EV5 AFT] ! ,COMMONS W]E REPRES5T$ 9 P>LIAM5T1 !Y = SOME C5TURIES APPE>$ ONLY AS PETITION]S1 EXCEPT 9 ! MATT] ( TAXATION1 :5 !IR CONS5T WAS ASK$4 ,& ALMO/ ! ONLY S\RCE ( !IR 9FLU5CE ON LEGISLATION WAS ?IS3 ?AT !Y W\LD SOMETIMES REFUSE !IR CONS5T TO ! TAXATION1 UNLESS ! K+ W\LD PASS SU* LAWS AS !Y PETITION$ =2 OR1 AS W\LD SEEM TO HAVE BE5 MU* MORE FREQU5TLY ! CASE1 UNLESS HE W\LD ABOLI% SU* LAWS & PRACTICES AS !Y REMON/RAT$ AGA9/4  

 ,! 9FLU5CE1 OR P[] ( P>LIAM5T1 & ESPECIALLY ( ! ,COMMONS1 9 ! G5]AL LEGISLATION ( ! C\NTRY1 WAS A ?+ ( SL[ GR[?1 HAV+ ITS ORIG9 9 A DEVICE ( ! K+ TO GET MONEY CONTR>Y TO LAW1 7AS WILL BE SE5 9 ! NEXT VOLUME17 & NOT AT ALL A P>T ( ! CON/ITUTION ( ! K+DOM1 NOR HAV+ ITS F\NDATION 9 ! CONS5T ( ! PEOPLE4 ,! P[]1 AS AT PRES5T EX]CIS$1 WAS NOT FULLY E/ABLI%$ UNTIL #a#f#h#h1 7NE> FIVE HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ,MAGNA ,C>TA17 :5 ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS 7FALSELY SO CALL$7 HAD ACQUIR$ SU* 9FLU5CE AS ! REPRES5TATIVE1 NOT ( ! PEOPLE1 BUT ( ! WEAL?1 ( ! NATION1 ?AT !Y COMPELL$1 ! K+ TO DISC>D ! OA? FIX$ BY ! CON/ITUTION ( ! K+DOM2 7:I* OA? HAS BE5 ALREADY GIV5 9 A =M] *APT]1 .<"9,SEE PAGE #a#a.> & WAS1 9 SUB/ANCE1 TO PRES]VE & EXECUTE ! ,COMMON ,LAW1 ! ,LAW ( ! ,L&1 ---OR1 9 ! WORDS ( ! OA?1 0! JU/ LAWS & CU/OMS :I* ! COMMON PEOPLE HAD *OS5207 & TO SWE> ?AT HE W\LD 0GOV]N ! PEOPLE ( ?IS K+DOM ( ,5GL&1 & ! DOM9IONS !RETO BELONG+1 ACCORD+ TO ! /ATUTES 9 P>LIAM5T AGRE$ ON1 & ! LAWS & CU/OMS ( ! SAME40 .<"9 ,/4 #a ,WILLIAM & ,M>Y1 *4 #f1 7#a#f#h#h7.>  

 ,! PASSAGE & 5=CEM5T ( ?IS /ATUTE1 & ! ASSUMPTION ( ?IS OA? BY ! K+1 W]E PLA9 VIOLATIONS ( ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION1 9ASMU* AS !Y ABOLI%$1 SO F> AS SU* AN OA? C\LD ABOLI%1 ! LEGISLATIVE P[] ( ! K+1 & ALSO 0?OSE JU/ LAWS & CU/OMS :I* ! COMMON PEOPLE 7?R\< !IR JURIES7 HAD *OS510 & SUB/ITUT$ ! WILL ( P>LIAM5T 9 !IR /EAD4  

 ,COKE WAS A GREAT ADVOCATE = ! LEGISLATIVE P[] ( P>LIAM5T1 AS A MEANS ( RE/RA9+ ! P[] ( ! K+4 ,AS HE D5I$ ALL P[] TO JURIES TO DECIDE UPON ! OBLIGATION ( LAWS1 & AS HE HELD ?AT ! LEGISLATIVE P[] WAS 0SO TRANSC5D5T & ABSOLUTE AS 7?AT7 IT CANNOT BE CONF9$1 EI!R = CAUSES OR P]SONS1 )9 ANY B\NDS10 .<"9 #d ,9/41 #c#f.> HE WAS P]HAPS HONE/ 9 HOLD+ ?AT IT WAS SAF] TO TRU/ ?IS T]RIFIC P[] 9 ! H&S ( P>LIAM5T1 ?AN 9 ! H&S ( ! K+4 ,HIS ]ROR CONSI/$ 9 HOLD+ ?AT EI!R ! K+ OR P>LIAM5T HAD ANY SU* P[]1 OR ?AT !Y HAD ANY P[] AT ALL TO PASS LAWS ?AT %\LD BE B9D+ UPON A JURY4  

 ,!SE DECL>ATIONS ( ,COKE1 ?AT ! *>T] WAS CONFIRM$ BY ?IRTY-TWO 0ACTS ( P>LIAM5T10 HAVE A MIS*IEV\S BE>+ 9 ANO!R RESPECT4 ,!Y T5D TO WEAK5 ! AU?ORITY ( ! *>T]1 BY CONVEY+ ! IMPRESSION ?AT ! *>T] ITSELF MI<T BE ABOLI%$ BY 0ACT ( P>LIAM5T40 ,COKE HIMSELF ADMITS ?AT IT C\LD NOT BE REVOK$ OR RESC9D$ BY ! K+2 = HE SAYS1 0,ALL PRET5SE ( PR]OGATIVE AGA9/ ,MAGNA ,C>TA IS TAK5 AWAY40 7#b ,9/41 #c#f47  

 ,HE KNEW P]FECTLY WELL1 & ! :OLE ,5GLI% NATION KNEW1 ?AT ! K+ C\LD NOT LAWFULLY 9FR+E ,MAGNA ,C>TA4 ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 !RE=E1 MADE IT IMPOSSIBLE ?AT ABSOLUTE P[] C\LD EV] BE PRACTICALLY E/ABLI%$ 9 ,5GL&1 9 ! H&S ( ! K+4 ,H5CE1 AS ,COKE WAS AN ADVOCATE = ABSOLUTE P[]1 ---?AT IS1 = A LEGISLATIVE P[] 0SO TRANSC5D5T & ABSOLUTE AS 7?AT7 IT CANNOT1 BE CONF9$1 EI!R = CAUSES OR P]SONS1 )9 ANY B\NDS10 ---!RE WAS NO ALT]NATIVE = HIM BUT TO VE/ ?IS ABSOLUTE P[] 9 P>LIAM5T4 ,HAD HE NOT VE/$ IT 9 P>LIAM5T1 HE W\LD HAVE BE5 OBLIG$ TO ABJURE IT ALTOGE!R1 & TO CONFESS ?AT ! PEOPLE1 ?R\< !IR JURIES1 HAD ! RI<T TO JUDGE ( ! OBLIGATION ( ALL LEGISLATION :ATSOEV]2 9 O!R WORDS1 ?AT !Y HAD ! RI<T TO CONF9E ! GOV]NM5T )9 ! LIMITS ( 0?OSE JU/ LAWS & CU/OMS :I* ! COMMON PEOPLE 7ACT+ AS JURORS7 HAD *OS540 ,TRUE TO HIS 9/9CTS1 AS A JUDGE1 & AS A TYRANT1 HE ASSUM$ ?AT ?IS ABSOLUTE P[] WAS VE/$ 9 ! H&S ( P>LIAM5T4  

 ,BUT ! TRU? WAS ?AT1 AS BY ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION P>LIAM5T HAD NO AU?ORITY AT ALL = G5]AL LEGISLATION1 IT C\LD NO MORE CONFIRM1 ?AN IT C\LD ABOLI%1 ,MAGNA ,C>TA4  

 ,!SE ?IRTY-TWO CONFIRMATIONS ( ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 :I* ,COKE SPEAKS ( AS 0ACTS ( P>LIAM5T10 W]E M]ELY ACTS ( ! K+4 ,! P>LIAM5TS1 9DE$1 BY REFUS+ TO GRANT HIM MONEY1 EXCEPT1 ON ?AT CONDITION1 & O!RWISE1 HAD CONTRIBUT$ TO OBLIGE HIM TO MAKE ! CONFIRMATIONS2 JU/ AS !Y HAD HELP$ TO OBLIGE HIM BY >MS TO GRANT ! *>T] 9 ! FIR/ PLACE4 ,BUT ! CONFIRMATIONS !MSELVES W]E NEV]!LESS CON/ITUTIONALLY1 AS WELL AS =MALLY1 ! ACTS ( ! K+ ALONE4  

 #a4 ,UND] ! HEAD 0,JOHN40  

 #a#a4 #d ,BLACK/ONE1 #c#d#i-#e  

 #a#b4 #c ,BLACK/ONE1 #cgi  

 #a#c4 ,HUME1 *4 #b4  

 #a#d4 ,PAGE #b#c1 #e? $ITION1 #a#g#b#a4  

 #a#e4 ,SU* AS RE/RA9TS UPON BANK+1 UPON ! RATES ( 9T]E/1 UPON TRAFFIC ) =EIGN]S1 @&E41 @&C4  

 #a#f4  ,TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY1 & NO TAXATION )\T CONS5T1 MUTUALLY SU/A9 EA* O!R1 & CAN BE SU/A9$ ONLY BY EA* O!R1 = !SE REASONS3 #a4 ,JURIES W\LD REFUSE TO 5=CE A TAX AGA9/ A MAN :O HAD NEV] AGRE$ TO PAY IT4 ,!Y W\LD ALSO PROTECT M5 9 =CIBLY RESI/+ ! COLLECTION ( TAXES TO :I* !Y HAD NEV] CONS5T$4 ,O!RWISE ! JURORS W\LD AU?ORIZE ! GOV]NM5T TO TAX !MSELVES )\T !IR CONS5T1 A ?+ :I* NO JURY W\LD BE LIKELY TO DO4 ,9 !SE TWO WAYS1 !N1 TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY W\LD SU/A9 ! PR9CIPLE ( NO TAXATION )\T CONS5T4 #b4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! PR9CIPLE ( NO TAXATION )\T CONS5T W\LD SU/A9 ! TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY1 BECAUSE M5 9 G5]AL W\LD NOT CONS5T TO BE TAX$ = ! SUPPORT ( A GOV]NM5T UND] :I* TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY WAS NOT SECUR$4 ,?US !SE TWO PR9CIPLES MUTUALLY SU/A9 EA* O!R4  

 ,BUT1 IF EI!R ( !SE PR9CIPLES W]E BROK5 D[N1 ! O!R W\LD FALL ) IT1 & = !SE REASONS3 #a4 ,IF TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY W]E BROK5 D[N1 ! PR9CIPLE ( NO TAXATION )\T CONS5T W\LD FALL ) IT1 BECAUSE ! GOV]NM5T W\LD !N BE ABLE TO TAX ! PEOPLE )\T !IR CONS5T1 9ASMU* AS ! LEGAL TRIBUNALS W\LD BE M]E TOOLS ( ! GOV]NM5T1 & W\LD 5=CE SU* TAXATION1 & PUNI% M5 = RESI/+ SU* TAXATION1 AS ! GOV]NM5T ORD]$4 #b4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 IF ! PR9CIPLE ( NO TAXATION )\T CONS5T W]E BROK5 D[N1 TRIAL BY ! C\NTRY W\LD FALL ) IT1 BECAUSE ! GOV]NM5T1 IF IT C\LD TAX PEOPLE )\T !IR CONS5T1 W\LD1 ( C\RSE1 TAKE 5\< ( !IR MONEY TO 5ABLE IT TO EMPLOY ALL ! =CE NECESS>Y = SU/A9+ ITS [N TRIBUNALS1 79 ! PLACE ( JURIES17 & C>RY+ !IR DECREES 9TO EXECUTION4  

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