,*APT] #c 
,SCI5CE1 ,MORALITY1 & ,REVOLUTION3 ,AN>*ISM & ! ,ORIG9S ( ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION>Y ,?\<T 9 ,*9A 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,>IF ,DIRLIK 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] ,?REE  

 ,SCI5CE1 ,MORALITY1 & ,REVOLUTION3  

,AN>*ISM & ! ,ORIG9S ( ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION>Y ,?\<T 9 ,*9A 

  

,AN>*ISM EM]G$ AS A DI/9CTIVE CURR5T 9 ,*9ESE REVOLUTION>Y ?\<T :51 9 #a#i#f#g1 ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS /UDY+ ABROAD LAUN*$1 ALMO/ SIMULTANE\SLY1 TWO OP5LY AN>*I/ SOCIETIES 9 ,P>IS & 9 ,TOKYO4 ,BE=E #aig ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS HAD LITTLE APPRECIATION ( AN>*ISM AS AN 9TEGRAL SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY4 ,RA!R1 AN>*I/ !MES HAD BE5 ASSIMILAT$ TO ! ORI5TATION ( REVOLUTION>Y ?9K+ BY 9TELLECTUAL DISPOSITIONS ?AT HAD ORIG9AT$ 9 ! REVOLUTION>Y SITUATION CREAT$ BY A NEW NATIONAL CONSCI\SNESS4 ,!SE DISPOSITIONS W]E TO P]SI/ 9 AN>*I/ ?9K+4 ,) ! F\ND+ ( !SE SOCIETIES1 H[EV]1 !Y W]E REPHRAS$ )9 AN AN>*I/ LANGUAGE ( REVOLUTION4 ,FUNDAM5TAL TO ?IS LANGUAGE WAS ! IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 ,AN>*I/ ADVOCACY ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION WAS TO OP5 UP NEW *ANNELS ( LA/+ IMPORT 9 REVOLUTION>Y ?9K+4 

,:AT BR\<T AB\T ?IS *ANGE IS MORE DIFFICULT TO SAY4 ,ONE *ANGE WAS 9 ! ACCESS TO AN>*I/ LIT]ATURE4 ,9TELLECTUALS 9 ,P>IS1 9 P>TICUL>1 DISCOV]$ AN AN>*I/ TRADITION ?AT WAS NOT TO BE SUBSUM$ UND] ,RUSSIAN NIHILISM1 BUT HAD A HI/ORY ( ITS [N AS P>T ( ,EUROPEAN SOCIALISM4 ,! ,EUROPEAN AN>*I/S !Y 5C\NT]$ HAD1 MOREOV]1 AN ORI5TATION ?AT WAS SIGNIFICANTLY DIFF]5T FROM ?AT ( ! E>LY ,*9ESE 7OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 ,JAPANESE7 RADICALS4 ,! V]Y ORGANIZATION 9TO AN>*I/ CLU/]S GAVE AN 9TEGRITY & COH]5CE TO ! AN>*ISM !Y ADVOCAT$2 UNLIKE !IR PR$ECESSORS1 :O HAD VIEW$ AN>*ISM BUT AS ONE WEAPON AMONG O!RS 9 ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ DESPOTISM1 ! 9TELLECTUALS :O ORGANIZ$ ! AN>*I/ GR\PS 9 ,P>IS & ,TOKYO N[ PROMOT$ AN>*ISM AS AN 9TEGRAL PHILOSOPHY ( GLOBAL SOCIAL TRANS=MATION4 

,! POLITICAL CONTEXT1 TOO1 HAD *ANG$4 ,AFT] #aie ! ,MAN*U MON>*Y 9 ,*9A HAD DECID$ TO PROCE$ TO A CON/ITUTIONAL =M ( GOV]NM5T1 :I* ALT]$ ! CONDITIONS ( POLITICAL ACTIVITY 9 ,*9A4 ,! REVOLUTION>Y /RUGGLE WAS NO LONG] A /RUGGLE AGA9/ A DESPOTIC GOV]NM5T ?AT ALL[$ = NO POLITICAL EXPRESSION2 IT WAS AGA9/ A GOV]NM5T ?AT S\<T TO RECAPTURE POLITICAL LEGITIMACY BY MAK+ ROOM = SOME MEASURE ( POLITICAL REPRES5TATION4 ,RADICALS B5T ON OV]?R[+ ! ,MAN*U GOV]NM5T F\ND ?AT ! 5EMY WAS NO LONG] SIMPLY DESPOTISM2 !Y HAD TO COME TO T]MS ) A /ATE ?AT S\<T TO ASSIMILATE SOCIETY TO ITS [N 5DS4 

,A NEW DEP>TURE 9 ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T HAD BE5 ANN\NC$ 9 #aie ) ! F\ND+ ( ,SUN ,YAT-S5'S ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE 7,TONGM5G HUI71 :I* ADVOCAT$ A REPUBLICAN REVOLUTION AGA9/ ! CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*Y ?AT ! ,MAN*U GOV]NM5T & ITS RE=MI/ SUPPORT]S PREF]R$4 ,BAS$ ON ,SUN'S [N EXP]I5CES 9 ,EUROPE1 ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE HAD ALSO 9CORPORAT$ 9 ITS POLITICAL AG5DA A PROGRAM ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION 7! FIR/ ADVOCACY ( SOCIALISM 9 ,*9A71 :I* ADD$ A SOCIAL DIM5SION TO A REVOLUTION ?AT HAD HI!RTO BE5 CONCEIV$ PRIM>ILY 9 POLITICAL T]MS4.<#i#i.> ,! F\ND]S ( ,*9ESE AN>*ISM W]E ALREADY MEMB]S ( ?IS ORGANIZATION1 :I* 9DE$ WAS LITTLE MORE ?AN AN ALLIANCE BORN ( ! DIFFUSE CURR5TS 9 ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ DESPOTISM4 ,H[EV] 9EFFECTIVE IT MAY HAVE BE5 POLITICALLY1 ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE DID CREATE A NEW SPACE 9 :I* TO ?9K ( ISSUES ( REVOLUTION 9 NEW WAYS4 ,AN>*ISM REPRES5T$ ONE ( ?OSE NEW WAYS4 

,AN>*ISM & ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION 

  

,AN>*I/S W]E NOT ! FIR/ TO ADVOCATE SOCIAL REVOLUTION 9 ,*9A1 BUT !Y 9TRODUC$ SEM9AL NEW ELEM5TS 9TO ,*9ESE ?9K+ ON SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 ,! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE CONCEPTION ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION WAS POLITICAL 9 ITS ORI5TATION2 IT PROPOS$ TO A*IEVE SOCIAL REVOLUTION ?R\< ! AG5CY ( ! /ATE4.<#a.> ,AN>*I/S1 9 !IR REJECTION ( ! /ATE1 *ALL5G$ ?IS CONCEPTION & (F]$ AN ALT]NATIVE IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION ?AT FOCUS$ ON ! PROBLEM ( CULTURAL TRANS=MATION & TOOK ! 9DIVIDUAL AS ITS PO9T ( DEP>TURE4 ,! AN>*I/ CONCEPTION ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION WAS AU!NTICALLY SOCIAL1 MOREOV]1 9 ITS FOCUS ON SOCIETY 79 CONTRA/ TO ! /ATE7 & 9 ITS 9SI/5CE ON POPUL> P>TICIPATION 9 ! PROCESS ( REVOLUTION4 

,AN>*ISM WAS TO MAKE A LA/+1 IF AMBIGU\S1 CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y ?\<T 9 ,*9A4 ,AS MU* ! EXPRESSION ( A MOOD AS A PHILOSOPHICAL CRITIQUE ( POLITICS1 AN>*ISM REPRES5T$ AN ANTIPOLITICAL /RA91 A MI/RU/ ( POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS & ( POLITICS 9 G5]AL1 :OSE P[] WAS REVEAL$ 9 ! DIFFUSION ( AN>*I/ IDEALS OV] A BROAD SPECTRUM ( ,*9ESE POLITICAL ?\<T OV] ! NEXT TWO DECADES4 ,! AN>*I/ MESSAGE WAS A REVOLUTION>Y ONE4 ,RADICALS 9T5T UPON ! REALIZATION ( A GOOD SOCIETY ?R\< AN IMM$IATE REVOLUTION>Y UPHEAVAL DISCOV]$ A S\RCE ( 9SPIRATION 9 ! AN>*I/ VISION ( COMMUNITY & A NEW HUMANITY4 ,9 ! #a#i#bS ,SUN ,YAT-S5 WAS 9SPIR$ TO REM>K ON ONE OCCASION ?AT AN>*ISM WAS ! ULTIMATE GOAL ( HIS ,?REE ,PEOPLE'S ,PR9CIPLES1 A S5TIM5T E*O$ BY O!R ,GUOM9DANG !ORETICIANS4 ,CRITICS ( ! ,CULTURAL ,REVOLUTION ( ! #a#i#fS HAVE >GU$ 9 REC5T YE>S ?AT ! ,CULTURAL ,REVOLUTION WAS 9SPIR$ BY AN>*I/ IDEAS & ATTITUDES ?AT1 HAV+ 5T]$ ! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY 9 ! E>LY TW5TIES1 SURVIV$ ! LONG YE>S ( REVOLUTION TO P]V]T ,M>XISM 9 ! P>TY4 ,IT IS POSSIBLE TO >GUE1 ,I ?9K1 ?AT SOME ( ! !MES ?AT EM]G$ DUR+ ! ,CULTURAL ,REVOLUTION MAY 9DE$ BE VIEW$ AS FA9T E*OES ( !MES 9 ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION ?AT HAD FIR/ BE5 5UNCIAT$ BY AN>*I/S4 

,! APPEAL ( AN>*ISM1 H[EV]1 WAS NOT RE/RICT$ TO REVOLUTION>IES4 ,CONS]VATIVES :O DEF5D$ SOCIAL & POLITICAL ORD] AGA9/ ! ?REAT ( REVOLUTION W]E ALSO ABLE TO F9D 9 AN>*ISM IDEALS ON :I* TO FOCUS !IR YE>N+ = A GOOD SOCIETY4 ,?IS AMBIVAL5CE1 TO ! PO9T ( IDEOLOGICAL S*IZOPHR5IA1 WAS REFLECT$ 9 ! HI/ORY ( AN>*ISM 9 ,*9A4 ,! MO/ RADICAL CURR5T 9 ,*9ESE SOCIALI/ ?\<T UNTIL ! E>LY TW5TIES1 AN>*ISM WAS TO 5D UP 9 ! S]VICE ( ,GUOM9DANG REACTION 9 ! LATE TW5TIES4 ,TO BE SURE1 AN>*I/ RELATION%IP ) ! ,GUOM9DANG W5T BACK TO P]SONAL & POLITICAL RELATION%IPS ?AT ! E>LY AN>*I/S 7MANY ( :OM W]E ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE MEMB]S7 HAD E/ABLI%$ ) LAT] ,GUOM9DANG LEAD]S1 RELATION%IPS ?AT EXI/$ 9DEP5D5TLY ( !IR IDEOLOGY4 ,NEV]!LESS1 AN>*I/ IDEOLOGY1 9 ITS PECULI> =MULATION ( QUE/IONS ( 9T]E/ & CONFLICT 9 SOCIETY1 L5T ITSELF TO C\NT]REVOLUTION ALMO/ AS EASILY AS TO REVOLUTION4 

,! AMBIVAL5CE ?AT WAS TO *>ACT]IZE ,*9ESE AN>*ISM WAS ALREADY APP>5T 9 ! BACKGR\NDS ( ! TWO GR\PS AMONG ! E>LY AN>*I/S & 9 ! DIFF]5T AN>*ISMS !Y PROPAGAT$4 ,! ,P>IS GR\P WAS ORGANIZ$ AS ! ,NEW ,WORLD ,SOCIETY 7,X9%IJIE %E7 9 #a#i#f4 ,IT />T$ PUBLI%+ 9 #aig A J\RNAL ?AT LA/$ = A REM>KABLE ?REE YE>S & OV] ONE HUNDR$ ISSUES4 ,?IS J\RNAL1 ! ,NEW ,]A 7,X9 %IJI71 WAS SUBTITL$ ,LA ,TEMPOJ ,NOVAJ 9 ,ESP]ANTO1 PROBABLY AFT] ,LES ,TEMPS ,N\VEAUX1 PUBLI%$ BY ,JEAN ,GRAVE4 ,! NAMES ( ! SOCIETY & ITS J\RNAL W]E 9DICATIVE ( ! 9CL9ATIONS ( ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S1 A GR\P ( 9TELLECTUALS :O HAD BE5 BAPTIZ$ 9TO REVOLUTION>Y ACTIVITY 9 ! E>LY #a#iS4 ,LI ,%IZ5G1 ! MOV+ SPIRIT ( ! GR\P 9TELLECTUALLY1 HAD BE5 LIV+ 9 ,P>IS S9CE #a#i#b4 ,HE HAD EVID5C$ AN 9T]NATIONALI/ ORI5TATION V]Y E>LY ON1 /UDI$ BIOLOGY1 & HAD BECOME CLOSE FRI5DS 9 ,P>IS ) MEMB]S ( ! FAMILY ( ! ,FR5* AN>*I/-GEOGRAPH] ,ELISEE ,RECLUS1 :I* PROBABLY LAUN*$ HIM ON ! PA? TO AN>*ISM4 ,WU ,ZHIHUI1 :O HAD ! MAJOR RESPONSIBILITY = PUBLI%+ ! ,NEW ,]A1 HAD BE5 9VOLV$ 9 ! E>LY #a#iS 9 RADICAL PATRIOTIC ACTIVITIES 9 ,JAPAN & ,*9A4 ,IT WAS ,LI1 ACCORD+ TO ,RI*>D ,WANG1 :O P]SUAD$ ,WU ( ! VIRTUES ( AN>*ISM :5 !Y MET 9 ,P>IS 9 #a#i#f4 ,! GR\P'S ACTIVITIES W]E F9ANC$ BY ! 5T]PRISES ( ITS ?IRD IMPORTANT MEMB]1 ,ZHANG ,J+JIANG1 :I* 9CLUD$ A D(U FACTORY & A RE/AURANT-TEA %OP4 ,!Y W]E ALL FROM ELITE FAMILIES &1 AFT] #a#i#e1 MEMB]S ( ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE4 ,FROM ! BEG9N+1 !Y SEEM$ TO HAVE LITTLE DIFFICULTY 9 RECONCIL+ !IR AN>*I/ PHILOSOPHY ) !IR POLITICAL 9VOLVEM5TS 9 ,*9A & ABROAD4 ,9 ! #a#i#bS1 AS UN(FICIAL ,GUOM9DANG ELD]S1 !Y W\LD BE 9VOLV$ 9 ! ,GUOM9DANG SUPPRESSION1 FIR/1 ( ! ,COMMUNI/S &1 !N1 ( !IR [N Y\NG AN>*I/ FOLL[]S4 ,! IMPORTANCE ( !IR IDEOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y ?\<T 9 ,*9A LIES 9 ! CONSI/5CY ( ! IDEOLOGY !Y PROPAGAT$1 NOT 9 ! CONSI/5CY ) :I* !Y LIV$ UP TO !IR [N IDEALS4.<#a#a.> 

,! ,P>IS AN>*I/S ADVOCAT$ A REVOLUTION>Y FUTURI/IC AN>*ISM1 :I* 9TRODUC$ 9TO ,*9ESE SOCIALI/ ?\<T AN UNEQUIVOCALLY RADICAL CURR5T 9 ,WE/]N REVOLUTION>Y ?9K+4 ,OV] ! ?REE YE>S ( ITS PUBLICATION AS A WEEKLY1 ! ,NEW ,]A S]IALIZ$ LONG TRANSLATIONS FROM ,EUROPEAN AN>*I/S1 SU* AS ,KROPOTK91 ,BAKUN91 ,MALATE/A1 & ,RECLUS4 ,!SE TRANSLATIONS1 REPR9T$ OV] & OV] 9 AN>*I/ J\RNALS & SPECIAL COMP5DIA AFT] #a#i#a#a1 PROVID$ A MAJOR S\RCE ( RADICAL LIT]ATURE 9 ,*9A UNTIL ! E>LY TW5TIES2 BY #aib AN>*I/ LIT]ATURE AVAILABLE 9 ,*9ESE WAS UNMAT*$ 9 SCOPE & COMPREH5SIV5ESS BY ANY O!R SOCIAL & POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY ( ,EUROPEAN ORIG94 ,/UD5TS ( ,*9ESE AN>*ISM HAVE PO9T$ \T ?AT AN>*ISM PROVID$ NOT ONLY RADICAL LIT]ATURE BUT A LANGUAGE ( RADICALISM ?AT FACILITAT$ ! EFFLORESC5CE ( SOCIALISM 9 ,*9A 9 ! TW5TIES4 ,! ,P>IS AN>*I/S PLAY$ A MAJOR P>T 9 MAK+ ?IS LANGUAGE AVAILABLE4 

,AT AB\T ! SAME TIME ?AT ! ,NEW ,]A />T$ PUBLICATION 9 ,P>IS1 ,*9ESE AN>*I/S 9 ,TOKYO E/ABLI%$ A ,SOCIETY = ! ,/UDY ( ,SOCIALISM 7,%EHUI ZHUYI JIANGXIHUI71 :I* PUBLI%$ ITS [N J\RNALS1 ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE 7,TIANYIBAO7 & ! ,BALANCE 7,H5GBAO74 ,9TELLECTUALLY1 ! MOV+ SPIRITS BEH9D BO? ! SOCIETY & ITS J\RNAL W]E ! CLASSICAL S*OL> ,LIU ,%IPEI & HIS SP\SE1 ,HE ,ZH51 :O WAS PROBABLY RESPONSIBLE = ! MORE RADICAL ASPECTS ( ,TOKYO AN>*I/S' IDEOLOGY4 ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE & ,BALANCE W]E V]Y REVOLUTION>Y 9 TONE & 9 !IR ANALYZES ( ! PLI<T ( WOM5 & ! L[] CLASSES 9 ,*9A1 :I* W]E MORE CONCRETE ?AN ANY?+ TO BE F\ND 9 ! ,NEW ,]A4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ,TOKYO AN>*I/S PROPAGAT$ AN ANTIMOD]NI/ AN>*ISM ?AT /RESS$ ! VIRTUES ( AGR>IAN SOCIETY & PREF]R$ ! FRE$OM FROM POLITICAL 9T]F]5CE ?AT PREVAIL$ UND] ! IMP]IAL /ATE 9 ,*9A TO ! DESPOTISM ( ! MOD]N NATION-/ATE4 ,:]EAS ,NEW ,]A WRIT]S DISCOV]$ ! >*ETYPAL AN>*I/ VISION 9 ,KROPOTK91 ,TOKYO AN>*I/S GAVE ! GREATE/ PROM95CE AMONG =EIGN AN>*I/S TO ,TOL/OY4.<#a#b.> 

,NATURAL ,JU/ICE LA/$ = ONE YE>4 ,AFT] ,LIU'S RETURN TO ,*9A 9 #a#i#h1 HE APP>5TLY S]V$ AS AN AG5T PROVOCATEUR = ! MON>*Y & WAS PROM95T AFT] #aiaa AS ONE ( ,*9A'S =EMO/ CONS]VATIVES4 ,AL?\< ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE DID NOT HAVE ! LONG-T]M 9FLU5CE ( ,NEW ,]A1 IT WAS V]Y 9FLU5TIAL 9 ITS TIME BECAUSE ( ! L>GE NUMB] ( ,*9ESE /UD5TS 9 ,JAPAN & BECAUSE ( ITS PROXIMITY TO ,*9A1 :I* GAVE IT AN $GE OV] ! ,NEW ,]A 9 T]MS ( ACCESSIBILITY4 ,LIU'S ANTIMOD]NI/ AN>*ISM1 MOREOV]1 S5SITIZ$ HIM TO C]TA9 IMPORTANT QUE/IONS 9 ,*9ESE SOCIETY2 SOME ( HIS ANALYZES ( ! PROBLEMS ( MOD]NITY 9 ,*9A ANTICIPAT$ !MES ?AT W]E TO BECOME PROM95T 9 ,*9ESE RADICAL ?9K+ 9 LAT] YE>S4 

,! ,PLACE ( ,AN>*ISM 9 ,LATE ,Q+ ,POLITICS 

  

,! RISE ( 9T]E/ 9 AN>*ISM AT ?IS TIME HAS PROMPT$ ,M>T9 ,B]NAL TO OBS]VE ?AT #aig M>K$ ! VICTORY ( AN>*ISM OV] ,M>XISM 9 ,*9A UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( A SIMIL> %IFT ( 9T]E/ AMONG ,JAPANESE RADICALS AT ! SAME TIME4.<#a#c.> ,!RE IS NO QUE/ION ?AT1 AS ) ALL ,*9ESE SOCIALISM1 ,JAPANESE S\RCES & RADICALS PLAY$ A SIGNIFICANT P>T 9 ,*9ESE AN>*ISM 7! T]M = AN>*ISM1 WUZH5GFU ZHUYI1 FIR/ US$ 9 ,*9ESE 9 #a#i#c1 WAS ( ,JAPANESE D]IVATION74 ,NEV]!LESS1 ?IS VIEW IS MISLEAD+1 & NOT ONLY BECAUSE IT IS ]RONE\S TO DESCRIBE AS ,M>XI/ ! SOCIALISM ( ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE1 :I* IS :AT ,B]NAL HAS 9 M9D 9 REF]R+ TO M>XISM4 ,! MAJOR C5T] ( ,*9ESE AN>*ISM BE=E #aiaa WAS ,P>IS1 & %IFTS 9 ,JAPAN HAD LITTLE TO DO ) ! AN>*ISM ( ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S4 ,:ILE SOME ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE MEMB]S BEGAN TO %[ 9T]E/ 9 ASSASS9ATION ACTIVITIES AFT] #a#i#g1 IT IS NOT CORRECT TO READ ?IS AS AN 9T]E/ 9 AN>*ISM1 EV5 ?\< ASSASS9ATION WAS ASSOCIAT$ 9 SOME CIRCLES ) AN>*ISM4 ,! *ANGE 9 REVOLUTION>Y ME?ODS CAN BE MORE CONCRETELY EXPLA9$ BY ! POLITICAL DILEMMA :I* ! ,Q+ DYNA/Y'S CON/ITUTIONAL RE=MS PRES5T$ REVOLUTION>IES1 :O W]E N[ FAC$ ) DEFLATION ( !IR REVOLUTION>Y >DOR4 ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE SOCIALI/S1 MOREOV]1 DID NOT AB&ON ! K9D ( SOCIALISM !Y HAD ADVOCAT$ 9 #a#i#e-#a#i#g1 = !SE IDEAS P]SI/$ 9 !IR ?9K+ 9 LAT] YE>S4 ,AN>*ISM MAY HAVE ADD$ NEW !MES TO !IR CONCEPTION ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 BUT ! BE/ ?AT CAN BE SAID IS ?AT ! PROLIF]ATION ( NEW IDEAS ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION COMPLICAT$ SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y ?9K+ & POSSIBLY ADD$ TO IDEOLOGICAL CONFUSION OV] SOCIALISM4 ,A CLE> DI/9CTION W\LD NOT BE DRAWN BETWE5 AN>*ISM & SOCIALISM UNTIL #a#i#a#c-#a#d2 NOR BETWE5 AN>*ISM & ,M>XISM UNTIL ! E>LY #a#i#bS4 

,IT IS FUTILE1 ,I ?9K1 TO LOOK = A S+LE1 ALL-5COMPASS+ EXPLANATION = ! ATTRACTION AN>*ISM HAD = ! ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS :O 9 !SE YE>S 5GAG$ 9 AN>*I/ ACTIVITY OR PR(ESS$ BELIEF 9 AN>*ISM4 ,9 EXPLA9+ :Y AN>*ISM HAS REMA9$ ALIVE AS A REVOLUTION>Y FAI? 9 ! ,WE/ 9 SPITE ( ! FAILURE ( AN>*I/S TO A*IEVE ANY IMPORTANT RESULTS1 ,JAMES ,JOLL HAS OBS]V$ ?AT A BASIC /R5G? ( AN>*ISM HAS BE5 ITS (F] ( SOME?+ = EV]YONE2 ! DIFFUS5ESS ( AN>*I/ IDEOLOGY--ITS WEAKNESS AS A PRACTICAL RADICAL IDEOLOGY--HAS BE5 ITS /R5G? AS A SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY4.<#a#d.> ,?IS (F]S 9SI<TS 9TO ! APPEALS ( AN>*ISM 9 ,*9A AS WELL4 ,CONV]TS TO AN>*ISM 9 E>LY-TW5TIE?-C5TURY ,*9A RANG$ FROM DISCIPLES ( REVOLUTION>Y T]RORISM1 :O F\ND 9 AN>*ISM JU/IFICATION = !IR ACTIVITIES1 TO MOD]NI/S ATTRACT$ TO AN>*I/ SCI5TISM1 TO ,BUDDHI/ MONKS1 :O DISCOV]$ 9 ! AN>*I/ MESSAGE ( LOVE SOME?+ AK9 TO ,BUDDHI/ IDEALS1 TO ES!TES1 :O P]CEIV$ BEAUTY 9 ! AN>*I/ IDEAL ( A BEAUTIFUL SOCIETY4 ,NOT EV]YONE :O F\ND SOME?+ ( VALUE 9 AN>*ISM UPHELD1 !RE=E1 A COH]5T PHILOSOPHY ( AN>*ISM4 

,SU* PR(USION ( APPEAL MILITATES AGA9/ EASY EXPLANATIONS1 ESPECIALLY EXPLANATIONS BAS$ ON VAGUE NOTIONS ( \TSIDE 9FLU5CE ?AT IGNORE ! DISPOSITIONS ( ! 9FLU5C$4 ,=EIGN S\RCES W]E IMPORTANT = AN>*ISM1 AS !Y W]E = ALL ,*9ESE SOCIALISM1 BUT IT WAS ! 9TELLECTUAL & EMOTIONAL NE$S G5]AT$ BY A SOCIETY 9 REVOLUTION>Y CRISIS ?AT ULTIMATELY 5D[$ AN>*ISM ) MEAN+ = ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS4 ,= ALL !IR CONTRADICTOR9ESS1 ! V>I$ REASONS = ATTRACTION TO AN>*ISM %>$ A COMMON GR\ND 9 ! AN>*I/ VISION ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 :I*1 H[EV] AB/RACT & UTOPIAN1 SPOKE TO ! IMM$IATE CONC]NS ( ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS :O1 9 ! MID/ ( ! POLITICAL & IDEOLOGICAL CRISIS ( ,*9ESE SOCIETY1 W]E UNC]TA9 AB\T !IR PLACE 9 !IR SOCIETY & ! PLACE ( !IR SOCIETY 9 ! WORLD4 ,9 ITS AFFIRMATION ( ! ESS5TIAL UNITY ( HUMAN BE+S1 AN>*ISM PROVID$ A C\NT]PO9T TO ! DIVISION ( HUMANITY 9TO NATIONS1 RACES1 & CLASSES1 :I* 9 ! E>LY P>T ( ! C5TURY CONFRONT$ ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS AS ! REALITY ( !IR WORLD4 ,& 9 ITS AFFIRMATION ( ! IRR$UCIBLE SIGNIFICANCE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 AN>*ISM PROVID$ A C\NT]PO9T TO ! PREOCCUPATION ) ! /ATE ?AT S\<T TO EXP& ITS P[]S AT ! CO/ ( SOCIAL AUTONOMY4 

,IT WAS ! AN>*I/ VIEW ( ! 9DIVIDUAL AS A SOCIAL BE+1 A BASIC ONTOLOGICAL PREMISE ( AN>*ISM1 ?AT PO9T$ TO POSSIBILITIES BEYOND SOCIAL ALI5ATION4.<#a#e.> ,AL?\< AN>*ISM WAS /ILL ASSOCIAT$ ) 9DIVIDUAL ACTION & ASSASS9ATION AFT] #a#i#g1 ! SOCIAL & CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS ( ! AN>*I/ IDEAL ( REVOLUTION W\LD GRADUALLY MOVE TO ! =EFRONT ( ,*9ESE ?9K+ ON AN>*ISM & LEAVE A LA/+ IMPRESSION ON ,*9ESE SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y ?\<T4 ,*9A'S MO/ RESPECT$ AN>*I/1 ,%IFU1 />T$ HIS C>E] ) ASSASS9ATION ACTIVITIES1 !N MOV$ AWAY FROM ASSASS9ATION AS HE BECAME FAMILI> ) AN>*I/ PHILOSOPHY4 ,AFT] ! REPUBLICAN ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#a#a1 AN>*I/S DI/+UI%$ !MSELVES 9 $UCATIONAL & SOCIAL MOBILIZATION ACTIVITIES1 9CLUD+ ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! FIR/ MOD]N LABOR UNIONS 9 ,*9A4 ,9 ! MID/ ( ! WAVE ( 9DIVIDUALISM ?AT SWEPT ,*9ESE Y\? 9 ! LATE #a#i#aS1 IT WAS ! AN>*I/S :O1 9 !IR 9SI/5CE ON ! ESS5TIAL SOCIABL5ESS ( HUMAN BE+S1 KEPT ALIVE SOCIAL ISSUES & PLAY$ A MAJOR P>T 9 ! EM]G5CE ( WIDESPREAD CONC]N ) SOCIETY & SOCIAL REVOLUTION 9 ! AFT]MA? ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T ( #a#i#a#i4 

,!SE SOCIAL CONC]NS1 AS WELL AS ! AN>*I/ VISION ( A WORLD FREE ( DIVISION1 PLACE AN>*ISM AT ! HE>T ( ! EM]G5T POLITICAL DISC\RSE 9 ,*9A 9 ! LATE N9ETE5? & ! E>LY TW5TIE? C5TURY4 ,! RECONSID]ATION ( ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 PUBLIC & PRIVATE1 BETWE5 ! 9DIVIDUAL & SOCIETY1 SOCIETY & ! /ATE1 ALL PROVOK$ BY A RECONSID]ATION ( ,*9A'S PLACE 9 ! WORLD1 W]E C5TRAL TO ?IS DISC\RSE4 ,AN EM]G5T NATIONALISM LAY AT ! ROOT ( ALL !SE QUE/IONS4 ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE SOCIALISM WAS AN 9TEGRAL COMPON5T ( ! SE>* = NATIONAL 9TEGRATION4 ,AN>*ISM1 LIKEWISE1 MAY BE SE5 AS P>T ( ! UTOPIAN COSMOPOLITANISM ?AT EM]G$ )1 & AS A C\NT]PO9T TO1 ,*9ESE NATIONALISM4 ,ON ! O!R SIDE ( ! POLITICAL SPECTRUM1 AS WE HAVE SE51 ,LIANG ,QI*AO1 LIKE HIS TEA*] ,KANG ,Y\WEI BE=E HIM1 WAS DISSATISFI$ ) 9/ITUTIONS ?AT DIVID$ PEOPLE1 & SAW 9 ! CREATION ( AN ORGANIC SOCIETY ! ULTIMATE FULFILLM5T ( ! HUMAN PROMISE4 ,?IS PROMISE WAS ALSO C5TRAL TO AN>*ISM1 AL?\< ! ADDITIONAL CONSID]ATIONS AN>*I/S BR\<T TO ! QUE/ HAD REVOLUTION>Y IMPLICATIONS ?AT DI/+UI% !IR VIEWS FROM ?OSE ( ,LIANG & O!RS4 ,! C5TRALITY ( ! CONC]N TO CONTEMPOR>Y POLITICAL DISC\RSE1 NEV]!LESS1 SUGGE/S :Y AN>*ISM MI<T HAVE SEEM$ MU* LESS P]IPH]AL TO CONTEMPOR>Y POLITICS ?AN IT DOES 9 H9DSI<T4 

,AN>*ISM IS ULTIMATELY A PHILOSOPHY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 NOT ( 9DIVIDUALISM AS AN 5D 9 ITSELF1 AS IS ASSUM$ BY ?OSE :O CONF\ND AN>*ISM ) LIB]T>IANISM1 BUT ( ! 9DIVIDUAL 9 HIS OR H] RELATION%IP TO SOCIETY4 ,! PREOCCUPATION ) ! SELF HAD ALREADY EM]G$ BY ! E>LY P>T ( ?IS C5TURY AS A FEATURE ( ,*9ESE ?9K+ 9 ! ACTIVITIES ( Y\NG RADICALS :O BELIEV$ ?AT 9 SELFLESS ACTIVITY LAY ! SALVATION ( 

!IR SOCIETY4 ,AN>*ISM PROVID$ A SY/EMATIC PHILOSOPHICAL EXPLANATION = ! PROBLEM ( ! SELF3 POLITICS1 9 ! AN>*I/ VIEW1 WAS ! REALM ( OPPRESSION1 AU?ORITY1 & DIVISION2 ! HOPE ( COMMUNITY RE/$ ) ! SELF PURG$ ( ! ACCUMULAT$ CORRUPTION ( 9/ITUTIONS ( P[]4 ,! MESSAGE HAD A P[]FUL APPEAL AMONG 9TELLECTUALS :O HAD ALREADY BECOME UNC]TA9 ( !IR RELATION%IP TO EXI/+ SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,IT IS NOT SURPRIS+ ?AT ! MESSAGE HAD ! GREATE/ 9FLU5CE AMONG MEMB]S ( ! ,*9ESE ELITE :O FELT DEEPLY !IR ALI5ATION FROM ! 9/ITUTIONS ( P[] ON :I* !Y HAD BE5 N\RI%$4 ,AN>*ISM IS BY NO MEANS RE/RICT$ 9 ITS APPEALS TO ! ELITE1 BUT IT HAS EV]Y:]E F\ND ITS MO/ COG5T SPOKESM5 AMONG ! ELITE = ! SIMPLE REASON ?AT ! ALI5ATION ( ! SELF FROM P[] IS MORE AN ELITE ?AN A POPUL> PROBLEM4 ,9 ! YE>S AFT] #aiaa AN>*I/S W\LD TAKE ! LEAD 9 POPUL> MOBILIZATION4 ,NEV]!LESS1 FROM ! BEG9N+1 AN>*ISM'S MO/ ELOQU5T PROPON5TS W]E MEMB]S ( ! ,*9ESE ELITE :O1 HAV+ BE5 ALI5AT$ FROM EXI/+ SOCIAL RELATIONS1 TURN$ TO NEW IDEAS ( COMMUNITY TO R$EF9E !IR RELATION%IP TO SOCIETY--! ALMO/ EXCLUSIVE CONC]N ( ! FIR/ G5]ATION ( ,*9ESE AN>*I/S4 

,! LA/+ CONTRIBUTION ( AN>*I/S TO ,*9ESE SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y ?\<T W\LD BE A R$EF9ITION ( ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 9TELLECTUALS & SOCIETY1 H[EV] AB/RACTLY ! LATT] WAS CONCEIV$4 ,9DE$1 ! SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ( AN>*I/ PHILOSOPHY ON ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS LAY NOT 9 ITS JU/IFICATION ( 9DIVIDUAL ACTS ( VIOL5CE1 BUT 9 ITS TURN+ !M TO ! >TICULATION ( ?IS RELATION%IP4 ,AN>*ISM PROVID$ ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS ) !IR FIR/ G5U9ELY SOCIAL CONCEPTION ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 :I* NOT ONLY PO9T$ TO SOCIETY AS ! PROP] REALM ( *ANGE BUT PLAC$ ! RESPONSIBILITY = *ANG+ SOCIETY UPON SOCIAL ACTIVITY4 ,?IS CONCEPTION L$ TO A READ+ ( ! PROBLEMS ( *ANG+ ,*9A ?AT ANTICIPAT$ QUE/IONS ?AT W\LD ASSUME 9CREAS+ IMPORTANCE 9 ,*9ESE SOCIAL ?\<T 9 LAT] YE>S4 ,= REASONS ,I %ALL EXPLA91 ! LOGIC ( ! AN>*I/ IDEA ( SOCIAL *ANGE BR\<T TO ! SURFACE E>LY ON ! PROBLEM ( CULTURAL REVOLUTION1 ! MORAL & 9TELLECTUAL TRANS=MATION ( 9DIVIDUALS4 ,9 RAIS+ QUE/IONS AB\T 9DIVIDUAL TRANS=MATION1 AN>*I/S ALSO RAIS$ QUE/IONS AB\T ! SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS ?AT OB/RUCT$ 9DIVIDUAL TRANS=MATION2 !Y W]E ! FIR/ ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS TO PO9T UNEQUIVOCALLY TO PROBLEMS ( WOM5 & ! FAMILY1 :I* CONT9UE TO BE C5TRAL PROBLEMS ( ,*9ESE SOCIAL ?\<T4 ,!Y W]E ! FIR/ TO PO9T TO ! NE$ TO BRIDGE ! GAP BETWE5 CLASSES1 ESPECIALLY 9TELLECTUALS & LABOR]S1 BY TURN+ 9TELLECTUALS 9TO LABOR]S1 & LABOR]S 9TO 9TELLECTUALS4 ,TO RESOLVE ALL !SE PROBLEMS1 F9ALLY1 !Y CALL$ = A SOCIAL REVOLUTION ?AT MADE REVOLUTION ITSELF A UTOPIA1 :I* W\LD HAVE DRAMATIC CONSEQU5CES = ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION 9 ! TW5TIE? C5TURY4 

,)9 ,*9ESE SOCIALISM1 !N1 AN>*ISM PROVID$ ! C\NT]PO9T TO /ATE-ORI5T$ /RATEGIES ( *ANGE4 ,! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE >GUM5T HAD PROPOS$ TO USE ! /ATE TO PREV5T ! DEVA/ATION ( SOCIETY BY CONFLICT+ 9T]E/S4 ,?AT >GUM5T HAD ADDRESS$ ! PROSPECTS ( CAPITALISM = ,*9A4 ,! AN>*I/ >GUM5T ADDRESS$ ! SECOND IMPORTANT ISSUE ( ! DAY1 ! /ATE4 ,AN>*I/S 5VISAG$ ! ABOLITION ( 9T]E/ 9 SOCIETY ?R\< A TOTAL REVOLUTION>Y TRANS=MATION :OSE BASIC PREMISE WAS ! DE/RUCTION ( ! /ATE4 ,CONV9C$ ( ! ESS5TIAL SOCIABL5ESS ( HUMAN BE+S1 !Y BELIEV$ ?AT A G5U9E HUMAN COMMUNITY C\LD BE REALIZ$ IF 9/ITUTIONAL OB/ACLES TO FREE ASSOCIATION C\LD BE ABOLI%$4 ,SU* 9/ITUTIONS 9CLUD$ ! FAMILY & ! CAPITALI/ ECONOMY2 BUT ! /ATE1 AS ! MI<TIE/ ( !SE 9/ITUTIONS & ! PROTECTOR ( ALL P>TIAL 9T]E/S 9 ITS DEF5SE ( ! POLITICAL ORD]1 WAS ! *IEF 5EMY ( HUMAN SOCIETY4 ,AS 9T]E/ 9 SOCIALISM HAD ACCOMPANI$ ! 9ITIAL REALIZATION ?AT CAPITALISM WAS NOT ONLY A MEANS TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T BUT ALSO A PRIM>Y S\RCE ( ! PROBLEMS ( MOD]N SOCIETY1 AN>*ISM EXPRESS$ A P>ALLEL APPREH5SION ?AT ! MOD]N NATION-/ATE NOT ONLY REFLECT$ ! WILL ( ! PEOPLE BUT ALSO S]V$ AS A DEHUMANIZ+ VEHICLE ( CONTROL & OPPRESSION1 AN OB/ACLE TO ! HUMAN LIB]ATION ?AT REVOLUTION PROMIS$4 

,BO? ! ,P>IS & ! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S SUBSCRIB$ TO !SE BASIC PREMISES ( AN>*ISM4 ,S9CE !Y DIFF]$ WIDELY 9 !IR VISION ( AN>*I/ SOCIETY 9 HI/ORY1 !IR VIEWS >E BE/ DISCUSS$ SEP>ATELY4 

,! ,P>IS ,AN>*I/S 

  

,:]EAS ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE SOCIALI/S HAD PROPOS$ SOCIAL REVOLUTION AS A SUPPLEM5T TO ! TASK ( POLITICAL REVOLUTION1 AN>*I/S MADE IT A SUB/ITUTE = ! LATT]4 ,9 ONE ( ! E>LIE/ /ATEM5TS ( ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S' POSITION ON REVOLUTION1 ,WU ,ZHIHUI DREW A CLE> DI/9CTION BETWE5 SOCIAL & POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS3  
  

,?OSE ( OLD :O ADVOCAT$ REVOLUTION SPOKE ONLY ( ! POLITICAL ASPECT ( REVOLUTION BUT DID NOT EMPHASIZE SOCIETY4 ,!Y DESIR$ TO ABOLI% DESPOTISM TO EXT5D PEOPLE'S SOV]EIGNTY1 S\<T LEGAL FRE$OM BUT NOT FRE$OM ( LIVELIHOOD1 POLITICAL BUT NOT SOCIAL OR ECONOMIC EQUALITY4 ,!Y S\<T ! HAPP9ESS & WELF>E ( ONE C\NTRY OR SOME ( ! PEOPLE1 NOT ! HAPP9ESS & WELF>E ( ! MASSES ( ! WORLD4  
  

,SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION 7%EHUI ZHUYIZHI GEM+7 W\LD  
  

SEEK EQUALITY1 FRE$OM1 HAPP9ESS & WELF>E = SOCIETY1 MAKE JU/ICE 7GONGDAO7 ! MEASURE ( A*IEVEM5T1 EXPUNGE :ATEV] H>MS SOCIETY1 OR RUNS CONTR>Y TO ?IS GOALSU* AS DESPOTISM & CLASSES1 ! ROOTS ( ALL CALAMITY1 9/ITUTE SCI5TIFIC PROGRESS TO A*IEVE A REAL WORLD CIVILIZATION1 &1 ULTIMATELY1 E/ABLI% A HUMANIT>IAN COMMONWEAL 7R5DAO DATONG7 & A P>ADISIACAL WORLD 7%IJIE JILO74  
  

,SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION1 ,WU BELIEV$1 W\LD RID SOCIETY ( ALL ! POISON 9H]IT$ FROM ! PA/ & E/ABLI% :AT WAS APPROPRIATE TO SOCIAL LIFE4.<#a#f.> 

,! AN>*I/ SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y IDEA DIFF]$ FROM ?AT ( ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE BO? 9 GOALS & 9 ME?OD4 ,! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE CONCEPTION ( SOCIALISM HAD BE5 AN 9/RUM5TAL ONE3 SOCIAL REVOLUTION AS A POLICY TOOL = ! /ATE TO A*IEVE SOCIAL H>MONY & /ABILITY4 ,! AN>*I/ CONCEPTION WAS A TOTAL ONE1 :I* CALL$ = A TOTAL REORGANIZATION ( SOCIETY 9 ALL ITS ASPECTS TO REALIZE AN ALL-5COMPASS+ VISION4 ,9 HIS LONG ESSAY ,AN>*ISM1 ,*U ,M9YI DESCRIB$ F\R GOALS ( AN>*ISM3 7#a7 TO ABOLI% AU?ORITY 7& ITS BACKBONE1 ! MILIT>Y7 TO E/ABLI% HUMANIT>IANISM1 7#b7 TO ABOLI% LAWS TO 9/ITUTE FRE$OM1 7#c7 TO ABOLI% ALL 9H]IT$ CLASS DI/9CTIONS 7AS EMBODI$ 9 ! TEA*+S ( ! SAGES7 TO E/ABLI% EQUALITY1 7#d7 TO ABOLI% PRIVATE PROP]TY & CAPITAL TO E/ABLI% COMMUNISM 7GONG*AN74.<#a#g.> ,A MAJOR ESSAY1 WRITT5 BY ,LI ,%IZ5G & ,*U ,M9YI1 DESCRIB+ ! AN>*I/ VIEW ( REVOLUTION1 MADE EV5 MORE EXPLICIT ! E?ICAL OBJECTIVES UND]LY+ AN>*I/ GOALS4 ,! EI<T MEAN+S ( REVOLUTION1 ! ESSAY /AT$1 W]E FRE$OM1 FRAT]NITY 7BOAI71 PUBLIC-M9D$NESS1 RE=M1 EQUALITY1 UNIV]SAL UNITY 7DATONG71 TRU?1 & PROGRESS4.<#a#h.> ,!SE GOALS W]E TO BE A*IEV$ ?R\< ! ABOLITION ( M>RIAGE1 PROP]TY1 FAMILY & FAMILIAL RELATIONS1 ! PRIVATE [N]%IP ( L&1 & RACIAL & NATIONAL B\ND>IES4.<#a#i.> 

,= ! AN>*I/S1 SOCIAL REVOLUTION WAS DIFF]5T FROM POLITICAL1 NOT ONLY 9 ITS GOALS BUT ALSO1 EV5 MORE FUNDAM5TALLY1 9 ITS MEANS4 ,:]EAS POLITICAL REVOLUTION WAS REVOLUTION ( ! FEW1 SOCIAL REVOLUTION WAS ! REVOLUTION ( ! MANY--! COMMON PEOPLE 7P+M974 ,AN>*I/S BELIEV$ ?AT OV]?R[+ ! GOV]NM5T MU/ HAVE ! RECOGNITION & ! CONS5T ( ! MAJORITY4.<#a#a.> ,TO ?IS 5D1 !Y SPECIFI$ FIVE ME?ODS ( REVOLUTION3 PROPAG&A 7BOOKS1 MAGAZ9ES1 LECTURES71 MASS ASSOCIATIONS1 MASS UPRIS+S1 POPUL> RESI/ANCE 7OPPOSITION TO TAXES & CONSCRIPTION1 /RIKES & BOYCOTTS71 & ASSASS9ATION 7PROPAG&A BY ! DE$74.<#a#a#a.> ,AN>*I/S !MSELVES W]E NOT ALWAYS CONSI/5T ON ! QUE/ION ( ME?ODS2 TO APPRECIATE !IR PREF]5CES1 IT IS NECESS>Y TO KEEP 9 M9D !IR G5]AL P]CEPTION ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 ,AN>*I/S REJECT$ NOT ONLY POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS BUT POLITICS AS WELL1 EV5 ?\< AN $ITORIAL 9 ,NEW ,]A REF]R$ ON ONE OCCASION TO ! REVOLUTION !Y ADVOCAT$ AS A POLITICAL REVOLUTION ( PURE SOCIALISM 7*UNCUIDE %EHUI ZHUYIZHI ZH5GZHI GEM+74.<#a#a#b.> ,!Y BELIEV$1 H[EV]1 ?AT AU!NTIC SOCIAL REVOLUTION C\LD NOT BE IMPOS$ FROM ABOVE1 ?R\< 9H]5TLY AU?ORIT>IAN 9/ITUTIONS4.<#a#a#c.> ,EV5 ?\< !Y W]E MEMB]S ( ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE1 !IR IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION WAS C\NT]POS$ EXPLICITLY TO ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y PROGRAM ( ,SUN ,YAT-S51 BO? BECAUSE ( ! RELIANCE ( ! LATT] ON ! /ATE & = ITS AMBIGUITIES CONC]N+ ! ROLE ( ! MANY 9 ! REVOLUTION4 

,AN>*I/S !MSELVES CONCEIV$ ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION AS A PROCESS ( SOCIAL ACTIVITY1 A REVOLUTION ( ALL ! PEOPLE 7QUANTIZHI GEM+74.<#a#a#d.> ,! REVOLUTION>Y ME?ODS !Y PROPOS$ W]E ALL 9T5D$ TO /IMULATE SU* SOCIAL ACTIVITY4 ,NEI!R ! ,P>IS NOR ! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S 5GAG$ ACTIVELY 9 ASSASS9ATION ACTIVITY OR SOCIAL MOBILIZATION1 BUT !Y LOOK$ FAVORABLY UPON O!RS :O DID SO4 ,!Y ALLUD$ ) 5?USIASM TO ! ,P+XIANG UPRIS+ 9 ,HUNAN 9 #aif & TO ITS LEAD]1 ,MA ,FUYI4.<#a#a#e.> ,!Y WROTE ) APPROVAL ( ! SELF-SACRIFIC+ SPIRIT DEMON/RAT$ BY ,XU ,XIL9 & ,QIU ,J94.<#a#a#f.> ,ASSASS9ATION UND]TAK5 9 ! SPIRIT ( SELF-SACRIFICE & ) A CLE> COMMITM5T TO UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLE 7GONGLI71 ! AN>*I/S BELIEV$1 FUR!R$ ! CAUSE ( REVOLUTION & HUMANITY4.<#a#a#g.> ,?IS NOTION ?AT ! BEAU GE/E MAY BE MORE IMPORTANT ?AN LIV+ TO FI<T ANO!R DAY REVEAL$ ! E?ICAL IMPULSE ?AT UND]LAY ! AN>*I/S' IDEA ( REVOLUTION1 & DI/+UI%$ !M FROM LATT]-DAY REVOLUTION>IES 9 ,*9A1 TO :OM ! SUCCESS ( REVOLUTION W\LD BE F> MORE IMPORTANT ?AN GE/URES ( P]SONAL AU!NTICITY4 ,GIVE ME LIB]TY OR GIVE ME DEA?1 ,*U ,M9YI WAS TO DECLAIM 9 HIS DEF5SE ( VIOL5CE AS A REVOLUTION>Y ME?OD4.<#a#a#h.> ,! REBELS !Y LAUD$ W]E NOT AN>*I/S1 NOR W]E !IR ACTIVITIES 9T5D$ TO A*IEVE AN>*I/ GOALS2 :AT C\NT$ WAS ! ACT1 ! /RUGGLE ITSELF1 NOT ITS A*IEVEM5TS4 ,?IS DOES NOT MEAN ?AT AN>*I/S VIEW$ VIOL5CE AS AN 5D 9 ITSELF2 RA!R1 !Y CONDON$ VIOL5CE ONLY IF IT HAD A MORAL PURPOSE4 ,*U ,M9YI OBS]V$ 9 CONNECTION ) ,XU ,XIL9 ?AT VIOL5CE WAS AN EXPRESSION ( POLITICAL DESP]ATION4.<#a#a#i.> ,WU ,ZHIHUI EXPLA9$ ?AT VIOL5CE WAS NECESS>Y BECAUSE1 UND] DESPOTISM1 IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE O!RWISE TO $UCATE PEOPLE TO A*IEVE HUMANIT>IAN GOALS4.<#a#b.>,AN>*I/S AGRE$1 MOREOV]1 ?AT VIOL5CE WAS EFFECTIVE ONLY TO ! EXT5T ?AT IT MOV$ PEOPLE'S HE>TS & >\S$ MASS SUPPORT = ! CAUSE ( REVOLUTION4 

,IF VIOL5CE )\T A CLE> MORAL & SOCIAL S5SE W\LD DEG5]ATE 9TO M9DLESS T]RORISM1 ! AN>*I/S BELIEV$1 REVOLUTION )\T $UCATION W\LD TURN 9TO UNCONSCI\S UPRIS+4.<#a#b#a.> ,( ALL ! ME?ODS ( REVOLUTION ! AN>*I/S PROMOT$1 $UCATION WAS ! MO/ FUNDAM5TAL4 ,AN>*I/S CALL$ = SIMULTANE\S DE/RUCTION & CON/RUCTION4 ,VIOL5CE C\LD A*IEVE DE/RUCTION1 BUT CON/RUCTION REQUIR$ $UCATION1 :I* WAS ! ULTIMATE JU/IFICATION EV5 = REVOLUTION>Y VIOL5CE4.<#a#b#b.> ,IF ! MASSES C\LD BE WON OV] TO ! REVOLUTION1 !N SOCIAL REVOLUTION W\LD TAKE A PEACEFUL C\RSE1 & AN>*I/ GOALS C\LD BE A*IEV$ GRADUALLY4.<#a#b#c.> ,$UCATION TO ! AN>*I/S WAS NOT SIMPLY AN 9/RUM5T ( REVOLUTION1 IT WAS ! EQUIVAL5T ( REVOLUTION3  
  

,REVOLUTION WILL BE EFFECTIVE ONLY IF1 ) ! SPREAD ( $UCATION1 PEOPLE GET RID ( !IR OLD CU/OMS & A*IEVE A NEW LIFE4 ,FROM ! P]SPECTIVE ( EFFECTIV5ESS1 ?IS MEANS ?AT IF !RE IS $UCATION = REVOLUTION BE=E ! REVOLUTION IS UND]TAK51 !RE WILL BE NO?+ IMPOSSIBLE AB\T REVOLUTION4 ,!RE=E1 AN>*I/ REVOLUTION--IS NO?+ BUT $UCATION4.<#a#b#d.>  
  

,AS = ! NATURE ( ! $UCATION NECESS>Y = AN>*I/ REVOLUTION1 ,WU ,ZHIHUI EXPLA9$ ?AT !RE IS NO $UCATION ASIDE FROM $UCATION 9 MORALITY :I* 5COMPASSES TRU? & PUBLIC-M9D$NESS1 SU* AS RECIPROCAL LOVE1 EQUALITY1 FRE$OM2 ALL $UCATION IS AN>*I/ ?AT 5COMPASSES TRU? & PUBLIC-M9D$NESS1 9CLUD+ EXP]IM5TAL SCI5CE1 & SO =?4.<#a#b#e.> ,*U ,M9YI OBS]V$ ?AT :ILE REVOLUTION 7AS AN ACT7 S]V$ A TRANSI5T PURPOSE1 $UCATION LA/$ =EV] 9 ITS EFFECTS & TRANS=M$ PEOPLE 5DLESSLY4 ,UNLIKE GOV]NM5T-SPONSOR$ 7Y\ZH5GFUDE7 $UCATION1 :I* TAU<T MILIT>ISM1 LEGAL-M9D$NESS1 RELIGION1 OR1 9 %ORT1 OB$I5CE TO AU?ORITY1 AN>*I/ 7WUZH5GFUDE7 $UCATION TAU<T TRU? & PUBLIC-M9D$NESS1 ?AT IS1 FRE$OM1 EQUALITY1 & ! ABILITY = SELF-GOV]NM5T4.<#a#b#f.> 

,CRITICISM ( POLITICAL REVOLUTION BY AN>*I/S YIELDS FUR!R 9SI<TS 9TO ! NATURE ( ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION !Y ADVOCAT$4 ,AN>*I/S OPPOS$ POLITICAL REVOLUTION BECAUSE !Y BELIEV$ ?AT IT ONLY S]V$ TO SUB/ITUTE NEW1 & WORSE1 9EQUALITIES = OLD ONES4 ,POLITICAL REVOLUTION1 ,WU /AT$1 HAD DIM9I%$ MIS]Y 9 POLITICS BUT 9CREAS$ ECONOMIC MIS]Y4.<#a#b#g.> ,9 A MORE COMPREH5SIVE /ATEM5T CRITICIZ+ PROPON5TS ( DEMOCRACY & ! ,REPUBLIC1 ,*U ,M9YI OBS]V$3  
  

,!Y DO NOT KN[ ?AT FRE$OM IS ! FRE$OM ( ! RI*1 EQUALITY IS ! EQUALITY ( ! WEAL?Y4 ,! MIS]Y ( ! POOR IS ! SAME AS ( OLD4 ,:AT IS FRE$OM & EQUALITY TO ! POOR8 ,! EVILS ( POLITICAL DESPOTISM HAVE N[ BE5 REPLAC$ BY ! POISON ( ECONOMIC ONOPOLY4.<#a#b#h.>  
  

,ALL AN>*I/S CONCURR$ ) ,*U'S VIEW ?AT ?IS POISON WAS ! PRODUCT ( A BAD SOCIAL SY/EM :]E A FEW1 BY MONOPOLIZ+ WEAL?1 MANAG$ TO LIVE (F ! SWEAT & BLOOD ( ! MANY4.<#a#b#i.> ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS ?AT HAD CREAT$ DEMOCRACIES & REPUBLICS HAD MADE ?+S WORSE BY GIV+ CAPITALI/S ACCESS TO P[]1 ?US 9CREAS+ !IR ABILITY TO EXPLOIT LABOR]S4 ,UND] !SE SY/EMS1 EV]Y?+ S]V$ ! 9T]E/S ( ! RI*4 ,EV5 SCI5CE WAS UTILIZ$1 NOT = ! B5EFIT ( HUMANITY BUT 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! P[]FUL4 ,CAPITALI/S1 :E!R !Y W]E GOOD OR BAD AS 9DIVIDUALS1 W]E MOTIVAT$ 9 !IR ACTIVITIES BY ! PURSUIT ( PR(IT4 ,:ILE MA*9]Y HAD MADE UNLIMIT$ PRODUCTION POSSIBLE1 PEOPLE DID NOT B5EFIT FROM PRODUCTION1 BECAUSE CAPITALI/S US$ MA*9ES 9 !IR SE>* = PR(IT4 ,:5 PRODUCTION 9CREAS$ TO ! PO9T :]E !Y C\LD NOT F9D CONSUM]S = !IR PRODUCTS1 !Y %UT D[N PRODUCTION1 ?R[+ LABOR]S \T ( WORK & CAUS+ IMM5SE MIS]Y4 ,9 A /ATEM5T REM9ISC5T ( ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE VIEWS ON CAPITALISM1 ,*U ,M9YI OBS]V$ ?AT AS LONG AS SU* A SY/EM PREVAIL$1 ! ADVANCE ( ! 9DU/RIAL >TS 7GONGYI7 ONLY S]V$ TO CREATE POOR PEOPLE BY DECREAS+ ! NE$ = LABOR3 ,PEOPLE DO NOT REALIZE ?AT ! MORE ADVANC$ ! 9DU/RIAL >TS1 ! RI*] >E ! RI* & ! POOR] ! POOR4.<#a#c.> ,?OSE :O ADVOCAT$ SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 ,*U NOT$1 W]E ?OSE :O UND]/OOD ! FAILURE ( ! CAPITALI/ SY/EM4 ,HE HIMSELF ADVOCAT$ A POLITICAL REVOLUTION AGA9/ RUL]S 7LIT]ALLY A REVOLUTION = POLITICAL RI<TS1 QUANLI GEM+71 & AN ECONOMIC REVOLUTION AGA9/ CAPITALI/S 7LIT]ALLY1 A REVOLUTION = LIVELIHOOD1 %5GJI GEM+74.<#a#c#a.> ,:ILE SU* A PROGRAM S\ND$ SIMIL> TO ?AT ( ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE1 ITS PREMISES W]E QUITE DIFF]5T3 ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE WRIT]S SAW A REPUBLICAN POLITICAL REVOLUTION AS A MEANS ( C>RY+ \T ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION2 AN>*I/S BELIEV$ ?AT A REPUBLICAN REVOLUTION W\LD ONLY 9CREASE ! P[] ( ! B\RGEOISIE1 ! CLASS !Y HAD 9 M9D1 ?\< !Y DID NOT USE ! T]M4 

,AN>*I/S ACQUIR$ !SE IDEAS1 AS DID ,SUN ,YAT-S51 FROM OBS]VATIONS ON ! P]SI/5CE ( 9EQUALITY 9 ,EUROPEAN SOCIETY4.<#a#c#b.> ,!Y ALSO BELIEV$1 ) ,SUN1 ?AT 9EQUALITY WAS MU* MORE S]I\S 9 ! ,WE/ ?AN IT WAS 9 ,*9A4.<#a#c#c.> ,BUT1 UNLIKE ,SUN1 !Y DID NOT ?9K ?AT SU* PROBLEMS C\LD BE RESOLV$ OR PREV5T$ ?R\< GOV]NM5T ACTION4 ,COMM5T+ ON A LETT] FROM A FRI5D :O ?\<T ?AT CON/ITUTIONAL GOV]NM5T C\LD TAKE MEASURES TO =E/ALL ! EM]G5CE ( 9EQUALITY 9 ,*9A1 AN $ITORIAL 9 ! ,NEW ,]A OBS]V$ ?AT IT WAS ONLY PREJUDICE = GOV]NM5T ?AT SU/A9$ FAI? 9 ! ABILITY ( GOV]NM5T TO SECURE PEACE1 & ! REFUSAL TO SEE ?AT GOV]NM5T ITSELF OB/RUCT$ ! ADVANCE ( HUMANIT>IANISM1 ?AT IT WAS ! S\RCE ITSELF ( ALL EVILS4.<#a#c#d.> ,AL?\< AN>*I/S DISCUSS$ ECONOMIC ISSUES1 POLITICS & ! /ATE W]E ! FOCAL PO9T ( !IR OPPOSITION TO POLITICAL REVOLUTION4 ,!IR MI/RU/ ( POLITICAL REVOLUTION WAS GR\ND$ 9 !IR BELIEF ?AT POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS 9 SOCIETY ONLY REPRES5T$ ! 9T]E/S ( ! M9ORITY ?AT COMM&$ WEAL? & P[]4 ,LIKE ! ,EUROPEAN AN>*I/S1 :OSE PHILOSOPHY !Y ACCEPT$ 9 TOTO1 ,*9ESE AN>*I/S W]E OPPOS$ TO ALL K9DS ( GOV]NM5T1 NO MATT] H[ DIFF]5T 9 =M OR SUB/ANCE ( ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 /ATE & SOCIETY4 ,!IR OPPOSITION TO CAPITALISM WAS ITSELF 5COMPASS$ )9 !IR OPPOSITION TO ! /ATE1 = IT WAS ! /ATE1 ) ITS LAWS1 >MIES1 & POLICE1 !Y BELIEV$1 ?AT DEF5D$ ! 9T]E/S ( ! P[]FUL 9 SOCIETY4.<#a#c#e.> 

,9 ! 9TELLECTUAL ATMOSPH]E ?AT PREVAIL$ 9 ,*9A DUR+ ! FIR/ DECADE ( ! C5TURY1 !SE IDEAS W]E NOT LIKELY TO APPEAL TO MANY4 ,! ISSUE ( ! DAY WAS ! REORGANIZATION ( POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS TO CREATE A /RONG] /ATE1 ONE ?AT C\LD UNIFY & DEF5D ! C\NTRY2 ! REVOLUTION>IES ADD$ /RID5T ANTI-,MAN*UISM4 ,IT IS NOT SURPRIS+ ?AT AN>*I/ IDEAS DREW CONSID]ABLE CRITICISM1 MA9LY FROM O!R REVOLUTION>IES2 IT IS SOME:AT SURPRIS+1 H[EV]1 ?AT ! EX*ANGES BETWE5 AN>*I/S & !IR OPPON5TS W]E C>RI$ \T 9 A RELATIVELY MILD TONE1 9 CONTRA/ TO LAT] CONTROV]SIES AMONG SOCIALI/S4 ,! ACRIMONI\S EX*ANGE BETWE5 ,WU ,ZHIHUI & ,ZHANG ,B+L9 9 #aih WAS ! EXCEPTION4 ,AN>*I/S !MSELVES SAV$ !IR MO/ VITUP]\S RHETORIC = ! ,MAN*U GOV]NM5T & ,LIANG ,QI*AO'S CON/ITUTIONALI/S4 ,9 O!R CASES1 !Y RESPOND$ TO !IR CRITICS ) PATI5CE1 EXPLA9+ !IR POSITION ) LABORI\S EF=T1 C>EFUL NOT TO (F5D FELL[ REVOLUTION>IES4.<#a#c#f.> ,! REASONS = ?IS EF=T >E NOT COMPLEX4 ,9 SPITE ( !IR RADICAL DEP>TURE FROM REPUBLICAN IDEOLOGY1 MO/ ( ! AN>*I/S REMA9$ MEMB]S ( ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE1 TI$ TO IT ?R\< P]SONAL RELATION%IPS4 ,! DISAGREEM5T WAS AMONG FRI5DS4 

,TO SOME ( ! CRITICS ( ! AN>*I/S1 !IR MAJOR WEAKNESS WAS !IR IDEALISM1 :I* BL9D$ !M TO ! REALITIES ( ,*9ESE SOCIETY1 ESPECIALLY ! BACKW>DNESS ( ! PEOPLE1 :O DID NOT HAVE ! $UCATIONAL & MORAL QUALIFICATIONS REQUIR$ BY AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES4 ,BUT ! MAJORITY ( CRITICS FOCUS$ ON ! IMPLICATIONS ( AN>*ISM = ,*9A'S NATIONAL /RUGGLE1 ESPECIALLY ITS POSSIBLE CONSEQU5CES 9 UND]M9+ ! ANTI-,MAN*U /RUGGLE & R5D]+ ,*9A VULN]ABLE TO FUR!R AGGRESSION BY O!R NATIONS4 

,TO ! *>GE ( IDEALISM1 AN>*I/S RESPOND$ ?AT :ILE !Y W]E IDEALI/S1 !Y W]E NOT BL9D4 ,! /RUGGLE = AN>*ISM HAD TO BE IMM$IATE1 !Y >GU$1 BUT !Y DID NOT EXPECT TO A*IEVE !IR GOALS = A LONG TIME TO COME4 ,!Y BELIEV$1 H[EV]1 ?AT ! /RUGGLE WAS WOR? ! UND]TAK+ BECAUSE AN>*ISM WAS ! WORLD TR5D1 A NECESS>Y 5D ( HUMAN EVOLUTION ?AT HAD ! BACK+ ( SCI5TIFIC DEMON/RATION4.<#a#c#g.> ,!Y ALSO ADD$1 9DIGNANTLY1 ?AT :ILE ! MORAL & $UCATIONAL LEVEL ( ! PEOPLE 9 ,*9A MI<T BE L[1 IT WAS NO L[] ?AN ?AT ( ! (FICIALS :O GOV]N$ !M4 

,MO/ ( ! EX*ANGES1 H[EV]1 REVOLV$ >\ND ! ISSUE ( NATIONALISM4 ,9 !SE EX*ANGES ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S DEMON/RAT$ !IR ABILITY TO BE FLEXIBLE AB\T !IR IDEALS1 A *>ACT]I/IC ?AT W\LD M>K !IR C>E]S4 ,ON ! ISSUE ( ANTI-,MAN*UISM !Y W]E FIRM4 ,!Y BELIEV$ ?AT ! EMP]OR %\LD BE OV]?R[N--NOT BECAUSE HE WAS ,MAN*U1 BUT BECAUSE HE WAS ! EMP]OR4.<#a#c#h.> ,!Y W]E UNWILL+ TO CONDONE ! RACISM ?AT WAS IMPLICIT 9 ! ANTI-,MAN*U >GUM5TS ( ! REPUBLICANS1 & !Y SPOKE REPROV+LY ( ! REVAN*ISM ( NATIONALI/S SU* AS ,WU ,YUE1 :O HAD ATTEMPT$ TO ASSASS9ATE A GR\P ( ,MAN*U (FICIALS 9 #a#i#e4 ,RACISM1 !Y BELIEV$1 ONLY S]V$ TO RE9=CE B\ND>IES BETWE5 DIFF]5T PEOPLES1 :I* OB/RUCT$ EVOLUTION T[>D A BETT] SOCIETY4 ,!Y W]E WILL+ TO SUPPORT PATRIOTISM ONLY IF IT DID NOT LEAD TO HATR$ OR FE> ( O!R NATIONS & RACES4.<#a#c#i.> 

,!Y W]E MORE WILL+ TO GO ALONG ) REPUBLICAN REVOLUTION4 ,POLITICAL REVOLUTION IS ! />T+ PO9T2 SOCIAL REVOLUTION IS ! ULTIMATE GOAL1 ,LI ,%IZ5G & ,*U ,M9YI /AT$4.<#a#d.> ,REPUBLICAN REVOLUTION WAS TO BE SUPPORT$1 ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S BELIEV$1 BECAUSE IT W\LD MOVE ,*9ESE SOCIETY A /EP CLOS] TO SOCIALISM4 ,:ILE !IR PATRIOTISM NO D\BT WAS AN ELEM5T 9 !IR WILL+NESS TO COMPROMISE ) REPUBLICANISM1 !Y MAY ALSO HAVE D]IV$ !IR 9SPIRATION FROM !IR 9TELLECTUAL M5TOR1 ,ELISEE ,RECLUS1 :O HIMSELF HAD BE5 A SUPPORT] ( REPUBLICANISM 9 ,FRANCE4 ,! ,P>IS AN>*I/S VIEW$ ! /ATE HI/ORICALLY & BELIEV$ ?AT REPUBLICAN GOV]NM5T WAS MORE ADVANC$ ?AN MON>*Y 9 ITS WILL+NESS TO %>E P[] ) ! PEOPLE1 AT LEA/ SOME ( ! PEOPLE4 ,!RE W]E SOME QUALMS AB\T ?IS VIEW4 ,*U ,M9YI OBS]V$ ON ONE OCCASION ?AT CON/ITUTIONAL GOV]NM5T1 9 GIV+ CITIZ5S ! ILLUSION ( %>+ P[] ) !M1 CAUS$ ! TRANSF] ( LOYALTY FROM ! FAMILY 7AS UND] DESPOTISM7 TO ! /ATE2 ?IS WAS ! MA9 REASON = ! GREAT] /R5G? & RESILI5CE ( CON/ITUTIONAL GOV]NM5TS3 ! PEOPLE1 HAV+ AN 9T]E/ 9 ! /ATE1 W]E MORE WILL+ TO S]VE 9 ITS DEF5SE4.<#a#d#a.> ,?IS >GUM5T WAS COMMONPLACE AT ! TIME AMONG NATIONALI/S :O WANT$ A /RONG] ,*9A4 ,?\< ,*U DID NOT DRAW ANY CONCLUSIONS FROM ?IS OBS]VATION1 ! IMPLICATION WAS OBVI\S ?AT CON/ITUTIONAL GOV]NM5T MADE ! TASK ( A*IEV+ AN>*ISM MORE DIFFICULT2 ,NEW ,]A AN>*I/S OPPOS$ ,MAN*U E/ABLI%M5T ( A CON/ITUTION AS A DECEPTIVE MEASURE ?AT AIM$ TO A*IEVE GREAT] P[] = ! ,MAN*U ?RONE1 A FEEL+ !Y %>$ ) O!R REVOLUTION>IES4.<#a#d#b.> ,O!RWISE1 !Y VIEW$ CON/ITUTIONALISM AS A /EP T[>D AN>*ISM1 NOT AWAY FROM IT4 ,!Y EXPLA9$ ON A NUMB] ( OCCASIONS ?AT !Y ADVOCAT$ SOCIALISM NOT AS A SUB/ITUTE = REPUBLICANISM1 BUT BECAUSE SOCIALISM 9CLUD$ REPUBLICANISM1 9SI/+ ONLY ?AT ! REVOLUTION SEEK TO GO BEYOND REPUBLICAN GOV]NM5T4.<#a#d#c.> ,ONE ( ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S W\LD BECOME 9VOLV$ 9 POLITICS AFT] ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! ,REPUBLIC 9 #a#i#a#b2 ! O!RS CONT9U$ TO MAKE EF=TS TO ADVANCE ! CAUSE ( REVOLUTION ?R\< $UCATION & REFUS$ TO P>TICIPATE =MALLY 9 POLITICS4 ,!IR 9=MAL ACTIVITIES W\LD BE ANO!R MATT]4 

,AN>*I/S ALSO DISMISS$ ! >GUM5T ?AT ,*9A NE$$ NATIONALISM BECAUSE IT SUFF]$ FROM =EIGN AGGRESSION1 OR ?AT !IR REVOLUTION W\LD R5D] ,*9A VULN]ABLE TO FUR!R AGGRESSION4 ,TO ! FIR/1 ,LI RESPOND$ ?AT =EIGN AGGRESSION DID NOT *ANGE ! PROBLEM ( OPPRESSION QUALITATIVELY2 IT ONLY MADE HEAVI] ! BURD5 ( REVOLUTION>IES :O HAD TO /RUGGLE AGA9/ =EIGN OPPRESSION 9 ADDITION TO !IR /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! ,*9ESE RUL+ CLASS4 ,TO ! SECOND1 !Y RESPOND$ ) !IR FAI?1 *>ACT]I/IC ( AN>*I/ ATTITUDES ?R\<\T1 ?AT S9CE ! REVOLUTION WAS TO BE UNIV]SAL 9 SCOPE1 O!R /ATES W\LD BE TOO BUSY COP+ ) PRESSURE FROM !IR [N POPULATIONS TO 5GAGE 9 AGGRESSION AGA9/ ,*9A4.<#a#d#d.> ,BESIDES1 !Y PO9T$ \T1 ! PEOPLE'S MILITIA1 :I* W\LD REPLACE ! REGUL> >MY1 W\LD BE MORE EFFECTIVE 9 DEF5D+ ,*9A ?AN A REGUL> >MY1 :I* ONLY S]V$ ! 9T]E/S ( ?OSE 9 P[]4 

,TO SEE ! AN>*I/ IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION ONLY 9 POLITICAL & SOCIAL T]MS W\LD BE TO SEE ONLY A P>T1 & NOT ! MO/ FUNDAM5TAL P>T1 ! PREMISE1 ( ! AN>*I/ >GUM5T4 ,ULTIMATELY1 ?IS IDEA ( REVOLUTION WAS A MORAL ONE3 IT S\<T NOT JU/ TO TRANS=M 9/ITUTIONS BUT RA!R TO TRANS=M HUMAN PSY*OLOGY1 :I* TO ! AN>*I/S WAS AT ONCE ! PO9T ( DEP>TURE = & ! GOAL ( REVOLUTION4 ,HUMAN PSY*OLOGY WAS B\ND UP ) ! QUE/ION ( ! ROLE ( 9T]E/ 9 SOCIETY :I* ! AN>*I/S1 UNLIKE ,SUN ,YAT-S51 SAW NOT JU/ AS AN ECONOMIC BUT ALSO AS A MORAL QUE/ION4 

,TO ! AN>*I/S1 ! TE/ ( A TRUE REVOLUTION WAS :E!R IT WAS PUBLIC 9 ITS ORI5TATION OR1 9 A MORE LIT]AL R5D]+1 :E!R IT PURSU$ ! PUBLIC WAY 7GONGDAO74 ,?IS WAS ALSO ! ULTIMATE TE/ ( :E!R A REVOLUTION WAS A SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 ,AS ,LI PUT IT3 ,:AT WE SPEAK ( AS A REVOLUTION ( ! MANY & A REVOLUTION ( ! FEW REF]S TO :E!R IT IS REALLY PUBLIC 7GONG7 OR PRIVATE 7SI71 NOT TO ! ACTUAL NUMB] ( PEOPLE 9VOLV$ AT ANY ONE TIME4.<#a#d#e.> ,!SE IDEAS W]E CRUCIAL TO ,*9ESE POLITICAL ?9K+ AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY & PLACE ! AN>*I/S SQU>ELY 9 ! CONTEXT ( CONTEMPOR>Y ?\<T4 ,! T]MS GONG & SI HAD SLI<TLY DIFF]5T MEAN+S 9 DIFF]5T CONTEXTS1 BUT !Y W]E ALWAYS JUXTAPOS$ AS OPPOSITES4 ,SI C\LD MEAN SELFI%NESS1 P>TIALITY1 OR P>TICUL>ITY2 GONG D5OT$ SELFLESSNESS1 IMP>TIALITY1 OR UNIV]SALITY4 ,9 ALL !SE USAGES1 H[EV]1 SI IMPLI$ FAVOR+ :AT WAS ( 9T]E/ TO ! SELF1 :ILE GONG MEANT ! ABILITY TO TRANSC5D SELF-9T]E/ & TO REALIZE OR TO EXPRESS ! GOOD ( ! MANY4 ,9 ! AN>*I/ VIEW1 REVOLUTION WAS A PROCESS :]EBY P>TICUL> 9T]E/ WAS ABOLI%$ TO BE REPLAC$ BY PUBLIC CONC]NS 9 HUMAN M9DS1 SOCIETY1 & POLITICS4 ,! BASIC GOAL ( REVOLUTION WAS1 !RE=E1 MORAL2 SPECIFICALLY1 IT WAS ! CREATION ( PUBLIC MORALITY 7GONGDE74.<#a#d#f.> ,*9ESE AN>*I/S BELIEV$1 AS DO AN>*I/S 9 G5]AL1 ?AT PUBLIC-M9D$NESS1 AN 9/9CTIVE SOCIABILITY1 AS IT W]E1 WAS 9NATE 9 HUMAN BE+S2 ! TASK ( REVOLUTION WAS NOT SO MU* TO CREATE PUBLIC MORALITY \T ( NO?+ AS TO ABOLI% ! 9/ITUTIONS ?AT /OOD 9 ! WAY ( ITS REALIZATION4 ,*U ,M9YI PO9T$ TO MORALITY AS ! DI/9CTIVE *>ACT]I/ICS ( HUMANK9D & DESCRIB$ AS ! GOAL ( ! $UCATION HE PROPOS$ ! A*IEVEM5T ( TRUE MORALITY1 :I* IMPLI$ ! ABOLITION ( ALL DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 SELF & O!RS4.<#a#d#g.> ,! ULTIMATE GOAL ( REVOLUTION WAS TO A*IEVE UNITY ON A UNIV]SAL SCALE1 A UNITY ?AT WAS NOT SIMPLY SOCIAL BUT ALSO E?ICAL & SPIRITUAL4 

,P>TIALITY1 9 ! AN>*I/ VIEW1 WAS ! ROOT CAUSE ( ALL ! PROBLEMS ( CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIETY4 ,TO QUOTE ,*U AGA93 ,CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIETY IS A SELF-SEEK+ & SELF-9T]E/$ SOCIETY 7ZISI ZILIZHI %EHUI74 ,A SELF-SEEK+ SOCIETY IS NOT A TRUE SOCIETY1 A SELF-9T]E/$ SOCIETY IS NOT A FAIR 7GONGP+7 SOCIETY4.<#a#d#h.> ,! SEP>ATION ( SELF FROM O!RS WAS NOT JU/ A SOCIAL PROBLEM2 IT WAS CONTR>Y TO ! V]Y ORGANIC /RUCTURE 7JITIZHI JIEG\7 ( NATURAL EXI/5CE4.<#a#d#i.> ,AN>*ISM1 !Y BELIEV$1 PROMIS$ TO DO AWAY ) ?IS SEP>ATION &1 ) IT1 CONSID]ATIONS ( 9T]E/ AS A DET]M9ANT ( HUMAN BEHAVIOR3  
  

,AN>*ISM MEANS NO NATIONAL OR RACIAL B\ND>IES4 ,EV5 MORE IMPORTANT1 IT MEANS NO DI/9CTION BETWE5 SELF & O!RS1 NO NOTION ( B5EFIT+ ! SELF & H>M+ O!RS4 ,:5 ?IS HAS BE5 A*IEV$1 TRUE FRE$OM1 TRUE EQUALITY1 TRUE FRAT]NITY WILL APPE>4 ,?AT IS :Y AN>*ISM ACCORDS ) PUBLIC-M9D$NESS & TRU?4.<#a#e.>  
  

,ON !SE SAME GR\NDS AN>*I/S REJECT$ COMPETITION AS A DET]M9ANT ( EXI/5CE1 9SI/+ ?AT MUTUAL AID WAS ! S\RCE ( HUMAN EVOLUTION4 

,?IS OPPOSITION TO P>TIAL 9T]E/ ON ! GR\NDS ( ITS BASIC IMMORALITY WAS NOT ONLY ! E?ICAL BASIS = AN>*I/ OPPOSITION TO POLITICS & CAPITALISM1 IT WAS ALSO ! BASIS = AN>*I/ DISAGREEM5TS ) FELL[ REVOLUTION>IES4 ,RACISM 7ZHONGZU ZHUYI7 & NATIONALISM 7GUOJIA ZHUYI7 W]E1 ACCORD+ TO ! AN>*I/S1 JU/ SU* EXPRESSIONS ( P>TIALITY4 ,AN>*I/S OPPOS$ 5MITY TO ! ,MAN*US AS ,MAN*US1 :O \<T TO BE OPPOS$ BECAUSE !Y SELFI%LY HELD ON TO POLITICAL P[]4 ,NATIONALISM WAS BAD BECAUSE IT FO/]$ UNJU/IFI$ HO/ILITY TO ! PEOPLE ( O!R NATIONS4.<#a#e#a.> ,SELFI%NESS DECL9$1 !Y BELIEV$1 AS ! SCOPE ( HUMAN LOYALTIES EXP&$4 ,?US3 ,! ADVANCE FROM ! SELFI%NESS ( ! 9DIVIDUAL TO RACISM & PATRIOTISM1 ! ADVANCE FROM RACISM & PATRIOTISM TO SOCIALISM REPRES5T ! PROGRESS ( UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLE 7GONGLI7 & CONSCI5CE 7LIANGX974.<#a#e#b.> ,NOT UNTIL ALL B\ND>IES HAD BE5 ABOLI%$ C\LD HUMANITY A*IEVE UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLE4 ,?IS1 ! AN>*I/S >GU$1 \<T TO BE ! GUID+ GOAL ( ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION4 

,= !SE REASONS ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S REJECT$ ,*9A'S H]ITAGE 9 UNCOMPROMIS+ LANGUAGE4 ,?AT C]TA9 ELEM5TS ( ,*9ESE TRADITION FO/]$ PRIVATE OV] PUBLIC MORALITY HAD BE5 >GU$ BY O!RS1 MO/ >TICULATELY BY ! CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*I/ ,LIANG ,QI*AO4 ,) ,LIANG1 H[EV]1 ?IS CRITICISM ( ,*9A'S H]ITAGE L$1 NOT TO A CALL = A :OLESALE ATTACK ON TRADITION1 BUT RA!R TO A PLEA = ! GRADUAL NURTUR+ ( HABITS ( PUBLIC LIFE 9 ORD] TO CREATE A NEW CITIZ5RY4 ,AN>*I/S1 S5SITIVE TO ! ROLE IDEOLOGY PLAY$ 9 P]PETUAT+ AU?ORITY1 CALL$ = A REVOLUTION ?AT W\LD ]ADICATE ! AU?ORIT>IAN IDEOLOGICAL LEGACY ( ! PA/1 AS WELL AS ?AT ( ! 9/ITUTIONS ?AT SU/A9$ IT4 ,ONE1 CIT+ ,5GELS = 9SPIRATION1 SUGGE/$ ?AT ,*9A'S NATIONAL ESS5CE 7:I* CONS]VATIVES PROPAGAT$7 %\LD BE CONSIGN$ TO ! MUSEUM BECAUSE IT WAS CONTR>Y TO CIVILIZ$ LIFE4.<#a#e#c.> ,! ,P>IS AN>*I/S CONC5TRAT$ !IR ATTACKS ON ,CONFUCIANISM & ! IDEOLOGY ( FAMILISM AS ! TW9 PILL>S ( AU?ORITY 9 ,*9ESE SOCIETY4 ,:ILE !Y W]E NOT ! ONLY ONES AT ?IS TIME TO CRITICIZE ,CONFUCIANISM OR ! FAMILY1 !Y DID SO MORE SY/EMATICALLY & VOCIF]\SLY ?AN O!RS1 & !Y C]TA9LY /OOD \T AMONG !IR CONTEMPOR>IES = PRES5T+ !SE ISSUES AS ! PRIM>Y ISSUES ( *ANGE 9 ,*9A4 ,9 BO? RESPECTS1 !Y ANTICIPAT$ ISSUES ?AT W\LD RISE TO ! =EFRONT ( ,*9ESE ?9K+ DUR+ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T A DECADE LAT]4 ,9 ?IS S5SE1 !Y W]E ,*9A'S FIR/ CULTURAL REVOLUTION>IES4 

,! FIR/ ISSUE ( ,NEW ,]A 9CLUD$ A %ORT PIECE ON ,CONFUCIUS1 :I* DEBUNK$ HIM AS A ?9K] ( ! AGE ( B>B>ISM :OSE ONLY VIRTUE HAD BE5 TO BE A LITTLE MORE KN[L$GEABLE ?AN HIS IGNORANT CONTEMPOR>IES4.<#a#e#d.> ,P>IS AN>*I/S SAW 9 ,CONFUCIAN TEA*+S ! S\RCE ( ! SUP]/ITIONS 9 ,*9ESE SOCIETY ?AT HAD OPPRESS$ WOM5 & Y\? & S]V$ AS AN 9/RUM5T ( P[]1 A C\NT]P>T 9 ,*9A TO RELIGION 9 O!R SOCIETIES4.<#a#e#e.> ,SUP]/ITION1 !Y BELIEV$1 WAS ! BASIS = AU?ORITY1 BUT IT WAS EV5 MORE DIFFICULT TO OV]?R[ ?AN AU?ORITY ITSELF1 ESPECIALLY :]E RELIGION & POLITICS W]E NOT CLE>LY DI/+UI%$4 ,9 ,*9A A ,CONFUCIUS REVOLUTION WAS ! PR]EQUISITE TO A*IEV+ ALL O!R GOALS ( REVOLUTION4.<#a#e#f.> 

,! ATTACK ON ,CONFUCIANISM WAS ACCOMPANI$ BY AN ATTACK ON K9%IP & PSEUDO-K9%IP RELATIONS ?AT = C5TURIES HAD BE5 CORN]/ONES ( ,*9ESE SOCIAL ?9K+4 ,FAMILY REVOLUTION1 REVOLUTION AGA9/ ! SAGES1 REVOLUTION 9 ! ,?REE ,BONDS & ! ,FIVE ,CON/ANTS W\LD HELP ADVANCE ! CAUSE ( HUMANIT>IANISM4.<#a#e#g.> ,P>IS AN>*I/S VIEW$ ! FAMILY AS ! MAJOR S\RCE ( SELFI%NESS 9 SOCIETY3 ?\< PEOPLE W]E BORN 9TO SOCIETY 7?AT IS1 ! PUBLIC REALM71 ! FAMILY PRIVATIZ$ !IR EXI/5CE & CONV]T$ :AT WAS PUBLIC 9TO :AT WAS PRIVATE4 ,*U ,M9YI DESCRIB$ ! FAMILY AS ! BASIS ( ALL 9EQUALITY3 ,TODAY'S SOCIETY IS A CLASS SOCIETY4 ,IT IS LIKE A HI< T[] 9 APPE>ANCE4 ,M>RIAGE IS ITS F\NDATION4 ,PROP]TY1 FAMILY1 NATIONAL & RACIAL B\ND>IES >E ALL LEVELS ( ! T[]1 ) GOV]NM5T AT ! TOP4#f ,?IS IS A COMMON AN>*I/ VIEW1 BUT )9 ! CONTEXT ( ,*9ESE POLITICAL ?\<T1 :I* HAD LONG VIEW$ ! FAMILY AS A P>ADIGM = POLITICS1 IT HAD A SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE4 ,! ,?REE ,BONDS 7?AT B\ND RUL] & M9I/]1 FA!R & SON1 HUSB& & WIFE7 W]E TO ! AN>*I/S ! SUP]/ITIONS ?AT P]PETUAT$ ! P[] ( ! FAMILY1 :I* WAS BAS$ NOT ON PR9CIPLE BUT ON AU?ORITY4 ,FAMILY P[] WAS BOL/]$ BY ! PRACTICE ( ANCE/OR WOR%IP1 :I* WAS CONTR>Y TO TRU? SECUR$ ! DESPOTISM ( TRADITION1 WAS ECONOMICALLY WA/EFUL 79 US+ UP GOOD L& = GRAVES71 & B\ND ! LIV+ TO ! DEAD4 ,AN>*I/S ADVOCAT$ A ?\<T REVOLUTION TO ELIM9ATE !SE SUP]/ITIONS1 & AN ECONOMIC REVOLUTION TO ]ADICATE ! P[] ( ! FAMILY BY MAK+ 9DIVIDUALS ECONOMICALLY 9DEP5D5T4 7?AT IS1 ! PUBLIC REALM71 ! FAMILY PRIVATIZ$ !IR EXI/5CE & CONV]T$ :AT WAS PUBLIC 9TO :AT WAS PRIVATE4 ,*U ,M9YI DESCRIB$ ! FAMILY AS ! BASIS ( ALL 9EQUALITY3 ,TODAY'S SOCIETY IS A CLASS SOCIETY4 ,IT IS LIKE A HI< T[] 9 APPE>ANCE4 ,M>RIAGE IS ITS F\NDATION4 ,PROP]TY1 FAMILY1 NATIONAL & RACIAL B\ND>IES >E ALL LEVELS ( ! T[]1 ) GOV]NM5T AT ! TOP4.<#a#e#h.> ,?IS IS A COMMON AN>*I/ VIEW1 BUT )9 ! CONTEXT ( ,*9ESE POLITICAL ?\<T1 :I* HAD LONG VIEW$ ! FAMILY AS A P>ADIGM = POLITICS1 IT HAD A SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE4 ,! ,?REE ,BONDS 7?AT B\ND RUL] & M9I/]1 FA!R & SON1 HUSB& & WIFE7 W]E TO ! AN>*I/S ! SUP]/ITIONS ?AT P]PETUAT$ ! P[] ( ! FAMILY1 :I* WAS BAS$ NOT ON PR9CIPLE BUT ON AU?ORITY4 ,FAMILY P[] WAS BOL/]$ BY ! PRACTICE ( ANCE/OR WOR%IP1 :I* WAS CONTR>Y TO TRU? SECUR$ ! DESPOTISM ( TRADITION1 WAS ECONOMICALLY WA/EFUL 79 US+ UP GOOD L& = GRAVES71 & B\ND ! LIV+ TO ! DEAD4 ,AN>*I/S ADVOCAT$ A ?\<T REVOLUTION TO ELIM9ATE !SE SUP]/ITIONS1 & AN ECONOMIC REVOLUTION TO ]ADICATE ! P[] ( ! FAMILY BY MAK+ 9DIVIDUALS ECONOMICALLY 9DEP5D5T4.<#a#e#i.> 

,!SE PREMISES ( AN>*I/ ?9K+ REVEAL :Y $UCATION HELD SU* AN IMPORTANT PLACE ON ! AN>*I/ AG5DA & :Y AN>*I/S %\LD HAVE BELIEV$ REVOLUTION & $UCATION TO BE ! TWO SIDES ( ! SAME CO91 ! ONE NEGATIVE1 ! O!R POSITIVE4.<#a#f.> ,REVOLUTION WAS TO CLE> AWAY MAT]IAL OB/ACLES TO ! LIB]ATION ( HUMAN POT5TIAL1 BUT IT WAS $UCATION ?AT W\LD NURTURE ! MORALITY ?AT AN>*I/ IDEALS DEM&$4 ,!RE IS NO MORALITY O!R ?AN LE>N+1 PROCLAIM$ ! TITLE ( AN >TICLE 9 ! ,NEW ,]A4.<#a#f#a.> ,?IS WAS A COMMONLY HELD AN>*I/ VIEW3 ?AT ! MORALITY ( A PEOPLE WAS PROPORTIONATE TO !IR LE>N+4 ,$UCATION W\LD *ANGE HUMAN PSY*OLOGY1 & ?IS W\LD LEAD TO *ANGES 9 BEHAVIOR & MORALITY4 ,! RELATION%IP BETWE5 $UCATION & REVOLUTION WAS CONCEIV$ DIALECTICALLY1 ) ! ADVANCE ( ONE 9DUC+ ! ADVANCE ( ! O!R 9 ! 5DLESS EVOLUTION ( HUMANITY4 

,?IS EMPHASIS ON $UCATION AS REVOLUTION BR\<T \T AN IMPORTANT FEATURE ( ! AN>*I/ IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION3 ?AT !RE WAS NO DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! PROCESS & ! GOALS ( REVOLUTION1 BETWE5 MEANS & 5DS4 ,REVOLUTION WAS NECESS>Y TO MAKE AN>*I/ $UCATION POSSIBLE2 )\T SU* $UCATION REVOLUTION C\LD NOT BE ATTA9$4 ,:ILE AN>*I/S ON OCCASION V5TUR$ TO (F] !IR VIEWS ON :5 ! REVOLUTION MI<T OCCUR1 !SE PR$ICTIONS W]E SUP]FLU\S BECAUSE REVOLUTION WAS ULTIMATELY A CONT9U+ PROCESS ) NO =ESEEABLE 5D4 ,P]HAPS MO/ REVEAL+ 9 ?IS REG>D WAS ! DI/ORTION ( ! ETYMOLOGY ( ! T]M REVOLUTION BY ,LI & ,*U 9 !IR IMPORTANT ESSAY 5TITL$ ,REVOLUTION 7,GEM+74 ,US+ ! =EIGN ORIG9AL1 REVOLUTION1 ! AU?ORS EXPLA9$ ?AT ! WORD WAS COMPOS$ ( RE & EVOLUTION1 9 O!R WORDS1 RE-EVOLUTION1 :I* !Y !N EXPLA9$ 9 ,*9ESE TO MEAN EV] NEW 7G5GX974 ,WE CANNOT BE C]TA9 :E!R ! DI/ORTION WAS 9T5TIONAL OR ! RESULT ( MISUND]/&+2 CIRCUM/ANTIAL EVID5CE PO9TS TO ! =M]4 ,!RE WAS AT LEA/ ONE ESSAY PUBLI%$ 9 ! ,NEW ,]A ?AT TRAC$ ! WORD REVOLUTION CORRECTLY TO ITS ROOT1 TO REVOLVE4.<#a#f#b.> ,! UND]LY+ 9T5TION ( ! REPRES5TATION ( REVOLUTION AS RE-EVOLUTION1 MOREOV]1 WAS TO PORTRAY REVOLUTION & EVOLUTION AS DIFF]5T ASPECTS1 OR PHASES1 ( ! PROCESS ( HUMAN PROGRESS1 :I* WAS ALSO IMPORTANT 9 ,RECLUS'S ?9K+ ON REVOLUTION4.<#a#f#c.> ,:ATEV] ! REASONS1 ?IS ETYMOLOGICAL 9T]PRETATION CORRESPOND$ TO ! AN>*I/S' VIEW ( REVOLUTION AS A PROCESS )\T 5D4 ,9 ! WORDS ( ,LI ,%IZ5G3  
  

,PROGRESS IS ADVANCE )\T /OPP+1 TRANS=MATION )\T 5D4 ,!RE IS NO AFFAIR OR ?+ ?AT DOES NOT PROGRESS4 ,?IS IS ! NATURE ( EVOLUTION4 ,?AT :I* DOES NOT PROGRESS OR IS T>DY [ES IT TO SICKNESS 9 HUMAN BE+S & 9JURY 9 O!R ?+S4 ,?AT :I* DOES AWAY ) SICKNESS & 9JURY IS NONE O!R ?AN REVOLUTION4 ,REVOLUTION IS NO?+ BUT CLEANS+ AWAY OB/ACLES TO PROGRESS4.<#a#f#d.>  

,! ,TOKYO ,AN>*I/S 

  

,! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S AGRE$ ) ! BASIC PREMISES ( ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S3 ! SOCIAL SCOPE ( REVOLUTION1 ITS MORAL BASIS1 ITS UNIV]SALI/IC GOALS1 & ! IMPORTANCE ( $UCATION AS A MEANS ( A*IEV+ AN>*ISM4 ,!RE WAS ALSO CONSID]ABLE 9T]*ANGE BETWE5 !IR TWO J\RNALS4 ,! ,NEW ,]A CONTA9$ REPORTS ON ! ACTIVITIES ( ! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S1 & ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE FREQU5TLY REPR9T$ =EIGN WORKS ?AT HAD FIR/ BE5 PUBLI%$ 9 ! ,NEW ,]A4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ! TWO GR\PS W]E SEP>AT$ BY A WIDE IDEOLOGICAL GAP1 BO? 9 !IR UND]/&+ ( AN>*ISM & 9 ! CONCLUSIONS !Y DREW FROM IT CONC]N+ CONTEMPOR>Y PROBLEMS4 ,! DISAGREEM5T ROSE TO ! SURFACE ON AT LEA/ ONE OCCASION :5 ! ,NEW ,]A CRITICIZ$ ,LIU ,%IPEI'S UND]/&+ ( AN>*ISM4 

,LIU ,%IPEI HAD MADE HIS FAME AS A CLASSICAL S*OL> BE=E HE TURN$ TO AN>*ISM1 & HE WAS A PROM95T LEAD] ( CONS]VATIVES :O PROPAGAT$ ! IDEA ( NATIONAL ESS5CE1 ( :I* ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S W]E CRITICAL4 ,LIU'S COMMITM5T TO ,*9A'S CULTURAL H]ITAGE WAS TO %APE HIS AN>*ISM4 ,9 LI<T ( ?IS1 IT IS POSSIBLE ?AT ! MORE RADICAL ASPECTS ( ! AN>*ISM ?AT ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE PROPAGAT$ WAS ! WORK ( ,HE ,ZH51 HIS WIFE1 ) :OM HE PUBLI%$ ! J\RNAL4 

,! G5]AL OBJECTIVES ( ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE W]E /AT$ 9 ITS FIR/ FEW ISSUES3 ,TO DE/ROY EXI/+ SOCIETY & 9/ITUTE HUMAN EQUALITY IS ! G5]AL OBJECTIVE4 ,ASIDE FROM WOM5'S REVOLUTION1 IT ADVOCATES RACIAL1 POLITICAL1 & ECONOMIC REVOLUTION4 ,H5CE ! NAME1 ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE4 ,) ISSUE NUMB] EI<T 9 ,OCTOB] #a#i#g1 ?IS /ATEM5T WAS REVIS$ TO READ3 ,TO DE/ROY NATIONAL & RACIAL B\ND>IES TO 9/ITUTE 9T]NATIONALISM2 RESI/ ALL AU?ORITY2 OV]?R[ ALL EXI/+ =MS ( GOV]NM5T2 9/ITUTE COMMUNISM2 9/ITUTE ABSOLUTE EQUALITY ( M5 & WOM54 

,:ILE !SE GOALS W]E CLOSE TO ?OSE ( ! ,NEW ,]A1 ESPECIALLY 9 !IR LAT] =MULATION1 ! TWO GR\PS ( AN>*I/S DIFF]$ SIGNIFICANTLY 9 !IR AN>*ISM AS WELL AS 9 ! S\RCES ( 9SPIRATION = !IR IDEALS4 ,NATIVE S\RCES1 VIEW$ ) CONTEMPT BY ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S1 HELD A PROM95T PLACE 9 ! PAGES ( ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE4 ,?IS REFLECT$ AN IMPORTANT DIFF]5CE 9 ! WAY !Y P]CEIV$ ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 AN>*ISM & NATIVE IDEAS & IDEOLOGY4 

,! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S1 TOO1 REJECT$ ?OSE ASPECTS ( PREMOD]N ,*9ESE IDEOLOGY ?AT CONDON$ HI]>*Y BETWE5 CLASSES & SEXES4 ,ON ! ISSUE ( POLITICAL IDEOLOGY1 H[EV]1 !Y BELIEV$ ?AT PREMOD]N ,*9ESE ?\<T CAME CLOS] TO UPHOLD+ AN>*I/ SOCIAL IDEALS ?AN ITS C\NT]P>TS ELSE:]E4 ,9 A SPEE* TO ! FIR/ MEET+ ( ! ,SOCIETY = ! ,/UDY ( ,SOCIALISM1 ,LIU /AT$ ?AT ?\< ! ,*9ESE POLITICAL SY/EM HAD BE5 DESPOTIC 9 APPE>ANCE1 ! P[] ( ! GOV]NM5T HAD BE5 REMOTE FROM ! LIVES ( ! PEOPLE1 :O ?US HAD CONSID]ABLE FRE$OM FROM POLITICS4 ,FUR!RMORE1 HE >GU$1 ADVOCACY BY ! MAJOR IDEOLOGIES ( ,*9A1 ,CONFUCIANISM & ,DAOISM1 ( LAISSEZ-FAIRE GOV]NM5T HAD HELP$ CURTAIL GOV]NM5T 9T]V5TION 9 SOCIETY4 ,AS A RESULT1 HE CONCLUD$1 ,*9A WAS MORE LIKELY ?AN O!R SOCIETIES TO A*IEVE AN>*ISM2 HE IMPLI$1 9 FACT1 ?AT IF ONLY ,*9ESE C\LD BE PURG$ ( !IR HABITS ( OB$I5CE1 AN>*ISM C\LD BE A*IEV$ 9 ,*9A 9 ! V]Y NE> FUTURE4.<#a#f#e.> ,! FIF? ISSUE ( ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE C>RI$ A PICTURE ( ,LAOZI AS ! FA!R ( AN>*ISM 9 ,*9A4 ,9 HIS UTOPIAN S*EME ,LIU ACKN[L$G$ HIS DEBT TO ,XU ,X+1 AN AGR>IAN UTOPIANI/ ( ! ?IRD C5TURY ,B4,C41 :O HAD ADVOCAT$ A RURAL LIFE AS ! IDEAL LIFE & PROMOT$ ! VIRTUES ( MANUAL LABOR BY ALL )\T DI/9CTION1 9CLUD+ ! EMP]OR4 ,LIU NOT$ ?AT :]EAS HE HIMSELF ADVOCAT$ COOP]ATION1 ,XU HAD PROMOT$ SELF-SUFFICI5CY1 BUT O!RWISE HE SAW NO ESS5TIAL DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ,XU'S IDEAS & HIS [N4.<#a#f#f.> 

,AMONG ,WE/]N AN>*I/S1 ,LIU F\ND 9 ,TOL/OY CONFIRMATION ( ! IDEALS ?AT HE HAD FIR/ DISCOV]$ 9 NATIVE S\RCES4.<#a#f#g.> ,LIKE ,TOL/OY1 HE IDEALIZ$ RURAL LIFE & MANUAL LABOR & OPPOS$ A COMM]CIALIZ$ ECONOMY4 ,HE BELIEV$ ?AT ,*9ESE SOCIETY HAD BEGUN TO DEG5]ATE ) ! EM]G5CE ( ! MONEY ECONOMY AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! ,*RI/IAN ]A4 ,! MONEY ECONOMY HAD L$ TO ! /R5G!N+ ( DESPOTISM2 ! COMM]CIAL ECONOMY HAD L$ TO ! IMPOV]I%M5T ( MANY1 PROMPT+ GOV]NM5T EF=TS UND] ,WANG ,MANG TO E/ABLI% CONTROL OV] L&4 ,LIU ALMO/ C]TA9LY HAD ! CONTEMPOR>Y ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE ADVOCACY ( ! EQUALIZATION ( L& RI<TS 9 M9D :5 HE DESCRIB$ ?IS DEVELOPM5T AS ONE ?AT 5HANC$ DESPOTIC GOV]NM5T4 ,HIS SUSPICION ( COMM]CIAL ECONOMY ALSO UND]LAY HIS HO/ILITY TO REC5T *ANGES 9 ,*9ESE SOCIETY4 ,HE EMPHASIZ$ ! DE/RUCTION ( ! RURAL ECONOMY UND] PRESSURE FROM ,WE/]N COMM]CE1 & ! 5SU+ CRISIS ?IS HAD CREAT$ = ! PEASANTRY4 ,HE ALSO EXPRESS$ A /RONG DISLIKE = ! URBANIZATION ?AT HAD SET 9 ) REC5T ECONOMIC *ANGES4 ,%AN<AI1 ! SYMBOL ( ,*9A'S MOD]N ECONOMY1 REPRES5T$ TO ,LIU A MORAL S9K :]E M5 DEG5]AT$ 9TO ?IEVES1 & WOM51 9TO PRO/ITUTES4.<#a#f#h.> 

,LIU1 9 O!R WORDS1 P]CEIV$ AN>*ISM ONLY AS A MOD]N V]SION ( A RURAL UTOPIANISM ?AT HAD LONG EXI/$ 9 ,*9A4 ,?IS ACCORD$ ) HIS VIEW ( SOCIALISM 9 G5]AL4 ,HE TRAC$ SOCIALISM FROM ,PLATO TO ! MOD]N WORLD )\T ASSIGN+ ANY PECULI> DI/9CTION TO MOD]N SOCIALISM4.<#a#f#i.> 

,9 LI<T ( ,LIU'S APPROA* TO AN>*ISM1 IT IS NOT SURPRIS+ ?AT HE DREW CONCLUSIONS DIFF]5T FROM ?OSE ( ,NEW ,]A AN>*I/S CONC]N+ ! PA? ,*9A %\LD FOLL[ 9 PURSUIT ( ! GOOD SOCIETY4 ,UNLIKE ! ,NEW ,]A AN>*I/S1 :O P]CEIV$ REPUBLICAN GOV]NM5T AS A PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPM5T1 ,LIU >GU$ ?AT IF ,*9A C\LD NOT A*IEVE AN>*ISM IMM$IATELY1 IT W\LD BE BETT] (F UND] ! OLD REGIME ?AN UND] ! NEW POLITICS 7X9 ZH5G73 ,RE=M IS 9F]IOR TO PRES]V+ ! OLD1 CON/ITUTION IS 9F]IOR TO MON>*Y4 ,HE (F]$ ?REE REASONS = HIS POSITION3 ! OLD $UCATIONAL SY/EM WAS SUP]IOR TO ! NEW1 :I* FAVOR$ ! RI*2 ! PROPOS$ P>LIAM5T>Y SY/EM W\LD 5HANCE ! P[] ( ! ELITE &1 !RE=E1 CONTRIBUTE TO 9EQUALITY2 ! 9CREAS$ P[] ( CAPITAL W\LD RESULT 9 ! CONC5TRATION ( WEAL? & DEPRIVE ! PEOPLE ( ! SELF-SUFFICI5CY !Y HAD HI!RTO 5JOY$4 ,LIU BOL/]$ HIS >GUM5T ) /ATI/ICS ON POV]TY 9 V>I\S C\NTRIES1 :I*1 HE BELIEV$1 %[$ ?AT DEVELOPM5T 9CREAS$ 9EQUALITY 9 SOCIETY4.<#a#g.> 

,TOKYO AN>*I/S PLAC$ A GREAT DEAL MORE EMPHASIS ON ! PLI<T ( ! PEOPLE 9 ,*9A ?AN DID ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S4 ,NEW ,]A DISCUSSIONS ( AN>*ISM C>RI$ AN AURA ( AB/RACT 9TELLECTUALISM4 ,9 ITS ?REE YE>S ( PUBLICATION1 ! J\RNAL PUBLI%$ ONLY TWO >TICLES :OLLY DEVOT$ TO ! QUE/ION ( LABOR1 & EV5 ?OSE W]E ( AN AB/RACT !ORETICAL NATURE--9 SPITE ( ! FACT ?AT !SE YE>S W]E A HI< PO9T 9 SYNDICALI/ ACTIVITY 9 ,FRANCE4 ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE1 9 CONTRA/1 PAID CONSID]ABLE ATT5TION TO ! CONDITION ( WOM5 & ! PEASANTRY 9 ,*9A4 

,HE ,ZH5 WAS PROBABLY RESPONSIBLE = ! ATT5TION ! J\RNAL DEVOT$ TO ! ISSUE ( WOM5'S OPPRESSION4 ,! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S D]IV$ !IR 9SPIRATION ON ?IS ISSUE FROM ,5GELS'S ,! ,ORIG9 ( ! ,FAMILY1 ,PRIVATE ,PROP]TY & ! ,/ATE1 :I*1 9 PRES5T+ ! OPPRESSION ( WOM5 AS A CONSEQU5CE ( ! EM]G5CE ( ! PATRI>*AL FAMILY ) ! RISE ( URBAN CIVILIZATION1 MAY HAVE /RUCK A RESONANT CORD ) !IR ANTIURBAN BIAS4 ,HE ,ZH5 WAS DEEPLY CRITICAL NOT ONLY ( ! OPPRESSION ( WOM5 UND] ! OLD SOCIETY BUT ALSO ( :AT MOD]N URBAN SOCIETY & FACTORY LABOR DID TO WOM54.<#a#g#a.> 

,:ILE BO? GR\PS ( AN>*I/S W]E EQUALLY CRITICAL ( WOM5'S OPPRESSION1 ! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S' /ANCE ON ! QUE/ION ( RURAL SOCIETY WAS DI/9CTIVE &1 FROM ! P]SPECTIVE ( ,*9ESE SOCIALI/ ?\<T1 SIGNIFICANT4 ,! ,H5GBAO 9 #aih PUBLI%$ ANONYM\SLY A NUMB] ( >TICLES ON ! PEASANT QUE/ION4.<#a#g#b.> ,BY ?IS TIME ,LIU ,%IPEI HAD RETURN$ TO ,*9A1 & !SE ANONYM\S >TICLES MAY HAVE BE5 ! WORK ( ANO!R PROM95T FIGURE AMONG ! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S1 ,ZHANG ,JI4 ,AS F> AS ,I KN[1 !SE W]E AMONG ! E>LIE/ S]I\S DISCUSSIONS 9 ,*9ESE SOCIALISM ( ! ROLE ( ! PEASANTRY 9 ! REVOLUTION & ( ! MEAN+ ( REVOLUTION = ! PEASANTRY4 ,ONE >TICLE1 LAUD+ ! PEASANTS' T5D5CY T[>D COMMUNIT>IAN LIV+ & AN>*ISM1 CALL$ = A PEASANTS' REVOLUTION 7NONGM9 GEM+74 ,O!RS DISCUSS$ ECONOMIC COOP]ATION AMONG ! PEASANTRY4 ,P]HAPS ! MO/ 9T]E/+ WAS AN >TICLE1 9SPIR$ BY ,KROPOTK91 ?AT ADVOCAT$ ! COMB9ATION ( AGRICULTURE & 9DU/RY 9 ! RURAL ECONOMY4 ,!RE IS NO NE$ TO BELABOR ! SIGNIFICANCE ( ?IS IDEA1 :I* HAS BE5 AN IMPORTANT FEATURE ( ,*9ESE SOCIALI/ ?9K+ FROM ,MAO ,Z$ONG TO ,D5G ,XIAOP+4 ,:E!R LAT] ,COMMUNI/S W]E FAMILI> ) !SE PUBLICATIONS IS IMPOSSIBLE TO SAY4 ,LI ,DAZHAO'S FIR/ WRIT+S 9 ! E>LY #a#i#aS1 :I* %[$ AN ANTIURBAN BIAS ?AT L$ ,MAURICE ,MEISN] TO DESCRIBE ,LI AS A POPULI/1 S\ND$ LIKE SOME ( ,LIU ,%IPEI'S WRIT+S ON ! QUE/ION ( COMM]ICAL URBAN SOCIETY4 ,! WORKS ( ,KROPOTK9 ?AT 9SPIR$ !SE IDEAS 9 ! ,H5GBAO1 *IEF AMONG !M ,! ,CONQUE/ ( ,BREAD1 HAD FIR/ BE5 TRANSLAT$ 9TO ,*9ESE 9 ! ,NEW ,]A4 ,BY ! TIME ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T !SE WORKS W]E POPUL> READ+S AMONG ,*9ESE RADICALS & PROVID$ ! 9SPIRATION = ! COMMUNIT>IAN IDEALS & ! COMMUNAL EXP]IM5TS ?AT PROLIF]AT$ AT ! TIME4 ,AL?\< WE CANNOT BE C]TA9 AB\T ! 9FLU5CE ( !SE IDEAS ( ! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S ON LAT] SOCIALI/ ?9K+1 !Y W]E ! FIR/ TO 5UNCIATE ! IDEAS1 & !RE IS EVID5CE TO SUGGE/ ?AT !IR IDEAS MAY HAVE BECOME 9 LAT] YE>S A COMPON5T ( ,*9ESE SOCIALI/S' ?9K+ ON ! FUTURE RELATION%IP BETWE5 AGRICULTURE & 9DU/RY & ON ! RELATION%IP ( URBAN TO RURAL SOCIETY4 

,! S5SITIVITY ON !SE QUE/IONS MAY HAVE BE5 A CONSEQU5CE ( ! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S' PROXIMITY TO ,*9A1 :I* GAVE !M ACCESS TO ! BURGEON+ POPUL> RESI/ANCE MOVEM5TS ON ! EVE ( ! #aiaa ,REVOLUTION4 ,I ?9K1 H[EV]1 ?AT !RE W]E O!R1 9TELLECTUAL1 REASONS = ! J\RNAL'S ATT5TION TO !SE PROBLEMS4 ,HE ,ZH5'S PRES5CE WAS POSSIBLY ! MO/ IMPORTANT FACTOR 9 ! J\RNAL'S ATT5TION TO PROBLEMS ( WOM54 ,LIU'S IDEALIZATION ( RURAL LIFE WAS RESPONSIBLE = ! ATT5TION HE DEVOT$ TO ! PEASANTRY1 9 :OM HE DISCOV]$ ! MODAL P]SONALITY = AN>*I/ SOCIETY4 ,LIU'S DESCRIPTION ( UTOPIAN SOCIETY (F]S AN 9/RUCTIVE CONTRA/ TO ! ONE DRAWN UP BY ,WU ,ZHIHUI A FEW YE>S LAT] 9 ,NEW ,Y\? 7,X9 ,Q+NIAN74.<#a#g#c.> ,! MO/ CONSPICU\S FEATURE ( ,WU'S UTOPIA WAS ITS FASC9ATION ) ME*ANICAL 9NOVATIONS1 :I* 9 ! FUTURE W\LD EV5 OBVIATE ! NE$ = WALK+1 S9CE CONVEYOR BELTS W\LD CONNECT HOMES & WORKPLACES4 ,LIU'S UTOPIA DESCRIB$ AN ESS5TIALLY RURAL SOCIETY & IS /RIK+ = ITS PREOCCUPATION ) ! DISPOSAL ( LABOR2 BASIC TO HIS UTOPIA WAS UNIV]SAL MANUAL LABOR AS A GU>ANTEE TO AN EGALIT>IAN EXI/5CE4 ,ALL AN>*I/S BELIEV$ 9 ! VIRTUES ( MANUAL LABOR4 ,9 LAT] YE>S1 ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S W\LD E/ABLI% A WORK-/UDY PROGRAM 9 ,FRANCE1 :I* /RESS$ ! COMB9ATION ( MANUAL & M5TAL LABOR AS ! KEY TO ! MAT]IAL & MORAL TRANS=MATION ( ,*9ESE SOCIETY4 ,9 !SE E>LY YE>S1 H[EV]1 IT WAS ,LIU :O /AT$ MO/ TR5*ANTLY A BELIEF ?AT COMB9+ MANUAL & M5TAL LABOR W\LD ELIM9ATE SOCIAL 9EQUALITY & CREATE AN IDEAL AN>*I/ P]SONALITY4 ,LIU'S ANTI-MOD]NISM WAS L>GELY RESPONSIBLE BO? = ! CLOSE ATT5TION HE PAID TO ! CONCRETE PROBLEMS ( RURAL LIFE 9 ,*9A & = HIS IDEALIZATION ( ATTITUDES ASSOCIAT$ ) RURAL EXI/5CE4 

,?AT IT WAS NOT ! MOD]NI/ AN>*I/S 9 ,P>IS BUT ! ANTIMOD]NI/ ,LIU ,%IPEI & HIS ASSOCIATES 9 ,TOKYO :O W]E ! FIR/ TO 9TRODUCE LABOR AS AN 9TEGRAL COMPON5T ( AN>*I/ REVOLUTION IS WOR? EMPHASIZ+ BECAUSE IT MAY EXPLA9 AN AMBIVAL5CE T[>D ! QUE/ION ( LABOR 9 $UCATION 9 LAT] YE>S1 :5 MOD]NI/S AS WELL AS ANTIMOD]NI/S ADOPT$ IT AS A MEANS ( *ANG+ ,*9A4.<#a#g#d.> ,! FUNCTION ( LABOR 9 $UCATION AS A PR9CIPLE ( AN IDEAL SOCIAL ORGANIZATION1 AS SE5 BY ! ANTIMOD]NI/ AN>*I/S 9 ,TOKYO1 WAS TO CULM9ATE 9 ,MAO'S ,M>XISM DUR+ ! ,CULTURAL ,REVOLUTION4 7,IT IS IRONIC ?AT AN IDEAL BORN ( ANTI-MOD]NISM MAY HAVE GIV5 ! IMPETUS TO ONE ( ! MO/ RADICAL EF=TS TO REORGANIZE ,*9ESE SOCIETY47 ,! IDEA ( LABOR 9 $UCATION AS A PRACTICAL MEANS TO $UCATE & CIVILIZE ,*9ESE1 IMPLICIT 9 ! ATTITUDES ( ,P>IS AN>*I/S1 F\ND ITS WAY 9TO ! ?9K+ ( LIB]ALS & CONS]VATIVES ALIKE & HAS BE5 REVIV$ 9 REC5T YE>S BY ! PO/-,MAO REGIME4 

,IT IS NOT CLE> :AT S\RCES 9SPIR$ ,LIU ,%IPEI TO 9CLUDE LABOR AS A COMPON5T ( AN AN>*I/ REVOLUTION4.<#a#g#e.> ,AL?\< ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS 9 ,TOKYO W]E FAMILI> ) FRAGM5TS ( ,M>X'S WORKS1 :]E !Y MAY HAVE 5C\NT]$ REF]5CES TO ! NE$ TO ABOLI% ! DIVISION ( M5TAL & MANUAL LABOR AS A CONDITION ( ,COMMUNI/ SOCIETY1 IT IS MORE LIKELY ?AT ,TOL/OY'S LABORISM & ,XU ,X+'S NATIVE AGR>IAN UTOPIANISM DIRECTLY 9SPIR$ ,LIU1 LEGITIMIZ$ BY ! URG+S ( ,TOL/OY HIMSELF4 7,XU ,X+'S UTOPIANISM W\LD BE =GOTT5 9 LAT] YE>S1 :]EAS1 BY ! TIME ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 ,TOL/OY'S LABORISM OR PAN-LABORISM1 FANLAODONG ZHUYI1 WAS POPUL> ) ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS74.<#a#g#f.> ,BY #aih !SE S\RCES W]E COMB9$ ) ,KROPOTK9'S ,CONQUE/ ( ,BREAD & ,FIELDS1 ,FACTORIES & ,WORK%OPS ( ,TOMORR[ TO YIELD A PLAN = SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ?AT PREFIGUR$ 9 MANY ( ITS ESS5TIALS ! ,MAOI/ PLAN = ,*9A AS IT TOOK %APE 9 ! LATE FIFTIES4 

,LIU FIR/ PRES5T$ ! IDEA 9 HIS PLAN = A FUTURE SOCIETY1 ,ON ,EQUALIZ+ ,HUMAN ,LABOR 7,R5LEI JUNLI %UO71 PUBLI%$ 9 #aig 9 ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE4 ,! UTOPIA DESCRIB$ AN AGR>IAN SOCIETY 9 :I* EV]YONE LABOR$ EQUALLY4 ,LABOR WAS 9T5D$ TO ABOLI% 9EQUALITY1 AS WELL AS TO GU>ANTEE EV]YONE AN 9DEP5D5T EXI/5CE AS ! CONDITION ( EQUALITY4 ,*ILDR5 W\LD BE RAIS$ 9 PUBLIC RESID5CE HALLS1 SUP]VIS$ BY OLD] PEOPLE1 :O W\LD ALSO TEA* !M4 ,AT AGE SIX !Y W\LD BEG9 TO LE>N ! NEW UNIV]SAL LANGUAGE4 ,/>T+ AT AGE T51 !Y W\LD SP5D HALF ! DAY 9 /UDY1 ! O!R HALF 9 MANUFACTUR+ LABOR4 ,! PRACTICAL SKILLS !Y ACQUIR$ 9 $UCATION W\LD ALSO HELP !M PRODUCE = !IR [N LIVELIHOOD4 ,BETWE5 ! AGES ( TW5TY & FIFTY1 EV]YONE W\LD 5GAGE 9 PRODUCTIVE & SOCIAL S]VICE ACTIVITIES1 ) JOBS ALLOCAT$ ACCORD+ TO AGE4 ,AT FIFTY !Y W\LD 5T] RESID5CE HALLS TO T5D TO ! RAIS+ ( *ILDR54 ,= ALL HIS ANTI-MOD]NISM1 ,LIU DID NOT OBJECT TO ! USE ( LABORSAV+ DEVICES4 ,TE*NOLOGICAL ADVANCE W\LD GU>ANTEE ?AT NO ONE W\LD HAVE TO WORK = MORE ?AN TWO H\RS A DAY TO GU>ANTEE A SUBSI/5CE = HIMSELF OR H]SELF AS WELL AS = ! SOCIETY AT L>GE1 :I* W\LD BE REORGANIZ$ N[ >\ND SMALL DI/RICTS ( ONE ?\S& PEOPLE EA*4 ,! RE/ ( ! TIME W\LD BE SP5D 9 LEISURE & LE>N+ ACTIVITIES4.<#a#g#g.> 

,:ILE !RE IS NO APP>5T RELATION%IP BETWE5 ?IS IDEAL ( AN AGR>IAN SOCIAL ORGANIZATION & ! #aih ,BALANCE PIECES 9SPIR$ BY ,KROPOTK91 ! BASIC MESSAGE WAS ! SAME4 ,! LATT] >GU$ ?AT 9DU/RIALIZATION %\LD TAKE PLACE AWAY FROM URBAN C5T]S BECAUSE O!RWISE IT W\LD LEAD TO A SEP>ATION ( AGRICULTURE & 9DU/RY1 ) NEGATIVE CONSEQU5CES = BO?& = SOCIETY AS A :OLE4 ,!SE ESSAYS TAK5 TOGE!R PO9T TO ! CONCEPTUALIZATION ( SOCIETY ?AT UND]LAY ,TOKYO AN>*I/S' AN>*ISM3 AN AGR>IAN SOCIETY ?AT 9TEGRAT$ 9DU/RIAL & AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION1 ?AT WAS !RE=E DIRECT$ AT PRODUCTION = NE$1 TO :I* ! EQUAL PRACTICE ( LABOR BY ALL WAS C5TRAL4 ,TOKYO AN>*I/S' ANTI-MOD]NISM WAS OPPOS$1 NOT TO ! PRODUCTS ( MOD]N SCI5CE & TE*NOLOGY1 BUT ONLY TO ! SOCIAL ORGANIZATION CREAT$ BY MOD]NIZATION2 )9 A SOCIAL CONTEXT ORGANIZ$ ACCORD+ TO HUMAN SCALE & NE$S1 ! PRODUCTS ( MOD]NITY C\LD BE MADE TO S]VE HUMAN NE$S1 9/EAD ( DEHUMANIZ+ LIFE1 AS !Y SEEM$ TO BE DO+ 9 ! CONTEMPOR>Y ,WE/ & ,JAPAN1 AS WELL AS 9 ! EM]G+ MOD]N URBAN C5T]S 9 ,*9A4 

,! SAME ORI5TATION1 F9ALLY1 S5SITIZ$ ,LIU TO ! PROBLEM ( IMP]IALISM 9 ,*9A4 ,HE WAS1 TO MY KN[L$GE1 ! FIR/ ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUAL TO SEE 9 SOCIALISM A MEANS TO LIB]ATE ,*9A FROM ,WE/]N OPPRESSION4 ,AN ESSAY 9 ,NATURAL ,JU/ICE WAS REM>KABLE = ANTICIPAT+ VIEWS ?AT W\LD BECOME PREVAL5T 9 ,*9A AFT] ! ,*9ESE HAD BE5 EXPOS$ TO ,L59'S ANALYSIS ( IMP]IALISM4 ,9 ! ESSAY HE >GU$ ?AT ! EM]G5CE ( CONCEPTS ( SOCIALISM & UNIV]SALISM 7DATONG ZHUYI7 PROMIS$ ! LIB]ATION ( ,ASIAN PEOPLES FROM ! IMP]IALISM ( ! :ITE RACE & ! ,JAPANESE4 ,?IS TASK REQUIR$1 HE BELIEV$1 ! MOBILIZATION ( ! PEOPLE 7HE EV5 CIT$ ! ,SANYUAN LI 9CID5T ( ! FIR/ ,OPIUM ,W> AS AN EXAMPLE ( ! PEOPLE'S ABILITY TO RESI/ =EIGN]S71 COOP]ATION ) O!R OPPRESS$ PEOPLES ( ,ASIA1 & ! V>I\S PEOPLE'S P>TIES 7M9DANG7 9 ADVANC$ C\NTRIES4 ,MO/ 9T]E/+ WAS ,LIU'S OBS]VANCE ?AT REVOLUTION W\LD NOT SUCCE$ 9 ADVANC$ SOCIETIES UNTIL ,ASIA HAD BE5 LIB]AT$1 BECAUSE ! EXPLOITATION ( ! ,ASIAN PEOPLES /R5G!N$ GOV]NM5TS & ! RUL+ CLASSES 9 ! ,WE/4.<#a#g#h.> 

,LIU'S VIEWS ON AN>*ISM W]E ANA!MA TO ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S1 ) !IR COMMITM5T TO SCI5CE1 9DU/RIAL SOCIETY1 & PROGRESS4 ,:ILE 9 G5]AL !Y W]E SUPPORTIVE ( ! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S1 !Y CRITICIZ$ ,LIU = HIS EQUATION ( MOD]N AN>*ISM ) NATIVE UTOPIANISM4 ,FIR/1 !Y RESPOND$1 ,LIU HAD NO CONCEPTION ( PROGRESS1 :I* LAY AT ! BASIS ( MOD]N AN>*ISM4 ,IT WAS WRONG1 !RE=E1 TO COMP>E :AT MOD]N AN>*I/S WI%$ TO A*IEVE ) ! ASPIRATIONS ( PRIMITIVE PEOPLE1 OR TO EQUATE AN>*ISM ) ]RATIC EF=TS TO A*IEVE A MORE EGALIT>IAN DI/RIBUTION ( PROP]TY1 AS 9 ! WELL-FIELD SY/EM ( ANCI5T ,*9A4 ,SECOND1 !Y CRITICIZ$ ,LIU = HIS SUGGE/ION ?AT ,*9ESE SOCIETY HAD BE5 *>ACT]IZ$ 9 ! PA/ BY POLITICAL LAISSEZ-FAIRE1 :I* DID NOT FIT ! FACTS4 ,*9A HAD BE5 RUL$ = C5TURIES BY A POLITICAL DESPOTISM2 :AT ,LIU CLAIM$ ADD$ UP TO1 AT ! V]Y LEA/1 AN ASS]TION ?AT !RE WAS NO DIFF]5CE BETWE5 A SOCIETY ) GOV]NM5T & ONE )\T IT4 ,! SUP]/ITI\S FAI? ( ,*9ESE SOCIETY 9 HI]>*Y1 :I* ACC\NT$ = ! PREVAL5CE ( HABITS ( OB$I5CE1 WAS ITSELF A PRODUCT ( OPPRESSION4 ,F9ALLY1 !Y F\ND HUMOR\S ,LIU'S CLAIM ?AT ,*9A MI<T BE CLOS] TO AN>*ISM ?AN O!R SOCIETIES4 ,:AT WAS REQUIR$1 !Y SUGGE/$1 WAS NOT TALK AB\T LEVELS ( AN>*Y1 BUT EF=T1 AW>5ESS1 & SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE4.<#a#g#i.> 

,!SE DISAGREEM5TS W]E NOT OV] AB/RACT ISSUES BUT 5TAIL$ DIFF]5T ATTITUDES T[>D ! MOD]N ,WE/1 AS WELL AS T[>D ! PROBLEMS ( *ANG+ ,*9A4 ,! ,P>IS AN>*I/S W]E ,FRANCOPHILES :O F\ND MU* ( VALUE 9 ! MOD]N ,WE/ BUT LITTLE TO BE PR\D ( 9 ,*9A'S PA/4 ,!Y VALU$ SCI5CE TO ! PO9T ( SCI5TISM1 MADE 9DU/RIALISM 9TO A UTOPIA 7AS ,BAU] HAS OBS]V$ ( ,WU71 & ) ALL !IR DEBUNK+ ( CAPITALISM1 W]E FASC9AT$ ) ! CIVILIZATION ?AT CAPITALISM HAD CREAT$4.<#a#h.> 

,LIU HAD ! NATIVI/'S SUSPICION ( ! ,WE/4 ,:ILE HE ADMIR$ C]TA9 ,WE/]N VALUES1 HE BELIEV$ ?AT ! ,*9ESE H]ITAGE CONTA9$ ! EQUIVAL5TS ( ?OSE SAME VALUES1 & MORE4 ,HE F\ND MU* ( VALUE 9 ,*9ESE CIVILIZATION 7?\< NOT NECESS>ILY 9 ,CONFUCIANISM7 & WAS TO DEVOTE HIS LIFE TO ! PRES]VATION ( ITS ESS5CE4.<#a#h#a.> ,AL?\< HE WAS UNMI/AKABLY AN ANTIMOD]NI/1 HIS V]Y ANTI-MOD]NISM S5SITIZ$ HIM TO ISSUES ?AT W\LD ASSUME 5ORM\S SIGNIFICANCE 9 LAT] YE>S 9 ,*9ESE RADICALISM4 ,SU* WAS ! CASE ) HIS S5SITIVITY TO ! QUE/ION ( IMP]IALISM1 TO :I* ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S1 ) !IR UNABA%$ COSMOPOLITANISM1 W]E COMPLETELY OBLIVI\S4 ,HIS CASE P>ALLELS ! QUALMS AB\T ,WE/ ]N P[]S ( A CONS]VATIVE ( ! SAME P]IOD1 ,LIANG ,QI*AO1 :O >GU$ ?AT ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE SOCIALISM W\LD WEAK5 ,*9A VIS-A-VIS ! ,WE/ BY UND]M9+ ,*9A'S ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T1 AN IDEA ?AT ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE SOCIALI/S D]ID$4 ,9 ! E>LY YE>S ( ?IS C5TURY1 IT WAS /ILL ! MORE CONS]VATIVELY 9CL9$ ,*9ESE :O SAW ,WE/]N 9TRUSION AS A MAJOR PROBLEM ( ,*9ESE SOCIETY4 ,ONLY 9 ! TW5TIES W\LD ,*9ESE SOCIALI/S M]GE !IR SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y DEM&S ) ANTI-IMP]IALISM4 ,LIU WAS ONE ( ! FIR/ TO DO SO4 ,HE WAS ALSO ! FIR/1 TO MY KN[L$GE1 TO %[ CONC]N = ! CONSEQU5CES = ,*9A ( URBANIZATION & TO TURN TO RURAL ,*9A 9 A SE>* = MORAL & MAT]IAL ANSW]S1 A SE>* 9 :I* MAJOR ,*9ESE SOCIALI/S SU* AS ,LI ,DAZHAO & ,MAO ,Z$ONG W\LD JO9 9 LAT] YE>S4 ,F9ALLY1 HIS 9SI/5CE ON ! NE$ TO COMB9E MANUAL & M5TAL LABOR AS A MEANS ( TRANS=M+ ! ,*9ESE P]SONALITY W\LD ASSUME IMM5SE IMPORTANCE AMONG O!R AN>*I/S DUR+ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T 7?\< HIS CONTRIBUTION WAS NOT ACKN[L$G$7 & RETA9 ITS IMPORTANCE ALL ! WAY TO ,MAO'S ,CULTURAL ,REVOLUTION4 

,VISION & ,REVOLUTION 

  

,PRIOR TO ! ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#a#a1 AN>*ISM WAS ONE ( ! TWO MA9 CURR5TS 9 ,*9ESE ?9K+ ON SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 :I* HAD BE5 /IMULAT$ BY ! 9TRODUCTION TO ,*9A ( SOCIALI/ IDEAS AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY4 ,! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE HAD 9CORPORAT$ SOCIAL REVOLUTION 9 ITS POLITICAL PROGRAM 9 #aie AS A MEANS ( PREV5T+ 9 ,*9A'S ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T ! SOCIAL ILLS ?AT HAD ACCOMPANI$ ! RISE ( CAPITALISM 9 ,EUROPE4 ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE SOCIALISM CONCEIV$ ( SOCIALISM AS SOCIAL POLICY1 ! USE ( POLITICAL 9T]V5TION BY ! /ATE TO CURTAIL 9EQUALITY &1 !RE=E1 CONTROL SOCIAL CONFLICT4 

,AN>*ISM 9TRODUC$ A NEW !ME 9TO ,*9ESE SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y ?9K+3 SOCIAL REVOLUTION AS CULTURAL REVOLUTION4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE SOCIALI/S1 :OSE ATT5TION WAS FOCUS$ ON ! /ATE1 ! AN>*I/S1 9 !IR REJECTION ( ! /ATE1 TURN$ TO SOCIETY AS ! PROP] REALM ( REVOLUTION4 ,KEY TO !IR IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION WAS ! TRANS=MATION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 S9CE IT WAS A BASIC PREMISE ( AN>*ISM ?AT A SOCIETY C\LD BE ONLY AS GOOD AS ! 9DIVIDUALS :O CON/ITUT$ IT4 ,AN>*I/S VIEW$ 9H]IT$ SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS AS 9/ITUTIONAL MANIFE/ATIONS ( ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY1 :I* DI/ORT$ ! 9DIVIDUAL PSY*E & PREV5T$ ! FREE PLAY ( ! 9/9CTIVE SOCIABILITY ( HUMAN BE+S1 ! ONLY BASIS = A GOOD SOCIETY4 ,! ABOLITION ( EXI/+ 9/ITUTIONS1 !RE=E1 MU/ BE ACCOMPANI$ 9 ! CREATION ( A GOOD SOCIETY BY A CULTURAL TRANS=MATION 7BO? 9TELLECTUAL & E?ICAL7 ( ! 9DIVIDUAL TO RE/ORE TO HUMANITY1 AS IT W]E1 ITS PRI/9E SOCIABILITY4 ,! /RONGLY CULTURAL CONNOTATIONS ( ! AN>*I/ IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION W]E RESPONSIBLE1 ,I ?9K1 = ! IMM5SE POPUL>ITY ( AN>*ISM 9 ,*9A A DECADE LAT]1 DUR+ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 :5 ! AN>*I/ CONCEPTION ( *ANGE DIFFUS$ WIDELY 9 ,*9ESE ?9K+4 

,AN>*I/ !MES CONT9U$ TO BE> AN 9TRIGU+ RESEMBLANCE TO ISSUES 9 PREMOD]N ,*9ESE POLITICS4 ,! PREOCCUPATION ) ! MORAL BASIS ( POLITICS1 ! CONC]N ) N\RI%+ PUBLIC OV] PRIVATE 9T]E/S1 ! ASSUMPTION ?AT 9 $UCATION LAY ! MEANS TO MORAL TRANS=MATIONAL PO9T TO A POSSIBLE AFF9ITY BETWE5 AN>*ISM & ! NATIVE IDEOLOGICAL LEGACY ( ,*9ESE AN>*I/S4 ,?AT NATIVE POLITICAL VOCABUL>Y 9FUS$ ! LANGUAGE ( AN>*ISM W\LD SEEM TO L5D SUPPORT TO SU* AN 9T]PRETATION4 

,?IS 9T]PRETATION CAN BE SU/A9$ ONLY IF WE IGNORE ! NEW SELF-IMAGE ?AT ! ,*9ESE AN>*I/S HELD &1 EV5 MORE IMPORTANT1 ! CONT5T ( ! AN>*I/ ADVOCACY ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 AN 5TIRELY NEW CONCEPT 9 ,*9ESE POLITICS4 ,! V]Y EXI/5CE ( TWO CAMPS ( AN>*I/S1 ONE UPHOLD+ NATIVE TRADITIONS1 ! O!R OPPOS+ !M1 MILITATES AGA9/ ANY SIMPLI/IC VIEW ( AN>*I/S AS PRISON]S ( A CULTURAL OR A POLITICAL UNCONSCI\S4 ,ASSOCIATIONS ( AN>*ISM = ! ,P>IS & ,TOKYO AN>*I/S W]E DET]M9$ NOT BY AN UNCONSCI\S ACTIVITY ( 9H]IT$ BELIEFS & DISPOSITIONS1 BUT BY CONSCI\S *OICES MADE 9 RESPONSE TO PROBLEMS ?AT W]E PRODUCTS ( ! MAT]IAL & IDEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS ( E>LY-TW5TIE?-C5TURY ,*9ESE SOCIETY1 9 P>TICUL> ! PROBLEMS ( REVOLUTION & ! RELATION%IP TO CONTEMPOR>Y WORLD CIVILIZATION1 & A HO/ ( MORE SPECIFIC QUE/IONS TO :I* !SE PROBLEMS HAD GIV5 RISE4 

,AN>*I/ WRIT+ WAS 9DE$ 9FUS$ ) ! VOCABUL>Y ( ,CONFUCIANISM1 ,DAOISM1 & ,BUDDHISM4 ,E>LI]1 ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE WRIT]S HAD ON OCCASION RESORT$ TO ! SOCIAL VOCABUL>Y ( PREMOD]N ,*9ESE SOCIETY 9 EXPLA9+ !IR [N SOCIALI/ NOTIONS ( CLASS4 ,AN>*I/S US$ NATIVE VOCABUL>Y1 UTOPIAN OR O!RWISE1 ) MU* GREAT] FREQU5CY4 ,?IS PRACTICE ( US+ A NATIVE VOCABUL>Y NO D\BT MADE = CONSID]ABLE CONFUSION CONC]N+ ! RELATION%IP ( AN>*ISM TO NATIVE SOCIAL & MORAL IDEALS1 BUT IT W\LD BE IMPROP] TO CONCLUDE FROM ! CONF\ND+ ( ! VOCABUL>Y ?AT ! IDEAS !MSELVES W]E CONF\ND$ BY ! AN>*I/S4 ,K5NE? ,*5 HAS EXPLA9$ ?AT :5 ,BUDDHISM WAS FIR/ 9TRODUC$ TO ,*9A1 ,BUDDHI/S US$ ! VOCABUL>Y ( ,DAOISM TO R5D] ,BUDDHI/ CONCEPTS 9TELLIGIBLE TO ! ,*9ESE1 :O HAD NO NATIVE EQUIVAL5TS = ?OSE CONCEPTS4 ,?IS PRACTICE1 DESCRIB$ AS MAT*+ T]MS 7GEYI71 MAY HELP EXPLA9 ! ,*9ESE USE ( A NATIVE VOCABUL>Y TO EXPRESS AN>*I/ IDEALS 9 ! E>LY TW5TIE? C5TURY4.<#a#h#b.> ,IT DOES NOT FOLL[ ?AT AN>*I/ IDEAS LO/ !IR REVOLUTION>Y ID5TITY 9 ! PROCESS1 JU/ AS ,BUDDHISM DID NOT LOSE ITS ID5TITY MU* E>LI] = BE+ EXPRESS$ ?R\< A ,DAOI/ VOCABUL>Y4 ,!RE WAS CONFUSION1 TO BE SURE2 A SOME:AT MY/]I\S & VAGUE ASSOCIATION ) ,BUDDHI/ IDEALS W\LD *>ACT]IZE A GREAT DEAL ( ,*9ESE AN>*I/ ?9K+ 9 ! TW5TIE? C5TURY4 ,BUT ULTIMATELY1 AS IS EVID5T 9 ! REVOLUTION>Y IMPACT ( AN>*ISM ON ,*9ESE ?9K+1 ! ASSOCIATION WAS TO TRANS=M ! MEAN+ ( ! NATIVE VOCABUL>Y ?AT WAS US$ 9ITIALLY TO EXPRESS AN>*I/ IDEAS4 

,! AN>*I/ IDEAS ( MORALITY & REVOLUTION ILLU/RATE ! NE$ TO GO BEYOND ! VOCABUL>Y TO ITS CONT5T 9 ORD] TO APPRECIATE ?IS PROBLEM FULLY4 ,P>IS AN>*I/S TOOK MORALITY TO BE ! 5D ( REVOLUTION4 ,TRUE MORALITY1 !Y BELIEV$1 C\LD BE A*IEV$ ONLY ) LE>N+NOT JU/ ANY LE>N+1 LEA/ ( ALL ! K9D ( LE>N+ ?AT ,CONFUCIANS HAD PRIZ$1 BUT SCI5TIFIC LE>N+4 ,LI ,%IZ5G DISMISS$ AS P>TICUL> 7SI7 LE>N+ ALL LE>N+ ?AT C\LD NOT /& ! TE/ ( MOD]N SCI5CE4.<#a#h#c.> ,SCI5CE1 :OSE CONCLUSIONS W]E 9DEP5D5T ( NATIONAL OR CULTURAL ORI5TATIONS1 REPRES5T$ TO HIM ! ONLY UNIV]SAL 7GONG7 & !RE=E TRUE LE>N+4 ,HE EXCLUD$ FROM ! REALM ( SCI5TIFIC LE>N+ POLITICS & LAW1 FALSE MORALITY1 & RELIGION1 9CLUD+ )9 IT ONLY1 9 ADDITION TO ! NATURAL SCI5CES1 SOCIOLOGY & AN?ROPOLOGY4.<#a#h#d.> ,AN>*I/ SCI5TISM CLE>LY DI/+UI%$ ! AN>*I/ P]CEPTIONS ( ! FUNDAM5TALS ( LE>N+ &1 !RE=E1 ( MORALITY1 FROM ?OSE ( !IR ,CONFUCIAN PR$ECESSORS1 = :OM TRUE LE>N+ HAD BE5 ALL ?AT ! AN>*I/S S\<T TO ABOLI%4 

,) REG>D TO AN>*I/ UTOPIANISM1 :I* RESONAT$ ) C]TA9 !MES 9 NATIVE UTOPIAN TRADITIONS1 IT IS CLE> ?AT AN>*I/S HELD AN ACTIVI/ IDEA ( REVOLUTION ?AT DI/+UI%$ !IR GOALS FROM ! ]EMITIC ESCAPISM ( ! ,DAOI/S1 TO :OM !Y W]E SOMETIMES COMP>$4 ,RESPOND+ TO A CORRESPOND5T :O COMP>$ AN>*I/ IDEALS TO ! IDEA ( NONACTION 7WUWEI71 AN IDEAL ( POLITICS ?AT 9FUS$ MO/ ,*9ESE S*OOLS ( POLITICAL ?\<T1 ,LI ,%IZ5G OBS]V$3 ,AN>*ISM ADVOCATES RADICAL ACTIVISM4 ,IT IS ! DIAMETRICAL OPPOSITION ( QUIETI/ NONACTION4 ,AN>*ISM DOES NOT ONLY ADVOCATE ?AT IMP]IAL P[] DOES NOT REA* ! SELF1 IT ALSO SEEKS TO MAKE SURE ?AT IT DOES NOT REA* ANYONE ELSE4.<#a#h#e.> ,EMB$D$ 9 ?IS /ATEM5T IS A DI/9CTION BETWE5 TRADITIONAL POLITICAL ESCAPISM & MOD]N REVOLUTION>Y POLITICS3 ! ONE SEEK+ TO E/ABLI% A SPACE AP>T FROM ! EXI/+ POLITICAL ORD]1 ! O!R SEEK+ TO TAKE OV] & TO TRANS=M POLITICAL SPACE 9 ITS TOTALITY4 ,?AT ,*9A HAD ITS ,BODHISATTVAS :O S\<T TO SAVE HUMANITY & ?AT MOD]N AN>*ISM HAS HAD ITS ESCAPI/ EXTREMI/S DOES NOT *ANGE ! FUNDAM5TAL DIFF]5CES 9 ! CONCEPTUALIZATION ( POLITICAL SPACE BETWE5 AN>*ISM & NATIVE ,*9ESE POLITICAL TRADITIONS2 IT ONLY PO9TS TO ! NE$ = CIRCUMSPECTION 9 DRAW+ P>ALLELS BETWE5 IDEAS ?AT >E 9H]5TLY OP5 TO WIDE RANGES ( 9T]PRETATION & DRAW !IR MEAN+ NOT FROM AB/RACTIONS BUT FROM !IR CONCRETE HI/ORICAL CONTEXT4 

,AN>*ISM EXPRESS$ A UTOPIAN UNIV]SALISM & A HUMANIT>IAN VISION ?AT WAS 9 MANY WAYS F> REMOV$ FROM ! IMM$IATE CONC]NS ( CONTEMPOR>Y ,*9ESE SOCIETY4 ,BUT IT WAS NOT IRRELEVANT4 ,= ! FIR/ TWO DECADES ( ?IS C5TURY1 AN>*I/ IDEAS PLAY$ A C5TRAL ROLE 9 IDEOLOGICAL DEBATE4 ,DUR+ ! P]IOD #aigaia AN>*ISM PROVID$ A P]SPECTIVE = ! CRITIQUE ( IDEOLOGIES ( RE=M & REVOLUTION4 ,! ,P>IS AN>*I/S1 9 !IR FUTURISM1 W]E CRITICAL ( ! LIMITATIONS 9 ! IDEOLOGY ( NATIONALI/ REVOLUTION>IES1 :O RE/$ !IR HOPES ON ! /ATE4 ,LIU ,%IPEI1 ) HIS ANTIMOD]NI/ AN>*ISM1 WAS ABLE TO SEE ?AT ! NEW POLICIES ( ! ,Q+ GOV]NM5T W]E NOT ! H>B+]S ( POLITICAL OP5NESS & SOCIAL WELF>E ?AT MANY ?\<T !M TO BE4 ,I ?9K WE CAN SAY ?AT !IR CONTEMPOR>IES1 9TRIGU$ BY !SE QUE/IONS1 TOOK ! AN>*I/S MORE S]I\SLY ?AN HI/ORIANS HAVE TAK5 !M4 

,AN>*I/S W]E UTOPIAN1 TO BE SURE1 BUT !IR V]Y UTOPIANISM ACC\NTS = !IR ABILITY TO EXPRESS CONC]NS AMONG ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS ?AT W]E NO LESS REAL = BE+ POLITICALLY IRRELEVANT1 AT LEA/ 9 AN IMM$IATE S5SE4 ,AN>*I/ UTOPIANISM WAS ITSELF ! EXPRESSION ( A UNIV]SALI/IC URGE 9 ,*9ESE ?9K+ ?AT GA9$ 9 MEAN+ AS ! ,*9ESE CONCEPTION ( ,*9A WAS P>TICUL>IZ$ ) ! EM]G5CE ( NATIONALISM4 ,AGA9/ A WORLD TORN AP>T BY NATIONAL 9T]E/ & CONFLICT1 AN>*ISM HELD UP ! POSSIBILITY ( A HUMANE CIVILIZATION 9 :I* ,*9A C\LD P>TICIPATE4 ,?IS UTOPIANISM ON OCCASION TOOK A COMICAL =M3 A ,MR4 ,HUMANITY 7,R5DAO %I7 FROM ,5GL&1 9 AN OP5 LETT] TO ! ,*9ESE AMBASSADOR 9 ,5GL&1 *>G$ ?AT ! LATT]1 9 TAMP]+ ) /UD5T MAIL1 BROKE ! LAW ( HUMANITY1 & EXPOS$ TO ! CIVILIZ$ WORLD ?AT ,*9AMAN >E .<SIC.> SAVAGES4.<#a#h#f.> ,!RE WAS NO?+ COMICAL1 H[EV]1 AB\T ! MANY AN>*I/S :O OV] ! YE>S RISK$ GOV]NM5T WRA? = !IR PURSUIT ( HUMANITY1 :I* AU?ORITIES DEEM$ TO BE SUBV]SIVE ( PUBLIC MORALITY & ORD]4 

,UTOPIANISM IS A RELATIVE CONCEPT4 ,IF WE TAKE !M S]I\SLY 5\<1 IDEAS SU* AS DEMOCRACY & FRE$OM1 :I* WE B&Y AB\T AS A MATT] ( C\RSE1 >E AS UTOPIAN AS ANY?+ TO :I* ! AN>*I/S ASPIR$2 9DE$1 AN>*ISM APPE>S UTOPIAN BECAUSE AN>*I/S HAVE %[N A T5D5CY TO TAKE !SE IDEAS S]I\SLY4 ,?OSE :O CRITICIZ$ ! AN>*I/S = BE+ TOO IDEALI/IC W]E NOT ALWAYS AW>E ?AT ! ,REPUBLIC OR ! SOCIALISM ?AT !Y ADVOCAT$ W]E QUITE UTOPIAN :5 VIEW$ FROM ! P]SPECTIVE ( ?OSE CONS]VATIVES :O HAD AN EV5 MORE PESSIMI/IC VIEW ?AN !Y HAD ( ! ,*9ESE ABILITY = SELF-GOV]NM5T4 ,UTOPIA HAS BE5 A =CE 9 HI/ORY BECAUSE ONE P]SON'S UTOPIA HAS BE5 ANO!R'S REALITY4 

,! ,*9ESE AN>*I/S W]E IDEALI/S BUT !Y W]E NOT BL9D1 AS ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S SAID ( !MSELVES4 ,?\< AN>*I/S PROMOT$ AN>*ISM AS A TOTAL REVOLUTION>Y PHILOSOPHY1 !Y PROJECT$ !IR VISION F> 9TO ! FUTURE & W]E PREP>$ TO COMPROMISE !IR IDEALS TO MEET IMM$IATE NE$S4 ,9DE$1 AN>*I/S W\LD MAKE A V]Y REAL CONTRIBUTION 9 ! NEW IDEALS !Y 9TRODUC$ 9TO $UCATION1 :I* !Y BELIEV$ WAS ! ONLY RELIABLE MEANS TO A*IEVE AN>*I/ SOCIETY4 ,AN>*I/S' IDEALS C\LD EV5 BECOME FUNCTIONAL TO ! 5DS ( POLITICAL P[]1 AS !Y DID :5 AN>*I/S 9 ! TW5TIES HELD UP !IR IDEAL ( UNITY & UNIV]SALITY AGA9/ ,COMMUNI/S :O1 9 PROMOT+ CLASS /RUGGLE1 SEEM$ TO BE B5T ON PROLONG+ SOCIAL DIVISIONS4 ,ASIDE FROM P]SONAL RELATIONS1 ?IS WAS AN IMPORTANT ELEM5T 9 ! ,GUOM9DANG FLIRTATION ) AN>*I/S 9 ! #a#i#bS4 

,AN>*I/S W]E NOT ! ONLY ,UTOPIANS 9 E>LY-TW5TIE?-C5TURY ,*9A1 :I*1 AS A P]IOD ( POLITICAL & IDEOLOGICAL TRANS=MATION1 PROVID$ F]TILE GR\NDS = ,UTOPIAN ?9K+4 ,KANG ,Y\WEI ! RE=M] HAD PRODUC$ ! FIR/ ,UTOPIAN WORK ( ?IS P]IOD2 AL?\< ,KANG'S ,DATONG%U WAS NOT YET PUBLI%$ :5 AN>*ISM EM]G$ 9 ,*9ESE ?\<T1 ,KANG'S ,UTOPIAN ?9K+ MAY HAVE 9FLU5C$ AT LEA/ ONE ( ! AN>*I/S1 ,WU ,ZHIHUI1 :O APP>5TLY VISIT$ ) ,KANG BE=E LEAV+ = ,EUROPE4 ,NEV]!LESS1 AN>*I/ UTOPIANISM DIFF]$ FROM ?AT ( ,KANG ,Y\WEI4 ,KANG'S ,UTOPIA WAS A ,UTOPIA ( ! FUTURE1 :I* REFLECT$ 9 CONT5T HIS ?9K+ ON ! PRES5T BUT DID NOT %APE HIS PRES5T CONC]NS4 ,AN>*I/ UTOPIANISM WAS A REVOLUTION>Y UTOPIANISM BECAUSE IT WAS AN IMMAN5T UTOPIANISM1 :I* PRESUPPOS$ ?AT ! PRES5T PROVID$ ! PO9T ( DEP>TURE = ! PA? TO ,UTOPIA4 ,IT D]IV$ ITS 9SPIRATION1 AT LEA/ = ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S1 FROM ! SCI5TISM ( ,KROPOTK91 :I*1 H[EV] RATIONALI/ & AHI/ORICAL IT MAY BE1 PORTRAY$ AN>*ISM NOT AS A FUTURE DREAM BUT AS A NECESSITY ( HUMAN EVOLUTION4 ,:ILE ,KANG ,Y\WEI WAS SATISFI$ 7IF NOT 5TIRELY HAPPY7 TO LIVE ) ! PRES5T WORLD ( NATIONS & FAMILIES1 ( COMPETITION & CONFLICT1 AN>*I/ UTOPIANISM BY ITS V]Y NATURE CALL$ =? IMM$IATE CRITICISM ( ! CONTEMPOR>Y WORLD & ( EF=TS TO *ANGE IT4 ,AS ,JAMES ,PUSEY HAS >GU$1 ! AN>*I/ 7ESPECIALLY ,KROPOTK9ITE7 *ALL5GE TO ,D>W9IAN ASSUMPTIONS--:I* SET MUTUAL AID AGA9/ COMPETITION--WAS A MAJOR S\RCE ( ATTRACTION TO ! AN>*I/S4.<#a#h#g.> 

,AN>*ISM MAY HAVE MADE ITS MO/ IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION TO ,*9ESE SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y ?\<T 9 ! REVOLUTION>Y UTOPIANISM IT PROMOT$4 ,*9A HAS BE5 A REVOLUTION>Y SOCIETY 9 ! TW5TIE? C5TURY1 NOT JU/ BECAUSE ( ! REVOLUTIONIZATION ( ITS SOCIETY & POLITICS1 :I* N\RI%$ ! REVOLUTION>Y FAI?1 BUT ALSO BECAUSE ( A FAI? 9 REVOLUTION AS AN ULTIMATE VALUE1 A MEANS TO A BETT] WORLD4 ,LASKI HAS OBS]V$ ?AT ,M>XISM BL5D$ UTOPIA & REVOLUTION TO TURN ! PROCESS ( REVOLUTION ITSELF 9TO A UTOPIA4.<#a#h#h.> ,?IS1 ,I ?9K1 APPLIES MORE TO AN>*ISM ?AN TO ,M>XISM4 ,9 ,*9A AN>*I/S W]E ! FIR/ TO >TICULATE A FAI? 9 REVOLUTION AS AN 5DLESS PROCESS ( *ANGE2 ?IS IDEA NOT ONLY WAS IMPORTANT 9 REVOLUTION>Y ?9K+ 9 G5]AL BUT LEFT ITS IMPR9T ON SOME CURR5TS 9 ,M>XI/ ?9K+ AS WELL4 ,A NOTION ( REVOLUTION AS UTOPIA WAS IMPLICIT 9 ! #aic /ATEM5T BY ,Z\ ,RONG 9 A CLASSIC ( ,*9ESE REVOLUTION>Y ?\<T1 ,! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,>MY3 ,AH1 REVOLUTION1 REVOLUTION6 ,IF Y\ HAVE IT Y\ WILL SURVIVE1 BUT IF Y\ DON'T Y\ WILL DIE4 ,DON'T RETROGRESS2 DON'T BE NEUTRAL2 DON'T HESITATE2 N[ IS ! TIME4 ,:E!R ,Z\'S /ATEM5T WAS 9SPIR$ 9 ANY WAY BY ! AN>*I/ IDEAS ?AT W]E ALREADY F9D+ !IR WAY 9TO ,*9A IS DIFFICULT TO SAY2 SOCIAL ,D>W9ISM WAS MU* 9 EVID5CE 9 HIS ESSAY4 ,BUT ! IDEA WAS ONE ?AT ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S E*O$1 N[ CLE>LY 9SPIR$ BY MUTUAL AID1 BUT EXPRESS$ 9 ! VOCABUL>Y ( ,BUDDHISM3 ,REVOLUTION6 ,REVOLUTION66 ,REVOLUTION666 ,S9CE ! BEG9N+ ( ! WORLD1 !RE HAS NOT BE5 A YE>1 A MON?1 A DAY1 AN H\R1 A M9UTE1 A SECOND1 )\T REVOLUTION4 ,REVOLUTION MOVES =W>D )\T RE/1 TIRELESS 9 ITS 9TREPIDITY4 ,IT IS ! KEY TO ! PROGRESS ( ! MYRIAD WORLDS 7DAQIAN %IJIE74.<#a#h#i.> ,REVOLUTION WAS TO SOCIETY AS ! PROPELL] TO ! %IP1 CON/ANTLY MOV+ IT =W>D UND] ! GUIDANCE ( UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLE1 AS ! PROPELL] MOV$ ! %IP =W>D 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! COMPASS4 ,REVOLUTION WAS NOT SIMPLY A SOLUTION TO PRACTICAL PROBLEMS1 IT WAS ! DE/9Y ( HUMANITY4 

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