,CULTURE AS ,CREATIVE ,REFUSAL ,PEOPLE 3 ,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] ,TEXT 3 ,NOTES3 ,:AT ,I W\LD LIKE TO DO 9 ?IS ESSAY IS TO TALK AB\T CULTURAL COMP>ISON AS AN ACTIVE =CE 9 HI/ORY4 ,?AT IS1 ,I WANT TO ADDRESS ! DEGREE TO :I* CULTURES >E NOT JU/ CONCEPTIONS ( :AT ! WORLD IS LIKE1 NOT JU/ WAYS ( BE+ & ACT+ 9 ! WORLD1 BUT ACTIVE POLITICAL PROJECTS :I* (T5 OP]ATE BY ! EXPLICIT REJECTION ( O!R ONES4 ,MANY ASPECTS ( CULTURE ?AT WE >E US$ TO 9T]PRET+ 9 ESS5TIALI/ OR EV5 TACITLY EVOLUTIONI/ T]MS MILY HI/ORY ( ! ,MALAGASY SUGGE/S A CONSCI\S REJECTION ( ! WORLD ( ! ,ISLAMIC ECUM5E ( ! ,9DIAN ,OCEAN1 EFFECT+ A SOCIAL ORD] ?AT C\LD JU/IFIABLY BE DESCRIB$ AS SELF-CONSCI\SLY ANTI-H]OIC4 ,KEYWORDS3 CULTURE1 H]OIC SOCIETIES1 ,MADAGASC>1 ,MAUSS1 S*IZMOG5ESIS ,:AT ,I W\LD LIKE TO DO 9 ?IS ESSAY IS TO TALK AB\T CULTURAL COMP>ISON AS AN ACTIVE =CE 9 HI/ORY4 ,?AT IS1 ,I WANT TO ADDRESS ! DEGREE TO :I* CULTURES >E NOT JU/ CONCEPTIONS ( :AT ! WORLD IS LIKE1 NOT JU/ WAYS ( BE+ & ACT+ 9 ! WORLD1 BUT ACTIVE POLITICAL PROJECTS :I* (T5 OP]ATE BY ! EXPLICIT REJECTION ( O!R ONES4 ,! IDEA ( CULTURAL COMP>ISON IS FAMILI> 5\<4 ,?IS IS1 AFT] ALL1 :AT AN?ROPOLOGI/S L>GELY DO4 ,MO/ ( US ACKN[L$GE ?AT EV5 ! MO/ C>EFUL1 DESCRIPTIVE E?NOGRAPHY IS ULTIMATELY ! PRODUCT ( AN 5DLESS /REAM ( EXPLICIT1 OR NOT-SO-EXPLICIT1 BACK & =? COMP>ISONS BETWE5 ! OBS]V]'S MORE FAMILI> SOCIAL SURR\ND+S & ?OSE OBS]V$4 ,AS ,M>ILYN ,/RA!RN HAS PO9T$ \T 7#a#i#i71 ?IS IS EQUALLY TRUE ( AN?ROPOLOGICAL !ORY4 ,IT IS NOT JU/ ?AT WE HONE \R [N COMMON-S5SE UND]/&+S ( K9%IP1 EX*ANGE1 OR POLITICS ) ?OSE ?AT PREVAIL 9 SOME P>TICUL> VILLAGE OR URBAN NEIY SPACES ( ',MELANESIA'1 ',POLYNESIA'1 OR ',AFRICA' !MSELVES BY %[+ H[ :AT SEEM TO BE COMMONPLACE UND]/&+S 9 EA* >EA C\LD BE SE5 AS 9V]SIONS OR NEGATIONS ( COMMONPLACE UND]/&+S 9 ! O!R4 ,AFRICAN K9%IP SY/EMS C5T] ON DESC5T2 ,MELANESIAN ON ALLIANCE4 ,Z&E MAGIC C5T]S ON OBJECTS2 ,TROBRI& MAGIC ON V]BAL P]=MANCE4 ,IT IS FROM !SE COMP>ISONS ?AT WE DEVELOP \R !ORIES ( :AT K9%IP OR MAGIC C\LD BE SAID TO BE4 ,SU* COMP>ISONS1 H[EV]1 >E R>ELY1 IF EV]1 C>RI$ \T DIRECTLY3 'K9%IP'1 LIKE 'MAGIC'1 IS NEI!R A ,MELANESIAN NOR AN ,AFRICAN T]M4 ,WE HAVE TO USE \R [N CONCEPTUAL LANGUAGE AS A M$IUM = CONV]SATIONS BETWE5 !M4 ,?IS SEEMS TO BE AN UN=TUNATE NECESSITY CONSID]+ ! WAY GLOBAL 9TELLECTUAL LIFE IS CURR5TLY SET UP4 ,ONE W\LD REALLY PREF]1 ,/RA!RN NOTES1 TO ALL[ ,MELANESIANS1 ,POLYNESIANS1 & ,AFRICANS TO C>RY \T ! CONV]SATION DIRECTLY2 BUT = ! TIME BE+1 ! AN?ROPOLOGI/ IS =C$ 9/EAD TO PLAY A V]Y DIFFICULT ?REE-SID$ GAME4 ,OBVI\SLY1 ON A LOCAL LEVEL1 SU* CONV]SATIONS DO HAPP5 ALL ! TIME4 ,NO CULTURE EXI/S 9 ISOLATION2 SELF-DEF9ITION IS ALWAYS NECESS>ILY A PROCESS ( COMP>ISON4 ,9EVITABLY1 MO/ ( ?IS SORT ( EV]YDAY COMP>ISON HAS T5D$ TO HAPP5 ON ! LOCAL LEVEL2 ! UNITS HAVE T5D$ TO BE MU* SMALL] ?AN ',POLYNESIA' OR ',AFRICA'4 ,BUT ,I ?9K !RE IS REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT IT IS R>ELY LIMIT$ TO ?AT1 & ?AT L>GE-SCALE PROJECTS ( MUTUAL SELF-DEF9ITION HAVE PLAY$ A F> MORE IMPORTANT ROLE 9 HUMAN HI/ORY ?AN EI!R AN?ROPOLOGI/S OR HI/ORIANS HAVE USUALLY IMAG9$4 ,?AT IS1 MANY ( ! CULTURAL =MS WE /ILL1 AT LEA/ TACITLY1 TREAT AS PRIMORDIAL1 C\LD EQUALLY WELL BE SE51 9 !IR ORIG9S & TO A L>GE DEGREE 9 !IR MA9T5ANCE1 AS SELF-CONSCI\S POLITICAL PROJECTS4 ,! ESSAY ?AT FOLL[S IS NOT A FULLY DEVELOP$ >GUM5T4 ,IT LAYS \T A POT5TIAL PROJECT ( 9VE/IGATION MORE ?AN PROPOS+ ANY FULL-FL$G$ ANALYSIS4 ,! FIR/ SECTION1 ACCORD+LY1 BR+S TOGE!R SEV]AL /REAMS ( ANALYSIS ?AT ,I BELIEVE C\LD ALL[ US TO LOOK AT GLOBAL HI/ORICAL PROCESSES 9 A NEW LITICUL> ON ! CASE ( :AT HAVE BE5 CALL$ 'H]OIC SOCIETIES'4 ,! SECOND SECTION ATTEMPTS TO APPLY SOME ( !SE 9SIY MANN]1 TO ! PROBLEM ( ,MALAGASY ORIG9S4 ,P>T ,I3 ,WORLD ,HI/ORY ,TO MAKE MY CASE H]E ,I WILL DRAW1 FIR/1 ON AN UNLIKELY SET ( S\RCES3 ,M>CEL ,MAUSS'S NOTION ( CIVILIZATIONS2 A PECULI> ESSAY WRITT5 BY ! ,AM]ICAN AN>*I/ ?9K] ,PET] ,LAMBORN ,WILSON 7P]HAPS BETT] KN[N BY HIS SOMETIME PSEUDONYM1 ,HAKIM ,BEY72 & F9ALLY1 ! WORK ( ,BRITI% >*AEOLOGI/ ,DAVID ,W5GR[4 ,MO/ ( US HAVE =GOTT5 ,MAUSS'S 7#b#f7 CONCEPTION ( CIVILIZATION1 P>TLY BECAUSE IT IS BAS$ ON HIS RA!R EXTREME POSITION 9 N[-ANTIQUAT$ DEBATES AB\T DIFFUSIONISM4 ,9 ! LATE N9ETE5? & E>LY TW5TIE? C5TURIES1 ( C\RSE1 ONE ( ! MA9 5DEAVORS ( E?NOLOGY WAS TO TRACE ! SUPPOS$ MIGRATION PATT]NS ( C]TA9 IDEAS1 TE*NOLOGIES1 OR CULTURAL =MS4 ,MAUSS FELT ! 5TIRE 5T]PRISE WAS MISCONCEIV$1 BUT NOT = ! SAME REASONS WE HAVE COME TO DISMISS IT TODAY1 BUT BECAUSE IT ASSUM$ A S]IES ( B\ND$1 'PRIMITIVE' SOCIETIES 9 RELATIVE ISOLATION4 ,SU* 'PRIMITIVE SOCIETIES' DO NOT EXI/1 HE >GU$1 OR DO NOT EXI/ EXCEPT 9 ,AU/RALIA4 ,HUMAN SOCIETIES >E 9 CON/ANT CONTACT4 ,MAUSS WAS1 = EXAMPLE1 CONV9C$ ?AT ! 5TIRE ,PACIFIC C\LD BE CONSID]$ A S+LE ZONE ( CULTURAL EX*ANGE1 & ON FIR/ VIEW+ ! FAM\S ,KWAKIUTL CANOE 9 ! ,AM]ICAN ,MUSEUM ( ,NATURAL ,HI/ORY1 HE IS SAID TO HAVE REM>K$ ?AT ?IS IS PRECISELY :AT ANCI5T ,*9ESE CANOES MU/ HAVE LOOK$ LIKE4 ,! REAL QUE/ION IS !RE=E :Y C]TA9 TRAITS >E NOT DIFFUS$4 ,MAUSS NOT$ DRAMATIC EXAMPLES ( NON-DIFFUSION ( EV5 EXTREMELY PRACTICAL TE*NOLOGIES BY NEILY1 REFUSE TO ADOPT ,ALGONKIAN SN[%OES4 ,S9CE ALMO/ ANY EXI/+ /YLE1 =M1 OR TE*NIQUE HAS ALWAYS BE5 AVAILABLE TO ALMO/ ANYONE1 HE CONCLUD$1 CULTURES - OR CIVILIZATIONS - >E BAS$ ON CONSCI\S REFUSAL4 ,MAUSS IS NOTORI\S = HIS RA!R SCATT]%OT /YLE ( EXPOSITION1 BUT ,PET] ,LAMBORN ,WILSON'S WORK 7#a#i#i#h3 #i-#a#h7 IS MU* MORE SO - SO MU* SO ?AT HE HAS NEV] BE5 TAK5 S]I\SLY 9 ! ACADEMY AT ALL4 ,/ILL1 ! ESSAY ( HIS ?AT ,I AM 9T]E/$ 9 DOES HAVE A C]TA9 AN?ROPOLOGICAL P$IGREE1 HAV+ EM]G$ FROM AN 'AN>*ISM & %AMANISM' SEM9> CONDUCT$ BY ! AU?OR ) ,MI*AEL ,TAUSSIG 9 ! MID #a#i#iS4 ,CALL$ ',! ,%AMANIC ,TRACE'1 IT SKATES ?R\< HALF A DOZ5 DIFF]5T !MES1 BUT ! HE>T ( IT HAS TO DO ) A S]IES ( PECULI> E>? SCULPTURES CALL$ 'EFFIGY M\NDS'1 BUILT BETWE5 R\ TO HAVE BE5 CREAT$ BY A SCATT]$ POPULATION ) NO SIGNS ( SOCIAL HI]>*Y OR EV5 SY/EMATIC F>M+1 MU* UNLIKE ! CA/E-/RATIFI$ 'M\ND-BUILD]S' TO !IR S\?1 BUT EVID5TLY 9 REACTION TO !M4.<#a.> ,! PECULI> ?+ AB\T !SE EFFIGY M\NDS IS ?AT !Y SEEM$ TO BE SELF-CONSCI\S CELEBRATIONS ( NATURAL =MS4 ,9 CONJUNCTION ) ! REJECTION ( HI]>*Y1 W>1 & F>M+1 !Y MIT4 ,& ALL ?IS WAS A REACTION TO ! URBAN VALUES ( ! ,HOPEWELL CIVILIZATION TO ! S\?3 ,! ,EFFIGY ,M\ND CULTURE WAS PREC$$1 SURR\ND$1 9VAD$1 & SUP]S$$ BY 'ADVANC$' SOCIETIES :I* PRACTIC$ AGRICULTURE1 METALLURGY1 W>F>E & SOCIAL HI]>*Y1 & YET ! ,EFFIGY ,M\ND CULTURE REJECT$ ALL ( !SE4 ,IT APP>5TLY 'REV]T$' TO HUNT+_/ GA!R+2 ITS >*AEOLOGICAL REMA9S (F] NO EVID5CE ( SOCIAL VIOL5CE OR CLASS /RUCTURE2 IT L>GELY REFUS$ ! USE ( METAL2 & IT APP>5TLY DID ALL !SE ?+S CONSCI\SLY & BY *OICE4 ,IT DELIB]ATELY REFUS$ ! 'DEA? CULT'1 HUMAN SACRIFICE1 CANNIBALISM1 W>F>E1 K+%IP1 >I/OCRACY1 & 'HI< CULTURE' ( ! ,AD5A1 ,HOPEWELL1 & ,TEMPLE ,M\ND TRADITIONS :I* SURR\ND$ IT 9 TIME & SPACE4 ,IT *OSE AN ECONOMY_/TE*NOLOGY :I* 7ACCORD+ TO ! PREJUDICES ( SOCIAL EVOLUTION & 'PROGRESS'7 REPRES5TS A /EP BACKW>D 9 HUMAN DEVELOPM5T4 ,IT TOOK ?IS /EP1 APP>5TLY1 BECAUSE IT CONSID]$ ?IS ! RI TRACES ( A SIMIL> CONSCI\S REJECTION ( URBANIZATION8 ,9 FACT1 ONE C\LD TAKE ?IS MU* FUR!R4 ,! FIR/ ,EUROPEAN SETTL]S 9 ,NOR? ,AM]ICA 5C\NT]$ SOCIETIES ?AT W]E (T5 BO? F> MORE EGALIT>IAN BUT1 AT ! SAME TIME1 F> MORE 9DIVIDUALI/IC ?AN ANY?+ !Y W\LD HAVE IMAG9$ POSSIBLE4 ,ACC\NTS ( !SE SOCIETIES HAD 5ORM\S IMPACT ON RE%AP+ HORIZONS ( POLITICAL POSSIBILITY = MANY 9 ,EUROPE & ULTIMATELY >\ND ! WORLD4 ,YET TO ?IS DAY1 WE T5D TO ASSUME ?AT SU* ATTITUDES W]E SOMEH[ PRIMORDIAL OR1 AT BE/1 ! PRODUCT ( SOME DEEP BUT ULTIMATELY >BITR>Y CULTURAL MATRIX1 BUT C]TA9LY NOT A SELF-CONSCI\S POLITICAL PROJECT ON ! P>T ( ACTORS JU/ AS MATURE & SOPHI/ICAT$ AS ! ,EUROPEANS !MSELVES4 ,9 ALL ( ?IS1 ! EXI/5CE ( A POPUL\S & APP>5TLY V]Y HI]>*ICAL URBAN CIVILIZATION ?AT MY/]I\SLY VANI%$ SOME G5]ATIONS IMM$IATELY BE=E SOMEH[ NEV] SEEMS TO BE CONSID]$ RELEVANT4 ,WE DON'T KN[ :Y ! CITIES COLLAPS$4 ,PROBABLY WE NEV] WILL4 ,BUT IT IS H>D TO IMAG9E ?AT POPUL> RESI/ANCE1 9T]NAL OR EXT]NAL1 PLAY$ NO ROLE AT ALL4 ,:ILE IT W\LD NO D\BT BE OV]/AT+ ?+S TO >GUE ?AT :AT ! SETTL]S 5C\NT]$ WAS ! SELF-CONSCI\S REVOLUTION>Y IDEOLOGY ORIG9ALLY DEVELOP$ BY ?OSE :O FL$ OR OV]?REW ?AT CIVILIZATION1 FRAM+ IT ?AT WAY IS /ILL LESS DECEPTIVE ?AN IMAG9+ IT TOOK %APE )\T REF]5CE TO ANY L>G] POLITICAL CONTEXT :ATSOEV]4 ,! IDEA ?AT AT LEA/ SOME EGALIT>IAN SOCIETIES W]E %AP+ !IR IDEALS & 9/ITUTIONS 9 CONSCI\S REACTION TO HI]>*ICAL ONES IS NOT NEW4 ,9 REC5T YE>S1 WE HAVE EV5 SE5 A SMALL EM]G+ LIT]ATURE ON ! 'AN>*I/' SOCIETIES ( ,S\!A/ ,ASIA 7E4G41 ,GIBSON & ,SIL&] #b#a#a2 ,SCOTT #b#a#a71 SU* SOCIETIES BE+ SE5 AS DELIB]ATE REJECTIONS ( ! GOV]N+ PR9CIPLES ( NE>BY /ATES1 OR EV5 AS SOCIETIES ?AT HAD DEF9$ !MSELVES AGA9/ ?OSE /ATES 9 MU* ! SAME WAY AS ,WILSON HAS >GU$ = ! ,NOR? ,AM]ICAN SOCIETIES ABOVE1 ?AT IS1 ?R\< A PROCESS ( S*IZMOG5ESIS4 ,?IS WORK HAS REVOLUTIONIZ$ ! :OLE CONV]SATION AB\T ! NATURE ( EGALIT>IAN SOCIETIES1 AT LEA/ )9 ! ACADEMY4 ,BUT ,I ?9K IT RUNS ! DANG] ( LEAV+ US ) ! UN=TUNATE IMPRESSION ?AT !SE REACTIONS & REFUSALS CUT ONLY ONE WAY4 ,9 FACT1 ,I ?9K REALITY IS F> MORE COMPLEX4 ,ACTS ( CREATIVE REFUSAL CAN LEAD TO NEW IDEALS ( EQUALITY1 NEW =MS ( HI]>*Y1 OR (T51 A COMPLICAT$ MIX ( BO?4 ,:ATEV] HAPP5$ 9 ! ,AM]ICAN ,NOR!A/ L$ TO A GREAT DEAL ( P[] & AUTONOMY = WOM51 BUT SIMIL> PROCESSES 9 ,AMAZONIA APPE> TO HAVE HAD ! OPPOSITE EFFECT4 ,! CASE ( ANCI5T ,WE/]N ,ASIA SEEMS IF ANY?+ EV5 MORE DRAMATIC4 ,AS ,I >GU$ 9 ,DEBT 7#b#a#a1 BUILD+ MY >GUM5T ON ?AT ( FEM9I/ HI/ORIAN ,G]DA ,L]N] #a#i#h1 #a#i#h#i71 !RE IS GOOD REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT ,BIBLICAL PATRI>*Y ITSELF1 & MANY ( ! MORE DEFIANT POPULI/ !MES ( PATRI>*AL RELIGIONS1 >E 9 L>GE P>T ! PRODUCT ( A DYNAMIC ( RESI/ANCE AGA9/ ,MESOPOTAMIAN TEMPLE ELITES1 & ! PRODUCT ( ! COMPLEX 9T]SECTION ( DEBT PEONAGE1 TEMPLE PRO/ITUTION1 & /RATEGIES ( EXODUS TO ! SEMI-NOMADIC FR+ES ?AT HAD ! RESULT1 OV] ! C\RSE ( TWO MILL5NIA1 ( DRIV+ WOM5 ALMO/ COMPLETELY FROM POLITICAL LIFE4 ,BY ! E>LY ,IRON ,AGE1 9/ITUTIONS HAD BE5 CREAT$ SU* AS VEIL+1 ! SEQUE/RATION ( WOM51 & OBSESSIONS ) PREM>ITAL VIRG9ITY1 ?AT HAD NEV] EXI/$ BE=E4 ,ONE ( ! MO/ FASC9AT+1 & AMBIVAL5T1 ( !SE MOVEM5TS ( REFUSAL OV]LAPP$ ) ! RISE ( PATRI>*Y BO? 9 TIME & R\*AEOLOGICAL ?9K] ALIVE TODAY - ON ! ,BRONZE ,AGE POTLAT*4 ,W5GR[ IS ADDRESS+ A LONG/&+ PUZZLE3 ! EXI/5CE1 SCATT]$ ACROSS A B& ( T]RITORY ?AT RUNS FROM R\GE AM\NTS ( EXTREMELY VALUABLE METALW>E ?AT APPE> TO HAVE BE5 SELF-CONSCI\SLY AB&ON$ OR EV5 SY/EMATICALLY DE/ROY$4 ,! REM>KABLE ?+ IS ?AT SU* TROVES NEV] OCCUR )9 ! GREAT URBAN CIVILIZATIONS !MSELVES1 BUT ALWAYS 9 ! SURR\ND+ HILL C\NTRY1 OR SIMIL> M>G9AL ZONES ?AT W]E CLOSELY CONNECT$ TO ! COMM]CIAL- BUREAUCRATIC C5T]S BY TRADE BUT W]E 9 NO S5SE 9CORPORAT$4 ,H5CE ! COMP>ISON ) POTLAT*ES4 ,MO/ ( ! GREAT1 EXTRAVAGANT FEA/+ CYCLES ( ! SEV5TE5?- C5TURY ,HURON OR ,GREAT ,LAKES REGION1 OR ! N9ETE5?-C5TURY ,NOR?WE/ ,COA/1 OR TW5TIE?-C5TURY ,MELANESIA1 OCCURR$ 9 EXACTLY ?IS SORT ( CONTEXT3 SOCIETIES BE+ DRAWN 9TO ! TRAD+ ORBIT ( O!R COMM]CIAL-BUREAUCRATIC CIVILIZATIONS1 & ?US ACCUMULAT+ VA/ QUANTITIES ( NEW MAT]IAL GOODS1 :ILE AT ! SAME TIME REJECT+ ! ULTIMATE VALUES ( ! SOCIETIES ) :I* !Y W]E 9 CONTACT4 ,! DIFF]5CE IS ?AT ! SOCIETIES WE KN[ AB\T HI/ORICALLY1 \TGUNN$ & \TNUMB]$1 W]E QUICKLY OV]:ELM$4 ,! ,BRONZE ,AGE B>B>IANS1 9 CONTRA/1 (T5 WON4 ,9 FACT1 !Y LEFT AN 5DUR+ LEGACY1 = IT WAS EXACTLY !SE POTLAT* ZONES ?AT EV5TUALLY PRODUC$ ! GREAT EPIC TRADITIONS & ULTIMATELY ! GREAT PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITIONS & WORLD RELIGIONS3 ,HOM]1 ! ,RIG ,V$A1 ,AVE/A1 & EV51 9 A MORE ATT5UAT$ S5SE1 ! ,BIBLE4 ,H]E IS :]E ,*ADWICK COMES 91 S9CE HE TOO SAW ! GREAT EPICS AS HAV+ BE5 WRITT5 BY PEOPLE 9 CONTACT )1 & (T5 EMPLOY$ AS M]C5>IES BY1 ! URBAN CIVILIZATIONS ( !IR DAY1 BUT :O ULTIMATELY REJECT$ ! VALUES ( !SE CIVILIZATIONS4 ,= A LONG TIME1 ! NOTION ( 'H]OIC SOCIETIES' FELL 9TO A C]TA9 DISFAVOR3 !RE WAS A WIDESPREAD ASSUMPTION ?AT SU* SOCIETIES DID NOT REALLY EXI/ BUT W]E1 LIKE ! SOCIETY REPRES5T$ 9 ,HOM]'S ,ILIAD1 RETROACTIVELY RECON/RUCT$ 9 EPIC LIT]ATURE - EV51 AS ,GEORGES ,DUMEZIL FAM\SLY >GU$ 7#a#i#f#h-#g#c71 L>GELY A MATT] ( REWRIT+ ONE-TIME COSMIC MY?S 9TO ! =M ( NATIONAL HI/ORIES4.<#b.> ,BUT AS >*AEOLOGI/S LIKE ,PAUL ,TREH]NE HAVE MORE REC5TLY DEMON/RAT$ 7#a#i#i#e71 !RE IS A V]Y REAL PATT]N ( H]OIC BURIALS1 9DICAT+ A NEW-F\ND CULTURAL EMPHASIS ON FEA/+1 DR9K+1 ! BEAUTY & FAME ( ! 9DIVIDUAL MALE W>RIOR - ON :AT HE CALLS ! 'LIFE/YLE ( AN EM]G5T W>RIOR ELITE' 7#a#i#i#e3 #a#b#i74 ,?IS APPE>S ACROSS ! >EA ,W5GR[ ID5TIFI$ 9 A /RIK+LY SIMIL> =M OV] ! C\RSE ( ! ,BRONZE ,AGE4 ,MYC5AEAN SOCIETY MI%ALL ,SAHL9S NOTES 7#a#i#h#e3 #d#f-#d#g71 CLE> E?NOGRAPHIC P>ALLELS EXI/ AS WELL4 ,:AT >E ! COMMON FEATURES ( SU* H]OIC SOCIETIES8 ,DRAW+ ON ! EPIC LIT]ATURE1 ONE F9DS A FAIRLY CONSI/5T LI/ 7& ONE :I* APPLIES JU/ AS WELL1 9 MO/ ( ITS FEATURES1 TO ! POTLAT* SOCIETIES ( ! ,NOR?WE/ COA/73 ,ALL >E DEC5TRALIZ$ >I/OCRACIES1 )\T ANY C5TRALIZ$ AU?ORITY OR PR9CIPLE ( SOV]EIGNTY 7OR P]HAPS SOME L>GELY SYMBOLIC1 =MAL ONE74 ,9/EAD ( A S+LE C5T]1 WE F9D NUM]\S H]OIC FIGURES COMPET+ FI]CELY ) ONE ANO!R = RETA9]S & SLAVES1 & NO C5TRALIZ$ AU?ORITY2 POLITICS IS COMPOS$ ( A HI/ORY ( P]SONAL DEBTS ( LOYALTY OR V5GEANCE BETWE5 H]OIC 9DIVIDUALS4 ,!RE'S ALSO A HUGE AM\NT ( ROOM TO MOVE UP OR D[N2 ! >I/OCRACY USUALLY PRET5DS TO BE ET]NAL BUT G5]ALLY1 9 PRACTICE1 IT IS POSSIBLE TO RISE OR FALL F> FROM ONE'S 9ITIAL ,ALL FOCUS ON GAME-LIKE CONTE/S AS ! PRIM>Y BUS9ESS ( RITUAL1 9DE$ POLITICAL1 ,(T5 MASSIVE AM\NTS ( LOOT OR WEAL? >E SQU&]$1 SACRIFIC$1 OR GIV5 AWAY2 GIFT-GIV+ COMPETITIONS >E COMMONPLACE2 ANIMAL SACRIFICE IS A C5TRAL RELIGI\S RITUAL2 !RE IS A RESI/ANCE TO ACCUMULATION = ITS [N SAKE4 ,ALL >E PR(\NDLY !ATRICAL1 & BO? BOA/+ & LY+ >E HIBY URBAN CIVILIZATIONS3 ABOVE ALL1 WRIT+ 7= :I* !Y T5D TO SUB/ITUTE POETS OR PRIE/S :O 5GAGE 9 ROTE MEMORIZATION OR ELABORATE TE*NIQUES ( ORAL COMPOSITION7 & COMM]CE2 H5CE MONEY1 EI!R 9 PHYSICAL OR CR$IT =MS1 T5DS TO BE ES*EW$ & ! FOCUS 9/EAD IS ON UNIQUE MAT]IAL TREASURES4 ,! QUE/ION WE CANNOT ANSW] IS :E!R ALL !SE FEATURES >E REACTIONS TO ! LIFE ( ! CITIES1 OR :E!R ?IS IS MORE A MATT] ( PREEXI/+ FEATURES ?AT BEGAN TO TAKE ON MU* MORE ELABORAT$ =M :5 SOCIETIES ORGANIZ$ >\ND !M 5C\NT]$ URBAN COMM]CIAL-BUREAUCRATIC CIVILIZATIONS4 ,AFT] ALL1 !RE >E ONLY SO MANY WAYS A POLITICAL SY/EM CAN BE ORGANIZ$4 ,NONE!LESS IT IS CLE> ?AT S*IZMOG5ETIC PROCESSES ( SOME K9D W]E GO+ ON1 & PROBABLY ON BO? SIDES1 AS URBANITES LE>N$ SIMULTANE\SLY TO ADMIRE & REVILE ! 'B>B>IANS' SURR\ND+ !M4 ,H[EV] ?IS MAY BE1 ! H]OIC COMPLEX1 IF ONE MID ( URBAN LIFE DRAWN FROM ! F> OLD] CIVILIZATIONS TO ITS ,EA/ - H>DLY SURPRIS+1 P]HAPS1 9 A PLACE :]E ALL LIT]>Y $UCATION BEGAN ) ,HOM]4 ,! MO/ OBVI\S ASPECT IS ! RELIGI\S EMPHASIS ON SACRIFICE4 ,ON A DEEP] LEVEL1 WE F9D :AT ,ALV9 ,G\LDN] 7#a#i#f#e3 #d#e-#e#e7 CALL$ '! ,GREEK CONTE/ SY/EM'1 ! T5D5CY TO TURN ABSOLUTELY EV]Y?+1 FROM >T TO POLITICS TO A?LETIC A*IEVEM5T TO TRAGIC DRAMA1 9TO A GAME :]E !RE MU/ BE W9N]S & LOS]S4 ,! SAME SPIRIT APPE>S 9 A DIFF]5T WAY 9 ! 'GAMES' & SPIRIT ( >I/OCRATIC COMPETITION 9 ,ROME4 ,9 FACT1 ,I W\LD HAZ>D TO SUGGE/ ?AT \R [N POLITICAL CULTURE1 ) ITS POLITICIANS & ELECTIONS1 TRACES BACK TO H]OIC S5SIBILITIES4 ,WE T5D TO =GET ?AT = MO/ ( ,EUROPEAN HI/ORY1 ELECTION WAS CONSID]$ ! >I/OCRATIC MODE ( SELECT+ (FICIALS1 NOT ! DEMOCRATIC ONE 7! DEMOCRATIC MODE WAS SORTATION3 SEE ,MAN9 #a#i#i#g1 ,D[L5 #b#i74 ,:AT IS UNUSUAL AB\T \R [N POLITICAL SY/EMS IS RA!R ! FUSION ( ! H]OIC MODE ) ! PR9CIPLE ( SOV]EIGNTY - A PR9CIPLE ) ITS [N PECULI> HI/ORY1 :I* ORIG9ALLY /OOD 5TIRELY AP>T FROM GOV]NANCE1 & :I* HAS QUITE DIFF]5T IMPLICATIONS - BUT ONE :I* CANNOT BE MORE ?AN ALLUD$ TO H]E4 ,P>T ,I,I3 ,MADAGASC> ,! IDEA ( H]OIC POLITICS ORIG9AT+ 9 ACTS ( CULTURAL REFUSAL /RUCK ME AS P>TICUL>LY 9TRIGU+ CONSID]+ ?AT MY [N FIELDWORK 9 ,MADAGASC> HAD L$ ME TO CONCLUDE ?AT POLITICS !RE WAS L>GELY AN APP>5TLY CALCULAT$ REJECTION ( H]OIC PR9CIPLES4 ,MALAGASY ORIG9S >E /ILL %R\D$ 9 MY/]Y & IT IS DIFFICULT TO KN[ PRECISELY H[ ?IS CAME AB\T1 H[ MU* ?IS SORT ( REJECTION REALLY DOES P]VADE ,MALAGASY CULTURE AS A :OLE1 OR H[ MU* !SE POLITICAL S5SIBILITIES >E PECULI> TO CONTEMPOR>Y RURAL ,IM]9A4 ,! /ORY ( ,MALAGASY ORIG9S ITSELF IS A BEAUTIFUL ILLU/RATION ( ! L+]+ EVOLUTIONI/ BIAS ?AT CONT9UES TO MAKE IT DIFFICULT = US TO SEE E>LY ,9DIAN ,OCEAN VOYAG]S 7= EXAMPLE7 AS MATURE POLITICAL ACTORS4 ,! CONV5TIONAL /ORY = MO/ ( ?IS C5TURY HAS RUN R\ITO VALLEY 9 ,BORNEO BEGAN 5GAG+ 9 LONG1 ,POLYNESIAN-/YLE EXP$ITIONS ( MIGRATION 9 \TRIGG] CANOES1 TILL EV5TUALLY1 >\ND #e CE1 !Y F\ND A HUGE UN9HABIT$ ISL& 7,DAHL #a#i#e#a1 #a#i#g#g72 !Y !N BEGAN A PROCESS ( 'ADAPTIVE RADIATION' 7,KOTTAK #a#i#g#b1 #a#i#h2 ,FLANN]Y #a#i#h#c7 :]EBY !Y SPREAD \T 9TO DIFF]5T MICRO-5VIRONM5TS1 BECOM+ PA/ORALI/S1 FI%]M51 IRRIGAT$ RICE CULTIVATORS1 & GRADUALLY1 CREAT+ *IEFDOMS & /ATES & COM+ 9TO CONTACT ) WORLD RELIGIONS LIKE ,ISLAM4 ,9 ! PROCESS1 ,AFRICAN ELEM5TS W]E 9CORPORAT$ 9TO AN ESS5TIALLY ,9DONESIAN CULTURE2 ! ,AFRICANS >E (T5 ASSUM$1 TACITLY OR EXPLICITLY1 TO HAVE BE5 BR\*AEOLOGICAL & L+UI/IC RESE>* HAS %[N ?AT1 RA!R ?AN BE+ 9NOC5T ( /ATES & WORLD RELIGIONS1 ! E>LY SETTL]S ( ,MADAGASC> APPE> TO HAVE KN[N ALL AB\T BO?1 & TO HAVE ACTIVELY DECID$ !Y WANT$ NO?+ TO DO ) !M4 ,! MA9 SETTLEM5T DID BEG9 >\ND #f CE4 ,REC5T BIOLOGICAL EVID5CE SUGGE/S ! ANCE/ORS ( ! CURR5T ,MALAGASY POPULATION W]E LIKELY TO HAVE BE5 A GR\P ( R\RIV$ ON ! ISL& AB\T ?IS TIME 7,HURLES ET AL4 #b#e1 ,COX ET AL4 #b#a#b74.<#c.> ,BUT L+UI/ICS ALSO GIVES US REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT EV5 ?IS WAS NOT A COMPLETELY UNI=M POPULATION3 ! ,AU/RONESIAN COLONI/S W]E NOT SIMPLY FROM ! ,B>ITO VALLEY1 BUT A COLLECTION ( PEOPLE L>GELY FROM S\!A/ ,BORNEO MIX$ ) O!RS FROM SMALL] ISL&S LIKE ,SULAWESI4 ,:AT IS MORE1 NAVIGATIONAL & O!R TE*NICAL T]MS 9 ! LANGUAGE !Y SPOKE W]E D]IV$ FROM ,MALAY 7,ADELA> #a#i#h#i1 #a#i#i#a1 #a#i#i#eA1 #a#i#i#eB1 #b#e1 #b#i2 ,BL5* #a#i#i#d1 #b#g2 ,BEAUJ>D #b#c1 #b#g1 #b#a#a74 ,! L+UI/ :O HAS DONE ! MO/ SY/EMATIC WORK ON ! TOPIC1 ,ALEX&] ,ADELA>1 CONCLUDES3 ,S\!A/ ,B>ITO SPEAK]S CON/ITUT$ ONLY A P>T ( ! V>I\S GR\PS ( IMMIGRANTS TO ,MADAGASC>4 ,!Y MAY HAVE CON/ITUT$ ! MAJORITY ( !SE1 BUT MAY ALSO HAVE BE5 ONLY A SMALL FIR/ NUCLE> GR\P1 :OSE LANGUAGE WAS ADOPT$ BY LAT] IMMIGRANTS :O GRADUALLY >RIV$4 ,SU* A C\RSE ( EV5TS W\LD ACC\NT = ! FACT ?AT1 AL?\< ,MALAGASY IS A ,S\!A/ ,B>ITO LANGUAGE1 !RE IS LITTLE AN?ROPOLOGICAL OR HI/ORICAL EVID5CE ?AT PO9TS TO A SPECIFICALLY ,BORNEAN ORIG9 ( ! ,MALAGASY4 ,I ALSO PROPOSE ?AT IT WAS NOT SPEAK]S ( ,S\!A/ ,B>ITO LANGUAGES !MSELVES :O ORGANIZ$ PASSAGES TO ,EA/ ,AFRICA & E/ABLI%$ COLONIES 9 ,MADAGASC> & POSSIBLY O!R PLACES4 ,! AUTO*?ON\S PEOPLES ( ,BORNEO >E NO SEAF>]S1 & !RE IS LITTLE EVID5CE ?AT !Y HAD A SEAF>+ TRADITION TWELVE C5TURIES AGO 7A L>GE P>T ( ! M>ITIME VOCABUL>Y 9 ,MALAGASY IS BORR[$ FROM ,MALAY74 ,! PEOPLE :O W]E ACTIVELY 9VOLV$ 9 SAIL+ TO ,EA/ ,AFRICA MU/ HAVE BE5 ,MALAYS4 7#a#i#i#eB3 #c#b#h7 ,9 FACT1 WE KN[ ?AT M]*ANTS FROM ,MALAY CITY-/ATES W]E TRAD+ 9 GOLD & IVORY 9 ! ,ZAMBEZI VALLEY OPPOSITE ,MADAGASC> AT ?IS TIME2 IT IS EASY TO SEE H[ E/ABLI%+ A P]MAN5T TRAD+ PO/ A SAFE DI/ANCE AWAY1 ON A L>GE UN9HABIT$ ISL&1 MIIETY ( L>GELY NON-NAUTICAL PEOPLE ON O!R ,9DONESIAN ISL&S1 TO SU* A PLACE - :AT SORT ( PEOPLE MI IDEA4 ,BORNEO1 & AS WELL AS ISL&S LIKE ,SULAWEZI1 W]E PRECISELY ! PLACES FROM :I* LAT] ,MALAY CITY-/ATES IMPORT$ !IR SLAVES4 ,BY ALL ACC\NTS1 SU* SLAVES MADE UP A V]Y L>GE PROPORTION ( ! POPULATIONS ( SU* CITIES4 ,& :AT W\LD BE ! LIKELY RESULT HAD A GR\P ( SU* M]*ANTS E/ABLI%$ A TRAD+ PO/ POPULAT$ L>GELY BY SLAVES ON A GIANT UN9HABIT$ ISL&8 ,IF ANY SUB/ANTIAL NUMB] ESCAP$ TO ! 9T]IOR1 IT W\LD HAVE BE5 IMPOSSIBLE TO RECOV] !M4 ,>*AEOLOGY IS BEG9N+ TO GIVE US AT LEA/ A R\< PICTURE ( ,MADAGASC> 9 ! FIR/ C5TURIES ( ITS HUMAN HABITATION4.<#d.> ,! E>LY PICTURE IS ONE ( /RIK+ HET]OG5EITY4 ,!RE DOES NOT SEEM TO BE ANY S5SE 9 :I* WE CAN TALK AB\T A ',MALAGASY' PEOPLE4 ,= AT LEA/ ! FIR/ FIVE C5TURIES1 WE F9D 9/EAD EVID5CE = A COLLECTION ( POPULATIONS ( V]Y DIV]SE ORIG9S1 JU/ AB\T ALL ( !M1 H[EV]1 5GAG$ 9 SOME =M ( TRADE ) ! WID] WORLD 7EV5 ! E>LIE/ SITES USUALLY CONTA9 POTT]Y FROM ! ,P]SIAN ,GULF &_/OR ,*9A71 & MO/ ( !M NOT /RAY+ TOO F> FROM ! COA/4 ,L+UI/IC S*OL>%IP SUGGE/S ?AT ASIDE FROM AN ,AU/RONESIAN POPULATION ?AT PROBABLY >RIV$ 9 SEV]AL WAVES1 & BR\ FROM QUITE E>LY ON1 :O BR\D #b#a#a74 ,BY ! TIME WE HAVE EVID5CE = ACTUAL PORT T[NS1 !Y W]E CONNECT$ CULTURALLY NOT ) ,9DONESIA BUT ) ! EM]G+ ,SWAHILI CIVILIZATION ( ! ,COMOROS & ,EA/ ,AFRICAN COA/1 REPLETE ) MOSQUES & MANSIONS MADE ( /ONE4 ,! HI/ORICAL ORIG9S ( ! ,SWAHILI REMA9 SLILI] EM]G5CE ( ! ,MALAY CITY /ATES !MSELVES4 ,WE HAVE ! CREATION ( A COSMOPOLITAN1 M]CANTILE ELITE ( ,AFRICAN ORIG91 SPEAK+ A S+LE1 ,AFRICAN LANGUAGE ) A GREAT DEAL ( IMPORT$ VOCABUL>Y 79 ! ,MALAY CASE1 FROM ,SANSKRIT & 9 ! ,SWAHILI CASE1 FROM ,>ABIC71 & ) !SE PEOPLE ID5TIFY+ !MSELVES ) ! COSMOPOLITAN WORLD ( ! ,9DIAN ,OCEAN ECUM5E1 & 9HABIT+ A *A9 ( CITY-/ATES 7SOME PETTY MON>*IES1 SOME M]CANTILE REPUBLICS7 RANG+ ALONG ! COA/ FROM :AT IS N[ ,K5YA TO ,MOZAMBIQUE 7= A GOOD SUMM>Y FROM A ,MALAGASY P]SPECTIVE1 SEE ,BEAUJ>D #b#g2 ALSO ,P\WELS #b#b2 ,V]NET #b#f1 #b#i74 ,AS ! E>LY TRAD+ PO/S ATTE/1 !SE EM]G+ NETWORKS DID EXT5D TO ,MADAGASC> FROM V]Y E>LY TIMES4 ,BETWE5 C4 #a & #ace CE1 = 9/ANCE1 A TIME :5 MO/ ( ! ISL& WAS /ILL V]Y SP>SELY POPULAT$1 NOR!RN ,MADAGASC> WAS DOM9AT$ BY A SMALL1 APP>5TLY ,SWAHILI-SPEAK+ CITY-/ATE ?AT HAS COME TO BE KN[N BY ITS SITE'S LAT] ,MALAGASY NAME ( ,MAHILAKA4 ,>*AEOLOGICAL REPORTS DESCRIBE IT AS A SMALL CITY1 SIMIL> TO O!RS 9 ! ,COMORO ISL&S TO ! NOR?1 ) EVID5CE ( %>P CLASS DIVISIONS3 ! CITY C5T]$ >\ND A S]IES ( MAGNIFIC5T /ONE H\SES & A C5TRAL MOSQUE1 SURR\ND$ BY SMALL] & FLIMSI] /RUCTURES1 & ATT5DANT WORK%OPS1 PRESUMABLY 9HABIT$ BY ORD9>Y T[NSFOLK & ! POOR 7,RADIMILAHY #a#i#i#h74 ,ACCORD+ TO ,DEW> 7#a#i#i#e3 #c#a#c73 ',MAHILAKA PROBABLY S]V$ AS A TRAD+ C5T] :]E ISL& PRODUCTS SU* AS TORTOISE %ELL1 *LORITE S*I/1 GOLD1 CRY/AL1 QU>TZ & POSSIBLY WOOD1 TREE GUM1 & IRON W]E EX*ANG$ = C]AMICS1 GLASS VESSELS1 TRADE BEADS & POSSIBLY CLO?4' ,ACCORD+ TO ! /&>D ACC\NTS1 ,MAHILAKA EV5TUALLY DECL9$ [+ TO A FALL 9 ! DEM& = LOCAL *LORITE S*I/ - A LOCALLY QU>RI$ GRE5 /ONE1 US$ TO MAKE B[LS ?AT W]E = A :ILE A POPUL> TABLEW>E 9 ! REGION4 ,H[EV]1 ,MALAGASY >*AEOLOGI/ ,*ANTAL ,RADIMILAHY HAS MANAG$ TO TURN UP :AT SEEMS TO BE ! ONE KN[N LIT]>Y REF]5CE TO ,MAHILAKA1 FROM ! ELEV5? C5TURY ,>AB TRAVEL] AL- ,IDRISI1 :I* SUGGE/S H]E1 TOO1 ?AT ! /ORY WAS PROBABLY A BIT MORE COMPLICAT$4 ,IT REF]S TO ! ISL& ( ',&JEBEH'3 :OSE PR9CIPAL T[N IS CALL$ ,EL-,ANF\DJA 9 ! LANGUAGE ( ,ZANZIB>1 & :OSE 9HABITANTS1 AL?\< MIX$1 >E ACTUALLY MO/LY ,MUSLIMS4 ,! DI/ANCE FROM IT TO ,BANAS ON ! ,ZANJ COA/ IS A DAY & A HALF4 ,! ISL& IS #d MILES R\ND2 BANANAS >E ! *IEF FOOD 444 ,! ISL& IS TRAV]S$ BY A M\NTA9 CALL$ ,WABRA4 ,! VAGABONDS :O >E EXPELL$ FROM ! T[N FLEE !RE1 & =M A BRAVE & NUM]\S COMPANY :I* FREQU5TLY 9FE/S ! REGION SURR\ND+ ! T[N1 & :O LIVE AT ! TOP ( ! M\NTA9 9 A /ATE ( DEF5SE AGA9/ ! RUL] ( ! ISL&4 ,!Y >E C\RAGE\S1 & FE>$ = !IR >MS & !IR NUMB]4 7,RADIMILAHY #a#i#i#h3 #b#d-#b#e7 ,( C\RSE1 ONE CANNOT BE ABSOLUTELY C]TA9 ! PASSAGE REALLY DOES REF] TO ,MAHILAKA - OR EV5 TO ,MADAGASC>4.<#e.> ,BUT IT MAY WELL2 & EV5 IF IT DOESN'T1 IT SUGGE/S ! K9D ( SOCIAL PROCESS ONE IS LIKELY TO HAVE 5C\NT]$ 9 ! H9T]L&S ( SU* TRADE EMPORIA AT ! TIME3 EXTREME HI]>*Y AT ! C5T]1 ) A S]VILE OR SOCIALLY M>G9ALIZ$ POPULATION ESCAP+ !IR M]*ANT OV]LORDS & =M+ DEFIANT COMMUNITIES 9 ! 9T]IOR4 ,NOR IS ! VIOL5CE LIKELY TO HAVE BE5 SIMPLY ONE WAY4 ,:ILE GOLD1 IVORY & V>I\S EXOTIC PRODUCTS W]E /ILL BE+ TRAD$ UP & D[N ! COA/1 ! FOCUS ( ! ,EA/ ,AFRICAN TRAD+ ECONOMY 9CREAS+LY %IFT$ TO ! MOVEM5T ( SLAVES1 CAPTUR$ L>GELY FROM ?OSE SAME REBEL COMMUNITIES4 ,ONE ( ! FASC9AT+ QUE/IONS IS H[1 AMID ALL ?IS DIV]SITY1 ! RELATIVELY UNI=M ,MALAGASY CULTURE ( ! PRES5T DAY EM]G$4 ,IT DID SO UNEV5LY - !RE W]E POPULATIONS SPEAK+ ,AFRICAN LANGUAGES ON ! WE/ COA/1 = 9/ANCE1 AS LATE AS ! EI*AEOLOGI/S HAVE CALL$ A MOM5T ( 'SYN!SIS' OCCURR$ >\ND ONE LANGUAGE1 C]TA9 /YLI/IC ELEM5TS1 & PRESUMABLY1 C]TA9 SOCIAL & COSMOLOGICAL PR9CIPLES1 ?AT CAME TO DOM9ATE ! ISL&4 ,?IS ,MALAGASY CULTURAL MATRIX HAS BE5 REM>KABLY EFFECTIVE 9 ABSORB+ & 9CORPORAT+ ALMO/ ANY O!R POPULATION ?AT LAT] CAME TO SETTLE ON ! ISL&4 ,OP9IONS V>Y AB\T :5 ?IS HAPP5$ - P]HAPS IT WAS >\ND ! P]IOD ( ! HEIT ( PROCESS ( CULTURAL REFUSAL & S*IZMOG5ESIS3 ?AT IS1 :AT CAME TO BE CONSID]$ ,MALAGASY CULTURE ITSELF COALESC$ 9 OPPOSITION TO ,MAHILAKA1 :I* WAS1 AT ! TIME1 ! PR9CIPAL \TPO/ ( ! L>G] ,9DIAN ,OCEAN WORLD SY/EM1 ) ALL ! =MS ( RELIGI\S1 ECONOMIC & POLITICAL P[] IT 5TAIL$4 ,OR IT >OSE 9 OPPOSITION TO ?AT L>G] SY/EM ITSELF4 ,TO GIVE JU/ ONE EXAMPLE3 ! EXI/5CE ( GREAT /ONE MANSIONS 9 ,MAHILAKA1 & 9 O!R1 LAT] M$IEVAL & E>LY MOD]N PORT CITIES1 IS QUITE /RIK+ 9 ! LI ,TO SAY ?AT N[ADAYS1 ,MALAGASY >E 9 ! HABIT ( DEF9+ !IR CULTURE AGA9/ ! WAYS ( P[]FUL1 COSMOPOLITAN \TSID]S IS A COMMONPLACE & 5TIRELY UNREM>KABLE /ATEM5T4 ,:5 ,MAURICE ,BLO* WAS DO+ HIS FIELDWORK 9 C5TRAL ,MADAGASC> 9 ! #a#i#fS1 HE OBS]V$ A POPUL> T5D5CY TO CLASSIFY EV]Y?+1 FROM CU/OMS & TE*NOLOGIES TO *ICK5S & VEGETABLES1 9TO TWO V>IETIES3 ONE CONSID]$ ,MALAGASY 7GASY71 ! O!R VAZAHA - A T]M ?AT CAN1 ACCORD+ TO CONTEXT1 MEAN '=EIGN'1 ':ITE'1 OR ',FR5*' 7,BLO* #a#i#g#a3 #a#c1 #c#a74 ,?IS T5D5CY TO DI*OTOMIZE HAS BE5 OBS]V$ S9CE COLONIAL TIMES4 ,?IS IS USUALLY ASSUM$ TO HAVE BE5 A RESULT ( COLONIZATION4 ,FRANTZ ,FANON FAM\SLY >GU$ ?AT BE=E ! >RIVAL ( :ITE COLONIALI/S1 ONE C\LD NOT SPEAK ( ,MALAGASY AS A SELF-CONSCI\S ID5TITY1 RA!R ?AN SIMPLY AS A WAY ( BE+1 AT ALL 7#a#i#f#h3 #g#c74 ,! V]Y CATEGORY IS BORN ( RELATIONS ( VIOL5T SUBORD9ATION & DEGRADATION4 ,ALL ,I AM SUGGE/+ IS ?AT ?IS RELATION%IP MIRY \T TRADE ) ! 9T]IOR4 ,! T[NS W]E REGUL>LY VISIT$ BY CL]ICS1 M]*ANTS1 & ADV5TUR]S FROM AS F> AS ,9DIA1 ,EGYPT & ,>ABIA2 !Y W]E V]Y MU* A P>T ( ! ,9DIAN ,OCEAN TRAD+ WORLD ?AT /OPP$ ABRUPTLY 9 ,MADAGASC> PROP]4 ,MO/ ( !IR 9HABITANTS %[$ NO?+ BUT DISDA9 = ! ISL&'S 9HABITANTS1 :OM !Y REGUL>LY EXPORT$ AS SLAVES4 ,R&Y ,P\WELS PROVIDES US SOME TELL+ EXAMPLES FROM SIXTE5?-C5TURY ,PORTUGUESE S\RCES3 ,9 ! WORDS ( ONE .<,PORTUGUESE.> FRI> >\ND #a#f#c3 '%IPS COME TO ?IS ,ISL& ( ,PATE :I* GO TO ! ,ISL& ( ,MADAGASC> ) %>IFS1 :O >E !IR QADIS .1 :O GO TO SPREAD !IR FAI? & TRANSPORT MANY ,MADAGASC>5ES1 ! L[LIE/ .<(.> ,G5TILES1 TO ,MECCA & TO MAKE !M 9TO ,MOORS'4 7,P\WELS #b#b3 #d#b#a7 ,OR EV53 ,AS MA9TA9$ BY ,F>IA Y ,S\SA & O!R ,PORTUGUESE S\RCES1 ! ',MOORS' ( ! COA/ & ,MECCA CAME ANNUALLY TO ! T[NS ( ,MANZALAGE & ,LULUNGANI 444.<#g.> 9 NOR?WE/ ,MADAGASC>1 TO TRADE 9 S&ALWOOD1 SWEET WOODS1 EBONY & TORTOISE %ELL1 & TO BUY BOYS ':OM !Y S5D TO ,>ABIA TO S]VE !IR LU/'1 AS WELL AS TO CONV]T TO ,ISLAM4 7IBID3 #d#a#h7 ,! EXPLICITLY RACIAL T]MS ,FANON WAS ADDRESS+ CLE>LY CAME LAT]3 T]MS LIKE 'BLACK' & ':ITE' W\LD HAVE MEANT NO?+ = DESC5DANTS ( ,9DONESIAN & ,AFRICAN SLAVES MAK+ COMMON CAUSE AGA9/ M$IEVAL ,>AB & ,SWAHILI TRAD]S4 ,/ILL1 IT IS H>D TO IMAG9E ?AT IF SOME?+ LIKE A COMMON ,MALAGASY ID5TITY DID EM]GE1 IT C\LD HAVE BE5 9 ANY?+ BUT SELF-CONSCI\S OPPOSITION TO ALL ?AT WAS CONSID]$ SILAMO .<,MUSLIM.>1 9 MU* ! SAME WAY AS EV]Y?+ GASY IS N[ OPPOS$ TO EV]Y?+ VAZAHA4 ,:AT ,I AM SUGGE/+1 !N1 IS ?AT :AT WE N[ ?9K ( AS ,MALAGASY CULTURE HAS ITS ORIG9S 9 A REBEL IDEOLOGY ( ESCAP$ SLAVES1 & ?AT ! MOM5T ( 'SYN!SIS' 9 :I* IT CAME TOGE!R CAN BE/ BE ?\G] WORLD-SY/EM4 ,IF ?IS IS ! CASE1 !N1 IF NO?+ ELSE1 A LOT ( O!RWISE PECULI> FEATURES ( ! ACTUAL CONT5T ( ! PAN-,MALAGASY CULTURE ?AT EM]G$ >\ND ?AT TIME W\LD MAKE A GREAT DEAL ( S5SE4 ,CONSID] MY?S4 ,AS A /UD5T ( ,M>%ALL ,SAHL9S1 ,I F\ND IT RA!R FRU/RAT+ TO TRY TO C>RY \T A 'COSMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS' ( ,MALAGASY CULTURE BECAUSE MO/ ( ! /ORIES ?AT LOOK$ LIKE COSMOLOGICAL MY?S W]E1 EFFECTIVELY1 JOKES4 ,! TRADITIONAL TAGL9E US$ AT ! 5D ( MY?S IS1 'IT IS NOT ,I :O LIE1 !SE LIES COME FROM ANCI5T TIMES'4 ,!RE IS USUALLY A HI< GOD1 A ,JOVIAN FIGURE1 BUT O!R GODS CAN BE IMPROVIS$ AS ! PLOT REQUIRES2 !RE IS NO PAN!ON2 EV5 9 RITUAL ! APPROA* TO DIV9E P[]S SEEMS ODDLY IMPROVIZATIONAL3 NEW ONES CAN BE DISCOV]$1 CREAT$1 CA/ \T OR DE/ROY$4.<#h.> ,! CLOSE/ !RE IS TO A CORE ,MALAGASY CYCLE IS :AT HAS BE5 CALL$ '! ,ZATOVO CYCLE' 7,LOMB>D #a#i#g#f71 :I* APPE>S 9 5DLESS V>IATIONS 9 EV]Y P>T ( ! ISL&4 ,?IS IS ! /ORY ( A Y\NG MAN :O DECL>ES ?AT HE WAS 'NOT CREAT$ BY ,GOD'1 :O !N *ALL5GES ,GOD TO SOME K9D ( CONTE/ TO =CE HIM TO ACKN[L$GE ?IS1 &1 ) ! AID ( SOME P[]FUL MAGIC1 IS ULTIMATELY SUCCESSFUL4 7,HE MAY ALSO MAKE (F ) A DAU\ND ! TURN ( ! LA/ C5TURY 9 ! ,TANALA REGION 9 ! S\!A/ 7,R5EL #aia VOL4 ,I3 #b#f#h-#g#d73 ,A MAN NAM$ ,&RIANONIBE1 !Y SAY1 M>RI$ A Y\NG WOMAN & BE=E LONG %E BECAME PREGNANT4 ,N[1 ! *ILD C\LD ALREADY SPEAK 9 HIS MO!R'S WOMB2 AT ! MOM5T ( HIS BIR?1 HE PI]C$ HIS MO!R'S NAVEL1 & IT WAS ?R\< !RE ?AT HE CAME \T 9TO ! WORLD4 ,HE !N SPOKE TO ! PEOPLE ASSEMBL$ 9 ! H\SE3 ',I HAVE NOT BE5 MADE BY ,GOD1 BECAUSE AT ! MOM5T MY MO!R GAVE BIR? TO ME1 ,I CAME \T ( H] NAVEL2 ?US ,I WILL BE> ! NAME ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA1 ,&RIANA.<#i.>-:O-BREAKS- !-NAVEL4' ,!N HE CONVOK$ ! PEOPLE1 BID !M FOLL[ HIM1 & SET \T TO CLIMB A TALL M\NTA94 ,AT ! SUMMIT1 HE GA!R$ TOGE!R A PILE ( FIREWOOD2 HE ALSO HAD AN OX BR\T]S ( ! OX ON !M3 AN 9T5SE COLUMN ( BLACK SMOKE ROSE TO HEAV52 AFT] A FEW MOM5TS !Y HAD BL9D$ ! *ILDR5 ( ,GOD1 SO HE S5T HIS MESS5G]1 NAM$ ,YELL[ ,EAGLE1 TO SEE :AT HAD HAPP5$4 ,ONCE HE WAS 9 ! PRES5CE ( ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA ! MESS5G] 5TREAT$ HIM1 ON ,GOD'S P>T1 TO PUT \T ! FIRE AS SOON AS POSSIBLE1 BUT ! MAN REFUS$1 CRY+ \T ANGRILY1 ',GO F9D Y\R MA/] & TELL HIM ?AT ,I WILL NOT OBEY HIS ORD]S1 BECAUSE IT WAS NOT HE :O MADE ME4 ,SO ,I WILL NOT PUT \T ! FIRE1 BECAUSE IT WAS ME :O CAME \T ( ! NAVEL ( MY MO!R1 & ,I AM CALL$ ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA4 ,HAVE Y\1 ,GOD1 EV] ANY:]E SE5 ANO!R MAN BE>+ ?AT NAME8' ',IF ?AT'S H[ IT IS1' SAID ,YELL[ ,EAGLE1 ',I %ALL C>RY Y\R WORDS TO ,GOD4' ,!N IT LEFT ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA & FLEW BACK TO HEAV51 & TOLD ,GOD EV]Y?+ ! ,&RIANA HAD SAID4 ,GOD BECAME V]Y ANGRY1 & S5T HIS MESS5G] BACK TO E>? ONCE MORE4 ,?IS TIME ,YELL[ ,EAGLE C>RI$ A L>GE OX BONE2 :5 HE CAME BE=E ! GREAT FIRE1 /ILL BURN+1 HE SPOKE AS FOLL[S3 ',O ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA1 Y\ CLAIM TO HAVE COME \T ( ! WOMB BY BREAK+ ?R\< Y\R MO!R'S NAVEL1 IF IT IS TRUE ?AT Y\ HAVE NOT BE5 CREAT$ BY ,GOD1 !N Y\ MU/ TURN ?IS BONE 9TO A LIV+ BEA/4' ,AS Y\ LIKE1' DECL>$ ! O!R4 ,HE TOOK ! BONE1 PUT IT TO COOK+ 9 A L>GE RICE POT1 ) :I* HE HAD MIX$ SOME ODY .MS.>4 ,AS SOON AS ! RICE BEGAN TO BOIL1 ! BONE TRANS=M$ 9TO A LITTLE CALF ?AT L[$1 & BY ! TIME ! RICE WAS COOK$1 IT HAD BECOME A GREAT BULL ?AT SET AB\T RO>+ T[>D CATTLE P54 ,YELL[ ,EAGLE1 AFT] HAV+ OBS]V$ :AT HAPP5$1 RETURN$ TO HIS MA/]4 ,GOD1 GR[+ ANGRI] & ANGRI]1 S5T HIM BACK ) A *ICK5 BONE & A BANANA LEAF1 & DEM&$ HE TURN IT 9TO A ROO/] & A BANANA TREE FULL ( RIPE FRUIT4 ,!N ,&RIANA MADE A NEW POT ( RICE1 9 :I* HE HAD PLAC$ SOME ODY4 ,:5 ! RICE WAS AT ! PO9T ( BOIL+ OV]1 ! BONE HAD BECOME A Y\NG *ICK & ! LEAF1 A Y\NG BANANA PLANT %OOT4 ,BY ! TIME IT WAS DONE ! *ICK HAD BECOME A GREAT ROO/]1 & ! %OOT1 A :OLE RANGE ( BANANA TREES4 ,! MESS5G] ONCE AGA9 RETURN$ TO REPORT :AT HAD HAPP5$4 7IBID3 #b#f#h-#g7 ,9 MO/ /ORIES ! H]O IS FAC$ ) A S]IES ( TE/S1 :I* HE PASSES ) ! AID ( AN ODY1 :I* IS (T5 P]SONIFI$1 & PLAYS ! CLASSIC FAIRY-TALE HELP] ROLE4 ,H]E ! P[] & KN[L$GE SEEM 5TIRELY 9 ! PROTAGONI/ HIMSELF1 & ! *>MS >E SIMPLY EXT5SIONS4 ,!Y >E ALSO AB\T AS P[]FUL AS IT IS POSSIBLE TO BE4 ,GOD1 /UPEFI$ & CONF\ND$1 TOLD ,YELL[ ,EAGLE TO PRES5T ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA ) A GOLD5 CANE1 & DEM& HE DET]M9E :I* IS ! TOP1 & :I* IS ! BOTTOM4 ,N[1 ! CANE WAS ( EXACTLY ! SAME SIZE1 TOP & BOTTOM4 ,:5 ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA HAD IT )9 HIS H&S1 HE ?REW IT UP 9 ! AIR & ALL[$ IT TO FALL1 & ?US CORRECTLY ID5TIFI$ ! TWO 5DS4 ,?IS TIME ,GOD DIDN'T KN[ :AT TO DO SO2 V]Y CONFUS$1 HE LEFT HEAV5 TO COME MEET ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA HIMSELF4 ,! MOM5T HE >RIV$ HE MADE EV]Y?+ >\ND ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA'S VILLAGE TURN PIT* BLACK1 SO ?AT ! VILLAG]S1 EV5 9 ! MIDDLE ( ! DAY1 C\LD NOT SEE A ?+4 ,!N HE BR\ ( ANY?+1 BUT DELIRI$ 9 HIS H& AN ODY ?AT HE TURN$ T[>DS EA* ( ! C>D9AL PO9TS1 SO ?AT ! LIMLESSLY4 ,F9ALLY1 HE CALL$ \T1 ',O ,GOD1 COME D[N TO E>? IF Y\ LIKE1 BUT /OP FRI FROM Y\R HOME2 WE %ALL HAVE A CONTE/ ( WITS1 S9CE Y\ D5Y EV] HAV+ BE5 CREAT$ BY ME4' ',AGRE$6' REPLI$ ! ,&RIANA4 ',LET'S GO !N6' ,& ! TWO SET =? UPON !IR R\TE4 ,AFT] A LITTLE :ILE1 ,GOD ADVANC$ AHEAD1 & ONCE \T ( SIGE NUMB] ( FRUIT TREES BE>+ MANY F9E FRUITS4 ,EV]YONE :O PASS$ /OPP$ TO DR9K ! WAT] FROM ! SPR+1 & TO TA/E SOME ( ! DELICI\S FRUITS1 HANG+ SO ?ICKLY ON ! BRAN*ES ( ! TREES4 ,LIKE ! O!RS1 ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA APPROA*$ ! PLACE & /OPP$ TO RE/1 BUT !N HE RECOGNIZ$ IT WAS REALLY ,GOD1 & SAID1 ',CUT IT \T1 ,GOD1 ,I KN[ :AT Y\'RE UP TO6 ,COME ON6 ,LET'S GET ON ) \R J\RNEY1 BECAUSE ,I'M NEV] GO+ TO DR9K FROM Y\4' ,!N1 9 HIS TURN1 ! ,&RIANA W5T (F AHEAD1 & AS SOON AS HE WAS \T ( SIT$ TO GA!R ! FRUIT1 BUT !N HE SAW ?AT IT WAS REALLY ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA ?AT HAD *ANG$ 9TO ?AT =M & HE CRI$ \T1 ',COME ON6 ,LET'S GET BACK ON ! ROAD6 ,DON'T EV5 DREAM ?AT Y\ CAN DISGUISE Y\RSELF FROM ME1 BECAUSE ,I CAN SEE P]FECTLY WELL ?AT ! ORANGE TREE IS REALLY Y\4' ,NEXT1 ,GOD W5T 9 ADVANCE & AT A C]TA9 DI/ANCE1 HE BECAME A GREAT PLA91 ) 5\< RICE GR[+ FROM IT ?AT A GREAT >MY ( M5 C\LD CULTIVATE IT = ! RE/ ( !IR LIVES4 ,ON ?IS PLA9 !RE W]E ALSO MANY CATTLE & *ICK5S4 ,& IT IS FROM ?IS TIME ?AT HUMAN BE+S HAVE KN[N ( RICE & ORANGE TREES1 & HAVE RAIS$ CATTLE & *ICK5S AS DOME/IC ANIMALS4 ,BUT ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA RECOGNIZ$ ,GOD2 & 9 HIS TURN1 HE W5T \T 9 ADVANCE1 & TURN$ HIMSELF 9TO A L>GE VILLAGE1 ) NUM]\S H\SES OCCUPI$ BY RI* 9HABITANTS2 & 9 ?IS VILLAGE1 !RE LIV$ ?REE BEAUTIFUL WOM54 ,& ,GOD />T$ SE>*+ = ! ,&RIANA1 BUT HE C\LDN'T F9D HIM4 ,N[ AFT] A MON?'S TIME1 HE CAME UP TO ! BEAUTIFUL VILLAGE1 & /OPP$1 & M>RI$ ONE ( ! ?REE WOM54 ,& AFT] A C]TA9 TIME %E BECAME PREGNANT4 ,%E DEVELOP$ ! DESIRE TO EAT RAT MEAT1 SO %E BEGG$ H] HUSB& TO GO & F9D H] SOME4 ,HE TURN$ HIMSELF 9TO A CAT & W5T B5EA? ! FLOORBO>DS TO F9D SOME1 & IT DIDN'T TAKE MORE ?AN A FEW M9UTES BE=E HE'D CAU?1 & :5 !Y'D BE5 CLEAN$1 *OPP$ ! MEAT 9TO SMALL PIECES & COOK$ !M4 ,BUT %E DIDN'T EAT ANY ( !M H]SELF1 %E GAVE !M ALL TO ,GOD TO EAT4 ,SOME MON?S LAT]1 %E GAVE BIR? TO A *ILD4 ,GOD WAS EXTREMELY HAPPY1 BUT AT ! V]Y MOM5T ( HIS BIR?1 ! NEWBORN BEGAN TO SPEAK1 ',I AM CALL$ ,FANIHY .1 BECAUSE ,I AM NOT ! SON ( ,GOD4 ,NO1 IT IS ,I1 ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA1 = :OM ,GOD HAS BE5 SO LONG SE>*+1 )\T BE+ ABLE TO F9D4' ,!N ! 9FANT ROSE & BEGAN TO WALK1 & MOCK$ ,GOD1 SAY+1 ',I MADE Y\ EAT RATS1 & Y\ ATE !M6 ,IS ?IS NOT SUFFICI5T PRO( ?AT ,I WAS NOT CREAT$ BY Y\8' ,& SO ,GOD1 COMPLETELY CONF\ND$1 RETURN$ SADLY HOME4 ,BUT TO ?IS DAY HE CONT9UES TO ?9K AB\T ! ,&RIANA1 & :5EV] HE BECOMES ANGRY1 HE ?UND]S & MAKES IT RA91 & ?IS IS A SIGN ( HIS ANG] T[>DS ,&RIAMAMAKIMPOETRA4 ,:]EAS1 AS = HIM1 !Y SAY1 HE TRULY WAS NEV] MADE BY ,GOD4 ,HE CREAT$ HIMSELF4 7IBID3 #b#g-#g#d7 ,MU* C\LD BE SAID AB\T ?IS /ORY4 ,! BUILD+ ( A FIRE ?AT *OKES ! 9HABITANTS ( HEAV51 :I* RECURS 9 MANY SIMIL> /ORIES1 IS ALWAYS A K9D ( 9V]SION ( A SACRIFICE1 & ?IS IS MADE EXPLICIT 9 ?IS CASE4 ,9 ,MALAGASY SACRIFICES1 AS 9 ANCI5T ,GREEK ONES1 ! SC5T ( ROA/+ FLE% IS SAID TO ASC5D TO HEAV5 TO PLEASE ! GODS4 ,H]E1 9/EAD1 IT TORM5TS !M4 ,! 5TIRE /ORY MI AS A PLAYFULLY P]V]SE V>IATION ON A FAMILI> ,AU/RONESIAN COSMOLOGICAL !ME REGUL>LY 9VOK$ 9 SU* SACRIFICIAL RITUALS AS WELL3 ?AT F]TILITY1 CREATIVITY1 ! GIV+ ( LIFE1 IS SOME?+ WE CAN ULTIMATELY ACQUIRE ONLY FROM ! GODS1 & !RE=E1 ?AT ! GODS HAVE TO BE BR\ ,! MY? SEEMS TO D5Y ?IS BY ALL[+ ! H]O TO BR+ DEAD BONES TO LIFE AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! /ORY4 ,HE CAN CREATE LIFE HIMSELF2 HE CREAT$ HIS [N EXI/5CE4 ,BUT 9 FACT WE KN[ ?IS IS NOT QUITE TRUE1 = HE WAS CONCEIV$ & GIV5 BIR? TO LIKE ANYONE ELSE1 EV5 IF - AS HE PR\DLY PO9TS \T - V]Y UNCONV5TIONALLY4 ,& 9 ! 5D1 ! H]O DOES COME TO BE CREAT$ BY ,GOD1 BECAUSE HE IS BORN AGA9 ) ,GOD AS HIS FA!R2 9 A WAY HE DOES ACCEPT ?AT ,GOD CREAT$ HIM1 BUT ONLY 9 7FROM ,GOD'S P]SPECTIVE7 ! MO/ \TRAGE\S & HUMILIAT+ CONCEIVABLE WAY4 ,?IS V]SION IS1 ADMITT$LY1 UNUSUALLY TRIUMPHALI/4 ,9 MO/1 ! /ORIES DO AT LEA/ NOTE ?AT ,GOD HAS HIS REV5GE 9 ! 5D3 WE >E MORTAL1 HE IS NOT4 ,/ILL1 !SE >E ESS5TIALLY ,PROME!US /ORIES :]E ,PROME!US DEFIES ! GODS & W9S4 ,!Y ALSO APPE> TO BE UNIQUELY ,MALAGASY4 ,I HAVE BE5 UNABLE TO F9D1 EI!R 9 ,AFRICA OR ,S\!A/ ,ASIA1 ANY O!R EXAMPLE ( AN H]OIC FIGURE ?AT CLAIMS NOT TO BE CREAT$ BY ,GOD1 LET ALONE ?AT 5DS UP SUCCESSFULLY *ALL5G+ ,GOD 9 ORD] TO PROVE IT4 ,BUT IT MAKES S5SE ?AT :]E WE DO F9D IT1 IT W\LD BE 9 A POPULATION ( RUNAWAYS FROM PI\S CITY-/ATES 7,MALAY OR ,SWAHILI7 :O SUDD5LY F9D !MSELVES ON A VA/ UN9HABIT$ ISL& :]E NEW LIVES & COMMUNITIES CAN1 9DE$1 BE CREAT$ \T ( NO?+4 ,N[1 ! COSMOLOGIES ( H]OIC SOCIETIES1 FROM ! ,GREEKS TO ! ,MAORI1 DO T5D TO GIVE L>GE PLACE TO TRANSGRESSIVE FIGURES READY TO DEFY EV5 ! GODS BUT1 G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 !Y ULTIMATELY COME TO A V]Y BAD 5D4 ,IT IS DIFFICULT TO BUILD A /RUCTURE ( AU?ORITY - EV5 ONE AS FLUID AS A H]OIC >I/OCRACY - ON ?IS K9D ( F\NDATION4 ,?IS IS NOT TO SAY ?AT ,MADAGASC> DID NOT SEE ITS %>E ( >I/OCRACIES & K+DOMS4 ,BUT IT IS TELL+ ?AT :5EV] WE DO SEE ! RISE ( K+DOMS 9 ,MADAGASC>1 ! /ORY BEG9S TO TRANS=M3 AS 9 ! ,IKONGO K+DOM ( ! EA/ COA/1 :]E ,ZATOVO M>RIES ! DAUD #a#i#i#a7 OR1 EV5 MORE /RIK+LY1 )9 ! ,M]9A K+DOM ( ! C5TRAL HIACT] NAM$ ',IBONIA :O WAS NOT CREAT$ BY M5'1 ?US M>K$ BY AN ID5TICAL MIRACUL\S BIR?1 9 :AT IS CONSID]$ ! ONLY ABSOLUTELY BONA FIDE ,MALAGASY H]OIC EPIC 7,BECK] #a#i#c#i2 ,H>+ #a#i#i#d1 ,OTT9O #a#i#h#c74 ,IT IS POSSIBLE1 9 O!R WORDS1 TO BUILD AN IDEOLOGY ( RULE ON ! BASIS ( :AT SEEMS LIKE A FUNDAM5TALLY ANTI-AU?ORIT>IAN CULTURAL GRID4 ,BUT ! RESULT+ >RANGEM5TS >E LIKELY TO REMA9 UN/ABLE3 & ! HI/ORY ( ,MADAGASC> IS 9DE$ FULL ( UPRIS+S & ! OV]?R[ ( >I/OCRACIES & K+DOMS1 BECAUSE ! BASIS = REJECT+ SU* >RANGEM5TS IS ALWAYS READILY AT H&4 ,DUR+ ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 = 9/ANCE1 =EIGN OBS]V]S UNIV]SALLY 9SI/$ ?AT :ATEV] ! TYPICAL ,M]9A F>M] MI*Y1 OR !IR ABSOLUTE P]SONAL DEVOTION TO ! QUE54 ,YET :5 ,I WAS 9 ,IM]9A1 A M]E C5TURY LAT]1 ,I C\LD NOT F9D A S+LE P]SON 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE :O HAD NOT BE5 ?R\< ! HI<] $UCATION SY/EM :O HAD ANY?+ GOOD TO SAY AB\T ,M]9A MON>*Y4 ,! ONLY ANCI5T K+S :O W]E REMEMB]$ FONDLY W]E ?OSE SAID TO HAVE VOLUNT>ILY AB&ON$ !IR P[]4 ,?IS WAS NOT A REJECTION ( AU?ORITY ( EV]Y K9D4 ,! AU?ORITY ( ELD]S & ANCE/ORS1 = EXAMPLE1 WAS TREAT$ AS ABSOLUTELY LEGITIMATE4 ,BUT ANY?+ ?AT SMACK$ ( 9DIVIDUAL1 LET ALONE H]OIC1 =MS ( P[] WAS AT ! V]Y LEA/ TREAT$ ) SUSPICION BY MO/ OR1 MORE LIKELY1 OP5LY MOCK$ & REJECT$4 ,EV5 AT ! TIME ,I LABEL$ IT AN 'ANTI-H]OIC SOCIETY' 7,GRAEB] #b#gA71 S9CE ,I APPE>$ TO BE 9 ! PRES5CE ( AN IDEOLOGY ?AT SEEM$ TO TAKE EV]Y PR9CIPLE ( H]OIC SOCIETY & EXPLICITLY REJECT IT1 AS SUMM>IZ$ BEL[3 ,RA!R ?AN POLITICS BE+ COMPOS$ ( A HI/ORY ( P]SONAL DEBTS ( LOYALTY OR V5GEANCE BETWE5 H]OIC 9DIVIDUALS1 ALL ORAL HI/ORIES REPRES5T$ SU* FIGURES AS FOOLI%1 EGOTI/ICAL1 &1 !RE=E1 AS HAV+ IMPOS$ RIDICUL\S1 UNJU/IFIABLE RE/RICTIONS ON !IR FOLL[]S OR ,A TYPICAL /ORY W\LD RELATE H[ TWO ANCE/ORS QU>REL$ OV] L&1 AGRE$ TO HAVE A FIRY4 ',:AT A BUN* ( IDIOTS1' N>RATORS W\LD REM>K4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ! QU9TESS5TIAL EX]CISE ( ! LEGITIMATE AU?ORITY ( ELD]S - 9 A S5SE1 ! ONLY COMPLETELY LEGITIMATE WAY ( EX]CIS+ AU?ORITY OV] O!RS - WAS NOT TO CREATE PROJECTS OR 9ITIATIVES 7!SE %\LD RISE SPONTANE\SLY ?R\< ! :OLE ( ! GR\P7 BUT TO /OP HEAD/RONG 9DIVIDUALS FROM ACT+ 9 WAYS ?AT MILY1 !ATRICALITY1 BOA/+ & SELF-AGGR&IZ+ LY+ W]E AT ! V]Y C5T] ( MORAL DISAPPROVAL2 PUBLIC FIGURES MADE DRAMATIC DISPLAYS ( SELF-EFFACEM5T4 ,CURI\SLY1 DESPITE ! EGALIT>IAN EMPHASIS1 MONEY & WRIT+ W]E ! TWO FEATURES ( URBAN CIVILIZATION ?AT W]E EMBRAC$ & APPRECIAT$3 EV]YONE WAS 9VOLV$ 9 PETTY COMM]CE 9 SOME =M OR ANO!R1 & ! LIT]ACY RATE WAS EXTRAORD9>ILY ,H[ DID ?IS HAPP51 HI/ORICALLY8 ,ONE MIE (1 TO DEF9E !MSELVES AGA9/8 ,OR WAS ?IS AGA9 ! PRODUCT ( A C]TA9 PLAY ( LIMIT$ POSSIBILITIES8 ,PRESUMABLY !RE W]E NO CLASSIC H]OIC SOCIETIES ( ! SORT FAMILI> FROM ! ,BRONZE ,AGE 9 ,MADAGASC>1 BUT !RE W]E C]TA9LY H]OIC ELEM5TS APL5TY 9 ! SELF-AGGR&IZ+ /ORIES ( ! ,M]9A MON>*Y - & NOT JU/ 9 !IR ,IBONIA EPICS & !IR DEFIANCE ( TRADITION BY BUILD+ !IR PALACES ( /ONE4 ,:AT REALLY HAPP5$ IS A QUE/ION ?AT CAN ONLY BE UNRAVEL$ ) MU* FUR!R RESE>*1 BUT ! BROAD \TL9ES CAN BE MADE \T4 ,! PORT 5CLAVES CONT9U$ TO EXI/1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! NOR? ( ,MADAGASC> 7,V]9 #a#i#h#f7 & BY ! SIXTE5? C5TURY W]E DO+ A BRISK BUS9ESS SUPPLY+ WEAPONS TO LOCAL ,MALAGASY W>RIOR ELITES1 OR W\LD-BE W>RIOR ELITES1 9 EX*ANGE = A CONT9UAL SUPPLY ( SLAVES 7SEE1 E4G41 ,B>5DSE #b#b3 #b#f#c-#f#i74 ,MO/ ( :AT >E N[ CONSID]$ 'E?NIC GR\PS' 9 ,MADAGASC> CORRESPOND TO K+DOMS CREAT$ BY !SE ELITES4 ,BUT ! W>RIOR >I/OCRATS NEV] CONSID]$ !MSELVES P>T ( ?OSE GR\PS3 9 FACT1 !Y ALMO/ 9V>IABLY 9SI/$ ?AT !Y W]E NOT REALLY ,MALAGASY AT ALL4.<#a#a.> ,SO1 = EXAMPLE1 :5 ! FIR/ ,PORTUGUESE OBS]V]S APPE>$ 9 ! SIXTE5? & SEV5T5? C5TURIES1 !Y REPORT$ ?AT ! RUL]S ( ! ,ANTEMORO & ,ANTANOSY K+DOMS ( S\!A/ ,MADAGASC> CLAIM$ TO BE ,MUSLIMS ORIG9ALLY FROM ,MANGALORE & ,MECCA - AL?\< !Y SPOKE ONLY ,MALAGASY & W]E UNFAMILI> ) ! ,QUR'AN4 ,MU* ( :AT WE KN[ ( E>LY ,MALAGASY HI/ORY COMES FROM ! H]OIC /ORIES ( !IR V>I\S BATTLES & 9TRIGUES1 PRES]V$ 9 ,MALAGASY TEXTS WRITT5 9 ,>ABIC SCRIPT4 ,!SE DYNA/IES HAVE S9CE DISAPPE>$ 7! ,ANTEMORO >I/OCRACY WAS OV]?R[N 9 A POPUL> 9SURRECTION 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY7 BUT ! DESC5DANTS ( !IR SUBJECTS /ILL ?9K ( !MSELVES AS ,ANTEMORO & ,ANTANOSY4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ! H]OIC RUL]S ( ! ,SAKALAVA K+DOMS ( ! WE/ COA/ 9 ! EIAB & ,SWAHILI M]*ANTS4 ,?OSE !Y CONQU]$ /ILL CONSID] !MSELVES ,SAKALAVA1 EV5 ?\< !IR RUL]S 9SI/$ !Y W]E NEI!R ?IS NOR EV5 ,MALAGASY4 ,EV5 ! ,BETSIMIS>AKA1 :O N[ DOM9ATE ! EA/ COA/ & >E CONSID]$ AMONG ! MO/ DOGG$LY EGALIT>IAN PEOPLES ( ,MADAGASC>1 FIR/ CAME 9TO BE+ AS ! FOLL[]S ( A W>RIOR ELITE CALL$ ! ,ZANA-,MALATA1 MADE UP ( ! HALF- ,MALAGASY *ILDR5 ( ,EURO-,AM]ICAN PIRATES :O SETTL$ ! REGION AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! EIATE FROM ! ,BETSIMIS>AKA1 TO ?IS DAY4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 EA* E?NIC GR\P EM]GES 9 OPPOSITION TO !IR [N P>TICUL> GR\P ( H]OIC SEMI-\TSID]S1 :O 9 TURN M$IATE1 = BETT] OR WORSE1 BETWE5 ! ,MALAGASY POPULATION ITSELF & ! TEMPTATIONS & DEPR$ATIONS ( ! \TSIDE WORLD4 ,BY SU* >RANGEM5TS1 ! ORIG9AL S*IZMOG5ETIC GE/URE ( DEF9ITION OV] & AGA9/ ! VALUES ( PORT CITIES LIKE ,MAHILAKA C\LD BECOME1 = EA* NEW EM]G5T GR\P1 A P]MAN5T PROCESS ( DEF9ITION AGA9/ !IR [N SPECIFIC COLLECTION ( P]MAN5T H]OIC \TSID]S4 ,I HAVE TRI$ TO \TL9E 9 ?IS ESSAY1 SOME:AT S*EMATICALLY1 A CASCAD+ S]IES ( GE/URES ( REFUSAL1 RE9CORPORATION1 & R5EW$ REFUSAL4 ,H]OIC SOCIETIES EM]GE AS A REJECTION ( COMM]CIAL BUREAUCRATIC ONES4 ,SOME ( ! LOGIC ( H]OIC SOCIETY BECOMES RECOV]$ & RE9CORPORAT$ 9TO URBAN CIVILIZATIONS1 LEAD+ TO A NEW R\ND ( S*IZMOG5ESIS :]EBY !Y >E REJECT$ & SOCIAL ORD]S CREAT$ >\ND ! 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ET SOCIETE A ,MADAGASC> 7,TANALA DE L',IKONGO73 LE *ASSEUR D'OISEAUX ET LA PR9CESSE DU CIEL4 ,P>IS3 ,H>MATTAN4 ,BEAUJ>D1 ,P4 #b#c4 ,LES >RIVEES AU/RONESI5NES A ,MADAGASC>3 VAGUES \ CONT9UUM8 7,P>TIE ,I47 ,ETUDES ,OCEAN ,9DI5 #c#e-#c#f3 #e#i-#a#b#h4 ,BEAUJ>D1 ,P4 #b#g4 ,EA/ ,AFRICA1 ! ,COMOROS ,ISL&S & ,MADAGASC> BE=E ! ,SIXTE5? ,C5TURY4 ,AZANIA #d#b3 #a#e-#c#e4 ,BEAUJ>D1 ,P4 #b#a#a4 ,! ,FIR/ ,MIGRANTS TO ,MADAGASC> & ,!IR ,9TRODUCTION ( ,PLANTS3 ,L+UI/IC & ,ETYMOLOGICAL ,EVID5CE4 ,AZANIA #d#f3 #a#f#i-#h#i4 ,BECK]1 ,R4 #a#i#c#i4 ,CONTE D',IBONIA4 ,ESSAI DE TRADUCTION ET D'9T]PRETATION D'APRES ,I'$ITION ,DAHLE DE #a#h#g#g4 ,MEMOIRES DE L',ACADEMIE ,MALGA*E1 FASCICULE ,X,X,X1 ,TANAN>IVE4 ,BL5*1 ,R4 ,M4 #a#i#i#d4 ,! ,E?NOGRAPHIC ,EVID5CE = ,LONG-,DI/ANCE ,CONTACTS BETWE5 ,OCEANIA & ,EA/ ,AFRICA4 ,9 ,! ,9DIAN ,OCEAN 9 ,ANTIQUITY 7$47 ,J4 ,READE1 #d#f#a-#g4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,KEGAN ,PAUL_/,BRITI% ,MUSEUM4 ,BL5*1 ,R4 ,M4 #b#g4 ,NEW ,PALAEOZOOGEOGRAPHICAL ,EVID5CE = ! ,SETTLEM5T ( ,MADAGASC>4 ,AZANIA #d#b3 #f#i-#h#b4 ,BL5*1 ,R4 ,M4 #b#h4 ,! ,AU/RONESIANS 9 ,MADAGASC> & ,!IR ,9T]ACTION ) ! ,BANTU ( ,EA/ ,AFRICAN ,COA/3 ,SURVEY+ ! ,L+UI/IC ,EVID5CE = ,DOME/IC & ,TRANSLOCAT$ ,ANIMALS4 ,PHILIPP9ES ,J\RNAL ( ,L+UI/ICS #a#h1 NO4 #b3 #a#h-#d#c4 ,BL5*1 ,R4 ,M4 #b#i4 ,BANANAS & ,PLANTA9S 9 ,AFRICA3 ,RE-,9T]PRET+ ! ,L+UI/IC ,EVID5CE4 ,E?NOBOTANY ,RESE>* & ,APPLICATIONS #g3 #c#f#c-#h4 ,BLO*1 ,M4 #a#i#g#a4 ,PLAC+ ! ,DEAD3 ,TOMBS1 ,ANCE/RAL ,VILLAGES1 & ,K9%IP ,ORGANIZATION 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,LONDON3 ,SEM9> ,PRESS4 ,CAMPBELL1 ,G4 #b#d4 ,! ,/RUCTURE ( ,SLAV]Y 9 ,9DIAN ,OCEAN ,AFRICA & ,ASIA4 ,LONDON3 ,FRANK ,CASS4 ,*ADWICK1 ,H4 ,M4 #a#i#b#f4 ,! ,H]OIC ,AGE4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 ,COX1 ,M4 ,P41 ,M4 ,G4 ,NELSON1 ,M4 ,K4 ,TUMONGGOR1 ,F4 ,RICAUT & ,H4 ,SUDOYO #b#a#b4 ,A ,SMALL ,COHORT ( ,ISL& ,S\!A/ ,ASIAN ,WOM5 ,F\ND$ ,MADAGASC>4 ,PROCE$+S ( ! ,ROYAL ,SOCIETY ( ,BIOLOGICAL ,SCI5CES #b#g#i1 NO4 #a#g#c#i3 #b#g#f#a-#f#h4 ,CURT91 ,P4 ,R4 #a#i#h#c4 ,LABORATORY = ! ,ORAL ,HI/ORY ( ,SLAV]Y3 ,! ,ISL& ( ,LAMU ON ! ,K5YA ,COA/4 ,AM]ICAN ,HI/ORICAL ,REVIEW #h#h1 NO4 #d3 #h#e#h-#h#b4 ,DAHL1 ,O4 ,C4 #a#i#e#a4 ,MALGA*E ET ,MAANYAN4 ,UNE COMP>AISON L+UI/IQUE4 ,AVH&L+] UTGITT AV ,9/ITUTTET #c4 ,OSLO3 ,EG$E ,9/ITUTTET4 ,DAHL1 ,O4 ,C4 #a#i#g#g4 ,LA SUBDIVISION DE LA FAMILLE ,B>ITO ET LA PLACE DU ,MALGA*E4 ,ACTA ,ORI5TALIA 7,COP5HAG57 #c#h3 #g#g-#a#c#d4 ,DAHL1 ,O4 ,C4 #a#i#h#h4 ,BANTU ,SUB/RATUM 9 ,MALAGASY4 ,ETUDES ,OCEAN ,9DI5 #i3 #i#a-#a#c#b4 ,DAHL1 ,O4 ,C4 #a#i#i#a4 ,MIGRATION FROM ,KALIMANTAN TO ,MADAGASC>4 ,OSLO3 ,! ,9/ITUTE ( ,COMP>ATIVE ,RESE>* 9 ,HUMAN ,CULTURE1 ,NORWEGIAN ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 ,DEW>1 ,R4 ,E4 #a#i#i#d4 ,! ,>*AEOLOGY ( ! ,E>LY ,SETTLEM5T ( ,MADAGASC>4 ,9 ,! ,9DIAN ,OCEAN 9 ,ANTIQUITY 7$47 ,J4 ,READE1 #d#g#a-#h#f4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,KEGAN ,PAUL_/,BRITI% ,MUSEUM4 ,DEW>1 ,R4 ,E4 #a#i#i#e4 ,( ,NETS & ,TREES3 ,UNTANGL+ ! ,RETICULATE & ,D5DRITIC 9 ,MADAGASC> ,PREHI/ORY4 ,WORLD ,>*AEOLOGY #b#f3 #c#a-#a#h4 ,DEW>1 ,R4 ,E4 & ,A4 ,RI*>D #b#a#b4 ,MADAGASC>3 ,A ,HI/ORY ( ,>RIVALS1 ,:AT ,HAPP5$1 & ,WILL ,HAPP5 ,NEXT4 ,ANNUAL ,REVIEW ( ,AN?ROPOLOGY #d#a1 #d#i#e-#e#a#g4 ,DEW>1 ,R4 ,E4 & ,H4 ,T4 ,WRI4 ,J\RNAL ( ,WORLD ,PREHI/ORY #g3 #d#a#g-#f#f4 ,D[L51 ,O4 #b#i4 ,! ,POLITICAL ,POT5TIAL ( ,SORTITION3 ,A ,/UDY ( ! ,R&OM ,SELECTION ( ,CITIZ5S = ,PUBLIC ,(FICE4 ,LONDON3 ,IMPR9T ,ACADEMIC4 ,DUMEZIL1 ,G4 #a#i#f#h-#g#c4 ,MY! 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