,*APT] #b 
,NATIONALISM1 ,UTOPIANISM1 & ,REVOLUTION>Y ,POLITICS3 ,AN>*I/ ,!MES 9 ! ,E>LY ,*9ESE ,REVOLUTION>Y ,MOVEM5T 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,>IF ,DIRLIK 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] ,TWO  

 ,NATIONALISM1 ,UTOPIANISM1 & ,REVOLUTION>Y ,POLITICS3  

,AN>*I/ ,!MES 9 ! ,E>LY ,*9ESE ,REVOLUTION>Y ,MOVEM5T4 

  

,AN>*ISM APPE>$ 9 ,*9A AT A MOM5T ( NATIONAL CRISIS4 ,9 #aifg ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS ABROAD E/ABLI%$ TWO SOCIETIES1 )9 MON?S ( EA* O!R1 DEVOT$ TO ! PROPAGATION ( AN>*ISM1 ONE 9 ,P>IS1 ! O!R 9 ,TOKYO4 ,AT A TIME :5 A REVOLUTION>Y DISC\RSE WAS TAK+ %APE1 ) ORIG9S 9 A NEW NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS1 ! AN>*ISM !SE SOCIETIES PROMOT$ 9TRODUC$ 9TO ! DISC\RSE DISSONANT !MES ?AT W\LD HAVE A LA/+ EFFECT4 ,9 SPITE ( !IR BASIC CONFLICT ) NATIONALI/ GOALS1 !SE !MES W\LD DISPLAY A REM>KABLE /AY+ P[] 9 ! REVOLUTION>Y DISC\RSE FUEL$ BY ! PURSUIT ( POLITICAL =MS TO GIVE COH]5CE TO A NATION 9 ! MAK+4 ,!IR E*OES >E AUDIBLE TO ?IS DAY AS ! PURSUIT CONT9UES4 

,! RECEPTIVITY TO AN>*ISM AT A MOM5T ( NASC5T NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS SEEMS ANOMAL\S4 ,MA9/REAM ,*9ESE POLITICAL ?9K+ DUR+ ! FIR/ DECADE ( ! C5TURY REVOLV$ >\ND ! QUE/ION ( H[ TO MAKE ,*9A 9TO A NATION1 TO =GE A COHESIVE POLITICAL SY/EM \T ( ! LOOSELY ORGANIZ$ P[] /RUCTURE ( A BUREAUCRATIC MON>*Y1 & TO W>D (F ! ?REAT TO ! C\NTRY'S EXI/5CE 9 A NEW WORLD :]E ! COMPETITION = P[] ( EXPANSIVE NATION-/ATES PROMIS$ TO CONSUME ?OSE SOCIETIES UNABLE TO EMULATE !IR EXAMPLE4 ,! URG5T QUE/IONS ( ! DAY W]E :AT TO DO ) ! ALI5 ,MAN*U DYNA/Y ?AT CONT9U$ TO RULE ! MAJORITY ,HAN PEOPLE ?AT CON/ITUT$ ,*9A & SEEM$ TO BE LESS CONC]N$ ) ! NATION'S WELF>E ?AN ) ITS [N2 H[ TO TRANS=M ! POLITICAL SY/EM SO AS TO EXT5D POLITICAL P>TICIPATION TO L>G] NUMB]S ( ,*9ESE 9 ORD] TO SECURE ! PEOPLE'S LOYALTY TO ! /ATE2 & H[ TO DEVELOP ! C\NTRY ECONOMICALLY TO E/ABLI% A MAT]IAL F\NDATION = NATIONAL /R5G?--& ! CONDITIONS = POLITICAL SOV]EIGNTY 9 A WORLD :]E NATIONAL POLITICAL P[] SEEM$ TO BE CONT+5T UPON ! CONTROL ( GLOBAL ECONOMIC RES\RCES4 ,! PURSUIT ( NATIONAL WEAL? & P[] SEEM$ TO RULE ! WORLD4 ,! /ATIC SOCIETY ( ,*9A MU/ BE DYNAMIZ$ BY ?IS SAME PURSUIT IF IT WAS TO SURVIVE--& REASS]T ! GLORY TO :I* IT WAS 5TITL$ BY A GLORI\S PA/4.<#d#g.> ,BUILD+ A NATION WAS ESS5TIAL TO ?IS 5D4 

,! V]Y PRES5CE ( AN>*ISM 9 ,*9ESE ?\<T MI<T BE TAK5 AS EVID5CE ?AT !SE CONC]NS W]E NOT %>$ AS WIDELY AS !Y FIR/ APPE> TO BEW]E IT NOT = ! FACT ?AT AN>*I/S !MSELVES W]E 9TIMATELY 9VOLV$ ) ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T NATIONALISM SPAWN$1 & AN>*I/ IDEAS FIR/ MADE !IR APPE>ANCE )9 A NEW DISC\RSE ?AT TOOK AS ITS PO9T ( DEP>TURE ,*9A'S RECON/ITUTION AS A NATION4 ,RA!R1 ! AN>*I/ PRES5CE SUGGE/S ?AT ?IS DISC\RSE IS NOT R$UCIBLE TO A ONE-DIM5SIONAL DEF5SIVE OR P>O*IAL SE>* = WEAL? & P[]1 ?AT IT WAS MULTIDIM5SIONAL 9 ! POSSIBILITIES IT PRODUC$--9CLUD+1 ULTIMATELY1 ! NEGATION ( ! PREMISE ?AT LAY AT ITS ORIG9S--:I* MADE IT AU!NTICALLY REVOLUTION>Y4 ,IT IS NOT 9 ! IMM$IATE POLITICAL CONC]NS ( ,*9ESE NATIONALISM1 BUT RA!R 9 ! 9TELLECTUAL PROBLEMATIC ! NEW NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS 7OR1 CONSCI\SNESS ( ! NATION7 PRES5T$1 ?AT WE MU/ SEEK = CLUES TO :Y AN>*ISM1 DESPITE ITS BASIC CONTRADICTION ( NATIONALI/ GOALS1 ACQUIR$ A SIGNIFICANT PLACE 9 9TELLECTUAL DISC\RSE4 

,?IS NEW CONSCI\SNESS WAS TO PLAY A CRUCIAL P>T 9 ! >TICULATION1 9 ! WORDS ( ,?OMAS ,METZG]1 ( A MOD]N ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUAL PROBLEMATIQUE4.<#d#h.> ,?IS IS NOT TO SUGGE/ ?AT MOD]N ,*9ESE ?\<T IS BUT AN ACC\NT ( ! PROBLEMS PRES5T$ BY NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS1 OR ?AT ALL PROBLEMS ( ,*9ESE ?\<T FROM ?IS PO9T ON MU/ BE REF]R$ BACK TO A NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS & ! POLITICAL QUE/IONS IT RAIS$4 ,9 HIS REC5T /UDY ( ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY1 ,*ANG ,HAO HAS >GU$ PLAUSIBLY AGA9/ ! LIMITATIONS ( AN EXCLUSIVELY POLITICAL =MULATION ( ! PROBLEMS ?AT FAC$ ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS1 :I* W]E NOT JU/ POLITICAL1 SOCIAL1 OR EV5 BROADLY CULTURAL BUT E?ICAL & EXI/5TIAL AS WELL4.<#d#i.> ,METZG] %>ES ,*ANG ,HAO'S VIEW 9 HIS ID5TIFICATION AS A C5TRAL CONC]N ( MOD]N ,*9ESE ?\<T ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A MORAL LANGUAGE ) :I* TO 5VISAGE ! GOOD SOCIETY4.<#e.> 

,AT ITS BROADE/1 ?IS PROBLEMATIC 5TAIL$ ! RECON/ITUTION ( BO? SELF & SOCIETY 9 A DISC\RSE ( MOD]NITY1 :I* CALL$ =? QUE/IONS NOT ONLY ( SOCIAL & POLITICAL =M BUT1 ULTIMATELY1 ( ! MEAN+ & 5DS ( 9DIVIDUAL EXI/5CE4 ,! 9TELLECTUAL & E?ICAL PO/ULATES ( MOD]NITY1 :I* =C$ !MSELVES ON ! CONSCI\SNESS ( ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS 9 ! 5C\NT] ) ! ,WE/1 W]E TO PROVOKE A RE?9K+ ( RECEIV$ TRADITIONS 9 !IR TOTALITY 9 ! NEW POSSIBILITIES !Y SUGGE/$4 ,:ILE ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS HAVE CONT9U$ OV] ! YE>S TO DRAW UPON !SE TRADITIONS AS A S\RCE = AN AUTONOM\S CRITIQUE ( ,EURO-,AM]ICAN MOD]NISM1 !Y HAVE BE5 ABLE TO DO SO ONLY BY REPHRAS+ E>LI] PROBLEMS 9 A NEW DISC\RSE ?AT IS UNMI/AKABLY MOD]N 9 ITS PREMISES & S5SIBILITIES2 EV5 :]E ! ANSW]S >E OLD1 ! QUE/IONS ?AT PRODUC$ !M HAVE BE5 PHRAS$ 9 ! PROBLEMATIC ( A NEW HI/ORICAL SITUATION4 ,! PROBLEM WAS ESPECIALLY ACUTE = ! FIR/ G5]ATION ( 9TELLECTUALS TO BECOME CONSCI\S ( ?IS NEW HI/ORICAL SITUATION1 :O1 AS PRODUCTS ( A RECEIV$ E?OS1 HAD TO REMAKE !MSELVES 9 ! V]Y PROCESS ( RECON/ITUT+ ! PROBLEMATIC ( ,*9ESE ?\<T4 ,AN>*ISM1 AS WE %ALL SEE1 WAS A PRODUCT ( ?IS SITUATION4 ,! ANSW]S IT (F]$ TO ?IS NEW PROBLEMATIC W]E NOT JU/ SOCIAL & POLITICAL BUT S\<T TO CONFRONT 9 NOVEL WAYS ITS DEM&S 9 !IR EXI/5TIAL TOTALITY4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! CASE ( ! FIR/ G5]ATION ( AN>*I/S1 !SE ANSW]S W]E C\*$ 9 A MORAL LANGUAGE ?AT REPHRAS$ RECEIV$ E?ICAL CONCEPTS 9 A NEW DISC\RSE ( MOD]NITY4 

,AL?\< ?IS NEW 9TELLECTUAL PROBLEMATIQUE IS NOT TO BE R$UC$ TO ! PROBLEM ( NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS1 ?AT PROBLEM WAS IMPORTANT 9 ITS =MULATION1 9 TWO WAYS4 ,FIR/1 ESS5TIAL TO ! NEW PROBLEMATIC IS ! QUE/ION ( ,*9A'S PLACE 9 ! WORLD & ITS RELATION%IP TO ! PA/1 :I* F\ND EXPRESSION MO/ CONCRETELY 9 PROBLEMS CREAT$ BY ! NEW NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS4 ,SECOND1 NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS RAIS$ QUE/IONS AB\T SOCIAL RELATION%IPS1 ULTIMATELY AT ! LEVEL ( ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 ! 9DIVIDUAL & SOCIETY1 :I* W]E TO PROVIDE ! FRAMEWORK =1 & 9 SOME WAYS ALSO CONTA9$1 ! R$EF9ITION ( EV5 EXI/5TIAL QUE/IONS4 ,= ! UNIV]SALI/ICALLY ORI5T$ AMONG ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS1 CONSCI\SNESS ( ! NATION CREAT$ SOME DISCOM=T1 :I* WAS TO S]VE AS A S\RCE ( EXI/5TIAL PROBLEMS AS WELL AS ( AN URGE TO TRANSC5D ! LIMITATIONS IMPOS$ BY NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS4 ,I WILL ALSO >GUE ?AT NATIONALISM ITSELF PO9T$ TO A NEW K9D ( UNIV]SALISM ?AT PU%$ AGA9/ ! B\ND>IES IMPOS$ BY A NATIONAL REORGANIZATION ( SOCIETY4 ,9 EI!R CASE1 ?IS NEW CONSCI\SNESS PROVID$ ! PREMISE EV5 ( ITS [N NEGATION4 ,?IS WAS TRUE AS WELL ( ! AN>*I/S :O TOOK NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS AS ! GREATE/ OB/ACLE TO ! REALIZATION ( ! K9D ( SOCIETY !Y ADVOCAT$4 ,P]HAPS MORE IMPORTANT1 ! NEW DISC\RSE ?AT EM]G$ AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY COALESC$ >\ND ! PROBLEM ( NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS1 :I*1 !RE=E1 PROVID$ ! CONCEPTUAL CONDITIONS ( ! DISC\RSE1 & DEL9EAT$ = ?OSE :O W]E UNCOM=TABLE ) ! NEW NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS ! IDEOLOGICAL HORIZON !Y W\LD HAVE TO TRANSC5D 9 ORD] TO OV]COME ! LIMITATIONS IT E/ABLI%$4 

,MY CONC]N IS NOT ) ! ALT]NATIVE DIRECTIONS NATIONALISM ASSUM$ 9 ,*9A FROM ! V]Y BEG9N+1 BUT RA!R ) ID5TIFY+ ! T]MS ( ! PROBLEMATIC IT PRODUC$1 :I* WAS TO PROVIDE ! DISCURSIVE CONTEXT )9 :I* CONSCI\SLY AN>*I/ IDEAS FIR/ MADE !IR APPE>ANCE 9 ,*9ESE ?\<T4 

,NATIONALISM & ,REVOLUTION3 ,GLOBAL ,CONSCI\SNESS & ! ,RECONCEPTUALIZATION ( ,POLITICAL ,SPACE 

  

,TO SEE ,*9ESE NATIONALISM ONLY 9 ITS IMM$IATE POLITICAL ASPIRATIONS IS TO SEE ONLY P>T ( IT & TO IGNORE A NEW GLOBAL CONSCI\SNESS ?AT WAS ITS PRECONDITION & A NEW CONSCI\SNESS ( POLITICAL SPACE ?AT 9=M$ IT4 ,NATIONALISM AS A POLITICAL IDEOLOGY MAY BE MO/ /RIK+ = ITS EXCLUSION>Y P>O*IALISM1 = ! PHYSICAL & IDEOLOGICAL B\ND>IES IT SEEKS TO E/ABLI% TO SEP>ATE ?OSE )9 ! NATION FROM ?OSE )\T4 ,9 ! FACE IT PRES5TS TO ! \TSIDE1 IT MAY BE NO DIFF]5T ?AN O!R =MS ( P>O*IALISM EXCEPT 9 ! SCOPE ( ! T]RITORY IT CLAIMS = ITSELF4 ,NATIONALISM1 H[EV]1 IS ALSO A REVOLUTION>Y POLITICAL IDEOLOGY ?AT IS UNMI/AKABLY MOD]N 9 ITS PREMISES CONC]N+ GLOBAL ORGANIZATION1 EXT]NALLY1 & POLITICAL SPACE1 9T]NALLY4 ,9T]NALLY1 IT PRESUPPOSES A NEW CONCEPTION ( POLITICAL SPACE1 :I* IS REORGANIZ$ TO BR+ ! /ATE CLOS] TO ! SOCIETY OV] :I* IT RULES1 = ! NATION-/ATE CLAIMS LEGITIMACY NOT 9 SOME EXT]NAL S\RCE BUT 9 ITS ABILITY TO REPRES5T ! NATION--:I* 9EXORABLY 5TITLES ?OSE :O CON/ITUTE ! NATION TO MAKE CLAIMS UPON ! /ATE1 = !Y >E NO LONG] M]ELY SUBJECTS BUT CITIZ5S4 ,EXT]NALLY1 BY ITS V]Y LOGIC IF 9 SPITE ( ITSELF1 NATIONALI/ CONSCI\SNESS EXT5DS ! SAME 5TITLEM5T TO O!RS1 :O >E P]CEIV$ NO LONG] M]ELY AS AGGREGATES ( PEOPLE BUT AS O!R NATIONS1 & :O >E !RE=E 5TITL$ TO !IR [N CLAIMS UPON !IR POLITICAL FATE1 & A /ATE ( !IR [N TO REALIZE ?AT FATE4 ,AS ,LIANG ,QI*AO WROTE 9 #a#i#a3 ,NATIONALISM IS ! MO/ PROMIS+1 UPRI<T1 & UNBIAS$ IDEA 9 ! WORLD4 ,IT DOES NOT ALL[ O!R PEOPLE TO 9FR+E MY FRE$OM1 NOR DOES IT LET ME IMPOSE ON O!R PEOPLE4.<#e#a.> 

,IMAG9$ ! NATIONAL COMMUNITY MAY BE1 AS ,B5$ICT ,&]SON HAS >GU$1.<#e#b.> BUT IT MAY BE ALL ! MORE REVOLUTION>Y = BE+ IMAG9>Y1 = NATIONALI/ POLITICAL IDEOLOGY S9CE ITS ORIG9S 9 ,EUROPE 9 ! SIXTE5? & SEV5TE5? C5TURIES HAS CALL$ =? ! REORGANIZATION ( SOCIETIES GLOBALLY 9TO NATIONS4 ,?IS 9 TURN HAS PROVOK$ A REVOLUTION>Y RECONCEPTUALIZATION ( POLITICAL LEGITIMACY & A RECON/ITUTION ( POLITICAL SPACE 9T]NALLY TO CREATE NATIONS4 ,WE NE$ ONLY TO REMEMB] ?AT OV] ! LA/ TWO C5TURIES1 EV5 ! MO/ DESPOTIC /ATES HAVE EXCUS$ !IR DESPOTISM BY REC\RSE TO NATIONAL 9T]E/1 :I* ?OSE :O HAVE /RUGGL$ AGA9/ DESPOTISM HAVE C\NT]$ BY ASS]T+ !IR RI<TS AS CITIZ5S--& ALT]NATIVE CONCEPTIONS ( NATIONAL 9T]E/4 

,SU* A *ANGE ( CONSCI\SNESS ACCOMPANI$ ! >TICULATION ( A NATIONALI/ POLITICAL IDEOLOGY 9 ,*9A AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY4 ,IF WE P]CEIVE NATIONALISM 9 T]MS ( ITS GLOBAL REVOLUTION>Y PREMISES RA!R ?AN ITS P>O*IAL MANIFE/ATIONS1 IT IS NOT SURPRIS+ ?AT ! FIR/ ,*9ESE TO RAISE ! QUE/ION ( ,*9A'S REORGANIZATION AS A NATION W]E NOT ! CONS]VATIVE DEF5D]S ( ! ,CONFUCIAN POLITICAL ORD]1 :O CONT9U$ TO 9SI/ ?AT ,*9A WAS A WORLD UNTO ITSELF & ?AT ! ,*9ESE WORLD CONTA9$ ALL ! NECESS>Y 9/ITUTIONS = A CIVILIZ$ WORLD4 ,!Y W]E ?OSE ,*9ESE :O1 HAV+ DISCOV]$ O!R SOCIETIES ) !IR [N 9/ITUTIONS1 W]E WILL+ TO RECOGNIZE ALT]NATIVE CLAIMS TO CIVILIZATION--& EV5 ?AT ?OSE CLAIMS W]E MORE SUITABLE TO ! AGE ?AN ! CLAIMS ( ! ,CONFUCIAN POLITICAL ORD]1 :I* HAD BE5 DESIGN$ = CIRCUM/ANCES :5 ,*9A'S CIVILIZATION HAD NO COMPETITORS4.<#e#c.> ,ONCE ! RUDE %OCK ( MILIT>Y DEFEAT BY ,EUROPEAN P[]S HAD BE5 OV]COME1 & ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS HAD ACQUIR$ SOME FAMILI>ITY ) ,EUROPEANS 9 ,*9A1 ESPECIALLY ?R\< DIRECT CONTACT ) ,EUROPEAN SOCIETIES 9 ! #a#h#gS & #a#h#hS1 SOME AT LEA/ W]E WILL+ TO RECOGNIZE ?AT ! ,EUROPEANS' /R5G? RESID$ NOT JU/ 9 SUP]IOR WEAPONS OR MILIT>Y P[] BUT 9 !IR POLITICAL & ECONOMIC 9/ITUTIONS4 ,!Y MAY HAVE BE5 9T]E/$ PRIM>ILY 9 UNCOV]+ ! SECRET ( ! WEAL? & P[] ( ,EUROPEANS1 BUT :AT IS IMPORTANT IS ?AT !Y W]E WILL+ TO RECOGNIZE ! 9/ITUTIONS !Y DISCOV]$ AS ! KEYS TO WEAL? & P[]1 NOT AS ! =TUIT\S PRODUCTS ( B>B>IC SOCIETIES1 BUT AS ! V]Y 5D[M5TS ( AN ALT]NATIVE CIVILIZATION ) ITS [N CLAIMS TO HI/ORY4 ,:AT IMPRESS$ !M MO/ AB\T ?IS CIVILIZATION WAS ITS DYNAMISM1 :I* RE/$ UPON A CLOSE RELATION%IP BETWE5 RUL]S & RUL$--:I* ACC\NT$ = ! RESPONSIV5ESS ( ! RUL]S TO ! RUL$ & ! WILL+NESS ( ! RUL$ TO MAKE COMMON CAUSE ) !IR RUL]S4 

,! NEW CONSCI\SNESS ( ! GLOBE LIES AT ! ORIG9S ( ! EM]G5CE ( A NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS 9 ,*9A ) V>I$ RESPONSES4 ,= ?OSE COMMITT$ TO ! EXI/+ ORD]1 NATIONALISM TOOK ! =M ( /R5G!N+ EXI/+ 9/ITUTIONS TO W>D (F ! *ALL5GE PRES5T$ BY !SE ALT]NATIVE MODELS ( CIVILIZATION2 ?IS RESPONSE IMPLI$ ! CLOS+ (F ( ! NEW WORLD 9 A P>O*IAL REAFFIRMATION ( ! SUP]IORITY OR SUFFICI5CY ( ! IDEOLOGICAL BASES ( ,*9ESE CIVILIZATION1 :I* NE$$ LITTLE FROM ! \TSIDE WORLD EXCEPT ?OSE TE*NIQUES ?AT MI<T CONTRIBUTE TO /R5G!N+ NATIVE 9/ITUTIONS4 

,! RADICAL ALT]NATIVE CAME FROM ?OSE :O FELT UNCOM=TABLE ) ! P>O*IALISM ( A POLITICS ?AT TOOK ! NATION AS ITS [N 5D4 ,?IS RESPONSE TOOK ! =M ( PROJECT+ UPON ! NEW GLOBAL SITUATION A NATIVE IDEALISM & UTOPIANISM ?AT N[ TOOK ! NATION AS ITS PO9T ( DEP>TURE1 BUT P]CEIV$ 9 ! FUTURE ! REALIZATION ( UNIV]SAL IDEALS1 :I* HAD =M]LY TAK5 ,*9ESE SOCIETY AS !IR LOCUS BUT 9 ! NEW CONSCI\SNESS BECAME ATTRIBUTES ( A SOCIETY CONCEIV$ GLOBALLY4 ,! 9SCRIB+ ( NATIVE IDEALS 7PR$OM9ANTLY ,CONFUCIAN & ,BUDDHI/ 9 ORIG9S7 UPON ! NEW GLOBAL SITUATION EXPRESS$ A NEW COSMOPOLITANISM ?AT W\LD ULTIMATELY REPHRASE ?OSE IDEALS 9 ! LANGUAGE ( A GLOBAL POLITICAL DISC\RSE4 

,9 AN IMM$IATE S5SE1 ?IS NEW COSMOPOLITANISM HAD TWO IMPLICATIONS3 7#a7 BR++ A NEW S5SE ( SPACE & TIME 9TO ! DISC\RSE ON IDEAL SOCIETY1 & 7#b7 9CORPORAT+ 9TO ! PROC$URES = A*IEV+ AN IDEAL SOCIETY LESSONS LE>N$ FROM ! EXP]I5CES ( O!RS1 ) ! CONSEQU5CE ?AT ! EM]G+ REVOLUTION>Y DISC\RSE EXT5D$ TO ! PA/ ITS COSMOPOLITAN VISION ( ! FUTURE & DREW UPON ! PA/S ( O!R SOCIETIES AS MU* AS ON ,*9A'S PA/ 9 *>T+ A FUTURE C\RSE4 ,! RECOGNITION ( ALT]NATIVE CLAIMS TO CIVILIZATION1 AS ,JOSEPH ,LEV5SON HAS >GU$1 MEANT ! 9EVITABLE %R9K+ ( ,CONFUCIAN CLAIMS TO POSSESSION ( ! CIVILIZATION2 ,*9ESE CIVILIZATION WAS ONLY ONE AMONG O!RS1 & NOT NECESS>ILY ! ONE BE/ SUIT$ TO SURVIVAL 9 ! CONTEMPOR>Y WORLD4.<#e#d.> ,SURVIVAL1 9DE$1 DEM&$ RECON/ITUTION ( ?AT CIVILIZATION 9/ITUTIONALLY & IDEOLOGICALLY1 :I* MEANT REMAK+ ,*9A FROM A UNIV]SAL EMPIRE 9TO A NATION4 ,= ?AT IS :AT ! NEW MODELS ( WEAL? & P[] IMPLI$3 /ATES ?AT D]IV$ !IR LEGITIMACY NOT FROM A HI<] P[] OR AN AB/RACT MORALITY BUT FROM !IR REPRES5TATION ( !IR CON/ITU5TS1 & PEOPLE :O = ! SAME REASON W]E COMMITT$ TO NATIONAL GOALS4 

,! %R9K+ ( ! ,*9ESE WORLD1 IMPLICIT 9 ! RECOGNITION ( ! HI/ORICAL LEGITIMACY ( O!R CIVILIZATIONS1 WAS ACCOMPANI$ BY A %>P AW>5ESS ?AT1 IF ,*9A WAS TO SURVIVE & FL\RI% UND] SU* NOVEL CIRCUM/ANCES1 ,*9ESE POLITICS MU/ BE REORGANIZ$ 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! MODELS PROVID$ BY !SE CIVILIZATIONS4 ,NATIONALISM AS IT EM]G$ 9 ,*9A WAS 9T5D$ TO W>D (F ! ?REAT TO ,*9A'S EXI/5CE2 BUT 9 ITS V]Y PREMISES IT PRESUPPOS$ ! RECOGNITION ( ! CLAIMS ( ?AT WORLD1 NOT ?AT IT W\LD BE CLOS$ (F4 ,& IT WAS REVOLUTION>Y BECAUSE 5TRY 9TO ! WORLD CALL$ = ! RECOGNITION ( ,*9A AS A POLITICAL 5TITY ?AT WAS ITS [N 5D RA!R ?AN AN 9/ITUTIONAL COMPLEX ?AT EXPRESS$ TRANSC5D5TAL NORMS4 ,SU* RECOGNITION REQUIR$ A %IFT 9 ! TASKS ( POLITICS FROM PRES]V+ ! PURITY ( 9H]IT$ 9/ITUTIONS TO PRES]V+ ! T]RITORY & ! PEOPLE ?AT CON/ITUT$ ! NATION--:I* C\LD BE ACCOMPLI%$ ONLY BY BR++ ! PEOPLE 9TO POLITICS4.<#e#e.> ,?OSE :O FIR/ SPOKE TIMIDLY ( O!R CIVILIZATIONS 9 ! #a#h#hS W]E H\ND$ \T ( (FICE BY !IR FELL[ ,CONFUCIANS2 )9 YE>S1 A REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T WAS UND] WAY ?AT CALL$ = A REPUBLICAN REORGANIZATION ( ,*9A1 TO :I* ,MAN*U RULE WAS UNACCEPTABLE BECAUSE ONE NATIONALITY MU/ NOT BE SUBJECT TO RULE BY ANO!R4 

,NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS WAS REVOLUTION>Y AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY BECAUSE IT COMPELL$ ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS1 9 ! WORDS ( ,*ANG ,HAO1 TO DO SOME?+ !Y PROBABLY HAD NOT DONE S9CE ! AXIAL AGE ( ! LATE ,*\1 NAMELY1 TO REEXAM9E ! 9/ITUTIONAL F\NDATION ( ! ,*9ESE SOCIOPOLITICAL ORD]4.<#e#f.> ,EXAM9ATION ( ! 9TELLECTUAL PREMISES ( ! NEW NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS REVEALS ?AT ! REVOLUTION 9 ,*9ESE POLITICAL CONSCI\SNESS EXT5D$ BEYOND ! REEXAM9ATION ( ! 9/ITUTIONAL F\NDATION ( ! ,*9ESE SOCIOPOLITICAL ORD]1 & IMPLI$ A TRANS=MATION 9 ! SPATIAL & TEMPORAL CONDITIONS ( POLITICS4 ,9 HIS ,AUTOBIOGRAPHY AT ,?IRTY1 ,LIANG ,QI*AO1 PROM95T RE=M] & 9TELLECTUAL CLE>+-H\SE = HIS G5]ATION1.<#e#g.> :O W\LD DO MORE ?AN ANY ( HIS CONTEMPOR>IES TO >TICULATE ! NEW CONCEPTION ( ! NATION1 WROTE3  
  

,I WAS BORN ,JANU>Y #bf ( ! TWELF? YE> ( ,TONGZHI 7#a#h#g#c71 T5 YE>S AFT] ! ,TAIP+ ,K+DOM WAS DEFEAT$ 9 ,J9L+ 7,NANJ+71 ONE YE> AFT] ! ,Q+ S*OL> ,Z5G ,GU(AN DI$1 ?REE YE>S AFT] ! ,FRANCO-,PRUSSIAN ,W>1 & ! YE> ?AT ,ITALY BECAME A NATION 9 ,ROME4 ,:5 ,I WAS A MON? OLD1 MY GR&MO!R ,LI DI$4.<#e#h.>  
  

,! /ATEM5T IS REM>KABLE = ! NEW S5SE ( SPACE & TIME ?AT 9=MS IT4 ,UNLIKE E>LI] AU?ORS1 BUT LIKE HIS CONTEMPOR>IES1 ,LIANG TOOK AS ! REF]5CE = HIS AUTOBIOGRAPHY NOT JU/ EV5TS 9 ,*9A BUT WORLDWIDE EV5TS4 ,?IS CONSCI\SNESS AT ! P]SONAL LEVEL WAS P>ALLEL$ AT ! POLITICAL LEVEL BY AN 9CIPI5T AW>5ESS ?AT ,*9A WAS NO LONG] ! WORLD1 BUT P>T ( A L>G] WORLD4 ,! SAME AW>5ESS WAS REFLECT$ 9 ! TRANS=MATION ( HI/ORICAL CONSCI\SNESS3 ?AT ,*9ESE HI/ORY1 ONCE TAK5 TO BE ! HI/ORY ( CIVILIZATION1 WAS LITTLE MORE ?AN ! HI/ORY ( ONE CIVILIZATION AMONG MANY1 &1 JUDG+ BY CONTEMPOR>Y RESULTS1 IT WAS NOT A HI/ORY ( SUCCESS4 ,IT WAS URG5T TO RELOCATE ,*9ESE HI/ORY 9 WORLD HI/ORY & TO TRANS=M ,*9A ACCORD+LY1 IF ,*9ESE SOCIETY WAS TO BE GU>ANTE$ A FUTURE4 

,HI/ORIANS LONG HAVE NOT$ ! CRISIS 9 ,*9ESE CONSCI\SNESS CREAT$ BY ?IS REALIZATION1 & ! CONTRADICTION ?AT IT CREAT$ = ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS3 ?AT 9 ORD] TO W>D (F ! ,EURO-,AM]ICAN P[]S ?AT ?REAT5$ ! EXI/5CE ( ,*9ESE SOCIETY1 ,*9A MU/ ADOPT ! WAYS ( ! V]Y P[]S ?AT ?REAT5$ IT4 ,! REPEAT$ DEFEAT ( ,*9A AT ! H&S ( !SE P[]S CONFIRM$ = ,*9ESE ! PR$ICTIONS ( ! SOCIAL ,D>W9IAN IDEOLOGY ?AT 5T]$ ,*9ESE ?9K+ AT AB\T ! SAME TIME3 ?AT ONLY ?OSE NATIONS W\LD SURVIVE ?AT C\LD ADJU/ TO ! DEM&S ( ! CONTEMPOR>Y WORLD4 ,H5CE ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION APPE>S FROM ITS ORIG9S 9 ITS DEF5SIVE MOTIVATIONS3 AS A MEANS TO GU>ANTEE ,*9A'S SURVIVAL 9 A WORLD ( COMPETITION & CONFLICT4 ,*9ESE 9T]NATIONALISM--! WILL+NESS TO ADOPT ,WE/]N WAYS--APPE>S ACCORD+LY AS P>T ( ?IS /RATEGY ( SURVIVAL4 

,:ILE ! VALIDITY ( ?IS VIEW IS NOT TO BE D5I$1 IT IS SOME:AT ONESID$4 ,IF ,*9ESE NATIONALISM DID NOT MEAN M]ELY CLOS+ \T ! WORLD1 BUT PRESUPPOS$ = ITS V]Y EM]G5CE A NEW S5SE ( TIME & SPACE1 IT BECOMES POSSIBLE TO COMPREH5D ANO!R PH5OM5ON ?AT ACCOMPANI$ ! FIR/ /IRR+S ( NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS3 AN 9T]NATIONALI/ UTOPIANISM4 ,*>LOTTE ,FUR? HAS NOT$ ! APPE>ANCE ( A P]VASIVE UTOPIANISM 9 ,*9ESE ?9K+ AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY4.<#e#i.> ,?IS UTOPIANISM1 ?\< EXPRESS$ 9 A NATIVE VOCABUL>Y ?AT [$ MU* TO ,CONFUCIANISM & ,BUDDHISM1 WAS ! C\NT]PO9T TO ! NEW NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS & EXPRESS$ HOPES 9 A NEW ,*9A1 9 ,HSIAO ,KUNG-*'UAN'S FELICIT\S WORDS1 9 A NEW WORLD4.<#f.> ,! IDEAL ( WORLD UNITY1 ONCE 5COMPASS$ )9 ! CLAIMS TO UNIV]SALITY ( ,*9ESE CIVILIZATION BUT NO LONG] CONTA9$ )9 ! CONCEPTION ( A SPATIALLY & TEMPORALLY LIMIT$ ,*9ESE NATION1 WAS N[ PROJECT$ UPON ! NEW WORLD ( NATIONS AS A HI/ORICAL PROJECT 9 :OSE REALIZATION ,*9A WAS TO BE A P>TICIPANT4 ,IT MAY NOT BE CO9CID5TAL ?AT ,KANG ,Y\WEI1 ! LEAD] ( ! FIR/ S]I\S RE=M MOVEM5T 9 MOD]N ,*9A 9 #a#h#i#h1 :O 9 ! NAME ( NATIONAL SURVIVAL M\NT$ ! FATAL *ALL5GE TO ! CLAIM TO UNIV]SALITY ( ! ,CONFUCIAN IMP]IAL ORD]1 %\LD ALSO HAVE AU?OR$ A UTOPIAN TREATISE1 ,! ,BOOK ( ,GREAT ,UNITY 7,DATONG %U71 :I* DEPICT$ ! MAT]IAL & MORAL FEATURES ( A FUTURE SOCIETY ?AT HAD ONCE AGA9 TRANSC5D$ NATIONALISM4.<#f#a.> ,KANG'S SOCIETY ( ,GREAT ,UNITY REPRES5T$ ! F9AL /AGE ( HUMAN PROGRESS1 FOLL[+ /AGES ( FAMILISM & NATIONALISM1 9 ?AT ORD]4 ,! UTOPIA DREW ITS NAME & VIRTUES FROM A NATIVE ,*9ESE UTOPIAN TRADITION1 BUT ALREADY ITS 9SPIRATION CAME FROM ! FUTURE--A FUTURE1 MOREOV]1 ?AT TRANSC5D$ ,*9A'S [N WORLD & TOOK AS ITS SCOPE ! GLOBAL SOCIETY ( :I* ,*9A HAD JU/ BECOME AN 9TEGRAL P>T4 

,:AT IS MO/ SIGNIFICANT H]E IS ?AT ! V]Y CONDITION ?AT NECESSITAT$ ! R$EF9ITION ( ,*9A AS A NATION 9 A WORLD ( NATIONS ELICIT$ AS ITS DIALECTICAL C\NT]PO9T A NEW VISION ( A WORLD 9 :I* NATIONS W\LD ONCE AGA9 DISAPPE> & HUMANK9D W\LD DISCOV] A WORLD ( UNITY4 ,O!RS W]E TO FOLL[ ,KANG4 ,! URGE TO A NEW UNIV]SALISM WAS ALSO EXPRESS$ AT AB\T ! TURN ( ! C5TURY 9 A ,BUDDHI/ REVIVAL1 AS WELL AS 9 ! UNIV]SALIZATION ( ,CONFUCIAN VALUES1 :I* W]E ALI5AT$ FROM !IR ASSOCIATION ) 9/ITUTIONS P>TICUL> TO ! ,CONFUCIAN SOCIOPOLITICAL ORD] TO BECOME POT5TIAL 5D[M5TS ( HUMANITY AS A :OLE4 

,)9 ! CONTEXT ( ?IS UTOPIANISM ?AT WAS ITS DIALECTICAL C\NT]PO9T1 ! EM]G+ ,*9ESE NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS APPE>S NOT M]ELY AS A DEF5SIVE P>O*IALISM1 BUT AS A /EP 9 AN IDEALI/IC PROJECT :OSE ULTIMATE GOAL WAS ! TRANS=MATION ( HUMANITY GLOBALLY4 ,*9A1 MOREOV]1 MU/ P>TICIPATE 9 ?IS GLOBAL PROJECT1 NOT JU/ AS ITS OBJECT BUT AS A SUBJECT ?AT HAD MU* TO CONTRIBUTE TO ITS REALIZATION4 ,! UTOPIANISM H9T$ AT A DISCOM=T ) NATIONALISM AS AN 5D 9 ITSELF2 & IT WAS ?IS DISCOM=T ?AT WAS REVOLUTION>Y1 = IT LOOK$ BEYOND ! A*IEVEM5T ( NATIONAL GOALS TO A GLOBAL TRANS=MATION4 ,KANG ,Y\WEI1 :OSE RE9T]PRETATION ( ,CONFUCIANISM WAS TO E/ABLI% ! 9TELLECTUAL PREMISES ( NATIONALI/ IDEOLOGY1 NEV]!LESS EXPRESS$ 9 HIS UTOPIA A PR(\ND DISCOM=T ) ALL 9/ITUTIONS ?AT DIVID$ PEOPLE FROM ONE ANO!R1 9CLUD+ NATIONALISM1 TO :I* HE TRAC$ ! CAUSES ( HUMAN SUFF]+4 ,! DISCOM=T WAS NOT HIS ALONE4 ,KANG'S DISCIPLE ,TAN ,SITONG EXPRESS$ IT EV5 MORE COG5TLY 9 A /ATEM5T ?AT MAY WELL BE TAK5 AS A PRELUDE TO ! AN>*I/ RESOLUTION ( ! PROBLEM3  
  

,! E>? MU/ BE GOV]N$ 9 SU* A WAY ?AT !RE IS ONLY ONE WORLD BUT NO /ATES4 ,TO 5ABLE EV]YBODY TO 5JOY FRE$OM1 PEOPLE W\LD NOT HAVE TO BELONG TO ANY /ATE4 ,IF !RE W]E NO /ATES1 !RE W\LD NOT BE ANY B\ND>IES1 W>S1 SUSPICION1 JEAL\SY1 P[]-/RUGGLES1 DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! SELF & O!RS1 & EQUALITY W\LD EM]GE4 ,EV5 IF ! WORLD EXI/S1 IT W\LD BE AS IF !RE W]E NO WORLD AT ALL4 ,:5 RUL]S >E ALL DEPOS$1 !N !RE WILL BE EQUALITY BETWE5 ! HI<] & L[]2 :5 UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLES >E FOLL[$1 !N !RE WILL BE EQUALITY BETWE5 ! RI* & ! POOR4 ,= ?\S&S & ?\S&S ( MILES1 ! 5TIRE WORLD WILL BE LIKE ONE FAMILY1 ONE MAN4 ,HOMES WILL BE LOOK$ UPON AS GUE/ H\SES1 & PEOPLE1 AS COMPATRIOTS4 ,!RE WILL BE NO NE$ = FA!RS TO APPLY !IR PAT]NAL LOVE1 & = SONS TO EX]CISE !IR FILIAL PIETY4 ,ELD] & Y\NG] BRO!RS CAN =GET AB\T !IR FRI5DLY RESPECT1 & HUSB&S & WIVES !IR MUTUAL H>MONY4 ,IT W\LD BE LIKE ! MAN M5TION$ 9 A ,WE/]N /ORY BOOK1 :O WAKES UP AFT] DREAM+ = A HUNDR$ YE>S1 & F9DS ?AT ! ATMOSPH]E ( ,ONE ,WORLD IS ALMO/ LIKE ?AT DESCRIB$ 9 ! *APT] ON ! ,EVOLUTION ( ,RITES 9 ! ,BOOK ( ,RITES4.<#f#b.>  
  

,TAN'S BOOK WAS NAM$ AFT] ! C5TRAL VIRTUE ( ,CONFUCIANISM1 HUMAN5ESS 7]N71 & HE DREW HEAVILY ON ,BUDDHI/ IDEALS 9 DESCRIB+ HIS VISION ( ! FUTURE4 ,HE ALSO E/ABLI%ES AN EQUALITY H]E BETWE5 ! IDEAL ( GREAT UNITY 7DATONG7 9 ! ,BOOK ( ,RITES & :AT W\LD APPE> TO BE A REF]5CE TO ,$W>D ,BELLAMY'S ,LOOK+ ,BACKW>D4 ,HE WAS ONE ( ! FIR/ M>TYRS ( ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION4.<#f#c.> 

,?IS UTOPIAN DIM5SION TO ,*9ESE NATIONALISM SUGGE/S ONE REASON :Y AN>*ISM1 = ALL ITS OPPOSITION TO NATIONALISM1 F\ND A RECEPTIVE AUDI5CE 9 ,*9A 9 ! MID/ ( A TIDE ( NATIONALISM4 ,ANO!R REASON LIES 9 ! QUE/IONS RAIS$ BY ! NATIONALI/ DEM& TO BR+ /ATE & SOCIETY CLOS] 9 ! REORGANIZATION ( ,*9ESE POLITICS4 ,H]E1 TOO1 ! PROBLEM MU/ BE P]CEIV$ 9 WAYS MORE COMPLEX ?AN IS ALL[$ = 9 ! 9T]PRETATION ( ,*9ESE NATIONALISM M]ELY AS A QUE/ = WEAL? & P[]4 

,9 PRACTICAL T]MS1 ! MO/ CONSPICU\S ASPECT ( ! URGE TO REMAKE ,*9A AS A NATION WAS TO F9D WAYS TO BR+ SOCIETY CLOSE TO ! /ATE SO AS TO MOTIVATE ! PEOPLE TO PURSUE NATIONAL GOALS ACTIVELY4 ,*9ESE ?9K]S AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY BELIEV$ ?AT ?R\< C5TURIES ( POLITICAL RULE ?AT HAD D5I$ POPUL> POLITICAL P>TICIPATION ! PEOPLE HAD BECOME PASSIVE SUBJECTS :O C>$ LITTLE = ! FATE ( ! NATION AS A :OLE4 ,9 ADVOCAT+ GREAT] POLITICAL P>TICIPATION1 !IR IMM$IATE GOAL WAS NOT TO MAKE ! /ATE AN 9/RUM5T ( SOCIAL 9T]E/S1 OR TO FOM5T CONFLICT BETWE5 /ATE & SOCIETY1 BUT TO UNIFY ! TWO 9TO A :OLE1 CAPABLE ( ACT+ AS ONE4 ,LIANG ,QI*AO1 :O 5UNCIAT$ ?IS PROBLEM MO/ CLE>LY1 CONCEIV$ ( ! NATION1 9 ! WORDS ( ,*ANG ,HAO1 AS A MORAL GEME9S*AFT1 :I* 9 TURN PRESUPPOS$ AN ORGANIC CONCEPTION ( ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 /ATE & SOCIETY4.<#f#d.> 

,ONCE AGA91 :ILE ?IS VIEW ( 9ITIAL NATIONALI/ ASPIRATIONS 7A CONT9U+ PROBLEM ( ,*9ESE POLITICS7 IS VALID1 IT IS ONLY P>T ( A COMPLEX PICTURE4 ,! QUE/IONS RAIS$ BY NATIONALISM ALSO LEGITIMIZ$ DIVISION 9 A POLITICAL SY/EM ?AT HAD HI!RTO REFUS$ TO ADDRESS AS LEGITIMATE ! QUE/ION ( SOCIAL 9T]E/4 ,SPECIFICALLY1 IF NATIONALISM PRESUPPOS$ A /ATE ?AT REPRES5T$ ! 9T]E/S ( ! NATION1 H[ WAS IT TO BE DET]M9$ ?AT ! /ATE DID 9DE$ REPRES5T ! NATION'S 9T]E/S8 ,EV5 IF ! /ATE C\LD BE MADE TO REPRES5T ! NATION1 H[ W]E ?OSE 9T]E/S TO BE DET]M9$1 S9CE ! NATION ITSELF WAS A COMPOSITE ( SOCIAL RELATION%IPS ?AT >TICULAT$ DIV]G5T1 & CONFLICT+1 SOCIAL 9T]E/S8 ,I SUGGE/ ?AT ! NATIONALI/ DEM& = ! REORGANIZATION ( POLITICAL SPACE 9 ! FIR/ DECADE ( ! C5TURY1 9 GIV+ RISE TO SU* QUE/IONS1 REPRES5T$ ! EM]G5CE ( POLITICS 9 ,*9A BY TRANS=M+ A RITUAL CONCEPTION ( POLITICAL ORD] AS ! ADM9I/RATION ( SOCIETY 9TO A POLITICAL CONCEPTION :]E ORD] WAS TO BE CREAT$ \T ( ! H>MONIZ+ ( CONFLICT+ 9T]E/S BETWE5 /ATE & SOCIETY1 AS WELL AS ( DIV]G5T SOCIAL 9T]E/S4 ,LIANG ,QI*AO'S WAS ONE SOLUTION AMONG O!RS1 ONE ?AT S\<T TO RESOLVE ! PR$ICAM5T CREAT$ BY NATIONALISM BY ASS]T+ ! PRIORITY ( ! NATION CONCEIV$ AS AN ORGANIC 5TITY4 ,9 PRACTICE1 H[EV]1 ! QUE/ION ( LEGITIMACY RAIS$ BY ! NEW NATIONALI/ CONCEPTION ( ,*9A PRODUC$1 ALMO/ IMM$IATELY1 SOCIAL & POLITICAL CONFLICTS1 :I* F\ND EXPRESSION 9 DIV]G5T CONCEPTIONS ( ! NATION4 ,GIV5 A SITUATION :]E ! RUL+ DYNA/Y WAS E?NICALLY DIFF]5T FROM ! MAJORITY ( ! POPULATION1 ! LEGITIMACY ( ! /ATE CAME UND] ATTACK FIR/ FROM ?OSE PREOCCUPI$ ) ! FATE ( ! NATION1 & QUICKLY TURN$ 9TO A CRITIQUE ( DESPOTISM 9 G5]AL--9 O!R WORDS1 AN ASS]TION ( ! RI<TS ( SOCIETY AGA9/ ! /ATE4 ,IT WAS ACCOMPANI$ ALMO/ IMM$IATELY BY CONFLICTS OV] :O WAS TO BE 9CLUD$ 9 ! NEW POLITICAL >RANGEM5T & :OSE 9T]E/S W]E TO TAKE PRIORITY 9 ! DEF9ITION ( NATIONAL 9T]E/4 ,BY #a#i#e1 AGA9/ ,LIANG ,QI*AO'S PLEAS = ORGANIC NATIONAL UNITY1 ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE 7,TONGM5G HUI7 UND] ! LEAD]%IP ( ,SUN ,YAT-S5 HAD ALREADY 9CORPORAT$ 9 ITS REPUBLICAN PROGRAM A CALL = SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 TO SAFEGU>D ! 9T]E/S ( ! MAJORITY AGA9/ ! M9ORITY ( ECONOMIC & POLITICAL P[] HOLD]S4 ,! FOLL[+ YE>1 AN>*I/S W\LD PROPOSE !IR [N V]SION ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 ?IS TIME 9T5D$ NOT AS ! BASIS = A NEW /ATE BUT AGA9/ ! /ATE & POLITICS 9 G5]AL4 

,9 RAIS+ ! QUE/ION ( ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 /ATE & SOCIETY1 ! NATIONALI/ >GUM5T1 CONTR>Y TO ITS 9T5TIONS1 ALSO RAIS$ ! POSSIBILITY ( OPPOSITION BETWE5 /ATE & SOCIETY4 ,! /ATE1 N[ DEP5D5T = ITS LEGITIMACY ON ITS ABILITY TO REPRES5T ! NATION1 C\LD NO LONG] ID5TIFY ! LATT] ) ITS [N WILL4 ,! SAME >GUM5T LEGITIMIZ$ ! RI<T ( REVOLUTION>IES TO SPEAK AGA9/ ! /ATE 9 WAYS ?AT HAD BE5 IMPOSSIBLE SO LONG AS ! ,*9ESE ORD] HAD REFUS$ TO RECOGNIZE SOCIETY AS AN AUTONOM\S S\RCE ( POLITICAL LEGITIMACY4 

,! PROBLEM ( /ATE & SOCIETY APPE>$ AT ! LEVEL ( ! 9DIVIDUAL AS A PROBLEM ( MORALITY3 PUBLIC MORALITY 7GONGDE7 V]SUS PRIVATE MORALITY 7SIDE74 ,! NATIONALI/ PROBLEMATIC WAS TO GIVE A NEW TWI/ TO ?IS LONG-/&+ PROBLEM 9 ,*9ESE POLITICAL ?\<T4 ,! PROBLEM WAS H[ TO RECONCILE A PRIVATE MORALITY 7EXPRESS$ 9 P]SONAL RELATION%IPS & LOYALTIES7 ) A PUBLIC MORALITY 7EXPRESS$ 9 OBLIGATIONS TO A MORE AB/RACT POLITICAL ORD]74 ,POLITICAL OR?ODOXY 9 ,*9A1 FOLL[+ ! 9JUNCTION 9 ! CANONICAL TEXT ,! ,GREAT ,LE>N+1 PRES5T$ ! RELATION%IP AS A CONT9UUM3 ! P]FECTION ( PRIVATE MORALITY WAS A PR]EQUISITE TO1 & F\ND ITS FULFILLM5T 91 ! A*IEVEM5T ( PUBLIC MORALITY4 ,POLITICS DID NOT ALWAYS LIVE UP TO ITS [N IDEOLOGICAL PREMISES1 H[EV]1 & ,CONFUCIAN !ORI/S W]E ALWAYS ACUTELY AW>E ( ! POT5TIAL CONFLICT BETWE5 PRIVATE & PUBLIC1 BETWE5 P>TICUL>I/IC LOYALTIES & ! UNIV]SALI/IC OBLIGATIONS NECESS>Y TO ! SU/5ANCE ( PUBLIC ORD]2 ?9K]S ( ! E>LY ,Q+ DYNA/Y 7#a#f#d#d-#a#i#a#a71 :OSE WRIT+S W\LD DEEPLY IMPRESS ! FIR/ G5]ATION ( ,*9ESE NATIONALI/S1 HAD BE5 P>TICUL>LY EXPLICIT 9 !IR CONDEMNATION ( RUL]S :O GAVE PRIORITY TO PRIVATE OV] PUBLIC 9T]E/ &1 !RE=E1 UND]M9$ ! POLITICAL ORD]4 

,TWO ASPECTS ( ?IS PROBLEM HAD APPE>$ 9 ,CONFUCIAN ?9K+4 ,FIR/ WAS ITS SCOPE3 :ILE PUBLIC OBLIGATION WAS 9CUMB5T UPON EV]YONE1 IT WAS TRULY SIGNIFICANT ONLY = ?OSE :O C>RI$ ! RESPONSIBILITY = PUBLIC ORD]--! RUL] & ?OSE :O P>TICIPAT$ 9 RUL+ FUNCTIONS4 ,SECOND1 :ILE PRIVATE 9T]E/ MI<T BE TOL]AT$ TO ! EXT5T ?AT IT WAS NOT 9IMICAL TO ! PUBLIC ORD]1 ULTIMATELY IT C>RI$ NO LEGITIMACY1 & ! WEB ( P>TICUL>I/IC RELATION%IPS ?AT CON/ITUT$ ! 9DIVIDUAL W]E PRIZ$ ONLY TO ! EXT5T ?AT !Y PREP>$ HIM = PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY 9 A PATRIMONIAL & PATRI>*AL POLITICAL ORD]4 ,IT IS NOT ?AT ! !ORY DID NOT ALL[ = 9DIVIDUAL CONSCI5CE1 = IT DID1 BUT ?AT ! POLITICAL ORD] MADE NO ROOM = ?OSE :OSE CONSCI5CE L$ !M TO RADICAL DISS5T4 

,! NATIONALI/ PROBLEMATIC WAS TO RECA/ ?IS PROBLEM4 ,TO PUT IT BLUNTLY1 ! RECON/ITUTION ( ,*9A AS A NATION PRESUPPOS$ ! RECON/ITUTION ( ! SUBJECTS ( ! ,CONFUCIAN ORD] AS CITIZ5S :O W]E ! ULTIMATE S\RCE ( POLITICAL LEGITIMACY & :OSE ACTIVE P>TICIPATION 9 POLITICS WAS ESS5TIAL TO ! CREATION ( A NEW NATIONAL ORD]4 ,! !ORETICAL IMPLICATIONS ( ?IS NEW ASSUMPTION >E OBVI\S4 ,EV]YONE1 NOT JU/ ! RUL] OR ! RUL+ CLASS1 WAS EQUALLY OBLIG$ UND] ! CIRCUM/ANCES TO CULTIVATE ! PUBLIC MORALITY ?AT WAS ! ESS5TIAL CONDITION ( A COHESIVE NATIONAL COMMUNITY4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 H[EV]1 ! POSSIBILITY ( PUBLIC MORALITY WAS EV5 MORE ( A PR$ICAM5T = NATIONALI/ DISC\RSE ?AN IT HAD BE5 = ! ,CONFUCIAN1 BECAUSE ( ITS RECOGNITION (1 OR DEM& =1 ! 9DIVIDUAL AS CITIZ5--AS ! AUTONOM\S S\RCE ( PUBLIC VALUES4 ,! QUE/ION = NATIONALI/ DISC\RSE WAS NOT :E!R ,*9ESE %\LD BE TRANS=M$ FROM SUBJECTS 9TO CITIZ5S1 BUT H[ SOON !Y C\LD BE EXPECT$ TO MAKE ! TRANS=MATION4 ,?IS IS QUITE CLE> 9 ,LIANG ,QI*AO'S CLASSIC /ATEM5T ( ! PROBLEM 9 #aib 9 HIS ,ON ! ,NEW ,CITIZ54.<#f#e.> ,LIANG1 ALREADY FE>FUL ( ! POSSIBILITY ( REVOLUTION & DEEPLY COMMITT$ TO ! NATIONAL IDEA AS A MORAL GEME9S*AFT1 RECOGNIZ$ ! CRUCIAL IMPORTANCE ( TURN+ ,*9ESE 9TO AUTONOM\S CITIZ5S4 ,HE BELIEV$ ?AT BECAUSE MO/ ( ! PEOPLE W]E ILL-PREP>$ TO UND]TAKE ! BURD51 A P]IOD ( $UCATION 9 ! NEW POLITICAL SY/EM WAS REQUIR$ ( !M2 :ILE !Y W]E RI*LY 5D[$ ) PRIVATE MORALITY1 !Y W]E LACK+ 9 PUBLIC MORALITY1 :I* 9 ?IS CASE MEANT LOYALTY TO ! AB/RACTION ?AT WAS ! NATION1 & HAD TO LE>N TO RECONCILE ! CONFLICT+ DEM&S ( PUBLIC & PRIVATE OBLIGATIONS4 ,LIANG DID NOT D5Y ! AUTONOMY ( ! CITIZ51 OR ! LEGITIMACY ( PRIVATE MORALITY1 BUT (F]$ A /RATEGY = RECONCIL+ !M ) ! DEM&S ( ! NATIONAL COMMUNITY4 

,O!RS W]E TO GO FUR!R4 ,:ILE ,LIANG S\<T TO CONTA9 9DIVIDUAL AUTONOMY )9 HIS IDEAL ( A NATIONAL COMMUNITY1 ! V]Y RECOGNITION ( LEGITIMACY TO PRIVATE SPACE )9 A PUBLIC REALM ALSO CREAT$ ! POSSIBILITY ( OPPOSITION BETWE5 ! TWO4 ,H5CE ! SUBJECTION ( 9DIVIDUAL TO PUBLIC 9T]E/S & NE$S C\LD APPE> AS A P]PETUATION ( ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL OPPRESSION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 :I* OB/RUCT$ ! CREATION NOT ONLY ( AUTONOM\S CITIZ5S BUT ( A NATION1 & :I* C\LD BE RESOLV$ ONLY BY ! LIFT+ ( POLITICAL & SOCIAL RE/RICTIONS ON ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,9 ITS POSIT+ ( ! 9DIVIDUAL AS AN AUTONOM\S S\RCE ( NATIONAL VALUES1 NATIONALI/ DISC\RSE OP5$ ! WAY TO AN OPPOSITION NOT ONLY BETWE5 ! 9DIVIDUAL & POLITICS BUT BETWE5 ! 9DIVIDUAL & SOCIETY AS WELL4 ,! PR$ICAM5T APPE>$ ON ! SURFACE AS PRIM>ILY A POLITICAL PROBLEM2 AS ,*ANG ,HAO HAS >GU$1 H[EV]1 IT WAS ALSO FELT BY ?OSE 9VOLV$ AS A DEEPLY EXI/5TIAL ONE4 ,IT ALSO WAS REVOLUTION>Y BECAUSE ! POSSIBILITY ( 9DIVIDUAL AUTONOMY OP5$ UP ! POSSIBILITY ( RADICAL DISS5T AS ! LEGITIMATE PR]OGATIVE ( 9DIVIDUALS4 

,! ADOPTION ( ,WE/]N IDEAS & 9/ITUTIONS 9 ORD] TO W>D (F ! ,WE/2 ! TRANS=MATION OR AB&ONM5T ( NATIVE 9/ITUTIONS & IDEAS 9 ORD] TO PRES]VE A ,*9ESE ID5TITY2 A PRACTICAL QUE/ = NATIONAL WEAL? & P[]1 :I* RESULTS 9 A UTOPIAN REPUDIATION ( NATIONALISM2 DEM&S = CLOS] 9TEGRATION ( /ATE & SOCIETY ?AT OP5 ! WAY TO ! OPPOSITION ( SOCIETY TO ! /ATE2 ! DESIRE TO CREATE LOYAL CITIZ5S1 :I* 5DS UP ) ! AFFIRMATION ( 9DIVIDUAL AUTONOMY AGA9/ BO? /ATE & SOCIETY--SU* W]E ! CONTRADICTIONS EMB$D$ 9 ! SEEM+LY TRANSP>5T & ONE-DIM5SIONAL PROBLEMATIC ( ,*9ESE NATIONALISM4 ,9 ITS ORIG9S ! NATIONALI/ IMPULSE WAS SIMPLE 5\<3 TO PROTECT ,*9A'S 9TEGRITY & TO CREATE A WEAL?Y & P[]FUL NATION4 ,H[ TO CREATE SU* A NATION WAS ANO!R MATT]4 ,FROM ! MOM5T ( ITS >TICULATION1 ! NATIONALI/ DISC\RSE REVEAL$ ITSELF TO BE F> MORE COMPLEX ?AN ! IMPULSE ?AT HAD GIV5 IT BIR?2 9DE$1 SOME ( ! ALT]NATIVES IT CALL$ =? PROMIS$ TO NEGATE ! V]Y IMPULSE ?AT LAY AT ITS ORIG9S4 

,! CONTRADICTIONS W]E ?OSE ( ! OV]DET]M9$ MILIEU FROM :I* ,*9ESE NATIONALISM SPRANG1 :I* WAS NO LONG] JU/ ,*9ESE1 BUT A ,*9ESE SOCIETY 9 ! PROCESS ( TRANS=MATION & 9CORPORATION 9TO A BROAD] WORLD ECONOMICALLY1 POLITICALLY1 & CULTURALLY4 ,*9ESE ?9K]S HAD ALREADY BEGUN TO D]IVE !IR POLITICAL 9SPIRATION1 & EV5 POLITICAL MODELS1 FROM ,EURO-,AM]ICAN MOD]NITY1 :I* NOT ONLY DOM9AT$ ! PRES5T BUT SEEM$ TO HOLD ! KEY TO ! FUTURE4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 H[EV]1 :ILE ,*9ESE NATIONALISM AS IT APPE>$ AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY SET ITSELF AGA9/ ! RECEIV$ ,CONFUCIAN TRADITION1 ! PROBLEMS ?AT OCCUPI$ IT1 AS WELL AS ! LANGUAGE 9 :I* IT PHRAS$ ?OSE PROBLEMS1 D]IV$ FROM ?AT SAME TRADITION4 ,NATIONALI/ DISC\RSE BROKE ) ! RECEIV$ POLITICAL TRADITION1 NOT BY PURG+ IT FROM MEMORY OR LANGUAGE1 BUT BY RECA/+ IT 9 A NEW PROBLEMATIC1 :I* ADD$ TO ! CONTRADICTIONS ALREADY IMPLICIT 9 ITS AMBIVAL5T RELATION%IP TO ITS ,EURO-,AM]ICAN 9SPIRATION4 ,C5TRAL TO ! NATIONALI/ PROBLEMATIC WAS A NEW CONCEPTION ( ,*9A'S PLACE 9 ! WORLD1 :I* WAS TO RAISE FUR!R QUE/IONS CONC]N+ ! BASIS ( POLITICAL LEGITIMACY & ORGANIZATION1 AS WELL AS ! E?ICAL OBLIGATIONS ( ! 9DIVIDUALS :O CON/ITUT$ ! NATION4 ,:ILE PRE-NATIONALI/ TRADITIONS P]SI/$ 9TO ! NEW DISC\RSE1 BASICALLY ?R\< ! M$IUM ( A SOCIAL & POLITICAL LANGUAGE ?AT KEPT ALIVE OLD] CONCEPTIONS & ASSOCIATIONS1 !Y W]E PROBLEMATIZ$1 ACQUIR$ NEW MEAN+S1 & W]E PLAC$ N[ 9 AN 9TELLECTUAL CONTEXT ?AT NOT ONLY OP5$ ! WAY TO NEW QUE/IONS ?AT DEM&$ NEW ANSW]S BUT ALSO REPHRAS$ OLD QUE/IONS SO AS TO YIELD ANSW]S ?AT HAD BE5 =ECLOS$ E>LI]4 ,AS LATE AS ! MIDDLE ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ,*9ESE ?9K]S FAC+ A NOVEL SITUATION 9 ! CONFRONTATION ) ! ,WE/ HAD BE5 ABLE TO 9T]IORIZE ! PROBLEMS PRES5T$ BY ?IS SITUATION )9 AN 9H]IT$ PROBLEMATIC1 :I*1 !Y BELIEV$1 C\LD CONTA9 !SE PROBLEMS 9 ! ALT]NATIVES IT (F]$4 ,BY ! TURN ( ! C5TURY1 ,*9ESE HI/ORY HAD ALREADY BE5 9SCRIB$ UPON A HI/ORY ?AT TRANSC5D$ IT1 & ! CRUCIAL QUE/ION = ,*9ESE ?9K]S WAS H[ TO MAKE ,*9A A SU/A9ABLE COMPON5T ( A NEW WORLD4 ,! UTOPIAN /RA9 9 ,*9ESE ?9K+1 :I* ACCOMPANI$ ! NEW NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS TO ! =EFRONT ( ,*9ESE ?\<T2 ! CALL = A REVOLUTION>Y TRANS=MATION ( ! POLITICAL ORD]1 :I* GREW DIRECTLY \T ( DEM&S TO RECON/ITUTE ! IMP]IAL ORD] AS A NATION2 & ! RADICAL CULTURE ?AT >OSE SIMULTANE\SLY ) NEW CONCEPTIONS ( ! E?ICAL OBLIGATIONS ( 9DIVIDUALS AS CITIZ5S--ALL W]E PRODUCTS ( ?IS QUE/ION4 ,! MOD]N ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUAL PROBLEMATIQUE1 :I* APPE>S ) ! NATIONALI/ RE=MULATION ( ,*9A'S PLACE 9 ! WORLD1 HAS BE5 DYNAMIZ$ BY SUCCESSIVE RE=MULATIONS ( ?IS SAME QUE/ION AS *ANGES 9 9T]NAL & EXT]NAL CIRCUM/ANCES HAVE ADD$ TO IT NEW DIM5SIONS2 BUT ! PROBLEMATIC RETA9S ITS VITALITY4 

,! RE=MULATION ( ,*9A'S PLACE 9 ! WORLD )9 ! NATIONALI/ DISC\RSE HAD ONE O!R IMPORTANT CONSEQU5CE3 ! 9CORPORATION 9TO POLITICAL DISC\RSE 9 ,*9A ( O!R TRADITIONS EXT]NAL TO ,*9ESE HI/ORY4 ,I REF] H]E1 NOT M]ELY TO ! 9FLU5CE ON ,*9A ( POLITICAL DISC\RSES ?AT HAD ORIG9AT$ ELSE:]E1 BUT TO ! DISCURSIVE APPROPRIATION 9 ,*9ESE POLITICS ( REVOLUTION>Y TRADITIONS1 :I* !N APPE> AS P>T ( ! PROCESS ( POLITICAL TRANS=MATION 9 ,*9A4 ,AS ,I NOT$ ABOVE 9 ! CASE ( ,LIANG ,QI*AO1 ALREADY 9 ! E>LY TW5TIE? C5TURY WORLDWIDE EV5TS APPE> AS M>K]S 9 A HI/ORICAL CONSCI\SNESS ?AT IS NO LONG] B\ND 9 ITS CONCEPTIONS ( TIME & SPACE BY A SPECIFICALLY ,*9ESE PA/4 ,LIANG'S AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL /ATEM5T PO9TS TO ?IS NEW CONSCI\SNESS AS P]SONAL & EXI/5TIAL2 & 9DE$ AS ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS CONFRONT$ ! WORLD1 EI!R AS /UD5TS OR AS POLITICAL EXILES ABROAD1 !IR EXP]I5CES ( ! WORLD OP5$ UP !IR CONSCI\SNESS TO ALT]NATIVE IDEAS & VALUES1 :I* BECAME P>T ( !IR V]Y 9TELLECTUAL & EMOTIONAL CON/ITUTION4 ,! SAME WAS TRUE ON A BROAD] POLITICAL LEVEL4 ,NATIONALI/ DISC\RSE FROM ! BEG9N+ CALL$ UPON ! EXP]I5CES ( O!RS 9 MAK+ ITS CASE = POLITICAL TRANS=MATION & ! POLITICAL VISION ?AT 9=M$ >GUM5TS = POLITICAL TRANS=MATION4 ,! ,5GLI%1 ,AM]ICAN1 ,FR5*1 & O!R REVOLUTIONS W]E ON ! M9DS ( ,*9ESE NATIONALI/S1 & ! IDEAS ?AT HAD BR\<T AB\T ?OSE REVOLUTIONS1 AS WELL AS ! EXAMPLES !Y PROVID$1 W]E TO CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY TO ! =MATION ( A RADICAL DISC\RSE 9 ,*9A4 ,9 LAT] YE>S1 O!R EXAMPLES W\LD BE ADD$ TO !SE ORIG9AL ONES4 ,:AT IS REM>KABLE IS NOT ?AT ,*9ESE RADICALS W\LD CONT9UE TO DRAW UPON ,*9A'S PA/1 BUT RA!R ?AT ! PA/ N[ APPE>$ AS ONLY P>T ( A POLITICAL DISC\RSE ?AT WAS GLOBAL 9 ITS 9SPIRATION & POLITICAL =MULATIONS4 

,! TWO BYPRODUCTS ( ! EM]G+ NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS--A UTOPIANISM ?AT S\<T TO TRANSC5D ! NATION1 & ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! NATION AS ! S\RCE ( POLITICAL LEGITIMACY--PRODUC$ AN EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE ?AT QUICKLY REVOLUTIONIZ$ ,*9ESE SOCIETY4 ,9 #a#i#c1 9 A CLASSIC ( ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION1 ,! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,>MY1 ! Y\NG AU?OR1 ,Z\ ,JONG1 COMB9$ ! TWO 9 :AT MAY BE/ BE DESCRIB$ AS A UTOPIANIZATION ( REVOLUTION ITSELF3 ,AH1 REVOLUTION1 REVOLUTION6 ,IF Y\ HAVE IT1 Y\ WILL SURVIVE2 BUT IF Y\ DON'T1 Y\ WILL DIE4 ,DON'T RETROGRESS2 DON'T BE NEUTRAL2 DON'T HESITATE2 N[ IS ! TIME4.<#f#f.> 

,A PRODUCT ( ,*9A'S PLI<T AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY1 NATIONALISM WAS TO PRODUCE AN 9TELLECTUAL ORI5TATION ?AT DISCOV]$ 9 REVOLUTION ! KEY TO ,*9A'S SURVIVAL--& ! CREATION ( A NEW WORLD4 ,IT WAS 9 ! CONTEXT ( ?IS EM]G+ RADICAL CULTURE ?AT ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS FIR/ DISCOV]$ AN>*ISM4 ,?\< AN>*ISM MAY HAVE BE5 9IMICAL TO ! PR$OM9ANTLY NATIONALI/IC ORI5TATION ( ,*9ESE POLITICS1 IT [$ ITS 9ITIAL APPEAL 9 ,*9A TO ITS RESONANCE ) !MES ?AT [$ !IR ORIG9S TO ! NEW NATIONALI/ CONSCI\SNESS4 ,= ! SAME REASON1 ! NATIONALI/ POLITICAL DISC\RSE PROVID$ ! LANGUAGE 9 :I* AN>*ISM WAS PHRAS$1 ESPECIALLY 9 ITS 9ITIAL PHASE4 

,9ITIAL ,RECEPTION ( ,AN>*ISM 

  

,AN>*ISM WAS ! FIR/ ( ! ALT]NATIVE CURR5TS 9 ,EUROPEAN SOCIALISM AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY TO MAKE A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON ,*9ESE RADICAL ?9K+ & BEHAVIOR4 ,AL?\< A DI/9CTIVELY AN>*I/ SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y PROGRAM WAS NOT 5UNCIAT$ UNTIL #a#i#f#g1 :5 ) ! F\ND+ ( ! GR\PS 9 ,P>IS & ,TOKYO SOME ( ! REVOLUTION>IES OP5LY DECL>$ AN AN>*I/ ID5TITY TO DI/+UI% !MSELVES FROM FELL[ REVOLUTION>IES1 ! BURGEON+ REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T AFT] #aic HAD ALREADY F\ND 9 AN>*ISM AN \TLOOK AK9 TO ITS [N & A VOCABUL>Y TO EXPRESS ITS RADICAL CONC]NS4 ,!RE WAS CONSID]ABLE CONFUSION CONC]N+ AN>*ISM 9 !SE E>LY YE>S2 ,*9ESE HAD NO DIRECT ACCESS TO AN>*I/ WORKS1 & :AT !Y KNEW ( AN>*ISM WAS D]IV$ FROM ,JAPANESE DISCUSSIONS ( ,EUROPEAN SOCIALISM OR FROM TRANSLATIONS 9 ,JAPANESE ( G5]AL HI/ORIES ( SOCIALISM1 :I* PRES5T$ AN>*ISM AS AN EXTREMI/ 7GUOJI7 CURR5T 9 SOCIALISM 7AN EXTREME REVOLUTIONISM71 (T5 CONF\ND+ IT ) ,RUSSIAN NIHILISM OR POPULISM4.<#f#g.> ,! V]Y DIFFUS5ESS 9 ! UND]/&+ ( AN>*ISM1 H[EV]1 REVEALS ! RESONANCE ( AN>*I/ IDEAS ) ! RADICAL ORI5TATION--AS MU* 9 MOOD AS 9 9TELLECT--CREAT$ BY ! NEW NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS4 

,9 !SE E>LIE/ DISCUSSIONS1 AN>*ISM APPE>S 9 ?REE GUISES3 FIR/1 AS A CRITIQUE ( DESPOTISM1 AN>*ISM WAS CONFLAT$ ) ,RUSSIAN NIHILISM1 S9CE ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ DESPOTISM APPE>$ TO ,*9ESE RADICALS TO BE ! DI/+UI%+ FEATURE ( BO? AN>*ISM & NIHILISM4 ,SECOND1 AN>*ISM EXPRESS$ A LONG+ = A UNIFI$ & COSMOPOLITAN WORLD 9 :OSE CREATION ,*9A W\LD P>TICIPATE4 ,F9ALLY1 AN>*ISM APPE>S AS ! EXPRESSION ( A MY/ICAL VISION1 A PHILOSOPHICAL NIHILISM1 AS IT W]E1 ?AT PROMIS$ A COSMIC UNITY BY ABOLI%+ ! V]Y CONSCI\SNESS ( S5TI5T EXI/5CE4 

,DISCUSSIONS ( AN>*ISM 9 ?IS E>LY PHASE 9V>IABLY JUXTAPOS$ IT TO DESPOTISM1 MORE (T5 ?AN NOT FOCUS+ ATT5TION ON ,RUSSIA1 :]E AN>*ISM WAS MORE PREVAL5T ?AN ELSE:]E1 IT WAS BELIEV$1 BECAUSE ( ! UNP>ALLEL$ SEV]ITY DESPOTISM HAD REA*$ !RE4 ,ONE AU?OR1 9 COMP>+ ,RUSSIA & ,*9A1 OBS]V$3 ,I HAVE HE>D ?AT DESPOTISM IS A FACTORY ?AT MANUFACTURES ! AN>*I/S :O PROMOTE ! OV]?R[ ( DESPOTISM2 ! BETT] EQUIPP$ A FACTORY IS ) MA*9]Y1 ! MORE IT PRODUCES2 ! DEEP] ! DESPOTISM1 ! MORE NUM]\S >E ! AN>*I/S IT PRODUCES4 ,*9A AT ! PRES5T1 HE CONT9U$1 DID NOT HAVE AS MANY AN>*I/S AS ,RUSSIA BECAUSE DESPOTISM !RE HAD NOT YET REA*$ ! DEP? IT HAD 9 ,RUSSIA4 ,AGA9/ ?OSE :O DESPAIR$ ( ! 9CREAS+ DESPOTISM ( ! ,*9ESE GOV]NM5T1 HE SUGGE/$ ) OPTIMISM ?AT DESPOTISM %>P5$ ! S5SIBILITIES ( ! PEOPLE & WAS SURE TO CREATE A GREAT] NUMB] ( AN>*I/S4.<#f#h.> 

,:AT MO/ IMPRESS$ ?IS AU?OR1 ,MA ,XULUN1 & SOME ( HIS CONTEMPOR>IES WAS ! AN>*I/ PURSUIT ( NATURAL FRE$OM 7TIANRAN ZIY\74 ,9 PRIMEVAL TIMES1 HUMANK9D HAD 5JOY$ A NATURAL FRE$OM1 D]IV+ ALL ITS NE$S FROM NATURE & 5JOY+ PEACE & HAPP9ESS4 ,EV] S9CE K+S & GOV]NM5TS HAD >IS51 !Y HAD E/ABLI%$ POLITICS & MANUFACTUR$ LAWS4 ,PRES5TLY1 RELIGION1 $UCATION1 & ALL K9DS ( 9/ITUTIONS ?AT CURTAIL$ NATURAL FRE$OM HAD COME 9TO EXI/5CE1 HUMANK9D HAD BE5 RE/RICT$ )9 ! CONF9ES ( SU* 9/ITUTIONS1 & NATURAL FRE$OM HAD DISAPPE>$ LIKE TOBACCO BURN+ \T4 ,AN>*I/S TOOK AS !IR G5]AL GUIDEL9E ! DE/RUCTION ( SU* 9/ITUTIONS & RETURN+ HUMANK9D TO ?IS PRI/9E /ATE ( NATURAL FRE$OM4.<#f#i.> 

,ACCORD+ TO ,MA1 :ILE EV]YONE SPOKE ( CIVILIZATION1 :AT RUL$ ! WORLD WAS NOT UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLE 7GONGLI7 BUT =CE 7%I74 ,AMONG ! *IEF MANIFE/ATIONS ( ?IS WAS NATIONALISM1 :I* HAD REA*$ ! /AGE ( IMP]IALISM4 ,AN>*ISM S\<T TO DE/ROY ?IS WORLD ( =CE2 & :ILE ,RUSSIA DID NOT APPE> AS CIVILIZ$ AS O!R C\NTRIES1 ! FL\RI%+ ( AN>*ISM !RE PROMIS$ ?AT IT W\LD BE PIVOTAL 9 ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ =CE 9 ! TW5TIE? C5TURY3  
  

,! TW5TIE? C5TURY HAS A NEW IDEOLOGY 7ZHUYI72 IT IS ! AN>*ISM ( ,RUSSIA4 ,! AN>*ISM ( ,RUSSIA GU>ANTEES ?AT IT WILL BE PIVOTAL TO CIVILIZATION 9 ! TW5TIE? C5TURY4 ,:Y8 ,! AIMS ( ! AN>*I/S >E HI<1 !IR UND]/&+ BROAD1 !IR HOPES >E GREAT2 IMP]IALISM /EPS BACK & NATIONALISM RETREATS BE=E IT4.<#g.>  
  

,:AT ! PRACTICAL APPEAL ( AN>*ISM MI<T BE UND] ,*9A'S CIRCUM/ANCES WAS 5UNCIAT$ 9 #aid 9 AN ESSAY BY ,ZHANG ,JI1 5TITL$ ,AN>*ISM & ! ,SPIRIT ( ! ,AN>*I/S 7,WUZH5GFU ZHUYI JI WUZH5GFU DANGZHI J+%571 :I* WAS ALSO IMPORTANT = ITS BRIEF HI/ORY ( AN>*ISM 9 ,EUROPE4 ,ZHANG AGRE$ ) ,MA 9 EMPHASIZ+ ! IMPORTANCE TO ! TW5TIE? C5TURY ( ! AN>*I/ PURSUIT ( FRE$OM3  
  

,PEOPLE VALUE SELF-GOV]NM5T 7ZIZHI7 & >E UNWILL+ TO BE RUL$ BY O!RS2 !RE=E1 AN>*ISM WAS BORN4 ,! TW5TIE? C5TURY IS ! BATTLEGR\ND = AN>*ISM4  
  

,ZHANG WAS MO/ IMPRESS$1 H[EV]1 BY ! AN>*I/ AFF9ITY ) T]RORISM 7KONGBUDANG73  
  

,T]RORI/S HAVE DECL>$ OP5LY3 ! 5D JU/IFIES ! MEANS4 ,:AT ?IS MEANS IS ?AT :ATEV] ! MEANS MAY BE1 IF IT HELPS A*IEVE MY GOALS1 ,I MAY USE IT4 ,IF MY MEANS MAY BR+ SECURITY TO ! PEOPLE ( ! NATION1 EV5 IF IT 5TAILS KILL+1 ,I MAY USE IT4 ,! !ORY ( ! AN>*I/S IS SIMIL> TO ?IS2 H5CE !Y ADVOCATE ASSASS9ATION4.<#g#a.>  
  

,9 DEF5SE ( T]RORISM1 ,ZHANG CIT$ ,DANTON TO ! EFFECT ?AT VIOL5T MEASURES >E NECESS>Y TO A*IEVE ! PEACE & SECURITY ( ! PEOPLE4 ,MO/ IMPORTANT AB\T T]RORISM1 H[EV]1 WAS ! SPIRIT ( D>+ IT EMBODI$1 :I* 7HE QUOT$ FROM ,KROPOTK97 WAS MORE EFFECTIVE ?AN ?\S&S ( P]IODICALS & NEWSPAP]S4 ,A FEW PEOPLE C\LD1 ) SU* A SPIRIT ( D>+1 CREATE AN ATMOSPH]E ( FE> & AWAK5 O!RS TO ACTION4 ,! SPIRIT ( D>+ D]IV$ ITS P[] TO MOVE O!RS FROM ! SPIRIT ( SELF-SACRIFICE IT EMBODI$3 ,!RE IS NO?+ MORE AWESOME ?AN ! SPIRIT ( SACRIFICE = HUMANITY1 :I* SPREADS ) ! SPE$ ( AN 9FECTI\S DISEASE4.<#g#b.> 

,BO? ESSAYS W]E RI*] 9 CONT5T ?AN !SE BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS SUGGE/2 ,I HAVE S+L$ \T !SE ASPECTS BECAUSE !Y DOM9AT$ ! TWO AU?ORS' 9T]PRETATIONS ( AN>*ISM1 & BECAUSE !SE W]E ! ASPECTS ( AN>*ISM ?AT CAU<T ! IMAG9ATION ( E>LY ,*9ESE REVOLUTION>IES4 ,BE=E ,I EXPLA9 :Y ?IS MI<T HAVE BE5 SO1 ,I %ALL DESCRIBE BRIEFLY ! TWO ALT]NATIVE VISIONS ( AN>*ISM ?AT APPE>$ AT ! TIME1 ! ONE (F]$ 9 AN 9T]E/+ UTOPIAN FANTASY BY ! LAT] PROM95T 9TELLECTUAL LEAD] & $UCATOR1 ,CAI ,YUANPEI1 ! O!R TAGG$ ON TO ! 5D ( ,MA ,XULUN'S ESSAY TO PROVIDE A METAPHYSICAL CONTEXT = HIS DISCUSSION ( DESPOTISM4 ,?\< HI<LY AB/RACT1 !SE ALT]NATIVE VISIONS ( AN>*ISM (F] SOME CLUES TO ! UND]LY+ M5TALITY ( ,*9ESE RADICALS ?AT R5D]$ !M RECEPTIVE TO ! AN>*I/ MESSAGE1 & ALSO PO9T TO A CONNECTION BETWE5 AN>*ISM & PRE-AN>*I/ NATIVE UTOPIANISM ?AT *>ACT]IZ$ ! ,*9ESE UND]/&+ ( AN>*ISM1 AT LEA/ 9ITIALLY4 

,!RE IS NO?+ EVID5TLY AN>*I/ AB\T ! UTOPIAN PLEA = COSMOPOLITANISM ?AT ,CAI ,YUANPEI WROTE 9 #a#i#d1 ,! ,NEW ,YE>'S ,DREAM 7,X9NIAN M5G74.<#g#c.> ,! WORD AN>*ISM DOES NOT APPE> 9 ! /ORY1 & !RE IS LITTLE 9 ,CAI'S C>E] !N OR LAT] TO SUGGE/ ?AT HE WAS AN AN>*I/ 9 ANY /RICT S5SE ( ! WORD4 ,YET HE W\LD ASSOCIATE ) AN>*I/S CLOSELY 9 LAT] YE>S1 & 9 ! TW5TIES WAS ONE ( ! =EMO/ PROMOT]S ( $UCATIONAL IDEALS 9SPIR$ BY AN>*ISM4 ,ZHANG ,B+L91 :O WAS A CLOSE ASSOCIATE ( ,CAI'S 9 ! E>LY REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T1 TE/IFI$ ON ONE OCCASION ?AT ,CAI WAS AN AN>*I/4.<#g#d.> ,IT IS POSSIBLE TO SUGGE/ AT LEA/ ?AT1 H[EV] AB/RACTLY1 HE %>$ SOME ( ! PHILOSOPHICAL PREMISES ( AN>*ISM & ITS VISION ( A COSMOPOLITAN WORLD4 ,IF HIS CONTEMPOR>IES DID 9DE$ VIEW HIM AS AN AN>*I/1 AS ,ZHANG'S /ATEM5T SUGGE/S1 HIS /ORY W\LD HAVE APPE>$ TO !M AS ( AN>*I/ 9SPIRATION1 :E!R OR NOT HE EXPLICITLY DESCRIB$ IT AS AN>*I/4 ,MO/ IMPORTANT1 ! CONT5T ( ! /ORY PROVIDES A L9K BETWE5 PREAN>*I/ NATIVE UTOPIANISM 7SOME ( ITS !MES OV]LAP ) ,KANG ,Y\WEI'S UTOPIA7 & ! EXPLICITLY AN>*I/ UTOPIAS ( ! PO/-#a#i#g P]IOD4 ,!RE IS SUFFICI5T REASON TO PLACE IT )9 ! AN>*I/ CANON 9 ,*9A4.<#g#e.> 

,! /ORY BEG9S ) ! WORDS ,CONGRATULATIONS6 ,CONGRATULATIONS6 ,IT'S ! ,NEW ,YE>1 A NEW WORLD HAS >RIV$4 ,TRULY JOYFUL6 ,TRULY JOYFUL6 ,! WORDS >E SPOK5 BY ! H]O ( ! /ORY TO A FRI5D4 ,! OCCASION IS ,NEW ,YE>'S ,DAY1 #a#i#d1 :I* ALSO SIGNALS ! BIR? ( A NEW WORLD4 

,! H]O IS DESCRIB$ M]ELY AS SOME ,*9ESE 7,ZHONGGUO YIR574 ,HE HAD LEFT HOME AT ! AGE ( SIXTE5 TO TRAVEL 9 ,*9A & ! WORLD4 ,BY ! TIME HE WAS DONE ) HIS TRAVELS 7AT ! AGE ( ?IRTY71 HE HAD BE5 TO MO/ C\NTRIES 9 ,EUROPE & ,NOR? ,AM]ICA & LE>N$ ALL ! MAJOR =EIGN LANGUAGES4 ,HE HAD BECOME A BELIEV] 9 COSMOPOLITANISM 7%IJIE ZHUYI7 & LOV$ EQUALITY & FRE$OM4 ,HE HAD ALSO DECID$ ?AT ! PROBLEMS ( ! WORLD1 ESPECIALLY HUMANK9D'S CONT9U$ SUBJECTION TO NATURE1 W]E DUE TO ITS DIVISION 9TO NATIONS & FAMILIES4 ,9 ! CIVILIZ$ C\NTRIES ( ,EUROPE & ,NOR? ,AM]ICA1 PEOPLE EXP5D$ HALF !IR 5]GY ON !IR FAMILIES & HALF ON !IR NATIONS4 ,9 ! LESS CIVILIZ$ ,SLAVIC & ,*9ESE SOCIETIES1 !Y HAD FAMILIES & NO NATION4 ,TO CREATE A NEW SOCIETY 9 ,*9A %\LD NOT BE DIFFICULT1 IF ONLY ! 5]GIES PEOPLE PRES5TLY EXP5D$ ON !IR FAMILIES C\LD BE TURN$ TO ! PUBLIC CAUSE4 ,ONCE !Y HAD A*IEV$ ?IS1 !N ?R\< ! SAME PROCESS A WORLD SOCIETY C\LD BE CREAT$ \T ( NATIONS4.<#g#f.> 

,! /ORY IS AN ACC\NT ( ! H]O'S EF=TS TO A*IEVE ?IS 5D4 ,IT PROCE$S 9 TWO /AGES4 ,9 ! FIR/ /AGE1 ,*9ESE SOCIETY IS REORGANIZ$ & ,*9A IS G5U9ELY UNIFI$ 9TO A NATION4 ,! H]O 9 HIS W&]+S 9 ,*9A COMES UPON A MEET+ ( REPRES5TATIVES FROM ALL P>TS ( ! C\NTRY :O >E ORGANIZ$1 NOT ACCORD+ TO PROV9CE1 BUT ACCORD+ TO LOCATION VIS-A-VIS ! MAJOR RIV]S 7E4G41 EA/ ( ! RIV]1 WE/ ( ! RIV]74 ,HE SUBMITS TO ! MEET+ A PLAN = REORGANIZATION1 :I* IS PASS$ AFT] MU* DEBATE4 ,BASIC TO ! PLAN IS ! REORGANIZATION ( ! POPULATION ACCORD+ TO AGE & PR(ESSIONAL GR\P+S4 ,MO/ 9T]E/+ IS ! ALLOCATION ( LABOR4 ,:5 *ILDR5 REA*$ ! AGE ( SEV51 !Y W\LD BEG9 !IR $UCATION1 :I* W\LD LA/ TILL ! AGE ( TW5TY-F\R4 ,BETWE5 ! AGES ( TW5TY-F\R & =TY-EI<T1 EV]YONE W\LD 5GAGE 9 PUBLICLY VALUABLE PR(ESSIONAL TASKS ( ONE K9D OR ANO!R4 ,AFT] =TY- EI<T !Y W\LD RETIRE & 5GAGE 9 ! $UCATION ( Y\?4 ,! PLAN EV5 SPECIFI$ ! ALLOCATION ( ! H\RS ( ! DAY3 EI<T H\RS ( WORK1 EI<T H\RS ( READ+1 TALK+1 & O!R ACTIVITIES1 & EI<T H\RS ( SLEEP4 ,TO ?OSE :O OBJECT$ ?AT SU* A PLAN W\LD BE UNWORKABLE BECAUSE ( PEOPLE'S UNWILL+NESS TO WORK1 OR ?AT ! CURTAIL+ ( ! PURSUIT ( SELF-9T]E/ W\LD BE 9IMICAL TO PROGRESS1 ! H]O C\NT]$ ) AN ORGANIC METAPHOR--?AT EA* W\LD P]=M TASKS 9 SOCIETY AS ! FIVE S5SORY ORGANS & ! F\R LIMBS DID = ! BODY--:I* QUICKLY CONV9C$ EV]YBODY4.<#g#g.> 

,) ?IS REORGANIZATION1 ,*9A W\LD QUICKLY BECOME CIVILIZ$ & /RONG1 REVIVE ! NOR!A/]N PROV9CES 7,MAN*URIA71 & RETRIEVE ! =EIGN CONCESSIONS1 & =EIGN P[]S W\LD BE MADE TO REALIZE ?AT !Y %\LD GIVE UP RELIANCE ON NAK$ =CE 7QIANGQUAN7 OV] UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLE 7GONGLI74 ,! C\NTRY W\LD DEVELOP RAPIDLY1 US+ ! CAPITAL ?AT ,*9ESE HAD 9 ABUNDANCE BUT W]E UNWILL+ TO 9VE/ UND] ! PRES5T SY/EM 79/EAD1 !Y HID IT74 ,IT W\LD BE BUILT UP POLITICALLY FROM MODEL VILLAGES 7M(AN CUN7 AT ! LOCALITY ?R\< A S]IES ( REPRES5TATIVE 9/ITUTIONS ALL ! WAY TO ! NATIONAL LEVEL1 SO ?AT ! :OLE C\NTRY W\LD BECOME AS ONE 7LIT]ALLY1 ( ONE HE>T1 QUANGUO YIX974.<#g#h.> 

,! H]O !N TURNS HIS ATT5TION TO ! 9T]NATIONAL SC5E4 ,HE GOES TO ,RUSSIA TO P>TICIPATE 9 ! ACTIVITIES ( ! PEOPLE'S P>TY 7M9DANG71 :I* QUICKLY MANAGES TO ACQUIRE POLITICAL P[]4 ,*9A !N ALLIES ) ,RUSSIA & ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES 7:]E PEOPLE'S SOV]EIGNTY WAS ALREADY /RONGLY E/ABLI%$7 TO CONV9CE O!R P[]S TO AB&ON NATIONAL AGGRESSION & CREATE A NEW WORLD GOV]NM5T4 

,CAI DESCRIBES ! !N EXI/+ SOCIETY AS FOLL[S3  
  

,CIVILIZATION HAD REA*$ ITS HI<E/ PO9T4 ,SPEAK+ ( MORES & CU/OMS1 PEOPLE NO LONG] US$ NAMES OR SURNAMES BUT W]E SIMPLY ID5TIFI$ BY NUMB]2 !RE W]E NO LONG] ANY DESIGNATIONS ( RUL] OR M9I/]1 & AS ! CONDUCT ( AFFAIRS HAD BE5 R5D]$ RATIONAL1 NONE ( ! UNC]TA9TIES ( ELECTION OR APPO9TM5T2 !RE W]E NO LONG] ANY DESIGNATIONS ( FA!R & SON1 ! Y\NG W]E $UCAT$ BY ! PUBLIC1 ! OLD W]E TAK5 C>E (1 & ! SICK CUR$2 !RE W]E NO LONG] ANY DESIGNATIONS ( HUSB& & WIFE2 ONCE M5 & WOM5 HAD AGRE$ TO BECOME MATES !Y W\LD CONCLUDE IT ) A C]EMONY 9 A PUBLIC P>K FROM :]E !Y W\LD PROCE$ TO !IR ASSIGN$ QU>T]S1 H5CE ADULT]Y W\LD DISAPPE>4.<#g#i.>  
  

,! CONGRESS TO E/ABLI% ! NEW GOV]NM5T IS PLANN$ = ,NEW ,YE>'S ,DAY1 #a#i#d4 ,IT IS AT ?IS PO9T ?AT ! H]O1 N[ N9ETY YE>S OLD1 IS AWAK5$ BY ! S\ND ( BELLS1 & 9 SPITE ( HIS AW>5ESS ( ! D>KNESS ( ! EXI/+ WORLD 7HEI&E %IJIE71 UTT]S ! WORDS ,CONGRATULATIONS6 ,CONGRATULATIONS6 ,IT'S ! ,NEW ,YE>1 A NEW WORLD HAS >RIV$4.<#h.> 

,9 ITS HI/ORICAL PREMISES1 ,CAI'S FANTASY WAS REM9ISC5T ( ! IDEA ( PROGRESS ( ,KANG ,Y\WEI1 :O HAD E>LI] E/ABLI%$ AS A UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLE ! PROGRESSION FROM ! FAMILY ?R\< ! NATION TO ! WORLD4 ,9 HIS PRESCRIPTIONS = ,*9A'S REORGANIZATION ,CAI ANTICIPAT$ ! EXPLICITLY AN>*I/ UTOPIA ?AT ,LIU ,%IPEI W\LD PROPOSE ONLY ?REE YE>S LAT]1 & ! !MES HE RAIS$ WE 5C\NT] 9 LAT] YE>S 9 O!R UTOPIAS--& SOCIAL EXP]IM5TS4 ,:E!R WE >E JU/IFI$ 9 DESCRIB+ IT AS AN>*I/1 IT PROVIDES US ) A L9K TO ! COSMOPOLITAN IDEAL ?AT ACCOMPANI$ ! EM]G5CE ( ,*9ESE NATIONALISM & AN>*ISM4 

,MA ,XULUN PROVIDES US ) A ?IRD1 & ! MO/ 9TRIGU+1 ASPECT ( AN>*ISM'S APPEALS 9 ,*9A 9 ?IS E>LY P]IOD3 AN>*ISM AS A MEANS TO RECOV]Y ( A NATURAL /ATE ( AFFAIRS4 ,MA AGRE$ ) ,CAI ?AT AN>*ISM (F]$ A MEANS ( UNIFY+ ! GLOBE & CREAT+ A WORLD SOCIETY1 BUT HE PLAC$ ?IS GOAL )9 A COSMIC VISION ( ! UNITY ( NATURE & HUMANITY4 

,9 ,MA'S VIEW1 GOV]NM5T 7& O!R /ATE 9/ITUTIONS7 HAD CURTAIL$ ! NATURAL FRE$OMS 5JOY$ BY HUMANITY 9 ITS PRIMEVAL CONDITION4 ,9 ! CONCLUD+ SECTION ( HIS ESSAY1 HE TURN$ ?IS TO A CRITIQUE ( ! ,*9ESE POLITICAL LEGACY1 FOCUS+ ON A DI/9CTION ,CONFUCIAN ?\<T HAD DRAWN BETWE5 HUMANE GOV]NM5T 7R5ZH5G7 & TYRANNY 7BAOZH5G71 ASSOCIAT$ RESPECTIVELY ) ! GOV]NM5T ( ,CONFUCIAN SAGES & ! DESPOTIC GOV]NM5T PROPOS$ BY ! ,LEGALI/S & PRACTIC$ BY ! LIKES ( ! ,FIR/ ,EMP]OR ( ,Q94 ,HE SAW NO SIGNIFICANT DIFF]5CE BETWE5 HUMANE GOV]NM5T & TYRANNY1 BETWE5 ! SAGE-RUL]S & ! DESPOTS3  
  

,I SAY ?AT ,YAO1 ,%UN1 ,YU1 ,TANG1 ,W5 & ,WU .<! SAGE RUL]S.> >E ! ANCE/ORS ( ! ,FIR/ ,EMP]OR ( ,Q91 EMP]OR ,WU ( ,HAN & ,TAI ,ZU ( ,M+4 ,HAD !RE BE5 NO ,YAO1 ,%UN1 ,YU1 ,TANG1 ,W5 & ,WU1 !RE W\LD HAVE BE5 NO ,FIR/ ,EMP]OR1 NO EMP]OR ,WU ( ,HAN1 NO ,TAI ,ZU ( ,M+4 ,CONV]SELY1 IF ! ,FIR/ ,EMP]OR1 ,WU ( ,HAN1 ,TAI ,ZU ( ,M+ HAD BE5 BORN FIR/1 & ,YAO1 ,%UN1 ,YU1 ,TANG1 ,W5 & ,WU LAT]1 ! WORLD W\LD HAVE SUNG ! PRAISES ( ! =M] & CURS$ ! LATT]4 ,! T]MS HUMANE GOV]NM5T & TYRANNY P]SI/ \T ( HABIT1 NOT BECAUSE !Y >E NATURAL 7XIGUAN ] RAN1 FEI ZIRAN ] RAN74 ,I WI% TO GET RID ( !SE T]MS--& RE/ORE NATURE4 ,TO RE/ORE ITS WAY1 WE MU/ />T ) :AT ! AN>*I/S PROMOTE4.<#h#a.>  
  

,! PROBLEM ( POLITICS1 9 O!R WORDS1 APPE>$ TO ,MA AS A PROBLEM ( CULTURE 7I4E41 HABIT71 & ! PROBLEM ( CULTURE RESID$ 9 ! V]Y LANGUAGE ( POLITICS1 :I* MU/ BE ABOLI%$ IF ONE WAS TO DISCOV] :AT WAS NATURAL TO HUMANITY4 

,MA W5T EV5 FUR!R4 ,AN>*ISM TO HIM ULTIMATELY REPRES5T$ A NEGATION1 AS 9 ! ,*9ESE WORD WU1 NOT JU/ ( GOV]NM5T1 AS 9 WUZH5GFU1 BUT ( ! S5TI5T WORLD 9 G5]AL4 ,9 A PHRASEOLOGY REM9ISC5T ( ! FIR/ L9ES ( ! ,DAOI/ CLASSIC ,DAODE J+1 HE CONT9U$3  
  

,?AT :I* EXI/S 7Y\7 IS ! BEG9N+ ( ALL ?+S2 ?AT :I* DOES NOT EXI/ 7WU7 IS ! MO!R ( EXI/5CE4 ,! NONEXI/5T IS BORN ( NATURE1 :AT EXI/S 5DS UP 9 NONEXI/5CE1 H5CE NATURE4 ,NATURE CANNOT BE DESCRIB$1 CANNOT BE PICTUR$1 CANNOT BE NAM$2 IF IT CAN BE DESCRIB$1 IT IS NOT NATURE2 IF IT CAN BE PICTUR$1 IT IS NOT NATURE4 ,TO NAME NATURE ! NATURE ?AT CANNOT BE NAM$ IS TO =CE A NAME ON IT4 ,CAN ! M9DS ( HUMANITY BE LIB]AT$ FROM !IR PR$ICAM5T8 ,AN>*ISM (F]S A PRECI\S RAFT TO F9D ! CORRECT =D TO CROSS ! /REAM4 ,I WANT TO PRES5T IT TO HUMANITY SO ?AT IT CAN RETURN TO ITS MO!R4.<#h#b.>  
  

,:E!R ! PHILOSOPHICAL NIHILISM IMPLICIT 9 !SE L9ES1 :I* [$ MU* TO ! VOCABUL>Y ( ,DAOISM & ,BUDDHISM1 HAD ANY?+ TO DO ) ! ASSOCIATION ( AN>*ISM ) ! ,RUSSIAN NIHILI/S 7,XUWU DANG1 9 ,*9ESE7 9 PRACTICE IS DIFFICULT TO SAY4 ,IT DOES SUGGE/ A CONNECTION BETWE5 AN>*ISM & A BASIC PREMISE ( ,*9ESE UTOPIANISM AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY ?AT1 BECAUSE DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 PEOPLE W]E ! ULTIMATE CAUSE ( SUFF]+ 9 ! WORLD1 ! ABOLITION ( ALL DI/9CTIONS WAS KEY TO ! CREATION ( A NEW WORLD4.<#h#c.> ,IT WAS ON ?OSE GR\NDS ?AT AN>*ISM1 9 ! 9T]PRETATION ( SOMEONE LIKE ,MA1 WAS CONJO9$ ) ! ,BUDDHI/ IDEALS ?AT 5JOY$ A REVIVAL AT AB\T ! SAME TIME4 ,! CONNECTION W\LD P]SI/ 9TO ! E>LY ,REPUBLIC4 

,AL?\< ! ,*9ESE ACCESS TO MAT]IALS ON AN>*ISM MAY HAVE BE5 LIMIT$1 !RE WAS 5\< 9 AVAILABLE WRIT+S TO 9DICATE ?AT AN>*ISM WAS NOT R$UCIBLE TO ,RUSSIAN NIHILISM4 ,9 ! PREFACE TO HIS TRANSLATION ( ,?OMAS ,KIRKUP'S ,A ,HI/ORY ( ,SOCIALISM1 ,MA ,JUNWU WROTE3  
  

,! ,FR5* HAVE ! HI<E/ 9TELLECT ( ANY PEOPLE 9 ! WORLD4 ,SA9T-,SIMON'S DISCIPLES HAVE SPREAD SOCIALISM .<I4E41 COMMUNISM.> ALL OV] ! WORLD2 ITS P[] 9CREASES DAILY4 ,9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 9 ,5GL& ,D>W9 & ,SP5C] 9V5T$ .<SIC.> ! PR9CIPLE ( EVOLUTION4 ,\T ( !SE TWO !ORIES >OSE A NEW IDEOLOGY 7ZHUYI74 ,?IS NEW IDEOLOGY IS CALL$ AN>*ISM4.<#h#d.>  
  

,SIMIL>LY1 ,ZHANG ,JI'S DISCUSSION ( AN>*ISM TRAC$ IT TO ! HI/ORY ( ,EUROPEAN SOCIALISM1 :OSE ORIG9S HE LOCAT$ 9 ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4.<#h#e.> ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS W]E ALSO ALREADY WELL AW>E ?AT AN>*ISM WAS NOT SIMPLY A CRITIQUE ( DESPOTISM 7AS ) NIHILISM71 BUT S\<T TO ABOLI% GOV]NM5T & ALL ! 9/ITUTIONS CONNECT$ ) IT2 AS ,MA ,XULUN'S ESSAY 9DICATES1 !Y W]E ALSO COGNIZANT ( ! ANT9ATIONALI/ ?RU/ ( AN>*ISM4.<#h#f.> ,ABOVE ALL1 H[EV]1 SCATT]$ ?R\<\T !SE DISCUSSIONS >E REF]5CES TO AN>*ISM AS A PHILOSOPHY ( SOCIAL TRANS=MATION1 ONE ?AT S\<T TO PUT AN 5D TO ! 9EQUALITY ( RI* & POOR1 NOBLE & MEAN1 Y\NG & OLD1 & M5 & WOM52 ,ZHANG ,JI'S DISCUSSION 9 P>TICUL> EMPHASIZ$ ! ROLE AN>*ISM PLAY$ 9 ,EUROPE 9 ! /RUGGLES ( LABOR AGA9/ CAPITAL4.<#h#g.> 

,!SE FUNDAM5TAL ASPECTS ( AN>*ISM W\LD COME TO ! =E :5 AN>*ISM ACQUIR$ AN ID5TITY ( ITS [N AFT] #a#i#f4 ,! RECEPTION ( AN>*ISM 9 ?IS E>LY P]IOD SUGGE/S1 H[EV]1 ?AT :AT MO/ IMPRESS$ ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS 9ITIALLY W]E ?OSE ASPECTS :I* AN>*ISM SEEM$ TO %>E ) ,RUSSIAN NIHILISM4 ,9 HIS /UDY ( ! ,RUSSIAN 9FLU5CE ON ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS AT ?IS TIME1 ,DON ,PRICE HAS SUGGE/$ ?AT ! ID5TIFICATION ( AN>*ISM ) NIHILISM W5T BEYOND :AT WAS JU/IFIABLE 9 ! S\RCES AVAILABLE TO ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS4.<#h#h.> ,Y\NG ,*9ESE RADICALS :O W]E ATTRACT$ TO AN>*ISM 9 ! YE>S #a#i#b-#a#i#g READ AN>*ISM ?R\< NIHILI/ POLITICAL PRACTICE3 ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ DESPOTISM :OSE MO/ PROM95T FEATURE WAS 9DIVIDUAL POLITICAL ACTION1 ESPECIALLY ASSASS9ATION4 

,?IS READ+ ( AN>*ISM WAS POSSIBLY FACILITAT$ BY ! COMMONLY HELD IMAGE ( AN>*ISM 79 ,EUROPE ITSELF7 AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY AS A S\RCE ( T]RORISM4 ,9 ,PRICE'S WORDS1 NIHILISM & AN>*ISM W]E L9K$ 9 ! PUBLIC EYE--BY CONNOTATIONS ( VIOL5CE1 A FANATICAL HO/ILITY TO ! EXI/+ ORD]1 & RU?LESS IDEALISM4.<#h#i.> ,AFT] #aif ,*9ESE AN>*I/S W\LD DRAW A CLE> DI/9CTION BETWE5 AN>*ISM & O!R SEEM+LY AN>*I/ APPROA*ES TO POLITICS1 & W\LD ALSO D[NPLAY 7EV5 R5\NCE7 ! USE ( T]RORISM 9 FAVOR ( LONG-T]M /RATEGIES ( SOCIAL TRANS=MATION4 ,?\< ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS W]E AW>E E>LY ON ( ! SOCIAL DIM5SION ( AN>*ISM1 ! AW>5ESS WAS AT BE/ M>G9AL 9 !IR APPRECIATION ( AN>*ISM1 :I* !Y UND]/OOD AS AN EXTREME REVOLUTIONISM1 ! USE ( VIOL5T ME?ODS TO OV]?R[ DESPOTISM4 ,! ASSOCIATION ) NIHILISM1 FUR!RMORE1 W\LD P]SI/ 9 LAT] YE>S2 9 ! #a#i#bS ! AN>*I/ WRIT] ,BAJ9 7,BA ,J97 /ILL W\LD 9CLUDE ! ,RUSSIAN NIHILI/S )9 ! H]OIC TRADITION ( AN>*ISM4.<#i.> 

,! CONF\ND+ ( AN>*ISM & NIHILISM AMONG E>LY ,*9ESE REVOLUTION>IES WAS NOT =TUIT\S1 NOR MAY IT BE ASCRIB$ SIMPLY TO ! CONFUSION CREAT$ BY ! LIT]ATURE TO :I* !Y HAD ACCESS4 ,& IT WAS NOT A SIMPLE MATT] ( A SUP]FICIAL RESEMBLANCE BETWE5 AN>*I/ & NIHILI/ POLITICAL TACTICS4 ,AN>*ISM MAY NOT BE R$UCIBLE TO NIHILISM2 ON ! O!R H&1 IT %>$ ) NIHILISM A CONCEPTION ( POLITICS ?AT WAS DEEPLY MORALI/IC1 ?AT ALL[$ A P]CEPTION ( POLITICAL ACTION AS ! ASS]TION ( 9DIVIDUAL MORAL AU!NTICITY4 ,*9ESE RADICALS ( ! E>LY P>T ( ! C5TURY1 :O MADE HI< MORAL PURPOSE ! MEASURE ( REVOLUTION>Y AU!NTICITY1 DISCOV]$ 9 AN>*ISM A K9DR$ POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY1 & 9 ! NIHILI/S ! MO/ /RIK+ MODELS ( ITS PRACTICE4 

,! RADICAL MOVEM5T ?AT EM]G$ 9 ,*9A 9 #a#i#b-#c TOOK AS ITS MA9 OBJECT ! OV]?R[ ( ! ,MAN*U DESPOTISM1 :I*1 9 ITS RESI/ANCE TO ! 9CLUSION ( ! PEOPLE 9 POLITICS 9 A COMMON /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! =CES ?AT ?REAT5$ ! C\NTRY1 PROMIS$ NATIONAL EXT9CTION4 ,AS ,M>Y ,RANK9 & ,DON ,PRICE HAVE DEMON/RAT$ 9 !IR SEP>ATE /UDIES ( ?IS RADICALISM1 AL?\< ITS ORIG9S LAY 9 A %>P S5SE ( NATIONAL CRISIS1 ONCE IT CAME 9TO EXI/5CE ! MOVEM5T ACQUIR$ A LIFE ( ITS [N 9 G5]AT+ AN OPPOSITION TO DESPOTISM BEYOND IMM$IATE NATIONALI/IC CONSID]ATIONS3 DESPOTISM MU/ BE OPPOS$1 NOT ONLY BECAUSE ,MAN*U DESPOTISM SAPP$ ! /R5G? ( ! NATION BUT1 MORE IMPORTANT1 BECAUSE IT WAS CONTR>Y TO UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLE & CONF9$ ! NATURAL FRE$OM TO :I* HUMANITY WAS 5TITL$4.<#i#a.> ,*9ESE RADICALS ID5TIFI$ ) ! ,RUSSIAN NIHILI/S1 NOT BECAUSE ( A COMMONALITY BETWE5 ,*9A'S SITUATION 9 ! E>LY TW5TIE? C5TURY & ! ,RUSSIA ( ! #a#h#fS1 BUT BECAUSE !Y %>$ ! COMMON GOAL1 EMB$D$ 9 UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLE1 ( OV]?R[+ DESPOTISM4 ,IF ASSASS9ATION APPE>$ 9 EI!R CASE TO BE ! MO/ EFFECTIVE WEAPON 9 ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ DESPOTISM1 WE MU/ REMEMB] ?AT 9 BO? CASES POLITICAL DESPOTISM WAS V]Y REAL & P]MITT$ FEW ALT]NATIVES ( POLITICAL EXPRESSION4 

,NEV]!LESS1 !RE W]E ALT]NATIVES 7AS WAS EXEMPLIFI$ BY ! RE=MI/ MOVEM5T ( ! CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*I/S & BY ,SUN ,YAT-S5'S REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T72 & ! POLITICAL CONDITION ( DESPOTISM DOES NOT EXPLA9 ! ATTRACTION TO ASSASS9ATION AMONG Y\NG RADICALS OR !IR S5SE ( K9%IP ) ! ,RUSSIAN NIHILI/S4 ,! RADICAL MOVEM5T ALSO G5]AT$ A MORALITY ( ITS [N1 TO :I* SELF-SACRIFICE 9 ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ DESPOTISM REPRES5T$ ! HI<E/ EMBODIM5T ( REVOLUTION>Y AU!NTICITY4 ,! H]OIC D>+ NECESS>Y 9 RISK+ ONE'S LIFE 9 ASSASS9ATION ATTEMPTS APPE>S AMONG ?IS FIR/ G5]ATION ( RADICALS TO GO H& 9 H& ) A WILL TO SELF-EXT9CTION APP>5T 9 ! RESORT TO SUICIDE AS A =M ( EXPRESSION2 ! MO/ CELEBRAT$ EXAMPLE MAY BE ?AT ( ! WOMAN REVOLUTION>Y ,QIU ,J9 :O1 FOLL[+ ! ASSASS9ATION ( A PROV9CIAL GOV]NOR 9 :I* %E WAS IMPLICAT$1 REFUS$ TO LI/5 TO ?OSE :O URG$ H] TO FLEE1 BUT /AY$ TO BE >RE/$ & EXECUT$4.<#i#b.> ,WU ,ZHIHUI1 :O AFT] #aig W\LD EM]GE AS ONE ( ! MO/ PROM95T ( ,*9ESE AN>*I/S1 9 ! E>LY #a#iS ATTEMPT$ SUICIDE TO PROTE/ AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T4.<#i#c.> ,:AT ASSASS9ATION & SUICIDE %>$ 9 COMMON WAS :AT ,ZHANG ,JI 9 HIS ESSAY DESCRIB$ AS ! SPIRIT ( SELF-SACRIFICE4 

,BEYOND (F]+ ONE ( ! FEW OPTIONS ( EFFECTIVE POLITICAL EXPRESSION 9 AN 5VIRONM5T ?AT DID NOT ALL[ = POLITICS1 ASSASS9ATION REPRES5T$ TO ,*9ESE RADICALS NOT M]ELY A PRACTICAL MEANS ( POLITICAL ACTION BUT1 9 ! SUICIDAL RISKS ?AT IT 5TAIL$1 AN AFFIRMATION ( 9DIVIDUAL MORAL COMMITM5T & REVOLUTION>Y AU!NTICITY2 OR1 AS ,PRICE HAS NOT$1 PRO( ( PURITY ( MOTIVE 9 POLITICAL ACTIVITY3 ,S9CE ! REVOLUTION>Y EF=T WAS ONE :I* IMPOS$ AN OBLIGATION ( SELF-SACRIFICE & :I* C\LD NOT SUCCE$ )\T IT1 HE .<,*'9 ,LI-%AN.> FELT IT EXTREMELY IMPORTANT ?AT REVOLUTION>IES ELIM9ATE ! SELF-SEEK+ CONSID]ATIONS ?AT PRODUC$ TIMIDITY & DISS5SION4 ,9DIVIDUAL ACTS ( POLITICAL EXPRESSION1 EV5 :5 !IR POLITICAL FUTILITY WAS EVID5T1 S]V$ TO AFFIRM JU/ SU* PURITY ( MOTIVE4 ,! H]OIC TRADITION 9 ,*9ESE POLITICS PROVID$ ONE MODEL = ?IS K9D ( BEHAVIOR2 ! ,JAPANESE SAMURAI ON ! EVE ( ! ,MEIJI ,RE/ORATION ( #ahfh 7! %I%I1 OR M5 ( WILL7 PROVID$ ANO!R4 ,?IS WAS ALSO ! S\RCE ( ! AFF9ITY ,*9ESE RADICALS FELT = ! EXTREME REVOLUTIONISM ( ,WE/]N REVOLUTION>IES1 9 P>TICUL> 9 ,RUSSIA :]E  
  

HUNDR$S ( $UCAT$ & PRIVILEG$ Y\? SACRIFIC$ !IR EASE & /ATUS TO PROPAG&IZE ! B5I<T$ PEASANTRY & WORK+M54 ,& :5 ?IS FAIL$1 !RE WAS ! GRIM TURN TO VIOL5CE--! BLOOD-&-IRON TACTIC ( ASSASS9ATION BUT /ILL 9 A SPIRIT ( SELF-SACRIFICE4 ,S(IA ,P]OVSKAYA ALMO/ EPITOMIZ$ ! HI/ORY & *>ACT] ( ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T4 ,%E HAD GONE TO ! PEOPLE1 SUFF]+ ALL ! H>D%IPS ( A VILLAGE S*OOLTEA*] & !N CONSPIR$ 9 ! PLOTS :I* ULTIMATELY KILL$ ,ALEX&] ,I,I4 ,AT H] TRIAL %E WAS P>TICUL>LY IMPRESSIVE1 DEM&+ ?AT %E BE %[N NO CLEM5CY ON ! GR\NDS ( H] SEX2 & %E M\NT$ ! SCAFFOLD AS CALMLY AS ANY ( H] COMRADES4.<#i#d.>  
  

,?IS MORALI/IC D$ICATION TO SELF-SACRIFICE 9 ! CAUSE ( REVOLUTION DEEPLY IMPRESS$ ,*9ESE REVOLUTION>IES1 :OSE [N APPROA* TO REVOLUTION MADE A SUICIDAL RESIGNATION TO SELF-EXT9CTION PREF]ABLE TO LIV+ TO FI<T ANO!R DAY4 ,AN>*ISM1 ) ITS [N PREOCCUPATION ) AU!NTICITY1 RESONAT$ ) !IR POLITICS ( AU!NTICITY AT A DEEP MORAL LEVEL4 ,?IS ATTITUDE T[>D REVOLUTION1 :I* LEFT ITS IMPR9T ON ,*9ESE AN>*ISM AT ITS V]Y ORIG9S1 W\LD P]SI/ 9 LAT] YE>S1 AFT] ,*9ESE RADICALS ACQUIR$ A MORE SOPHI/ICAT$ GRASP ( AN>*ISM AS A SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY & CAME TO VIEW T]RORISM AS ONLY A M>G9AL TOOL ( AN AN>*I/ REVOLUTION4 ,P>IS AN>*I/S 9 #aig GLORIFI$ ! ACTIONS ( ,QIU ,J9 7& H] ASSOCIATE1 ,XU ,XIL97 = !IR SELFLESSNESS4 ,!Y !MSELVES CONT9U$ TO 9SI/ ?AT !Y W]E NOT CONC]N$ ) SUCCESS OR FAILURE BUT ) TRU?4 ,ONE ( !IR NUMB]1 ,*U ,M9YI1 W5T SO F> ON ONE OCCASION AS TO SUGGE/ ?AT ASSASS9ATION WAS JU/IFI$ IF ONLY BECAUSE IT HAD A PURIFY+ EFFECT ON ! REVOLUTION>Y4.<#i#e.> ,?IS MAY NOT BE V]Y SURPRIS+2 ! FIR/ G5]ATION ( AN>*I/S 9 ,*9A1 9CLUD+ ,WU ,ZHIHUI1 ,ZHANG ,JI1 & ,%IFU1 W]E ALL GRADUATES ( ! RADICAL MOVEM5T DUR+ ! LA/ DECADE ( ! ,Q+ DYNA/Y4 

,IRONICALLY1 ?IS SAME SPIRIT ( SELF-SACRIFICE MAY PROVIDE A CLUE TO UND]/&+ ! ASSOCIATION ( AN>*ISM ) ,BUDDHISM4 ,DISASSOCIAT$ FROM T]ROR & VIOL5CE1 ! SPIRIT ( SELF-SACRIFICE RESONAT$ ) ! ,BODHISATTVA IDEAL 9 ,BUDDHISM4 ,AS WE %ALL SEE1 ,BUDDHISM PROVID$ AN EMOTIONAL SPACE 7AS WELL AS A LIT]AL ONE 9 ! =M ( A ,BUDDHI/ MONA/]Y7 = ! CONV]SION TO AN>*ISM ( ! FAM\S AN>*I/ ,%IFU & HIS FOLL[]S2 & ! ,BODHISATTVA IDEAL WAS V]Y MU* 9 !IR CONSCI\SNESS 9 !IR DAILY PRACTICES4.<#i#f.> ,BUDDHI/ MONKS W]E ALSO VISIBLE AMONG ,*9A'S FIR/ AN>*I/S2 O!RS PREF]R$ ADOPT$ NAMES ) ,BUDDHI/ CONNOTATIONS4 

,AN>*I/ ,!MES 9 ! ,E>LY ,REVOLUTION>Y ,MOVEM5T 

  

,! SP>SE LIT]ATURE AVAILABLE TO ,*9ESE RADICALS 9 ! E>LY P>T ( ! C5TURY WAS SUFFICI5T TO 9DICATE ?AT AN>*ISM WAS AN 9TEGRAL CURR5T 9 ! SOCIALI/ TRADITION 9 ,EUROPE &1 AS SU*1 5COMPASS$ MU* MORE ?AN ! ANTIDESPOTISM /RUGGLES ( ! NIHILI/S 9 ,RUSSIA1 ) !IR CONSPIRATORIAL /YLE ( POLITICAL ACTION4 ,AN>*ISM 9CLUD$ AN ESS5TIAL SOCIAL DIM5SION2 AS ,ZHANG ,JI PUT IT 9 HIS ESSAY1 AN>*I/S TRACE ALL MATT]S BACK TO SOCIETY4.<#i#g.> ,?IS MI<T HAVE SUGGE/$1 H[EV] AB/RACTLY1 ?AT ! 9DIVIDUALIZ$ MODE ( POLITICS ?AT *>ACT]IZ$ AN>*I/ ACTIVITY %\LD BE PLAC$ )9 ! CONTEXT ( A BROAD] SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY4 

,!RE IS LITTLE EVID5CE ?AT AN AW>5ESS ( ! BROAD] SOCIAL GOALS ( AN>*ISM HAD ANY SIGNIFICANT IMM$IATE EFFECT ON REVOLUTION>Y ACTIVITY 9 ?IS E>LY PHASE4 ,RA!R1 ,*9ESE RADICALS READ AN>*ISM ?R\< ! 9T]PRETATION SUGGE/$ BY ,RUSSIAN NIHILISM4 ,& :]E !Y ASSOCIAT$ IT ) BROAD GOALS1 !Y P]CEIV$ IT ?R\< A MORAL UTOPIANISM1 MORE (T5 ?AN NOT ASSIMILAT+ IT TO A NATIVE UTOPIANISM 9 :I* RECOGNITION ( ! NEW WORLD SITUATION ( ,*9A WAS BL5D$ 9P]CEPTIBLY 9TO A METAPHYSICAL COSMIC VISION4 ,IF ! TWO READ+S ( AN>*ISM CO9CID$1 IT WAS ON ! GR\ND ( A MORALI/IC CONCEPTION ( POLITICS ?AT FOCUS$ ON ! 9DIVIDUAL AS ! H>B+] ( NEW VALUES4 ,9 ,CAI ,YUANPEI'S UTOPIAN FANTASY1 NO LESS ?AN 9 ! ACTIVITIES ( ! BOMB-?R[+ ACTIVI/S1 IT WAS ! COMMITT$ 9DIVIDUAL >M$ ) A NEW VISION :O BR\<T AB\T POLITICAL *ANGE4 

,?IS WAS CONSI/5T ) ! IMAGE ( AN>*ISM ?AT PREVAIL$ AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY9 ! ,WE/ NO LESS ?AN 9 ,*9A4 ,IT WAS AN IMAGE 9 :OSE PROPAGATION GOV]NM5TS PLAY$ A CRUCIAL ROLE 9 REPRES5T+ AN>*I/S AS DANG]\S EXTREME REVOLUTIONI/S4 ,YET IT WAS NOT ! ONLY AVAILABLE IMAGE4 ,JAPANESE RADICALS1 FROM :OM ,*9ESE LE>N$ MU* ( !IR RADICALISM AT ! TIME1 ALREADY SPOKE ( ! SOCIAL DIM5SION ( POLITICS1 & !RE W]E ?OSE 9 ,*9A :O DREW ATT5TION TO ! SOCIAL PROBLEM 9 POLITICS4 

,ULTIMATELY1 ! SOCIAL DIM5SION 9 AN>*ISM WAS IRRELEVANT AT ?IS TIME BECAUSE AN>*ISM EX]T$ ! GREATE/ APPEAL AMONG RADICALS :OSE [N CONCEPTION ( POLITICS WAS HI<LY MORALI/IC & :O REJECT$ POLITICS AS ! REALM ( SELFI%NESS AGA9/ :I* !Y S\<T TO E/ABLI% !IR [N PUBLIC COMMITM5T 9 ACTS ( SELFLESS1 OR SELF-SACRIFIC+1 REVOLUTION>Y 5DEAVOR4 ,IT IS TRUE ?AT ! IMPOSSIBILITY ( POLITICAL ACTION UND] ! CONDITIONS ( GOV]NM5T DESPOTISM LEFT !M FEW *OICES4 ,& AT ?IS TIME1 SOCIETY 9 A CONCRETE S5SE WAS L>GELY ABS5T FROM POLITICS1 EV5 FROM ! POLITICS ( ?OSE :O SPOKE ( SOCIAL *ANGE & SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 ,BUT !RE WAS AN ADDITIONAL ELEM5T 9 !IR CASE1 A REACTION TO ! EM]G5CE ( POLITICS ?AT F\ND ITS EXPRESSION 9 ! DISASSOCIATION ( ! CONCEPTION ( ! PUBLIC FROM ?AT ( ! POLITICAL1 & A T5D5CY TO VIEW !M AS BE+ ANTI!TICAL TO ONE ANO!R4 ,! SEP>ATION WAS ONE ?AT W\LD N\RI% AN>*ISM OV] ! YE>S2 = AN>*ISM SUGGE/$ ?AT AN AU!NTICALLY PUBLIC EXI/5CE C\LD BE A*IEV$ ONLY \TSIDE (1 & 9 OPPOSITION TO1 POLITICS4 

,! NEW SITUATION CREAT$ BY NATIONALI/ IDEOLOGY PROVIDES ! CONTEXT = AN UND]/&+ ( ! APPEALS ( ! POLITICS ( AU!NTICITY ( AN>*ISM TO E>LY ,*9ESE REVOLUTION>IES4 ,NOT ?AT NATIONALISM F$ AN>*ISM1 = IT DID NOT2 BUT NATIONALISM RAIS$ QUE/IONS AB\T POLITICS1 & AB\T ,*9A'S PLACE 9 ! WORLD1 ?AT MADE = A RECEPTIVITY TO AN>*ISM4 ,! UTOPIANISM ?AT APPE>$ AS ! C\NT]PO9T TO NATIONALI/ P>O*IALISM PROVID$ FECUND GR\NDS = AN>*I/ COSMOPOLITANISM4 ,MA ,XULUN'S /ATEM5T ON ! ORIG9 ( AN>*ISM ALSO (F]S SOME SUPPORT = ,JAMES ,PUSEY'S SUGGE/ION ?AT AN APPEAL ( AN>*ISM AT ?IS TIME WAS ! >GUM5T IT PROVID$ AGA9/ ! ,D>W9IAN NOTIONS ( CONFLICT UND]LY+ NATIONALI/ FE>S2 ?IS W\LD BECOME MORE EVID5T AFT] #aif :5 ,*9ESE AN>*I/S BECAME FAMILI> ) ,KROPOTK9'S IDEA ( MUTUAL AID AGA9/ ! SURVIVAL ( ! FITTE/4.<#i#h.> 

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