,*APT] #i 
,! ,AXIAL ,AGE 7#h ,B,C - #f ,A,D7 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 

,TEXT 3 

,! ,AXIAL ,AGE 7#h ,B,C - #f ,A,D7 

  
  

,LET US DESIGNATE ?IS P]IOD AS ! 0AXIAL AGE40 ,EXTRAORD9>Y EV5TS >E CR[D$ 9TO ?IS P]IOD4 ,9 ,*9A LIV$ ,CONFUCIUS & ,LAO ,TSE1 ALL ! TR5DS 9 ,*9ESE PHILOSOPHY >OSE 444 ,9 ,9DIA IT WAS ! AGE ( ! ,UPANI%ADS & ( ,BUDDHA2 AS 9 ,*9A1 ALL PHILOSOPHICAL TR5DS1 9CLUD+ SKEPTICISM & MAT]IALISM1 SOPHI/RY & NIHILISM1 W]E DEVELOP$4  
  
  

--,K>L ,JASP]S1 ,WAY TO ,WISDOM  
  

,! PHRASE 0,! ,AXIAL ,AGE0 WAS CO9$ BY ! ,G]MAN EXI/5TIALI/ PHILOSOPH] ,K>L ,JASP]S4.<#d#g#c.> ,9 ! C\RSE ( WRIT+ A HI/ORY ( PHILOSOPHY1 ,JASP]S BECAME FASC9AT$ BY ! FACT ?AT FIGURES LIKE ,PY?AGORAS 7#e#g-#d#i#e BC71 ! ,BUDDHA 7#e#f#c-#d#h#c BC71 & ,CONFUCIUS 7#e#e#a-#d#g#i BC71 W]E ALL ALIVE AT EXACTLY ! SAME TIME1 & ?AT ,GREECE1 ,9DIA1 & ,*9A1 9 ?AT P]IOD1 ALL SAW A SUDD5 EFFLORESC5CE ( DEBATE BETWE5 CONT5D+ 9TELLECTUAL S*OOLS1 EA* GR\P APP>5TLY1 UNAW>E ( ! O!RS' EXI/5CE4 ,LIKE ! SIMULTANE\S 9V5TION ( CO9AGE1 :Y ?IS HAPP5$ HAD ALWAYS BE5 A PUZZLE4 ,JASP]S WASN'T 5TIRELY SURE HIMSELF4 ,TO SOME EXT5T1 HE SUGGE/$1 IT MU/ HAVE BE5 AN EFFECT ( SIMIL> HI/ORICAL CONDITIONS4 ,= MO/ ( ! GREAT URBAN CIVILIZATIONS ( ! TIME1 ! E>LY ,IRON ,AGE WAS A K9D ( PAUSE BETWE5 EMPIRES1 A TIME :5 POLITICAL L&SCAPES W]E BROK5 9TO A *ECK]BO>D ( (T5 DIM9UTIVE K+DOMS & CITY-/ATES1 MO/ (T5 AT CON/ANT W> EXT]NALLY & LOCK$ 9 CON/ANT POLITICAL DEBATE )94 ,EA* CASE WITNESS$ ! DEVELOPM5T ( SOME?+ AK9 TO A DROP-\T CULTURE1 ) ASCETICS & SAGES FLEE+ TO ! WILD]NESS OR W&]+ FROM T[N TO T[N SEEK+ WISDOM2 9 EA*1 TOO1 !Y W]E EV5TUALLY REABSORB$ 9TO ! POLITICAL ORD] AS A NEW K9D ( 9TELLECTUAL OR SPIRITUAL ELITE1 :E!R AS ,GREEK SOPHI/S1 ,JEWI% PROPHETS1 ,*9ESE SAGES1 OR ,9DIAN HOLY M54 

,:ATEV] ! REASONS1 ! RESULT1 ,JASP]S >GU$1 WAS ! FIR/ P]IOD 9 HI/ORY 9 :I* HUMAN BE+S APPLI$ PR9CIPLES ( REASON$ 9QUIRY TO ! GREAT QUE/IONS ( HUMAN EXI/5CE4 ,HE OBS]V$ ?AT ALL !SE GREAT REGIONS ( ! WORLD1 ,*9A1 ,9DIA1 & ! ,M$IT]RANEAN1 SAW ! EM]G5CE ( REM>KABLY P>ALLEL PHILOSOPHICAL TR5DS1 FROM SKEPTICISM TO IDEALISM--9 FACT1 ALMO/ ! 5TIRE RANGE ( POSITIONS AB\T ! NATURE ( ! COSMOS1 M9D1 ACTION1 & ! 5DS ( HUMAN EXI/5CE ?AT HAVE REMA9$ ! /UFF ( PHILOSOPHY TO ?IS DAY4 ,AS ONE ( ,JASP]S' DISCIPLES LAT] PUT IT--OV]/AT+ ONLY SLI<TLY--0NO REALLY NEW IDEAS HAVE BE5 ADD$ S9CE ?AT TIME40.<#d#g#d.> 

,= ,JASP]S1 ! P]IOD BEG9S ) ! ,P]SIAN PROPHET ,ZOROA/]1 >\ND #h BC1 & 5DS >\ND #b BC1 TO BE FOLL[$ BY A ,SPIRITUAL ,AGE ?AT C5T]S ON FIGURES LIKE ,JESUS & ,MOHAMM$4 ,= MY [N PURPOSES1 ,I F9D IT MORE USEFUL TO COMB9E ! TWO4 ,LET US DEF9E ! ,AXIAL ,AGE1 !N1 AS RUNN+ FROM #h BC TO #f AD4.<#d#g#e.> ,?IS MAKES ! ,AXIAL ,AGE ! P]IOD ?AT SAW ! BIR? NOT ONLY ( ALL ! WORLD'S MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL T5D5CIES1 BUT ALSO1 ALL ( TODAY'S MAJOR WORLD RELIGIONS3 ,ZOROA/RIANISM1 ,PROPHETIC ,JUDAISM1 ,BUDDHISM1 ,JA9ISM1 ,H9DUISM1 ,CONFUCIANISM1 ,TAOISM1 ,*RI/IANITY1 & ,ISLAM4.<#d#g#f.> 

,! ATT5TIVE READ] MAY HAVE NOTIC$ ?AT ! CORE P]IOD ( ,JASP]'S ,AXIAL AGE--! LIFETIMES ( ,PY?AGORAS1 ,CONFUCIUS1 & ! ,BUDDHA--CORRESPONDS ALMO/ EXACTLY TO ! P]IOD 9 :I* CO9AGE WAS 9V5T$4 ,:AT'S MORE1 ! ?REE P>TS ( ! WORLD :]E CO9S W]E FIR/ 9V5T$ W]E ALSO ! V]Y P>TS ( ! WORLD :]E ?OSE SAGES LIV$2 9 FACT1 !Y BECAME ! EPIC5T]S ( ,AXIAL ,AGE RELIGI\S & PHILOSOPHICAL CREATIVITY3 ! K+DOMS & CITY-/ATES >\ND ! ,YELL[ ,RIV] 9 ,*9A1 ! ,GANGES VALLEY 9 NOR!RN ,9DIA1 & ! %ORES ( ! ,AEGEAN ,SEA4 

,:AT WAS ! CONNECTION8 ,WE MI<T />T BY ASK+3 ,:AT IS A CO98 ,! NORMAL DEF9ITION IS ?AT A CO9 IS A PIECE ( VALUABLE METAL1 %AP$ 9TO A /&>DIZ$ UNIT1 ) SOME EMBLEM OR M>K 9SCRIB$ TO AU!NTICATE IT4 ,! WORLD'S FIR/ CO9S APPE> TO HAVE BE5 CREAT$ )9 ! K+DOM ( ,LYDIA1 9 WE/]N ,ANATOLIA 7N[ ,TURKEY71 SOMETIME >\ND #f BC4.<#d#g#g.> ,!SE FIR/ ,LYDIAN CO9S W]E BASICALLY JU/ R\ND LUMPS ( ELECTRUM--A GOLD-SILV] ALLOY ?AT OCCURR$ NATURALLY 9 ! NE>BY ,PACTOLUS ,RIV]--?AT HAD BE5 HEAT$1 !N HAMM]$ ) SOME K9D ( 9SIGNIA4 ,! V]Y FIR/1 /AMP$ ONLY ) A FEW LETT]S1 APPE> TO HAVE BE5 MANUFACTUR$ BY ORD9>Y JEWEL]S1 BUT !SE DISAPPE>$ ALMO/ 9/ANTLY1 REPLAC$ BY CO9S MANUFACTUR$ 9 A NEWLY E/ABLI%$ ROYAL M9T4 ,GREEK CITIES ON ! ,ANATOLIAN COA/ SOON BEGAN TO /RIKE !IR [N CO9S1 & !Y CAME TO BE ADOPT$ 9 ,GREECE ITSELF2 ! SAME ?+ OCCURR$ 9 ! ,P]SIAN ,EMPIRE AFT] IT ABSORB$ ,LYDIA 9 #$g BC4 

,9 BO? ,9DIA & ,*9A1 WE CAN OBS]VE ! SAME PATT]N3 9V5T$ BY PRIVATE CITIZ5S1 CO9AGE WAS QUICKLY MONOPOLIZ$ BY ! /ATE4 ,! FIR/ ,9DIAN MONEY1 :I* SEEMS TO HAVE APPE>$ AT SOME PO9T 9 ! SIX? C5TURY1 CONSI/$ ( B>S ( SILV] TRIMM$ D[N TO UNI=M WEI<TS1 !N PUN*-M>K$ ) SOME K9D ( (FICIAL SYMBOL4.<#d#g#h.> ,MO/ ( ! EXAMPLES DISCOV]$ BY >*AEOLOGI/S CONTA9 NUM]\S ADDITIONAL C\NT]-PUN*ES1 PRESUMABLY ADD$ MU* 9 ! WAY ?AT A *ECK OR O!R CR$IT 9/RUM5T IS 5DORS$ BE=E BE+ TRANSF]R$4 ,?IS /RONGLY SUGGE/S ?AT !Y W]E BE+ H&L$ BY PEOPLE US$ TO DEAL+ ) MORE AB/RACT CR$IT 9/RUM5TS4.<#d#g#i.> ,MU* E>LY ,*9ESE CO9AGE ALSO %[S SIGNS ( HAV+ EVOLV$ DIRECTLY FROM SOCIAL CURR5CIES3 SOME W]E 9 FACT CA/ BRONZE 9 ! %APE ( C[RIES1 ?\< O!RS TOOK ! %APE ( DIM9UTIVE KNIVES1 DISKS1 OR SPADES4 ,9 EV]Y CASE1 LOCAL GOV]NM5TS QUICKLY /EPP$ 9--PRESUMABLY )9 ! SPACE ( AB\T A G5]ATION4.<#d#h.> ,H[EV]1 S9CE 9 EA* ( ! ?REE >EAS !RE WAS A PLE?ORA ( T9Y /ATES1 ?IS MEANT ?AT EA* 5D$ UP ) A WIDE V>IETY ( DIFF]5T CURR5CY SY/EMS4 ,= EXAMPLE1 >\ND #g BC1 NOR!RN ,9DIA WAS /ILL DIVID$ 9TO ,JANAPADAS OR 0TRIBAL T]RITORIES10 SOME ( !M MON>*IES & SOME REPUBLICS1 & 9 ! SIX? C5TURY !RE W]E /ILL AT LEA/ SIXTE5 MAJOR K+DOMS4 ,9 ,*9A1 ?IS WAS ! P]IOD :]E ! OLD ,ZH\ ,EMPIRE FIR/ DEVOLV$ 9TO VY+ PR9CIPALITIES 7! 0,SPR+ & ,AUTUMN0 P]IOD1 #g#b#b-#d#h#a BC71 !N SPL9T]$ 9TO ! *AOS ( ! 0,W>R+ ,/ATES0 7#d#g#e-#b#b#a BC47 ,LIKE ! ,GREEK CITY-/ATES1 ALL ( ! RESULT+ K+DOMS1 NO MATT] H[ DIM9UTIVE1 ASPIR$ TO ISSUE !IR [N (FICIAL CURR5CY4 

,REC5T S*OL>%IP HAS %$ A GREAT DEAL ( LI<T ON H[ ?IS MU/ HAVE HAPP5$4 ,GOLD1 SILV]1 & BRONZE--! MAT]IALS FROM :I* CO9S W]E MADE--HAD LONG BE5 ! M$IA ( 9T]NATIONAL TRADE2 BUT UNTIL ?AT TIME1 ONLY ! RI* HAD ACTUALLY HAD MU* 9 !IR POSSESSION4 ,A TYPICAL ,SUM]IAN F>M] MAY WELL HAVE NEV] HAD OCCASION TO HOLD A SUB/ANTIAL PIECE ( SILV] 9 HIS H&1 EXCEPT P]HAPS AT HIS W$D+4 ,MO/ PRECI\S METALS TOOK ! =M ( WEAL?Y WOM5'S ANKLETS & HEIRLOOM *ALICES PRES5T$ BY K+S TO !IR RETA9]S1 OR IT WAS SIMPLY /OCKPIL$ 9 TEMPLES1 9 +OT =M1 AS SURETIES = LOANS4 ,SOMEH[1 DUR+ ! ,AXIAL ,AGE1 ALL ?IS BEGAN TO *ANGE4 ,L>GE AM\NTS ( SILV]1 GOLD1 & COPP] W]E DE!SAURIZ$1 AS ! ECONOMIC HI/ORIANS LIKE TO SAY2 IT WAS REMOV$ FROM ! TEMPLES & H\SES ( ! RI* & PLAC$ 9 ! H&S ( ORD9>Y PEOPLE1 WAS BROK5 9TO T9I] PIECES1 & BEGAN TO BE US$ 9 EV]YDAY TRANSACTIONS4 

,H[8 ,ISRAELI ,CLASSICI/ ,DAVID ,S*APS PROVIDES ! MO/ PLAUSIBLE SUGGE/ION3 MO/ ( IT WAS /OL54 ,?IS WAS A P]IOD ( G5]ALIZ$ W>F>E1 & IT IS 9 ! NATURE ( W> ?AT PRECI\S ?+S >E PLUND]$4 

,SOLDI]S :O PLUND] MAY 9DE$ GO FIR/ = ! WOM51 ! ALCOHOLIC DR9KS1 OR ! FOOD1 BUT !Y WILL ALSO BE LOOK+ >\ND = ?+S ( VALUE ?AT >E EASILY PORTABLE4 ,A LONG-T]M /&+ >MY WILL T5D TO ACCUMULATE MANY ?+S ?AT >E VALUABLE & PORTABLE--& ! MO/ VALUABLE & PORTABLE ITEMS >E PRECI\S METALS & PRECI\S /ONES4 ,IT MAY WELL HAVE BE5 ! PROTRACT$ W>S AMONG ! /ATES ( !SE >EAS ?AT FIR/ PRODUC$ A L>GE POPULATION ( PEOPLE ) PRECI\S METAL 9 !IR POSSESSION & A NE$ = EV]YDAY NECESSITIES 444 

,:]E !RE >E PEOPLE :O WANT TO BUY !RE WILL BE PEOPLE WILL+ TO SELL1 AS 9NUM]ABLE TRACTS ON BLACK M>KETS1 DRUG DEAL+1 & PRO/ITUTION PO9T \T 444 ,! CON/ANT W>F>E ( ! >*AIC AGE ( ,GREECE1 ( ! ,JANAPADAS ( ,9DIA1 ( ! ,W>R+ ,/ATES ( ,*9A1 WAS A P[]FUL IMPETUS = ! DEVELOPM5T ( M>KET TRADE1 & 9 P>TICUL> = M>KET TRADE BAS$ ON ! EX*ANGE ( PRECI\S METAL1 USUALLY 9 SMALL AM\NTS4 ,IF PLUND] BR\<T PRECI\S METAL 9TO ! H&S ( ! SOLDI]S1 ! M>KET WILL HAVE SPREAD IT ?R\< ! POPULATION4.<#d#h#a.> 

,N[1 ONE MI<T OBJECT3 BUT SURELY1 W> & PLUND] W]E NO?+ NEW4 ,! ,HOM]IC EPICS1 = 9/ANCE1 %[ A WELL-NI< OBSESSIVE 9T]E/ 9 ! DIVISION ( ! SPOILS4 ,TRUE1 BUT :AT ! ,AXIAL ,AGE ALSO SAW--AGA91 EQUALLY 9 ,*9A1 ,9DIA1 & ! ,AEGEAN--WAS ! RISE ( A NEW K9D ( >MY1 MADE UP NOT ( >I/OCRATIC W>RIORS & !IR RETA9]S1 BUT TRA9$ PR(ESSIONALS4 ,! P]IOD :5 ! ,GREEKS BEGAN TO USE CO9AGE1 = 9/ANCE1 WAS ALSO ! P]IOD :5 !Y DEVELOP$ !IR FAM\S PHALANX TACTICS1 :I* REQUIR$ CON/ANT DRILL & TRA9+ ( ! HOPLITE SOLDI]S4 ,! RESULTS W]E SO EXTRAORD9>ILY EFFECTIVE ?AT ,GREEK M]C5>IES W]E SOON BE+ S\<T AFT] FROM ,EGYPT TO ,CRIMEA4 ,BUT UNLIKE ! ,HOM]IC RETA9]S1 :O C\LD SIMPLY BE IGNOR$1 AN >MY ( TRA9$ M]C5>IES NE$S TO BE REW>D$ 9 SOME MEAN+FUL WAY4 ,ONE C\LD P]HAPS PROVIDE !M ALL ) LIVE/OCK1 BUT LIVE/OCK >E H>D TO TRANSPORT2 OR ) PROMISSORY NOTES1 BUT !SE W\LD BE WOR?LESS 9 ! M]C5>IES' [N C\NTRY4 ,ALL[+ EA* A T9Y %>E ( ! PLUND] DOES SEEM AN OBVI\S SOLUTION4 

,!SE NEW >MIES W]E1 DIRECTLY OR 9DIRECTLY1 UND] ! CONTROL ( GOV]NM5TS1 & IT TOOK GOV]NM5TS TO TURN !SE *UNKS ( METAL 9TO G5U9E CURR5CY4 ,! MA9 REASON = ?IS IS SIMPLY SCALE3 TO CREATE 5\< CO9S ?AT ! PEOPLE C\LD BEG9 TO USE !M 9 EV]YDAY TRANSACTIONS REQUIR$ MASS PRODUCTION ON A SCALE F> BEYOND ! ABILITIES ( LOCAL M]*ANTS OR SMI?S4.<#d#h#b.> ,( C\RSE WE HAVE ALREADY SE5 :Y GOV]NM5TS MI<T HAVE 9C5TIVE TO DO SO3 ! EXI/5CE ( M>KETS WAS HI<LY CONV5I5T = GOV]NM5TS1 & NOT JU/ BECAUSE IT MADE IT SO MU* EASI] = !M TO PROVISION L>GE /&+ >MIES4 ,BY 9SI/+ ?AT ONLY !IR [N CO9S W]E ACCEPTABLE AS FEES1 F9ES1 OR TAXES1 GOV]NM5TS W]E ABLE TO OV]:ELM ! 9NUM]ABLE SOCIAL CURR5CIES ?AT ALREADY EXI/$ 9 !IR H9T]L&S1 & TO E/ABLI% SOME?+ LIKE UNI=M NATIONAL M>KETS4 

,ACTUALLY1 ONE !ORY IS ?AT ! V]Y FIR/ ,LYDIAN CO9S W]E 9V5T$ EXPLICITLY TO PAY M]C5>IES4.<#d#h#c.> ,?IS MI<T HELP EXPLA9 :Y ! ,GREEKS1 :O SUPPLI$ MO/ ( ! M]C5>IES1 SO QUICKLY BECAME ACCU/OM$ TO ! USE ( CO9S1 & :Y ! USE ( CO9AGE SPREAD SO QUICKLY ACROSS ! ,HELL5IC WORLD1 SO ?AT BY #dh BC !RE W]E AT LEA/ ONE HUNDR$ M9TS OP]AT+ 9 DIFF]5T ,GREEK CITIES1 EV5 ?\< AT ?AT TIME1 NONE ( ! GREAT TRAD+ NATIONS ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN HAD AS YET %[$ ! SLI<TE/ 9T]E/ 9 !M4 ,! ,PHO5ICIANS1 = EXAMPLE1 W]E CONSID]$ ! GREATE/ M]*ANTS & BANK]S ( ANTIQUITY4.<#d#h#d.> ,!Y W]E ALSO GREAT 9V5TORS1 HAV+ BE5 ! FIR/ TO DEVELOP BO? ! ALPHABET & ! ABACUS4 ,YET = C5TURIES AFT] ! 9V5TION ( CO9AGE1 !Y PREF]R$ TO CONT9UE CONDUCT+ BUS9ESS AS !Y ALWAYS HAD1 ) UNWR\<T +OTS & PROMISSORY NOTES4.<#d#h#e.> ,PHO5ICIAN CITIES /RUCK NO CO9S UNTIL #cfe BC1 & :ILE ,C>?AGE1 ! GREAT ,PHO5ICIAN COLONY 9 ,NOR? ,AFRICA ?AT CAME TO DOM9ATE COMM]CE 9 ! ,WE/]N ,M$IT]RANEAN1 DID SO A BIT E>LI]1 IT WAS ONLY :5 0=C$ TO DO SO TO PAY ,SICILIAN M]C5>IES2 & ITS ISSUES W]E M>K$ 9 ,PUNIC1 '= ! PEOPLE ( ! CAMP4' 0.<#d#h#f.> 

,ON ! O!R H&1 9 ! EXTRAORD9>Y VIOL5CE ( ! ,AXIAL ,AGE1 BE+ A 0GREAT TRAD+ NATION0 7RA!R ?AN1 SAY1 AN AGGRESSIVE MILIT>Y P[] LIKE ,P]SIA1 ,A!NS1 OR ,ROME7 WAS NOT1 ULTIMATELY1 A W9N+ PROPOSITION4 ,! FATE ( ! ,PHO5ICIAN CITIES IS 9/RUCTIVE4 ,SIDON1 ! WEAL?IE/1 WAS DE/ROY$ BY ! ,P]SIAN EMP]OR ,>TAX]XES ,I,I,I AFT] A REVOLT 9 #cea BC4 ,=TY ?\S& ( ITS 9HABITANTS >E SAID TO HAVE COMMITT$ MASS SUICIDE RA!R ?AN SURR5D]4 ,N9ETE5 YE>S LAT]1 ,TIRE WAS DE/ROY$ AFT] A PROLONG$ SIEGE BY ,ALEX&]3 T5 ?\S& DI$ 9 BATTLE1 & ! ?IRTY ?\S& SURVIVORS W]E SOLD 9TO SLAV]Y4 ,C>?AGE LA/$ LONG]1 BUT :5 ,ROMAN >MIES F9ALLY DE/ROY$ ! CITY 9 #adf BC1 HUNDR$S ( ?\S&S ( ,C>?AG9IANS W]E SAID TO HAVE BE5 RAP$ & SLAU<T]$1 & FIFTY ?\S& CAPTIVES PUT ON ! AUCTION BLOCK1 AFT] :I* ! CITY ITSELF WAS RAZ$ & ITS FIELDS S[$ ) SALT4 

,ALL ?IS MAY BR+ HOME SOME?+ ( ! LEVEL ( VIOL5CE AMID :I* ,AXIAL ,AGE ?\<T DEVELOP$4.<#d#h#g.> ,BUT IT ALSO LEAVES US ASK+3 ,:AT EXACTLY WAS ! ONGO+ RELATION AMONG CO9AGE1 MILIT>Y P[]1 & ?IS UNPREC$5T$ \TP\R+ ( IDEAS8 

,! ,M$IT]RANEAN 

  

,H]E AGA9 \R BE/ 9=MATION IS FROM ! ,M$IT]RANEAN WORLD1 & ,I HAVE ALREADY PROVID$ SOME ( ITS \TL9ES4 ,COMP>+ ,A!NS--) ITS F>-FLUNG NAVAL EMPIRE--& ,ROME1 WE CAN IMM$IATELY DETECT /RIK+ SIMIL>ITIES4 ,9 EA* CITY1 HI/ORY BEG9S ) A S]IES ( DEBT CRISES4 ,9 ,A!NS1 ! FIR/ CRISIS1 ! ONE ?AT CULM9AT$ 9 ,SOLON'S RE=MS ( #eid BC1 WAS SO E>LY ?AT CO9AGE C\LD H>DLY HAVE BE5 A FACTOR4 ,9 ,ROME1 TOO1 ! E>LIE/ CRISES SEEM TO HAVE PROCE$$ ! ADV5T ( CURR5CY4 ,RA!R1 9 EA* CASE1 CO9AGE BECAME A SOLUTION4 ,9 BRIEF1 ONE MI<T SAY ?AT !SE CONFLICTS OV] DEBT HAD TWO POSSIBLE \TCOMES4 ,! FIR/ WAS ?AT ! >I/OCRATS C\LD W91 & ! POOR REMA9 0SLAVES ( ! RI*0--:I* 9 PRACTICE MEANT ?AT MO/ PEOPLE W\LD 5D UP CLI5TS ( SOME WEAL?Y PATRON4 ,SU* /ATES W]E G5]ALLY MILIT>ILY 9EFFECTIVE4.<#d#h#h.> ,! SECOND WAS ?AT POPUL> FACTIONS C\LD PREVAIL1 9/ITUTE ! USUAL POPUL> PROGRAM ( R$I/RIBUTION ( L&S & SAFEGU>DS AGA9/ DEBT PEONAGE1 ?US CREAT+ ! BASIS = A CLASS ( FREE F>M]S :OSE *ILDR5 W\LD1 9 TURN1 BE FREE TO SP5D MU* ( !IR TIME TRA9+ = W>4.<#d#h#i.> 

,CO9AGE PLAY$ A CRITICAL ROLE 9 MA9TA9+ ?IS K9D ( FREE PEASANTRY--SECURE 9 !IR L&HOLD+1 NOT TI$ TO ANY GREAT LORD BY BONDS ( DEBT4 ,9 FACT1 ! FISCAL POLICIES ( MANY ,GREEK CITIES AM\NT$ TO LITTLE MORE ?AN ELABORATE SY/EMS = ! DI/RIBUTION ( LOOT4 ,IT'S IMPORTANT TO EMPHASIZE ?AT FEW ANCI5T CITIES1 IF ANY1 W5T SO F> AS TO \TLAW PR$ATORY L5D+1 OR EV5 DEBT PEONAGE1 5TIRELY4 ,9/EAD1 !Y ?REW MONEY AT ! PROBLEM4 ,GOLD1 & ESPECIALLY SILV]1 W]E ACQUIR$ 9 W>1 OR M9$ BY SLAVES CAPTUR$ 9 W>4 ,M9TS W]E LOCAT$ 9 TEMPLES 7! TRADITIONAL PLACE = DEPOSIT+ SPOILS71 & CITY-/ATES DEVELOP$ 5DLESS WAYS TO DI/RIBUTE CO9S1 NOT ONLY TO SOLDI]S1 SAILORS1 & ?OSE PRODUC+ >MS OR \TFITT+ %IPS1 BUT TO ! POPULACE G5]ALLY1 AS JURY FEES1 FEES = ATT5D+ PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES1 OR SOMETIMES JU/ AS \TRI<T DI/RIBUTIONS1 AS ,A!NS DID MO/ FAM\SLY :5 !Y DISCOV]$ A NEW VE9 ( SILV] 9 ! M9ES AT ,LAURIUM 9 #dhc BC4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 9SI/+ ?AT ! SAME CO9S S]V$ AS LEGAL T5D] = ALL PAYM5TS DUE TO ! /ATE GU>ANTE$ ?AT !Y W\LD BE 9 SUFFICI5T DEM& ?AT M>KETS W\LD SOON DEVELOP4 

,MANY ( ! POLITICAL CRISES 9 ANCI5T ,GREEK CITIES SIMIL>LY TURN$ ON ! DI/RIBUTION ( ! SPOILS4 ,H]E IS ANO!R 9CID5T RECORD$ 9 ,>I/OTLE1 :O PROVIDES A CONS]VATIVE TAKE ON ! ORIG9S ( A C\P 9 ! CITY ( ,RHODES >\ND #cia BC 70DEMAGOGUES0 H]E REF]S TO ! LEAD]S ( ! DEMOCRACY73 

,! DEMAGOGUES NE$$ MONEY TO PAY ! PEOPLE = ATT5D+ ! ASSEMBLY & S]V+ ON JURIES2 = IF ! PEOPLE DID NOT ATT5D1 ! DEMAGOGUES W\LD LOSE !IR 9FLU5CE4 ,!Y RAIS$ AT LEA/ SOME ( ! MONEY !Y NE$$ BY PREV5T+ ! DISBURSEM5T ( ! MONEY DUE ! TRIREME .<W>%IP.> COMM&]S UND] !IR CONTRACTS ) ! CITY TO BUILD & FIT TRIREMES = ! ,RHODIAN NAVY4 ,S9CE ! TRIREME COMM&]S W]E NOT PAID1 !Y W]E UNABLE 9 TURN TO PAY !IR SUPPLI]S & WORK]S1 :O SU$ ! TRIREME COMM&]S4 ,TO ESCAPE !SE LAWSUITS ! TRIREME COMM&]S B&$ TOGE!R & OV]?REW ! DEMOCRACY4.<#d#i.> 

,IT WAS SLAV]Y1 ?\<1 ?AT MADE ALL ?IS POSSIBLE4 ,AS ! FIGURES CONC]N+ ,SIDON1 ,TIRE1 & ,C>?AGE SUGGE/1 5ORM\S NUMB]S ( PEOPLE W]E BE+ 5SLAV$ 9 MANY ( !SE CONFLICTS1 &1 ( C\RSE1 MANY SLAVES 5D$ UP WORK+ 9 ! M9ES1 PRODUC+ EV5 MORE GOLD1 SILV]1 & COPP]4 7,! M9ES 9 ,LAURIUM REPORT$LY EMPLOY$ T5 TO TW5TY ?\S& ( !M47.<#d#i#a.> 

,GE(FREY ,+HAM CALLS ! RESULT+ SY/EM A 0MILIT>Y-CO9AGE COMPLEX0--?\< ,I ?9K IT W\LD BE MORE ACCURATE TO CALL IT A 0MILIT>Y-CO9AGE-SLAV]Y COMPLEX40.<#d#i#b.> ,ANYWAY1 ?AT DESCRIBES RA!R NICELY H[ IT WORK$ 9 PRACTICE4 ,:5 ,ALEX&] SET \T TO CONQU] ! ,P]SIAN ,EMPIRE1 HE BORR[$ MU* ( ! MONEY ) :I* TO PAY & PROVISION HIS TROOPS1 & HE M9T$ HIS FIR/ CO9S1 US$ TO PAY HIS CR$ITORS & CONT9UE TO SUPPORT ! MONEY1 BY MELT+ D[N GOLD & SILV] PLUND]$ AFT] HIS 9ITIAL VICTORIES4.<#d#i#c.> ,H[EV]1 AN EXP$ITION>Y =CE NE$$ TO BE PAID1 & PAID WELL3 ,ALEX&]'S >MY1 :I* NUMB]$ SOME #a#b1 M51 REQUIR$ HALF A TON ( SILV] A DAY JU/ = WAGES4 ,= ?IS REASON1 CONQUE/ MEANT ?AT ! EXI/+ ,P]SIAN SY/EM ( M9ES & M9TS HAD TO BE REORGANIZ$ >\ND PROVID+ = ! 9VAD+ >MY2 & ANCI5T M9ES1 ( C\RSE1 W]E WORK$ BY SLAVES4 ,9 TURN1 MO/ SLAVES 9 M9ES W]E W> CAPTIVES4 ,PRESUMABLY MO/ ( ! UN=TUNATE SURVIVORS ( ! SIEGE ( ,TIRE 5D$ UP WORK+ 9 SU* M9ES4 ,ONE CAN SEE H[ ?IS PROCESS MI<T FE$ UPON ITSELF4.<#d#i#d.> 

,ALEX&] WAS ALSO ! MAN RESPONSIBLE = DE/ROY+ :AT REMA9$ ( ! ANCI5T CR$IT SY/EMS1 S9CE NOT ONLY ! ,PHO5ICIANS BUT ALSO ! OLD ,MESOPOTAMIAN HE>TL& HAD RESI/$ ! NEW CO9 ECONOMY4 ,HIS >MIES NOT ONLY DE/ROY$ ,TIRE2 !Y ALSO DE!SAURIZ$ ! GOLD & SILV] RES]VES ( ,BABYLONIAN & ,P]SIAN TEMPLES1 ! SECURITY ON :I* !IR CR$IT SY/EMS W]E BAS$1 & 9SI/$ ?AT ALL TAXES TO HIS NEW GOV]NM5T BE PAID 9 HIS [N MONEY4 ,! RESULT WAS TO 0RELEASE ! ACCUMULAT$ SPECIE ( C5TURY ONTO ! M>KET 9 A MATT] ( MON?S10 SOME?+ LIKE #a#h1 TAL5TS1 OR 9 CONTEMPOR>Y T]MS1 AN E/IMAT$ @s#b#h#e BILLION4.<#d#i#e.> 

,! ,HELL5I/IC SUCCESSOR K+DOMS E/ABLI%$ BY ,ALEX&]'S G5]ALS1 FROM ,GREECE TO ,9DIA1 EMPLOY$ M]C5>IES RA!R ?AN NATIONAL >MIES1 BUT ! /ORY ( ,ROME IS1 AGA91 SIMIL> TO ?AT ( ,A!NS4 ,ITS E>LY HI/ORY1 AS RECORD$ BY (FICIAL *RONICL]S LIKE ,LIVY1 IS ONE ( CONT9UAL /RUGGLES BETWE5 PATRICIANS & PLEBIANS1 & ( CONT9UAL CRISES OV] DEBT4 ,P]IODICALLY1 !SE W\LD LEAD TO :AT W]E CALL$ MOM5TS ( 0! SECESSION ( ! PLEBS10 :5 ! COMMON]S ( ! CITY AB&ON$ !IR FIELDS & WORK%OPS1 CAMP$ \TSIDE ! CITY1 & ?REAT5$ MASS DEFECTION--AN 9T]E/+ HALFWAY PO9T BETWE5 ! POPUL> REVOLTS ( ,GREECE & ! /RATEGY ( EXODUS TYPICALLY PURSU$ 9 ,EGYPT & ,MESOPOTAMIA4 ,H]E1 TOO1 ! PATRICIANS W]E ULTIMATELY FAC$ ) A DECISION3 !Y C\LD USE AGRICULTURAL LOANS TO GRADUALLY TURN ! PLEBIAN POPULATION 9TO A CLASS ( BOND$ LABOR]S ON !IR E/ATES1 OR !Y C\LD ACC$E TO POPUL> DEM&S = DEBT PROTECTION1 PRES]VE A FREE PEASANTRY1 & EMPLOY ! Y\NG] SONS ( FREE F>M FAMILIES AS SOLDI]S4.<#d#i#f.> ,AS ! PROLONG$ HI/ORY ( CRISES1 SECESSIONS1 & RE=MS MAKES CLE>1 ! *OICE WAS MADE GRUDG+LY4.<#d#i#g.> ,! PLEBS PRACTICALLY HAD TO =CE ! S5ATORIAL CLASS TO TAKE ! IMP]IAL OPTION4 ,/ILL1 !Y DID1 & OV] TIME !Y GRADUALLY PRESID$ OV] ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A WELF>E SY/EM ?AT RECYCL$ AT LEA/ A %>E ( ! SPOILS TO SOLDI]S1 VET]ANS1 & !IR FAMILIES4 

,IT SEEMS SIGNIFICANT1 9 ?IS LI<T1 ?AT ! TRADITIONAL DATE ( ! FIR/ ,ROMAN CO9AGE--#c#c#h BC--IS ALMO/ EXACTLY ! DATE :5 DEBT BONDAGE WAS F9ALLY \TLAW$ 7#c#b#f BC74.<#d#i#h.> ,AGA91 CO9AGE1 M9T$ FROM W> SPOILS1 DIDN'T CAUSE ! CRISIS4 ,IT WAS US$ AS A SOLUTION4 

,9 FACT1 ! 5TIRE ,ROMAN EMPIRE1 AT ITS HEI<T1 C\LD BE UND]/OOD AS A VA/ MA*9E = ! EXTRACTION ( PRECI\S METALS & !IR CO9+ & DI/RIBUTION TO ! MILIT>Y--COMB9$ ) TAXATION POLICIES DESIGN$ TO 5C\RAGE CONQU]$ POPULATIONS TO ADOPT CO9S 9 !IR EV]YDAY TRANSACTIONS4 ,EV5 SO1 = MO/ ( ITS HI/ORY1 USE ( CO9S WAS HEAVILY CONC5TRAT$ 9 TWO REGIONS3 9 ,ITALY & A FEW MAJOR CITIES1 & ON ! FRONTI]S1 :]E ! LEGIONS W]E ACTUALLY /ATION$4 ,9 >EAS :]E !RE W]E NEI!R M9ES NOR MILIT>Y OP]ATIONS1 OLD] CR$IT SY/EMS PRESUMABLY CONT9U$ TO OP]ATE4 

,I WILL ADD ONE F9AL NOTE H]E4 ,9 ,GREECE AS 9 ,ROME1 ATTEMPTS TO SOLVE ! DEBT CRISIS ?R\< MILIT>Y EXPANSION W]E ALWAYS1 ULTIMATELY1 JU/ WAYS ( F5D+ (F ! PROBLEM--& !Y ONLY WORK$ = A LIMIT$ P]IOD ( TIME4 ,:5 EXPANSION /OPP$1 EV]Y?+ RETURN$ TO AS IT HAD BE5 BE=E4 ,ACTUALLY1 IT'S NOT CLE> ?AT ALL =MS ( DEBT BONDAGE W]E EV] 5TIRELY ELIM9AT$ EV5 9 CITIES LIKE ,A!NS & ,ROME4 ,9 CITIES ?AT W]E NOT SUCCESSFUL MILIT>Y P[]S1 )\T ANY S\RCE ( 9COME TO SET UP WELF>E POLICIES1 DEBT CRISES CONT9U$ TO FL>E UP EV]Y C5TURY OR SO--& !Y (T5 BECAME F> MORE ACUTE ?AN !Y EV] HAD 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,EA/1 BECAUSE !RE WAS NO ME*ANISM1 %ORT ( \TRI<T REVOLUTION1 TO DECL>E A ,MESOPOTAMIAN-/YLE CLEAN SLATE4 ,L>GE POPULATIONS1 EV5 9 ! ,GREEK WORLD1 DID1 9 FACT1 S9K TO ! RANK ( S]FS & CLI5TS4.<#d#i#i.> 

,A!NIANS1 AS WE'VE SE51 SEEM$ TO ASSUME ?AT A G5TLEMAN NORMALLY LIV$ A /EP OR TWO AHEAD ( HIS CR$ITORS4 ,ROMAN POLITICIANS W]E LITTLE DIFF]5T4 ,( C\RSE MU* ( ! DEBT WAS MONEY ?AT MEMB]S ( ! S5ATORIAL CLASS [$ TO EA* O!R3 9 A WAY1 IT'S JU/ ! USUAL COMMUNISM ( ! RI*1 EXT5D+ CR$IT TO ONE ANO!R ON EASY T]MS ?AT !Y W\LD NEV] ?9K TO (F] O!RS4 ,/ILL1 UND] ! LATE ,REPUBLIC1 HI/ORY RECORDS MANY 9TRIGUES & CONSPIRACIES HAT*$ BY DESP]ATE DEBTORS1 (T5 >I/OCRATS DRIV5 BY REL5TLESS CR$ITORS TO MAKE COMMON CAUSE ) ! POOR4.<#e.> ,IF WE HE> LESS AB\T ?IS SORT ( ?+ HAPP5+ UND] ! EMP]ORS1 IT'S PROBABLY BECAUSE !RE W]E FEW] OPPORTUNITIES = PROTE/2 :AT EVID5CE WE HAVE SUGGE/S ?AT IF ANY?+1 ! PROBLEM GOT MU* WORSE4.<#e#a.> ,>\ND #a AD1 ,PLUT>* WROTE AB\T HIS [N C\NTRY AS IF IT W]E UND] =EIGN 9VASION3 

,& AS ,K+ ,D>IUS S5T TO ! CITY ( ,A!NS HIS LIEUT5ANTS ,DATIS & ,>TAPH]NES ) *A9S & CORDS1 TO B9D ! PRISON]S !Y %\LD TAKE2 SO !SE USUR]S1 BR++ 9TO ,GREECE BOXES FULL ( S*$ULES1 BILLS1 & OBLIGATORY CONTRACTS1 AS SO MANY IRONS & FETT]S = ! %ACKL+ ( POOR CRIM9ALS 444 

,= AT ! V]Y DELIV]Y ( !IR MONEY1 !Y IMM$IATELY ASK IT BACK1 TAK+ IT UP AT ! SAME MOM5T !Y LAY IT D[N2 & !Y LET \T ?AT AGA9 TO 9T]E/ :I* !Y TAKE = ! USE ( :AT !Y HAVE BE=E L5T4 

,SO ?AT !Y LAU< AT ?OSE NATURAL PHILOSOPH]S :O HOLD ?AT NO?+ CAN BE MADE ( NO?+ & ( ?AT :I* HAS NO EXI/5CE2 BUT ) !M USURY IS MADE & 5G5D]$ ( ?AT :I* NEI!R IS NOR EV] WAS4.<#e#b.> 

,! WORKS ( ! E>LY ,*RI/IAN FA!RS LIKEWISE RES\ND ) 5DLESS DESCRIPTIONS ( ! MIS]Y & DESP]ATION ( ?OSE CAU<T 9 RI* L5D]S' WEBS4 ,9 ! 5D1 ?R\< ?IS MEANS1 ?AT SMALL W9D[ ( FRE$OM ?AT HAD BE5 CREAT$ BY ! PLEBS WAS COMPLETELY UNDONE1 & ! FREE PEASANTRY L>GELY ELIM9AT$4 ,BY ! 5D ( ! EMPIRE1 MO/ PEOPLE 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE :O W]5'T \TRI<T SLAVES HAD BECOME1 EFFECTIVELY1 DEBT PEONS TO SOME RI* L&LORD2 A SITUATION 9 ! 5D LEGALLY =MALIZ$ BY IMP]IAL DECREES B9D+ PEASANTS TO ! L&4.<#e#c.> ,)\T A FREE PEASANTRY TO =M ! BASIS = ! >MY1 ! /ATE WAS =C$ TO RELY MORE & MORE ON >M+ & EMPLOY+ ,G]MANIC B>B>IANS FROM ACROSS ! IMP]IAL FRONTI]S--) RESULTS ,I NE$ H>DLY RELATE4 

,9DIA 

  

,9 MO/ WAYS1 ,9DIA C\LD NOT BE MORE DIFF]5T AS A CIVILIZATION ?AN ! ANCI5T ,M$IT]RANEAN--BUT TO A REM>KABLE DEGREE1 ! SAME BASIC PATT]N REPEATS ITSELF !RE AS WELL4 

,! ,BRONZE ,AGE CIVILIZATION ( ! ,9DUS ,VALLEY COLLAPS$ SOMETIME >\ND #af BC2 IT W\LD BE AB\T A ?\S& YE>S BE=E ,9DIA SAW ! EM]G5CE ( ANO!R URBAN CIVILIZATION4 ,:5 IT DID1 ?AT CIVILIZATION WAS C5T]$ ON ! F]TILE PLA9S ?AT SURR\ND$ ! ,GANGES F>!R EA/4 ,H]E TOO WE OBS]VE1 AT FIR/1 A *ECK]BO>D ( DIFF]5T SORTS ( GOV]NM5T1 FROM ! FAM\S 0,KSATRIYA REPUBLICS0 ) A POPULACE 9 >MS & URBAN DEMOCRATIC ASSEMBLIES1 TO ELECTIVE MON>*IES1 TO C5TRALIZ$ EMPIRES LIKE ,KOSALA & ,MAGADHA4.<#e#d.> ,BO? ,GAUTAMA 7! FUTURE ,BUDDHA71 & ,MAHAVIRA 7! F\ND] ( ,JA9ISM7 W]E BORN 9 ONE ( ! REPUBLICS1 ?\< BO? ULTIMATELY F\ND !MSELVES TEA*+ )9 ! GREAT EMPIRES1 :OSE RUL]S (T5 BECAME PATRONS ( W&]+ ASCETICS & PHILOSOPH]S4 

,BO? K+DOMS & REPUBLICS PRODUC$ !IR [N SILV] & COPP] CO9AGE1 BUT 9 SOME WAYS ! REPUBLICS W]E MORE TRADITIONAL1 S9CE ! SELF-GOV]N+ 0POPULACE 9 >MS0 CONSI/$ ( ! TRADITIONAL ,KSATRIYA OR W>RIOR CA/E1 :O TYPICALLY HELD !IR L&S 9 COMMON & HAD !M WORK$ BY S]FS OR SLAVES4.<#e#e.> ,! K+DOMS1 ON ! O!R H&1 W]E F\ND$ ON A FUNDAM5TALLY NEW 9/ITUTION3 A TRA9$1 PR(ESSIONAL >MY1 OP5 TO Y\NG M5 ( A WIDE V>IETY ( BACKGR\NDS1 !IR EQUIPM5T SUPPLI$ BY C5TRAL AU?ORITIES 7SOLDI]S W]E OBLIG$ TO *ECK !IR >MS & >MOR :5 !Y 5T]$ CITIES71 & PROVID$ ) G5]\S SAL>IES4 

,:ATEV] !IR ORIG9S1 H]E TOO1 CO9S & M>KETS SPRUNG UP ABOVE ALL TO FE$ ! MA*9]Y ( W>4 ,MAGADHA1 :I* ULTIMATELY CAME \T ON TOP1 DID SO L>GELY BECAUSE IT CONTROLL$ MO/ ( ! M9ES4 ,KAUTILYA'S ,>?ASA/RA1 A POLITICAL TREATISE WRITT5 BY ONE ( ! *IEF M9I/]S = ! ,MAURYAN DYNA/Y ?AT SUCCE$$ IT 7#c#b#a-#a#h#e BC71 /AT$ ! MATT] PRECISELY3 0,! TREASURY IS BAS$ UPON M9+1 ! >MY UPON ! TREASURY2 HE :O HAS >MY & TREASURY MAY CONQU] ! :OLE WIDE E>?40.<#e#f.> ,! GOV]NM5T DREW ITS P]SONNEL FIR/ ( ALL FROM A L&$ CLASS1 :I* PROVID$ TRA9$ ADM9I/RATORS1 BUT EV5 MORE1 FULL-TIME SOLDI]S3 ! SAL>IES ( EA* RANK ( SOLDI] & ADM9I/RATOR W]E C>EFULLY /IPULAT$4 ,!SE >MIES C\LD BE HUGE4 ,GREEK S\RCES REPORT ?AT ,MAGADHA C\LD PUT TO ! FIELD A =CE ( #b1 9FANTRY1 #b1 HORSES1 & AB\T #d1 ELEPHANTS--& ?AT ,ALEX&]'S M5 MUT9I$ RA!R ?AN HAVE TO FACE !M4 ,:E!R ON CAMPAIGN OR 9 G>RISON1 !Y W]E 9EVITABLY ACCOMPANI$ BY A RANGE ( DIFF]5T SORTS ( CAMP FOLL[]S--PETTY TRAD]S1 PRO/ITUTES1 & HIR$ S]VANTS--:I*1 ) ! SOLDI]S1 SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 ! V]Y M$IUM ?R\< :I* A CA% ECONOMY HAD ORIG9ALLY TAK5 =M4.<#e#g.> ,BY ,KAUTILYA'S TIME1 A FEW HUNDR$ YE>S LAT]1 ! /ATE WAS 9S]T+ ITSELF 9TO EV]Y ASPECT ( ! PROCESS3 ,KAUTILYA SUGGE/S PAY+ SOLDI]S APP>5TLY G5]\S WAGES1 !N SECRETLY REPLAC+ HAWK]S ) GOV]NM5T AG5TS :O C\LD *>GE !M TWICE ! NORMAL RATES = SUPPLIES1 AS WELL AS ORGANIZ+ PRO/ITUTES UND] A M9I/RY 9 :I* !Y C\LD BE TRA9$ AS SPIES1 SO AS TO MAKE DETAIL$ REPORTS ON !IR CLI5TS' LOYALTIES4 

,?US WAS ! M>KET ECONOMY1 BORN ( W>1 GRADUALLY TAK5 OV] BY ! GOV]NM5T4 ,RA!R ?AN /IFLE ! SPREAD ( CURR5CY1 ! PROCESS SEEMS TO HAVE D\BL$ & EV5 TRIPL$ IT3 ! MILIT>Y LOGIC WAS EXT5D$ TO ! 5TIRE ECONOMY1 ! GOV]NM5T SY/EMATICALLY SETT+ UP ITS GRAN>IES1 WORK%OPS1 TRAD+ H\SES1 W>EH\SES1 & JAILS1 /AFF$ BY SAL>I$ (FICIALS1 & ALL SELL+ PRODUCTS ON ! M>KET SO AS TO COLLECT ! PIECES ( SILV] PAID (F TO SOLDI]S & (FICIALS & PUT !M BACK 9TO ! ROYAL TREASURIES AGA94.<#e#h.> ,! RESULT WAS A MONET>IZATION ( DAILY LIFE UNLIKE ANY?+ ,9DIA WAS TO SEE = ANO!R TWO ?\S& YE>S4.<#e#i.> 

,SOME?+ SIMIL> SEEMS TO HAVE HAPP5$ ) SLAV]Y1 :I* WAS QUITE COMMONPLACE AT ! TIME ( ! RISE ( ! GREAT >MIES--AGA91 UNLIKE ALMO/ ANY O!R PO9T 9 ,9DIAN HI/ORY--BUT WAS GRADUALLY BR\<T UND] GOV]NM5T CONTROL4.<#e#a.> ,BY ,KAUTILYA'S TIME1 MO/ W> CAPTIVES W]E NOT SOLD 9 M>KETPLACES BUT RELOCAT$ TO GOV]NM5T VILLAGES ON NEWLY RECLAIM$ L&4 ,!Y W]E NOT ALL[$ TO LEAVE1 & !SE GOV]NM5T VILLAGES W]E1 AT LEA/ ACCORD+ TO ! REGULATIONS1 REM>KABLY DRE>Y PLACES3 V]ITABLE WORK CAMPS1 ) ALL =MS ( FE/IVE 5T]TA9M5T (FICIALLY PROHIBIT$4 ,SLAVE HIREL+S W]E MO/LY CONVICTS1 R5T$ BY ! /ATE DUR+ !IR T]MS4 

,) !IR >MIES1 SPIES1 & ADM9I/RATION CONTROLL+ EV]Y?+1 ! NEW ,9DIAN K+S EV9C$ LITTLE 9T]E/ 9 ! OLD PRIE/LY CA/E & ITS ,V$IC RITUAL1 ?\< MANY KEPT UP A LIVELY 9T]E/ 9 ! NEW PHILOSOPHICAL & RELIGI\S IDEAS ?AT SEEM TO HAVE BE5 CROPP+ UP EV]Y:]E AT ! TIME4 ,AS TIME W5T ON1 H[EV]1 ! W> MA*9E BEGAN TO SPUTT]4 ,IT'S NOT CLE> EXACTLY :Y ?IS HAPP5$4 ,BY ! TIME ( EMP]OR ,ASOKA 7#b#g#c-#b#c#b BC71 ! ,MAURYAN DYNA/Y CONTROLL$ ALMO/ ALL ( PRES5T-DAY ,9DIA & ,PAKI/AN1 BUT ! ,9DIAN V]SION ( ! MILIT>Y-CO9AGE-SLAV]Y COMPLEX WAS %[+ DEF9ITE SIGNS ( /RA94 ,P]HAPS ! CLE>E/ SIGN WAS ! DEBASEM5T ( ! CO9AGE1 :I* OV] ! C\RSE ( TWO C5TURIES OR SO HAD GONE FROM ALMO/ PURE SILV] TO AB\T FIFTY P]C5T COPP]4.<#e#a#a.> 

,ASOKA1 FAM\SLY1 BEGAN HIS REIGN 9 CONQUE/3 9 #bfe BC1 DE/ROY+ ! ,KAL+AS1 ONE ( ! LA/ REMA9+ ,9DIAN REPUBLICS1 9 A W> 9 :I* HUNDR$S ( ?\S&S ( HUMAN BE+S W]E1 ACCORD+ TO HIS [N ACC\NT1 KILL$ OR C>RI$ (F 9TO SLAV]Y4 ,ASOKA LAT] CLAIM$ TO HAVE BE5 SO DI/URB$ & HAUNT$ BY ! C>NAGE ?AT HE R5\NC$ W> ALTOGE!R1 EMBRAC$ ,BUDDHISM1 & DECL>$ ?AT FROM ?AT TIME ON1 HIS K+DOM W\LD BE GOV]N$ BY PR9CIPLES ( AHIMSA1 OR NONVIOL5CE4 0,H]E 9 MY K+DOM10 HE DECL>$ 9 AN $ICT 9SCRIB$ ON ONE ( ! GREAT GRANITE PILL>S 9 HIS CAPITAL ( ,PATNA1 :I* SO DAZZL$ ! ,GREEK AMBASSADOR ,MEGAS!NES1 0NO LIV+ BE+ MU/ BE KILL$ & SACRIFIC$40.<#e#a#b.> ,SU* A /ATEM5T OBVI\SLY CAN'T BE TAK5 LIT]ALLY3 ,ASOKA MI<T HAVE REPLAC$ SACRIFICIAL RITUAL ) VEGET>IAN FEA/S1 BUT HE DIDN'T ABOLI% ! >MY1 AB&ON CAPITAL PUNI%M5T1 OR EV5 \TLAW SLAV]Y4 ,BUT HIS RULE M>K$ A REVOLUTION>Y %IFT 9 E?OS4 ,AGGRESSIVE W> WAS AB&ON$1 & MU* ( ! >MY DOES SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 DEMOBILIZ$1 ALONG ) ! NETWORK ( SPIES & /ATE BUREAUCRATS1 ) ! NEW1 PROLIF]AT+ M5DICANT ORD]S 7,BUDDHI/S1 ,JA9S1 & ALSO WORLD-R5\NC+ ,H9DUS7 GIV5 (FICIAL /ATE SUPPORT TO PREA* TO ! VILLAGES ON QUE/IONS ( SOCIAL MORALITY4 ,ASOKA & HIS SUCCESSORS DIV]T$ SUB/ANTIAL RES\RCES TO !SE RELIGI\S ORD]S1 ) ! RESULT ?AT1 OV] ! NEXT C5TURIES1 ?\S&S ( /UPAS & MONA/]IES W]E BUILT ACROSS ! SUBCONT95T4.<#e#a#c.> 

,ASOKA'S RE=MS >E USEFUL TO CONTEMPLATE H]E BECAUSE !Y HELP REVEAL JU/ H[ MI/AK5 SOME ( \R BASIC ASSUMPTIONS >E3 P>TICUL>LY1 ?AT MONEY EQUALS CO9S1 & ?AT MORE CO9S 9 CIRCULATION MEANS MORE COMM]CE & A GREAT] ROLE = PRIVATE M]*ANTS4 ,9 REALITY1 ! ,MAGADHA /ATE PROMOT$ M>KETS BUT HAD BE5 SUSPICI\S ( PRIVATE M]*ANTS1 SEE+ !M L>GELY AS COMPETITORS4.<#e#a#d.> ,M]*ANTS HAD BE5 AMONG ! E>LIE/ & MO/ >D5T SUPPORT]S ( ! NEW RELIGIONS 7,JA9S1 [+ TO !IR RIGOR\S 5=CEM5T ( RULES AGA9/ H>M TO ANY LIV+ CREATURE1 W]E OBLIG$ TO BECOME1 EFFECTIVELY1 A M]CANTILE CA/E74 ,M]CANTILE 9T]E/S FULLY SUPPORT$ ,ASOKA'S RE=MS4 ,YET ! RESULT WAS NOT AN 9CREASE 9 ! USE ( CA% 9 EV]YDAY AFFAIRS BUT EXACTLY ! OPPOSITE4 

,E>LY ,BUDDHI/ ECONOMIC ATTITUDES HAVE LONG BE5 CONSID]$ A BIT MY/]I\S4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 MONKS C\LD NOT [N PROP]TY AS 9DIVIDUALS2 !Y W]E EXPECT$ TO LIVE AN AU/]E COMMUNI/IC LIFE ) LITTLE MORE ?AN A ROBE & BEGG+ B[L AS P]SONAL POSSESSIONS1 & !Y W]E /RICTLY =BIDD5 TO SO MU* AS T\* ANY?+ MADE ( GOLD OR SILV]4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 H[EV] SUSPICI\S ( PRECI\S METALS1 ,BUDDHISM HAD ALWAYS HAD A LIB]AL ATTITUDE T[>D CR$IT >RANGEM5TS4 ,IT IS ONE ( ! FEW ( ! GREAT WORLD RELIGIONS ?AT HAS NEV] =MALLY CONDEMN$ USURY4.<#e#a#e.> ,TAK5 9 ! CONTEXT ( ! TIMES1 H[EV]1 !RE'S NO?+ P>TICUL>LY MY/]I\S AB\T ANY ( ?IS4 ,IT MAKES P]FECT S5SE = A RELIGI\S MOVEM5T ?AT REJECT$ VIOL5CE & MILIT>ISM1 BUT ?AT WAS 9 NO WAY OPPOS$ TO COMM]CE4.<#e#a#f.> ,AS WE %ALL SEE1 :ILE ,ASOKA'S [N EMPIRE WAS NOT LONG TO 5DURE1 SOON TO BE REPLAC$ BY A SUCCESSION ( EV] WEAK] & MO/LY SMALL] /ATES1 ,BUDDHISM TOOK ROOT4 ,! DECL9E ( ! GREAT >MIES EV5TUALLY L$ TO ! NE>-DISAPPE>ANCE ( CO9AGE1 BUT ALSO TO A V]ITABLE EFFLORESC5CE ( 9CREAS+LY SOPHI/ICAT$ =MS ( CR$IT4 

,*9A 

  

,UNTIL AB\T #dge BC1 NOR!RN ,*9A WAS /ILL NOM9ALLY AN EMPIRE1 BUT ! EMP]ORS HAD DEVOLV$ 9TO FIGUREHEADS & A S]IES ( DE FACTO K+DOMS HAD EM]G$4 ,! P]IOD FROM #dge TO #bba BC IS REF]R$ AS ! 0,W>R+ ,/ATES P]IOD02 AT ?AT PO9T1 EV5 ! PRET5SE ( UNITY WAS CA/ ASIDE4 ,ULTIMATELY1 ! C\NTRY WAS REUNIT$ BY ! /ATE ( ,Q91 :O E/ABLI%$ A DYNA/Y ?AT WAS !N IMM$IATELY OV]?R[N BY A S]IES ( MASSIVE POPUL> 9SURRECTIONS1 U%]+ 9 ! ,HAN DYNA/Y 7#b#f BC-#b#b AD71 F\ND$ BY A PREVI\SLY OBSCURE RURAL CON/ABLE & PEASANT LEAD] NAM$ ,LIU ,BAO1 :O WAS ! FIR/ ,*9ESE LEAD] TO ADOPT ! ,CONFUCIAN IDEOLOGY1 EXAM SY/EM1 & PATT]N ( CIVIL ADM9I/RATION ?AT W]E TO CONT9UE = ALMO/ TWO ?\S& YE>S4 

,/ILL1 ! GOLD5 AGE ( ,*9ESE PHILOSOPHY WAS ! P]IOD ( *AOS ?AT PREC$$ UNIFICATION1 & ?IS FOLL[$ ! TYPICAL ,AXIAL ,AGE PATT]N3 ! SAME FRACTUR$ POLITICAL L&SCAPE1 ! SAME RISE ( TRA9$1 PR(ESSIONAL >MIES & ! CREATION ( CO9$ MONEY L>GELY 9 ORD] TO PAY !M4.<#e#a#g.> ,WE ALSO SEE ! SAME GOV]NM5T POLICIES DESIGN$ TO 5C\RAGE ! DEVELOPM5T ( M>KETS1 *ATTEL SLAV]Y ON A SCALE NOT SE5 BE=E OR S9CE 9 ,*9ESE HI/ORY1 ! APPE>ANCE ( IT9]ANT PHILOSOPH]S & RELIGI\S VISION>IES1 BATTL+ 9TELLECTUAL S*OOLS1 & EV5TUALLY1 ATTEMPTS BY POLITICAL LEAD]S TO TRANS=M ! NEW PHILOSOPHIES 9TO RELIGIONS ( /ATE4.<#e#a#h.> 

,!RE W]E ALSO SIGNIFICANT DIFF]5CES1 />T+ ) ! CURR5CY SY/EM4 ,*9A NEV] M9T$ GOLD OR SILV] CO9S4 ,M]*ANTS US$ PRECI\S METALS 9 ! =M ( BULLION1 BUT ! CO9S 9 ACTUAL CIRCULATION W]E BASICALLY SMALL *ANGE3 CA/ BRONZE DISKS1 USUALLY ) A HOLE 9 ! MIDDLE SO ?AT !Y C\LD BE /RUNG TOGE!R4 ,SU* /R+S ( 0CA%0 W]E PRODUC$ 9 EXTRAORD9>Y NUMB]S1 & V]Y L>GE AM\NTS HAD TO BE ASSEMBL$ = L>GE-SCALE TRANSACTIONS3 :5 WEAL?Y M5 WI%$ TO MAKE DONATIONS TO TEMPLES1 = 9/ANCE1 !Y HAD TO USE OXC>TS TO C>RY ! MONEY4 ,! MO/ PLAUSIBLE EXPLANATION IS ?AT1 ESPECIALLY AFT] UNIFICATION1 ,*9ESE >MIES W]E 5ORM\S--SOME ,W>R+ ,/ATES >MIES NUMB]$ UP TO A MILLION--BUT NOT NE>LY AS PR(ESSIONAL OR WELL PAID AS ?OSE ( K+DOMS F>!R WE/1 & FROM ,Q9 & ,HAN TIMES ON1 RUL]S W]E C>EFUL TO 5SURE ?AT ?IS REMA9$ ! CASE1 TO MAKE SURE ! >MY NEV] BECAME AN 9DEP5D5T P[] BASE4.<#e#a#i.> 

,!RE WAS ALSO A NOTABLE DIFF]5CE 9 ?AT ! NEW RELIGI\S & PHILOSOPHICAL MOVEM5TS 9 ,*9A W]E FROM !IR V]Y BEG9N+S ALSO SOCIAL MOVEM5TS4 ,ELSE:]E1 !Y ONLY GRADUALLY BECAME SO4 ,9 ANCI5T ,GREECE1 PHILOSOPHY BEGAN ) COSMOLOGICAL SPECULATION2 PHILOSOPH]S W]E MORE LIKELY TO BE 9DIVIDUAL SAGES1 P]HAPS SURR\ND$ BY A FEW >D5T DISCIPLES1 AS F\ND]S ( MOVEM5TS4.<#e#b.> ,UND] ! ,ROMAN EMPIRE1 S*OOLS ( PHILOSOPHY LIKE ! ,/OICS1 ,EPICUREANS1 ,NEO-,PLATONI/S DID BECOME MOVEM5TS ( A SORT3 AT LEA/ 9 ! S5SE ?AT !Y HAD ?\S&S ( $UCAT$ ADH]5TS1 :O 0PRACTIC$0 PHILOSOPHY NOT ONLY BY READ+1 WRIT+1 & DEBAT+1 BUT EV5 MORE BY M$ITATION1 DIET1 & EX]CISE4 ,/ILL1 PHILOSOPHICAL MOVEM5TS W]E BASICALLY CONF9$ TO ! CIVIC ELITE2 IT WAS ONLY ) ! RISE ( ,*RI/IANITY & O!R RELIGI\S MOVEM5TS ?AT PHILOSOPHY MOV$ BEYOND IT4.<#e#b#a.> ,ONE CAN OBS]VE A SIMIL> EVOLUTION 9 ,9DIA1 FROM 9DIVIDUAL ,BRAHMAN WORLD-R5\NC]S1 =E/ SAGES1 & W&]+ M5DICANTS ) !ORIES AB\T ! NATURE ( ! S\L OR ! COMPOSITION ( ! MAT]IAL UNIV]SE2 TO PHILOSOPHICAL MOVEM5TS ( ! ,BUDDHI/S1 ,JA9S1 ,AJIVIKA1 & O!RS MO/LY LONG =GOTT52 TO1 F9ALLY1 MASS RELIGI\S MOVEM5TS ) ?\S&S ( MONKS1 %R9ES1 S*OOLS1 & NETWORKS ( LAY SUPPORT]S4 

,9 ,*9A1 :ILE MANY ( ! F\ND]S ( ! 0HUNDR$ S*OOLS0 ( PHILOSOPHY ?AT BLOSSOM$ UND] ! ,W>R+ ,/ATES W]E W&]+ SAGES :O SP5T !IR DAYS MOV+ FROM CITY TO CITY TRY+ TO CAT* ! E>S ( PR9CES1 O!RS W]E LEAD]S ( SOCIAL MOVEM5TS FROM ! V]Y />T4 ,SOME ( !SE MOVEM5TS DIDN'T EV5 HAVE LEAD]S1 LIKE ! ,S*OOL ( ! ,TILL]S1 AN AN>*I/ MOVEM5T ( PEASANT 9TELLECTUALS :O SET \T TO CREATE EGALIT>IAN COMMUNITIES 9 ! CRACKS & FISSURES BETWE5 /ATES4.<#e#b#b.> ,! ,MOHI/S1 EGALIT>IAN RATIONALI/S :OSE SOCIAL BASE SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 URBAN >TISANS1 NOT ONLY W]E PHILOSOPHICALLY OPPOS$ TO W> & MILIT>ISM1 BUT ORGANIZ$ BATTALIONS ( MILIT>Y 5G9E]S :O W\LD ACTIVELY DISC\RAGE CONFLICTS BY VOLUNTE]+ TO FI<T 9 ANY W> AGA9/ ! SIDE ( ! AGGRESSOR4 ,EV5 ! ,CONFUCIANS1 = ALL ! IMPORTANCE !Y ATTA*$ TO C\RTLY RITUAL1 W]E 9 !IR E>LY DAYS MA9LY KN[N = !IR EF=TS 9 POPUL> $UCATION4.<#e#b#c.> 

,MAT]IALISM ,I3 ,! ,PURSUIT ( ,PR(IT 

  

,:AT IS ONE TO MAKE ( ALL ?IS8 ,! POPUL> $UCATION CAMPAIGNS ( ! P]IOD P]HAPS PROVIDE A CLUE4 ,! ,AXIAL ,AGE WAS ! FIR/ TIME 9 HUMAN HI/ORY :5 FAMILI>ITY ) ! WRITT5 WORD WAS NO LONG] LIMIT$ TO PRIE/S1 ADM9I/RATORS1 & M]*ANTS1 BUT HAD BECOME NECESS>Y TO FULL P>TICIPATION 9 CIVIC LIFE4 ,9 ,A!NS1 IT WAS TAK5 = GRANT$ ?AT ONLY A C\NTRY BUMPK9 W\LD BE 5TIRELY ILLIT]ATE4 

,)\T MASS LIT]ACY1 NEI!R ! EM]G5CE ( MASS 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5TS1 NOR ! SPREAD ( ,AXIAL ,AGE IDEAS W\LD HAVE BE5 POSSIBLE4 ,BY ! 5D ( ! P]IOD1 !SE IDEAS HAD PRODUC$ A WORLD :]E EV5 ! LEAD]S ( B>B>IAN >MIES DESC5D+ ON ! ,ROMAN EMPIRE FELT OBLIG$ TO TAKE A POSITION ON ! QUE/ION ( ! ,MY/]Y ( ! ,TR9ITY1 & :]E ,*9ESE MONKS C\LD SP5D TIME DEBAT+ ! RELATIVE M]ITS ( ! EI<TE5 S*OOLS ( ,CLASSICAL ,9DIAN ,BUDDHISM4 

,NO D\BT ! GR[? ( M>KETS PLAY$ A ROLE TOO1 NOT ONLY HELP+ TO FREE PEOPLE FROM ! PROV]BIAL %ACKLES ( /ATUS OR COMMUNITY1 BUT 5C\RAG+ A C]TA9 HABIT ( RATIONAL CALCULATION1 ( MEASUR+ 9PUTS & \TPUTS1 MEANS & 5DS1 ALL ( :I* MU/ 9EVITABLY HAVE F\ND SOME E*OES 9 ! NEW SPIRIT ( RATIONAL 9QUIRY ?AT BEG9S TO APPE> 9 ALL ! SAME TIMES & PLACES4 ,EV5 ! WORD 0RATIONAL0 IS TELL+3 IT D]IVES1 ( C\RSE1 FROM 0RATIO0--H[ MANY ( ,X GO 9TO ,Y--A SORT ( MA!MATICAL CALCULATION PREVI\SLY US$ MA9LY BY >*ITECTS & 5G9E]S1 BUT :I*1 ) ! RISE ( M>KETS1 EV]YONE :O DIDN'T WANT TO GET *EAT$ AT ! M>KETPLACE HAD TO LE>N H[ TO DO4 ,/ILL1 WE MU/ BE C>EFUL H]E4 ,AFT] ALL1 MONEY 9 ITSELF WAS NO?+ NEW4 ,SUM]IAN F>M]S & TRADESM5 W]E ALREADY P]FECTLY CAPABLE ( MAK+ SU* CALCULATIONS 9 #ce BC2 BUT NONE1 AS F> AS WE KN[1 W]E SO IMPRESS$ ?AT !Y CONCLUD$1 LIKE ,PY?AGORAS1 ?AT MA!MATICAL RATIOS W]E ! KEY TO UND]/&+ ! NATURE ( ! UNIV]SE & ! MOVEM5T ( CELE/IAL BODIES1 & ?AT ALL ?+S W]E ULTIMATELY COMPOS$ ( NUMB]S--& !Y C]TA9LY HADN'T =M$ SECRET SOCIETIES BAS$ ON %>+ ?IS UND]/&+1 DEBAT+ & PURG+ & EXCOMMUNICAT+ ONE ANO!R4.<#e#b#d.> 

,TO UND]/& :AT HAD *ANG$1 WE HAVE TO LOOK1 AGA91 AT ! P>TICUL> K9D ( M>KETS ?AT W]E EM]G+ AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! ,AXIAL ,AGE3 IMP]SONAL M>KETS1 BORN ( W>1 9 :I* IT WAS POSSIBLE TO TREAT EV5 NEI<BORS AS IF !Y W]E /RANG]S4 

,)9 HUMAN ECONOMIES1 MOTIVES >E ASSUM$ TO BE COMPLEX4 ,:5 A LORD GIVES A GIFT TO A RETA9]1 !RE IS NO REASON TO D\BT ?AT IT IS 9SPIR$ BY A G5U9E DESIRE TO B5EFIT ?AT RETA9]1 EV5 IF IT IS ALSO A /RATEGIC MOVE DESIGN$ TO 5SURE LOYALTY1 & AN ACT ( MAGNIFIC5CE MEANT TO REM9D EV]YONE ELSE ?AT HE IS GREAT & ! RETA9] SMALL4 ,!RE IS NO S5SE ( CONTRADICTION H]E4 ,SIMIL>LY1 GIFTS BETWE5 EQUALS >E USUALLY FRAU<T ) MANY LAY]S ( LOVE1 5VY1 PRIDE1 SPITE1 COMMUNAL SOLID>ITY1 OR ANY ( A DOZ5 O!R ?+S4 ,SPECULAT+ ON SU* MATT]S IS A MAJOR =M ( DAILY 5T]TA9M5T4 ,:AT'S MISS+1 ?\<1 IS ANY S5SE ?AT ! MO/ SELFI% 70SELF-9T]E/$07 MOTIVE IS NECESS>ILY ! REAL ONE3 ?OSE SPECULAT+ ON HIDD5 MOTIVES >E JU/ AS LIKELY TO ASSUME ?AT SOMEONE IS SECRETLY TRY+ TO HELP A FRI5D OR H>M AN 5EMY AS TO ACQUIRE SOME ADVANTAGE = HIM- OR H]SELF4.<#e#b#e.> ,NEI!R IS ANY ( ?IS LIKELY TO HAVE *ANG$ MU* 9 ! RISE ( E>LY CR$IT M>KETS1 :]E ! VALUE ( AN ,I,\ WAS AS MU* DEP5D5T ON ASSESSM5TS ( ITS ISSU]'S *>ACT] AS ON HIS DISPOSABLE 9COME1 & MOTIVES ( LOVE1 5VY1 PRIDE1 ETC4 C\LD NEV] BE COMPLETELY SET ASIDE4 

,CA% TRANSACTIONS BETWE5 /RANG]S W]E DIFF]5T1 & ALL ! MORE SO :5 TRAD+ IS SET AGA9/ A BACKGR\ND ( W> & EM]GES FROM DISPOS+ ( LOOT & PROVISION+ SOLDI]S2 :5 ONE (T5 HAD BE/ NOT ASK :]E ! OBJECTS TRAD$ CAME FROM1 & :]E NO ONE IS MU* 9T]E/$ 9 =M+ ONGO+ P]SONAL RELATION%IPS ANYWAY4 ,H]E1 TRANSACTIONS REALLY DO BECOME SIMPLY A FIGUR+-\T ( H[ MANY ( ,X WILL GO = H[ MANY ( ,Y1 ( CALCULAT+ PROPORTIONS1 E/IMAT+ QUALITY1 & TRY+ TO GET ! BE/ DEAL = ONESELF4 ,! RESULT1 DUR+ ! ,AXIAL ,AGE1 WAS A NEW WAY ( ?9K+ AB\T HUMAN MOTIVATION1 A RADICAL SIMPLIFICATION ( MOTIVES ?AT MADE IT POSSIBLE TO BEG9 SPEAK+ ( CONCEPTS LIKE 0PR(IT0 & 0ADVANTAGE0--& IMAG9+ ?AT ?IS IS :AT PEOPLE >E REALLY PURSU+1 9 EV]Y ASPECT ( EXI/5CE1 AS IF ! VIOL5CE ( W> OR ! IMP]SONALITY ( ! M>KETPLACE HAS SIMPLY ALL[$ !M TO DROP ! PRET5SE ?AT !Y EV] C>$ AB\T ANY?+ ELSE4 ,IT WAS ?IS1 9 TURN1 ?AT ALL[$ HUMAN LIFE TO SEEM LIKE IT C\LD BE R$UC$ TO A MATT] ( MEANS-TO-5D CALCULATION1 & H5CE SOME?+ ?AT C\LD BE EXAM9$ US+ ! SAME MEANS ?AT ONE US$ TO /UDY ! ATTRACTION & REPULSION ( CELE/IAL BODIES4.<#e#b#f.> ,IF ! UND]LY+ ASSUMPTION V]Y MU* RESEMBLES ?OSE ( CONTEMPOR>Y ECONOMI/S1 IT'S NO CO9CID5CE--BUT ) ! DIFF]5CE ?AT1 9 AN AGE :5 MONEY1 M>KETS1 /ATES1 & MILIT>Y AFFAIRS W]E ALL 9TR9SICALLY CONNECT$1 MONEY WAS NE$$ TO PAY >MIES TO CAPTURE SLAVES TO M9E GOLD TO PRODUCE MONEY2 :5 0CUT?ROAT COMPETITION0 (T5 DID 9VOLVE ! LIT]AL CUTT+ ( ?ROATS1 IT NEV] OCCURR$ TO ANYONE TO IMAG9E ?AT SELFI% 5DS C\LD BE PURSU$ BY PEACEFUL MEANS4 ,C]TA9LY1 ?IS PICTURE ( HUMANITY DOES BEG9 TO APPE>1 ) />TL+ CONSI/5CY1 ACROSS ,EURASIA1 :]EV] WE ALSO SEE CO9AGE & PHILOSOPHY APPE>4 

,*9A PROVIDES AN UNUSUALLY TRANSP>5T CASE 9 PO9T4 ,ALREADY 9 ,CONFUCIUS'S TIME1 ,*9ESE ?9K]S W]E SPEAK+ ( ! PURSUIT ( PR(IT AS ! DRIV+ =CE 9 HUMAN LIFE4 ,! ACTUAL T]M US$ WAS LI1 A WORD FIR/ US$ TO REF] TO ! 9CREASE ( GRA9 ONE H>VE/S FROM A FIELD OV] & ABOVE :AT ONE ORIG9ALLY PLANT$ 7! PICTOGRAM REPRES5TS A %EAF ( :EAT NEXT TO A KNIFE74.<#e#b#g.> ,FROM !RE IT CAME TO MEAN COMM]CIAL PR(IT1 & !NCE1 A G5]AL T]M = 0B5EFIT0 OR 0PAYBACK40 ,! FOLL[+ /ORY1 :I* PURPORTS TO TELL ! REACTION ( A M]*ANT'S SON NAM$ ,LU ,BUWEI ON LE>N+ ?AT AN EXIL$ PR9CE WAS LIV+ NE>BY1 ILLU/RATES ! PROGRESSION NICELY3 

,ON RETURN+ HOME1 HE SAID TO HIS FA!R1 0,:AT IS ! PR(IT ON 9VE/M5T ?AT ONE CAN EXPECT FROM PL[+ FIELDS80 

0,T5 TIMES ! 9VE/M5T10 REPLI$ HIS FA!R4 

0,& ! RETURN ON 9VE/M5T 9 PE>LS & JADES IS H[ MU*80 

0,A HUNDR$FOLD40 

0,& ! RETURN ON 9VE/M5T FROM E/ABLI%+ A RUL] & SECUR+ ! /ATE W\LD BE H[ MU*80 

0,IT W\LD BE 9CALCULABLE40.<#e#b#h.> 

,LU ADOPT$ ! PR9CE'S CAUSE & EV5TUALLY CONTRIV$ TO MAKE HIM ,K+ ( ,Q94 ,HE W5T ON TO BECAME FIR/ M9I/] = ! K+'S SON1 ,Q9 ,%I ,HUANG1 HELP+ HIM DEFEAT ! O!R ,W>R+ ,/ATES TO BECAME ! FIR/ ,EMP]OR ( ,*9A4 ,WE /ILL HAVE A COMP5DIUM ( POLITICAL WISDOM ?AT ,LU COMMISSION$ = ! NEW EMP]OR1 :I* CONTA9S SU* MILIT>Y ADVICE AS ! FOLL[+3 

,AS A G5]AL PR9CIPLE1 :5 AN 5EMY'S >MY COMES1 IT SEEKS SOME PR(IT4 ,N[ IF !Y COME & F9D ! PROSPECT ( DEA? 9/EAD1 !Y WILL CONSID] RUNN+ AWAY ! MO/ PR(ITABLE ?+ TO DO4 ,:5 ALL ONE'S 5EMIES CONSID] RUNN+ TO BE ! MO/ PR(ITABLE ?+ TO DO1 NO BLADES WILL CROSS4 

,?IS IS ! MO/ ESS5TIAL PO9T 9 MILIT>Y MATT]S4.<#e#b#i.> 

,9 SU* A WORLD1 H]OIC CONSID]ATIONS ( HONOR & GLORY1 V[S TO GODS OR DESIRE = V5GEANCE1 W]E AT BE/ WEAKNESSES TO BE MANIPULAT$4 ,9 ! NUM]\S MANUALS ON /ATECRAFT PRODUC$ AT ! TIME1 EV]Y?+ WAS CA/ AS A MATT] ( RECOGNIZ+ 9T]E/ & ADVANTAGE1 CALCULAT+ H[ TO BALANCE ?AT :I* WILL PR(IT ! RUL] AGA9/ ?AT :I* WILL PR(IT ! PEOPLE1 DET]M9+ :5 ! RUL]'S 9T]E/S >E ! SAME AS ! PEOPLE'S & :5 !Y CONTRADICT4.<#e#c.> ,TE*NICAL T]MS DRAWN FROM POLITICS1 ECONOMICS1 & MILIT>Y /RATEGY 70RETURN ON 9VE/M5T10 0/RATEGIC ADVANTAGE07 BL5D$ & OV]LAPP$4 

,! PR$OM9ANT S*OOL ( POLITICAL ?\<T UND] ! ,W>R+ ,/ATES WAS ?AT ( ! ,LEGALI/S1 :O 9SI/$ ?AT 9 MATT]S ( /ATECRAFT1 A RUL]'S 9T]E/S W]E ! ONLY CONSID]ATION1 EV5 IF RUL]S W\LD BE UNWISE TO ADMIT ?IS4 ,/ILL1 ! PEOPLE C\LD BE EASILY MANIPULAT$1 S9CE !Y HAD ! SAME MOTIVATIONS3 ! PEOPLE'S PURSUIT ( PR(IT1 WROTE ,LORD ,%ANG1 IS UTT]LY PR$ICTABLE1 0JU/ LIKE ! T5D5CY ( WAT] TO FL[ D[NHILL40.<#e#c#a.> ,%ANG WAS H>%] ?AN MO/ ( HIS FELL[ ,LEGALI/S 9 ?AT HE BELIEV$ ?AT WIDESPREAD PROSP]ITY W\LD ULTIMATELY H>M ! RUL]'S ABILITY TO MOBILIZE HIS PEOPLE = W>1 & !RE=E ?AT T]ROR WAS ! MO/ EFFICI5T 9/RUM5T ( GOV]NANCE1 BUT EV5 HE 9SI/$ ?AT ?IS REGIME BE CLO!D AS A REGIME ( LAW & JU/ICE4 

,:]EV] ! MILIT>Y-CO9AGE-SLAV]Y COMPLEX BEGAN TO TAKE HOLD1 WE F9D POLITICAL !ORI/S PROP\ND+ SIMIL> IDEAS4 ,KAUTILYA WAS NO DIFF]5T3 ! TITLE ( HIS BOOK1 ! ,>?ASA/RA1 IS USUALLY TRANSLAT$ AS 0MANUAL ( /ATECRAFT10 S9CE IT CONSI/S ( ADVICE TO RUL]S1 BUT ITS MORE LIT]AL TRANSLATION IS 0! SCI5CE ( MAT]IAL GA940.<#e#c#b.> ,LIKE ! ,LEGALI/S1 ,KAUTILYA EMPHASIZ$ ! NE$ TO CREATE A PRETEXT ?AT GOV]NANCE WAS A MATT] ( MORALITY & JU/ICE1 BUT 9 ADDRESS+ ! RUL]S !MSELVES1 HE 9SI/$ ?AT 0W> & PEACE >E CONSID]$ SOLELY FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( PR(IT0--( AMASS+ WEAL? TO CREATE A MORE EFFECTIVE >MY1 ( US+ ! >MY TO DOM9ATE M>KETS & CONTROL RES\RCES TO AMASS MORE WEAL?1 & SO ON4.<#e#c#c.> ,9 ,GREECE WE'VE ALREADY MET ,?RASYMA*OS4 ,TRUE1 ,GREECE WAS SLI<TLY DIFF]5T4 ,GREEK CITY-/ATES DID NOT HAVE K+S1 & ! COLLAPSE ( PRIVATE 9T]E/S & AFFAIRS ( /ATE WAS 9 PR9CIPLE UNIV]SALLY D5\NC$ AS TYRANNY4 ,/ILL1 9 PRACTICE1 :AT ?IS MEANT WAS ?AT CITY-/ATES1 & EV5 POLITICAL FACTIONS1 5D$ UP ACT+ 9 PRECISELY ! SAME COLDLY CALCULAT+ WAY AS ,9DIAN OR ,*9ESE SOV]EIGNS4 ,ANYONE :O HAS EV] READ ,?UCYDIDES' ,MELIAN DIALOGUE--9 :I* ,A!NIAN G5]ALS PRES5T ! POPULATION ( A PREVI\SLY FRI5DLY CITY ) ELEGANTLY REASON$ >GUM5TS = :Y ! ,A!NIANS HAVE DET]M9$ ?AT IT IS TO ! ADVANTAGE ( !IR EMPIRE TO ?REAT5 !M ) COLLECTIVE MASSACRE IF !Y >E NOT WILL+ TO BECOME TRIBUTE-PAY+ SUBJECTS1 & :Y IT IS EQUALLY 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! ,MELIANS TO SUBMIT--IS AW>E ( ! RESULTS4.<#e#c#d.> 

,ANO!R /RIK+ FEATURE ( ?IS LIT]ATURE IS ITS RESOLUTE MAT]IALISM4 ,GODDESSES & GODS1 MAGIC & ORACLES1 SACRIFICIAL RITUAL1 ANCE/RAL CULTS1 EV5 CA/E & RITUAL /ATUS SY/EMS ALL EI!R DISAPPE> OR >E SIDEL9$1 NO LONG] TREAT$ AS 5DS 9 !MSELVES BUT AS YET M]E TOOLS TO BE US$ = ! PURSUIT ( MAT]IAL GA94 

,?AT 9TELLECTUALS WILL+ TO PRODUCE SU* !ORIES %\LD W9 ! E>S ( PR9CES IS H>DLY SURPRIS+4 ,NEI!R IS IT P>TICUL>LY SURPRIS+ ?AT O!R 9TELLECTUALS %\LD HAVE BE5 SO (F5D$ BY ?IS SORT ( CYNICISM ?AT !Y BEGAN TO MAKE COMMON CAUSE ) ! POPUL> MOVEM5TS ?AT 9EVITABLY BEGAN TO =M AGA9/ ?OSE PR9CES4 ,BUT AS IS SO (T5 ! CASE1 OPPOSITIONAL 9TELLECTUALS W]E FAC$ ) TWO *OICES3 EI!R ADOPT ! REIGN+ T]MS ( DEBATE1 OR TRY TO COME UP ) A DIAMETRICAL 9V]SION4 ,MO ,DI1 ! F\ND] ( ,MOHISM1 TOOK ! FIR/ APPROA*4 ,HE TURN$ ! CONCEPT ( LI1 PR(IT1 9TO SOME?+ MORE LIKE 0SOCIAL UTILITY10 & !N HE ATTEMPT$ TO DEMON/RATE ?AT W> ITSELF IS1 BY DEF9ITION1 AN UNPR(ITABLE ACTIVITY4 ,= EXAMPLE1 HE WROTE1 CAMPAIGNS CAN ONLY BE F\<T 9 SPR+ & AUTUMN1 & EA* HAD EQUALLY DELET]I\S EFFECTS3 

,IF 9 ! SPR+ !N ! PEOPLE MISS !IR S[+ & PLANT+1 IF 9 ! AUTUMN1 !Y MISS !IR REAP+ & H>VE/+4 ,EV5 IF !Y MISS ONLY ONE SEASON1 !N ! NUMB] ( PEOPLE :O WILL DIE ( COLD & HUNG] IS 9CALCULABLE4 ,N[ LET US CALCULATE ! >MY'S EQUIPM5T1 ! >R[S1 /&>DS1 T5TS1 >MOR1 %IELDS1 & SWORD HILTS2 ! NUMB] ( !SE :I* WILL BREAK & P]I% & NOT COME BACK 444 ,SO ALSO ) OX5 & HORSES 444.<#e#c#e.> 

,HIS CONCLUSION3 IF ONE C\LD ADD UP ! TOTAL CO/S ( AGGRESSION 9 HUMAN LIVES1 ANIMAL LIVES1 & MAT]IAL DAMAGE1 ONE W\LD BE =C$ TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT !Y NEV] \TWEI<$ ! B5EFITS--EV5 = ! VICTOR4 ,9 FACT1 ,MO ,DI TOOK ?IS SORT ( LOGIC SO F> ?AT HE 5D$ UP >GU+ ?AT ! ONLY WAY TO OPTIMIZE ! OV]ALL PR(IT ( HUMANITY WAS TO AB&ON ! PURSUIT ( PRIVATE PR(IT 5TIRELY & ADOPT A PR9CIPLE ( :AT HE CALL$ 0UNIV]SAL LOVE0--ESS5TIALLY >GU+ ?AT IF ONE TAKES ! PR9CIPLE ( M>KET EX*ANGE TO ITS LOGICAL CONCLUSION1 IT CAN ONLY LEAD TO A K9D ( COMMUNISM4 

,! ,CONFUCIANS TOOK ! OPPOSITE APPROA*1 REJECT+ ! 9ITIAL PREMISE4 ,A GOOD EXAMPLE IS MO/ ( ! OP5+ ( ,M5CIUS' MU*-REMEMB]$ CONV]SATION ) ,K+ ,HUI3 

0,V5]ABLE ,SIR10 ! ,K+ GREET$ HIM1 0S9CE Y\ HAVE NOT C\NT$ A ?\S& MILES TOO F> TO COME H]E1 MAY ,I SUPPOSE ?AT Y\ ALSO HAVE SOME?+ ) :I* Y\ MAY PR(IT MY K+DOM80 

,M5CIUS REPLI$3 

0,:Y MU/ ,Y\R ,MAJE/Y NECESS>ILY USE ?IS WORD 'PR(IT'8 ,:AT ,I HAVE >E ONLY !SE TWO TOPICS3 B5EVOL5CE & RI<TE\SNESS1 & NO?+ ELSE40.<#e#c#f.> 

,/ILL1 ! 5D-PO9T WAS R\<LY ! SAME4 ,! ,CONFUCIAN IDEAL ( ]N1 ( HUMANE B5EVOL5CE1 WAS BASICALLY JU/ A MORE COMPLETE 9V]SION ( PR(IT-SEEK+ CALCULATION ?AN ,MO ,DI'S UNIV]SAL LOVE2 ! MA9 DIFF]5CE WAS ?AT ! ,CONFUCIANS ADD$ A C]TA9 AV]SION TO CALCULATION ITSELF1 PREF]R+ :AT MI<T ALMO/ BE CALL$ AN >T ( DEC5CY4 ,TAOI/S W]E LAT] TO TAKE ?IS EV5 FUR!R ) !IR EMBRACE ( 9TUITION & SPONTANEITY4 ,ALL W]E SO MANY ATTEMPTS TO PROVIDE A MIRROR IMAGE ( M>KET LOGIC4 ,/ILL1 A MIRROR IMAGE IS1 ULTIMATELY1 JU/ ?AT3 ! SAME ?+1 ONLY BACKW>DS4 ,BE=E LONG WE 5D UP ) AN 5DLESS MAZE ( PAIR$ OPPOSITES--EGOISM V]SUS ALTRUISM1 PR(IT V]SUS *>ITY1 MAT]IALISM V]SUS IDEALISM1 CALCULATION V]SUS SPONTANEITY--NONE ( :I* C\LD EV] HAVE BE5 IMAG9$ EXCEPT BY SOMEONE />T+ \T FROM PURE1 CALCULAT+1 SELF-9T]E/$ M>KET TRANSACTIONS4.<#e#c#g.> 

,MAT]IALISM ,I,I3 ,SUB/ANCE 

  
  

,AS 9 ! NE> PRES5CE ( DEA?1 DESPISE POOR FLE%1 ?IS REFUSE ( BLOOD & BONES1 ?IS WEB & TISSUE ( N]VES & VE9S & >T]IES4 

--,M>CUS ,AURELIUS1 ,M$ITATIONS #b4#b  
  
  

,TAK+ PITY ON ! HUNGRY WOLF1 ,W5%UANG ANN\NC$1 0,I DO NOT COVET ?IS FIL?Y BAG ( MEAT4 ,I GIVE IT OV] TO Y\ ?AT ,I MAY QUICKLY ACQUIRE A BODY ( MORE 5DUR+ /R5G?4 ,?IS DONATION WILL HELP B5EFIT US BO?40 

--,DISC\RSE ON ! ,PURE ,L& #b#a4#a#b  
  

,AS ,I'VE ALREADY OBS]V$1 ,*9A WAS UNUSUAL BECAUSE PHILOSOPHY !RE BEGAN ) DEBATES AB\T E?ICS & ONLY LAT] TURN$ TO SPECULATIONS AB\T ! NATURE ( ! COSMOS4 ,9 BO? ,GREECE & ,9DIA1 COSMOLOGICAL SPECULATION CAME FIR/4 ,9 EA*1 TOO1 QUE/IONS AB\T ! NATURE ( ! PHYSICAL UNIV]SE QUICKLY GIVE WAY TO SPECULATION AB\T M9D1 TRU?1 CONSCI\SNESS1 MEAN+1 LANGUAGE1 ILLUSION1 WORLD-SPIRITS1 COSMIC 9TELLIG5CE1 & ! FATE ( ! HUMAN S\L4 

,?IS P>TICUL> MAZE ( MIRRORS IS SO COMPLEX & DAZZL+ ?AT IT'S EXTRAORD9>ILY DIFFICULT TO DISC]N ! />T+ PO9T--?AT IS1 :AT1 PRECISELY1 IS BE+ REFLECT$ BACK & =?4 ,H]E AN?ROPOLOGY CAN BE HELPFUL1 AS AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE ! UNIQUE ADVANTAGE ( BE+ ABLE TO OBS]VE H[ HUMAN BE+S :O HAVE NOT PREVI\SLY BE5 P>T ( !SE CONV]SATIONS REACT :5 FIR/ EXPOS$ TO ,AXIAL ,AGE CONCEPTS4 ,EV]Y N[ & !N TOO1 WE >E PRES5T$ ) MOM5TS ( EXCEPTIONAL CL>ITY3 ONES ?AT REVEAL ! ESS5CE ( \R [N ?\<T TO BE ALMO/ EXACTLY ! OPPOSITE ( :AT WE ?\<T IT TO BE4 

,MAURICE ,LE5H>DT1 A ,CA?OLIC MISSION>Y :O HAD SP5T MANY LONG YE>S TEA*+ ! ,GOSPEL 9 ,NEW ,CAL$ONIA1 EXP]I5C$ SU* A MOM5T 9 ! #a#i#bS1 :5 HE ASK$ ONE ( HIS /UD5TS1 AN AG$ SCULPTOR NAM$ ,BOESO\1 H[ HE FELT AB\T HAV+ BE5 9TRODUC$ TO SPIRITUAL IDEAS3 

,ONCE1 WAIT+ TO ASSESS ! M5TAL PROGRESS ( ! ,CANAQUES ,I HAD TAU<T = MANY YE>S1 ,I RISK$ ! FOLL[+ SUGGE/ION3 0,9 %ORT1 WE 9TRODUC$ ! NOTION ( ! SPIRIT TO Y\R WAY ( ?9K+80 

,HE OBJECT$1 0,SPIRIT8 ,BAH6 ,Y\ DIDN'T BR+ US ! SPIRIT4 ,WE ALREADY KNEW ! SPIRIT EXI/$4 ,WE HAVE ALWAYS ACT$ 9 ACCORD ) ! SPIRIT4 ,:AT Y\'VE BR\<T US IS ! BODY40.<#e#c#h.> 

,! NOTION ?AT HUMANS HAD S\LS APPE>$ TO ,BOESO\ TO BE SELF-EVID5T4 ,! NOTION ?AT !RE WAS SU* A ?+ AS ! BODY1 AP>T FROM ! S\L1 A M]E MAT]IAL COLLECTION ( N]VES & TISSUES--LET ALONE ?AT ! BODY IS ! PRISON ( ! S\L2 ?AT ! MORTIFICATION ( ! BODY C\LD BE A MEANS TO ! GLORIFICATION OR LIB]ATION ( ! S\L--ALL ?IS1 IT TURNS \T1 /RUCK HIM AS UTT]LY NEW & EXOTIC4 

,AXIAL ,AGE SPIRITUALITY1 !N1 IS BUILT ON A B$ROCK ( MAT]IALISM4 ,?IS IS ITS SECRET2 ONE MI<T ALMO/ SAY1 ! ?+ ?AT HAS BECOME 9VISIBLE TO US4.<#e#c#i.> ,BUT IF ONE LOOKS AT ! V]Y BEG9N+S ( PHILOSOPHICAL 9QUIRY 9 ,GREECE & ,9DIA--! PO9T :5 !RE WAS AS YET NO DIFF]5CE BETWE5 :AT WE'D N[ CALL 0PHILOSOPHY0 & :AT WE'D N[ CALL 0SCI5CE0--?IS IS EXACTLY :AT ONE F9DS4 0,!ORY10 IF WE CAN CALL IT ?AT1 BEG9S ) ! QUE/IONS3 0,:AT SUB/ANCE IS ! WORLD MADE (80 0,:AT IS ! UND]LY+ MAT]IAL BEH9D ! PHYSICAL =MS ( OBJECTS 9 ! WORLD80 0,IS EV]Y?+ MADE UP ( V>Y+ COMB9ATIONS ( C]TA9 BASIC ELEM5TS 7E>?1 AIR1 WAT]1 FIRE1 /ONE1 MOTION1 M9D1 NUMB] 44471 OR >E !SE BASIC ELEM5TS JU/ ! =MS TAK5 BY SOME EV5 MORE ELEM5T>Y SUB/ANCE 7= 9/ANCE1 AS ,NY,AYA & LAT] ,DEMOCRITUS PROPOS$1 ATOMIC P>TICLES 44470.<#e#d.> ,9 JU/ AB\T EV]Y CASE1 SOME NOTION ( ,GOD1 ,M9D1 ,SPIRIT1 SOME ACTIVE ORGANIZ+ PR9CIPLE ?AT GAVE =M TO & WAS NOT ITSELF SUB/ANCE1 EM]G$ AS WELL4 ,BUT ?IS WAS ! K9D ( SPIRIT ?AT1 LIKE ,LE5H>DT'S ,GOD1 ONLY EM]GES 9 RELATION TO 9]T MATT]4.<#e#d#a.> 

,TO CONNECT ?IS IMPULSE1 TOO1 ) ! 9V5TION ( CO9AGE MI<T SEEM LIKE PU%+ ?+S A BIT F> BUT1 AT LEA/ = ! ,CLASSICAL WORLD1 !RE IS AN EM]G+ S*OL>LY LIT]ATURE--FIR/ SET (F BY ,H>V>D LIT]>Y !ORI/ ,M>C ,%ELL1 & MORE REC5TLY SET =? BY ,BRITI% CLASSICI/ ,RI*>D ,SEA=D 9 A BOOK CALL$ ,MONEY & ! ,E>LY ,GREEK ,M9D--?AT AIMS TO DO EXACTLY ?AT4.<#e#d#b.> 

,9 FACT1 SOME ( ! HI/ORICAL CONNECTIONS >E SO UNCANNILY CLOSE ?AT !Y >E V]Y H>D TO EXPLA9 ANY O!R WAY4 ,LET ME GIVE AN EXAMPLE4 ,AFT] ! FIR/ CO9S W]E M9T$ >\ND #f BC 9 ! K+DOM ( ,LYDIA1 ! PRACTICE QUICKLY SPREAD TO ,IONIA1 ! ,GREEK CITIES ( ! ADJAC5T COA/4 ,! GREATE/ ( !SE WAS ! GREAT WALL$ METROPOLIS ( ,MILETUS1 :I* ALSO APPE>S TO HAVE BE5 ! FIR/ ,GREEK CITY TO /RIKE ITS [N CO9S4 ,IT WAS ,IONIA1 TOO1 ?AT PROVID$ ! BULK ( ! ,GREEK M]C5>IES ACTIVE 9 ! ,M$IT]RANEAN AT ! TIME1 ) ,MILETUS !IR EFFECTIVE HEADQU>T]S4 ,MILETUS WAS ALSO ! COMM]CIAL C5T] ( ! REGION1 &1 P]HAPS1 ! FIR/ CITY 9 ! WORLD :]E EV]YDAY M>KET TRANSACTIONS CAME TO BE C>RI$ \T PRIM>ILY 9 CO9S 9/EAD ( CR$IT4.<#e#d#c.> ,GREEK PHILOSOPHY1 9 TURN1 BEG9S ) ?REE M53 ,?ALES1 ( ,MILETUS 7C4 #fbd BC-C4 #$f BC71 ,ANAXIM&]1 ( ,MILETUS 7C4 #fa BC-C4 #$f BC71 & ,ANAXIM5ES1 ( ,MILETUS 7C4 #ehe BC-C4 #ebe BC7--9 O!R WORDS1 M5 :O W]E LIV+ 9 ?AT CITY AT EXACTLY ! TIME ?AT CO9AGE WAS FIR/ 9TRODUC$4.<#e#d#d.> ,ALL ?REE >E REMEMB]$ *IEFLY = !IR SPECULATIONS ON ! NATURE ( ! PHYSICAL SUB/ANCE FROM :I* ! WORLD ULTIMATELY SPRANG4 ,?ALES PROPOS$ WAT]1 ,ANAXIM5ES1 AIR4 ,ANAXIM&] MADE UP A NEW T]M1 APEIRON1 0! UNLIMIT$10 A K9D ( PURE AB/RACT SUB/ANCE ?AT C\LD NOT ITSELF BE P]CEIV$ BUT WAS ! MAT]IAL BASIS ( EV]Y?+ ?AT C\LD BE4 ,9 EA* CASE1 ! ASSUMPTION WAS ?AT ?IS PRIMAL SUB/ANCE1 BY BE+ HEAT$1 COOL$1 COMB9$1 DIVID$1 COMPRESS$1 EXT5D$1 OR SET 9 MOTION1 GAVE RISE TO ! 5DLESS P>TICUL> /UFFS & SUB/ANCES ?AT HUMANS ACTUALLY 5C\NT] 9 ! WORLD1 FROM :I* PHYSICAL OBJECTS >E COMPOS$--& WAS ALSO ?AT 9TO :I* ALL ?OSE =MS W\LD EV5TUALLY DISSOLVE4 

,IT WAS SOME?+ ?AT C\LD TURN 9TO EV]Y?+4 ,AS ,SEA=D EMPHASIZES1 SO WAS MONEY4 ,GOLD1 %AP$ 9TO CO9S1 IS A MAT]IAL SUB/ANCE ?AT IS ALSO AN AB/RACTION4 ,IT IS BO? A LUMP ( METAL & SOME?+ MORE ?AN A LUMP ( METAL--IT'S A DRA*MA OR AN OBOL1 A UNIT ( CURR5CY :I* 7AT LEA/ IF COLLECT$ 9 SUFFICI5T QUANTITY1 TAK5 TO ! RI<T PLACE AT ! RI<T TIME1 TURN$ OV] TO ! RI<T P]SON7 C\LD BE EX*ANG$ = ABSOLUTELY ANY O!R OBJECT :ATSOEV]4.<#e#d#e.> 

,= ,SEA=D1 :AT WAS G5U9ELY NEW AB\T CO9S WAS !IR D\BLE-SID$NESS3 ! FACT ?AT !Y W]E BO? VALUABLE PIECES ( METAL &1 AT ! SAME TIME1 SOME?+ MORE4 ,AT LEA/ )9 ! COMMUNITIES ?AT CREAT$ !M1 ANCI5T CO9S W]E ALWAYS WOR? MORE ?AN ! GOLD1 SILV]1 OR COPP] ( :I* !Y W]E COMPOS$4 ,SEA=D REF]S TO ?IS EXTRA VALUE BY ! 9ELEGANT T]M 0FIDUCI>ITY10 :I* COMES FROM ! T]M = PUBLIC TRU/1 ! CONFID5CE A COMMUNITY PLACES 9 ITS CURR5CY4.<#e#d#f.> ,TRUE1 AT ! HEI<T ( ,CLASSICAL ,GREECE1 :5 !RE W]E HUNDR$S ( CITY-/ATES PRODUC+ DIFF]5T CURR5CIES ACCORD+ TO A NUMB] ( DIFF]5T SY/EMS ( WEI<TS & D5OM9ATIONS1 M]*ANTS (T5 DID C>RY SCALES & TREAT CO9S--P>TICUL>LY =EIGN CO9S--LIKE SO MANY *UNKS ( SILV]1 JU/ AS ,9DIAN M]*ANTS SEEM TO HAVE TREAT$ ,ROMAN CO9S2 BUT )9 A CITY1 ?AT CITY'S CURR5CY HAD A SPECIAL /ATUS1 S9CE IT WAS ALWAYS ACCEPTABLE AT FACE VALUE :5 US$ TO PAY TAXES1 PUBLIC FEES1 OR LEGAL P5ALTIES4 ,?IS IS1 9CID5TALLY1 :Y ANCI5T GOV]NM5TS W]E SO (T5 ABLE TO 9TRODUCE BASE METAL 9TO !IR CO9S )\T LEAD+ TO IMM$IATE 9FLATION2 A DEBAS$ CO9 MI<T HAVE LO/ VALUE :5 TRAD$ OV]SEAS1 BUT AT HOME1 IT WAS /ILL WOR? JU/ AS MU* :5 PUR*AS+ A LIC5SE1 OR 5T]+ ! PUBLIC !AT]4.<#e#d#g.> ,?IS IS ALSO :Y1 DUR+ PUBLC EM]G5CIES1 ,GREEK CITY-/ATES W\LD OCCASIONALLY /RIKE CO9S MADE 5TIRELY ( BRONZE OR T91 :I* EV]YONE W\LD AGREE1 :ILE ! EM]G5CY LA/$1 TO TREAT AS IF !Y W]E REALLY MADE ( SILV]4.<#e#d#h.> 

,?IS IS ! KEY TO ,SEA=D'S >GUM5T AB\T MAT]IALISM & ,GREEK PHILOSOPHY4 ,A CO9 WAS A PIECE ( METAL1 BUT BY GIV+ IT A P>TICUL> %APE1 /AMP$ ) WORDS & IMAGES1 ! CIVIC COMMUNITY AGRE$ TO MAKE IT SOME?+ MORE4 ,BUT ?IS P[] WAS NOT UNLIMIT$4 ,BRONZE CO9S C\LD NOT BE US$ =EV]2 IF ONE DEBAS$ ! CO9AGE1 9FLATION W\LD EV5TUALLY SET 94 ,IT WAS AS IF !RE WAS A T5SION !RE1 BETWE5 ! WILL ( ! COMMUNITY & ! PHYSICAL NATURE ( ! OBJECT ITSELF4 ,GREEK ?9K]S W]E SUDD5LY CONFRONT$ ) A PR(\NDLY NEW TYPE ( OBJECT1 ONE ( EXTRAORD9>Y IMPORTANCE--AS EVID5C$ BY ! FACT ?AT SO MANY M5 W]E WILL+ TO RISK !IR LIVES TO GET !IR H&S ON IT--BUT :OSE NATURE WAS A PR(\ND 5IGMA4 

,CONSID] ?IS WORD1 0MAT]IALISM40 ,:AT DOES IT MEAN TO ADOPT A 0MAT]IALI/0 PHILOSOPHY8 ,:AT IS 0MAT]IAL10 ANYWAY8 ,NORMALLY1 WE SPEAK ( 0MAT]IALS0 :5 WE REF] TO OBJECTS ?AT WE WI% TO MAKE 9TO SOME?+ ELSE4 ,A TREE IS A LIV+ ?+4 ,IT ONLY BECOMES 0WOOD0 :5 WE BEG9 TO ?9K AB\T ALL ! O!R ?+S Y\ C\LD C>VE \T ( IT4 ,& ( C\RSE Y\ CAN C>VE A PIECE ( WOOD 9TO ALMO/ ANY?+4 ,! SAME IS TRUE ( CLAY1 OR GLASS1 OR METAL4 ,!Y'RE SOLID & REAL & TANGIBLE1 BUT ALSO AB/RACTIONS1 BECAUSE !Y HAVE ! POT5TIAL TO TURN 9TO ALMO/ ANY?+ ELSE--OR1 NOT PRECISELY ?AT2 ONE CAN'T TURN A PIECE ( WOOD 9TO A LION OR AN [L1 BUT ONE CAN TURN IT 9TO AN IMAGE ( A LION OR AN [L--IT CAN TAKE ON ALMO/ ANY CONCEIVABLE =M4 ,SO ALREADY 9 ANY MAT]IALI/ PHILOSOPHY1 WE >E DEAL+ ) AN OPPOSITION BETWE5 =M & CONT5T1 SUB/ANCE & %APE2 A CLA% BETWE5 ! IDEA1 SIGN1 EMBLEM1 OR MODEL 9 ! CREATOR'S M9D1 & ! PHYSICAL QUALITIES ( ! MAT]IALS ON :I* IT IS TO BE /AMP$1 BUILT1 OR IMPOS$1 FROM :I* IT WILL BE BR\<T 9TO REALITY4.<#e#d#i.> ,) CO9S ?IS RISES TO AN EV5 MORE AB/RACT LEVEL BECAUSE ?AT EMBLEM CAN NO LONG] BE CONCEIV$ AS ! MODEL 9 ONE P]SON'S HEAD1 BUT IS RA!R ! M>K ( A COLLECTIVE AGREEM5T4 ,! IMAGES /AMP$ ON ,GREEK CO9S 7,MILETUS' LION1 ,A!NS' [L7 W]E TYPICALLY ! EMBLEMS ( ! CITY'S GOD1 BUT !Y W]E ALSO A K9D ( COLLECTIVE PROMISE1 BY :I* CITIZ5S ASSUR$ ONE ANO!R ?AT NOT ONLY W\LD ! CO9 BE ACCEPTABLE 9 PAYM5T ( PUBLIC DEBTS1 BUT 9 A L>G] S5SE1 ?AT EV]YONE W\LD ACCEPT !M1 = ANY DEBTS1 & ?US1 ?AT !Y C\LD BE USE TO ACQUIRE ANY?+ ANYONE WANT$4 

,! PROBLEM IS ?AT ?IS COLLECTIVE P[] IS NOT UNLIMIT$4 ,IT ONLY REALLY APPLIES )9 ! CITY4 ,! F>!R Y\ GO \TSIDE1 9TO PLACES DOM9AT$ BY VIOL5CE1 SLAV]Y1 & W>--! SORT ( PLACE :]E EV5 PHILOSOPH]S TAK+ A CRUISE MI<T 5D UP ON ! AUCTION BLOCK--! MORE IT TURNS 9TO A M]E LUMP ( PRECI\S METAL4.<#e#e.> 

,! W> BETWE5 ,SPIRIT & ,FLE%1 !N1 BETWE5 ! NOBLE ,IDEA & UGLY ,REALITY1 ! RATIONAL 9TELLECT V]SUS /UBBORN CORPOREAL DRIVES & DESIRES ?AT RESI/ IT1 EV5 ! IDEA ?AT PEACE & COMMUNITY >E NOT ?+S ?AT EM]GE SPONTANE\SLY BUT ?AT NE$ TO BE /AMP$ ONTO \R BAS] MAT]IAL NATURES LIKE A DIV9E 9SIGNIA /AMP$ 9TO BASE METAL--ALL ?OSE IDEAS ?AT CAME TO HAUNT ! RELIGI\S & PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITIONS ( ! ,AXIAL ,AGE1 & ?AT HAVE CONT9U$ TO SURPRISE PEOPLE LIKE ,BOESO\ EV] S9CE--CAN ALREADY BE SE5 AS 9SCRIB$ 9 ! NATURE ( ?IS NEW =M ( MONEY4 

,IT W\LD BE FOOLI% TO >GUE ?AT ALL ,AXIAL ,AGE PHILOSOPHY WAS SIMPLY A M$ITATION ON ! NATURE ( CO9AGE1 BUT ,I ?9K ,SEA=D IS RI<T TO >GUE ?AT ?IS IS A CRITICAL />T+ PLACE3 ONE ( ! REASONS ?AT ! PRE-,SOCRATIC PHILOSOPH]S BEGAN TO FRAME !IR QUE/IONS 9 ! PECULI> WAY !Y DID1 ASK+ 7= 9/ANCE73 ,:AT >E ,IDEAS8 ,>E !Y M]ELY COLLECTIVE CONV5TIONS8 ,DO !Y EXI/1 AS ,PLATO 9SI/$1 9 SOME DIV9E DOMA9 BEYOND MAT]IAL EXI/5CE8 ,OR DO !Y EXI/ 9 \R M9DS8 ,OR DO \R M9DS !MSELVES ULTIMATELY P>TAKE ( ?AT DIV9E IMMAT]IAL DOMA98 ,& IF !Y DO1 :AT DOES ?IS SAY AB\T \R RELATION TO \R BODIES8 

,9 ,9DIA & ,*9A1 ! DEBATE TOOK DIFF]5T =MS1 BUT MAT]IALISM WAS ALWAYS ! />T+ PO9T4 ,WE ONLY KN[ ! IDEAS ( MO/ TRULY MAT]IALI/ ?9K]S FROM ! WORKS ( !IR 9TELLECTUAL 5EMIES3 AS IS ! CASE ) ! ,9DIAN K+ ,P,AY,ASI1 :O 5JOY$ DEBAT+ ,BUDDHI/ & ,JA9 PHILOSOPH]S1 TAK+ ! POSITION ?AT ! S\L DOES NOT EXI/1 ?AT HUMAN BODIES >E NO?+ BUT P>TICUL> CONFIGURATIONS ( AIR1 WAT]1 E>?1 & FIRE1 !IR CONSCI\SNESS ! RESULT ( ! ELEM5TS' MUTUAL 9T]ACTION1 & ?AT :5 WE DIE1 ! ELEM5TS SIMPLY DISSOLVE4.<#e#e#a.> ,CLE>LY1 ?\<1 SU* IDEAS W]E COMMONPLACE4 ,EV5 ! ,AXIAL ,AGE RELIGIONS >E (T5 />TL+LY LACK+ 9 ! PLE?ORA ( SUP]NATURAL =CES SE5 BE=E & AFT]3 AS WITNESS$ BY CONT9U$ DEBATES OV] :E!R ,BUDDHISM EV5 IS A RELIGION1 S9CE IT REJECTS ANY NOTION ( A SUPREME BE+1 OR :E!R ,CONFUCIUS' ADMONITIONS ?AT ONE %\LD CONT9UE TO V5]ATE ONE'S ANCE/ORS WAS M]ELY A WAY ( 5C\RAG+ FILIAL PIETY1 OR BAS$ ON A BELIEF ?AT DEAD ANCE/ORS DID1 9 SOME S5SE1 CONT9UE TO EXI/4 ,! FACT ?AT WE HAVE TO ASK SAYS EV]Y?+4 ,YET AT ! SAME TIME1 :AT 5DURES1 ABOVE ALL1 FROM ?AT AGE--9 9/ITUTIONAL T]MS-->E :AT WE CALL ! 0WORLD RELIGIONS40 

,:AT WE SEE !N IS A /RANGE K9D ( BACK-&-=?1 ATTACK & RIPO/E1 :]EBY ! M>KET1 ! /ATE1 W>1 & RELIGION ALL CONT9UALLY SEP>ATE & M]GE ) ONE ANO!R4 ,LET ME SUMM>IZE IT AS BRIEFLY AS ,I CAN3 

#a7 ,M>KETS APPE> TO HAVE FIR/ EM]G$1 9 ! ,NE> ,EA/ AT LEA/1 AS A SIDE EFFECT ( GOV]NM5T ADM9I/RATIVE SY/EMS4 ,OV] TIME1 H[EV]1 ! LOGIC ( ! M>KET BECAME 5TANGL$ 9 MILIT>Y AFFAIRS1 :]E IT BECAME ALMO/ 9DI/+UI%ABLE FROM ! M]C5>Y LOGIC ( ,AXIAL ,AGE W>F>E1 & !N1 F9ALLY1 ?AT LOGIC CAME TO CONQU] GOV]NM5T ITSELF2 TO DEF9E ITS V]Y PURPOSE4 

#b7 ,AS A RESULT3 EV]Y:]E WE SEE ! MILIT>Y-CO9AGE-SLAV]Y COMPLEX EM]GE1 WE ALSO SEE ! BIR? ( MAT]IALI/ PHILOSOPHIES4 ,!Y >E MAT]IALI/1 9 FACT1 9 BO? S5SES ( ! T]M3 9 ?AT !Y 5VISION A WORLD MADE UP ( MAT]IAL =CES1 RA!R ?AN DIV9E P[]S1 & 9 ?AT !Y IMAG9E ! ULTIMATE 5D ( HUMAN EXI/5CE TO BE ! ACCUMULATION ( MAT]IAL WEAL?1 ) IDEALS LIKE MORALITY & JU/ICE BE+ REFRAM$ AS TOOLS DESIGN$ TO SATISFY ! MASSES4 

#c7 ,EV]Y:]E1 TOO1 WE F9D PHILOSOPH]S :O REACT TO ?IS BY EXPLOR+ IDEAS ( HUMANITY & ! S\L1 ATTEMPT+ TO F9D A NEW F\NDATION = E?ICS & MORALITY4 

#d7 ,EV]Y:]E SOME ( !SE PHILOSOPH]S MADE COMMON CAUSE ) SOCIAL MOVEM5TS ?AT 9EVITABLY =M$ 9 ! FACE ( !SE NEW & EXTRAORD9>ILY VIOL5T & CYNICAL ELITES4 ,! RESULT WAS SOME?+ NEW TO HUMAN HI/ORY3 POPUL> MOVEM5TS ?AT W]E ALSO 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5TS1 DUE TO ! ASSUMPTION ?AT ?OSE OPPOS+ EXI/+ P[] >RANGEM5TS DID SO 9 ! NAME ( SOME K9D ( !ORY AB\T ! NATURE ( REALITY4 

#e7 ,EV]Y:]E1 !SE MOVEM5TS W]E FIR/ & =EMO/ PEACE MOVEM5TS1 9 ?AT !Y REJECT$ ! NEW CONCEPTION ( VIOL5CE1 & ESPECIALLY AGGRESSIVE W>1 AS ! F\NDATION ( POLITICS4 

#f7 ,EV]Y:]E TOO1 !RE SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 AN 9ITIAL IMPULSE TO USE ! NEW 9TELLECTUAL TOOLS PROVID$ BY IMP]SONAL M>KETS TO COME UP ) A NEW BASIS = MORALITY1 & EV]Y:]E1 IT F\ND]$4 ,MOHISM1 ) ITS NOTION ( SOCIAL PR(IT1 FL\RI%$ BRIEFLY & !N COLLAPS$4 ,IT WAS REPLAC$ BY ,CONFUCIANISM1 :I* REJECT$ SU* IDEAS \TRI<T4 ,WE HAVE ALREADY SE5 ?AT REIMAG9+ MORAL RESPONSIBILITY 9 T]MS ( DEBT--AN IMPULSE ?AT CROPP$ UP 9 BO? ,GREECE & ,9DIA--:ILE ALMO/ 9EVITABLE GIV5 ! NEW ECONOMIC CIRCUM/ANCES1 SEEMS TO PROVE UNI=MLY UNSATISFY+4.<#e#e#b.> ,! /RONG] IMPULSE IS TO IMAG9E ANO!R WORLD :]E DEBT--& ) IT1 ALL O!R WORLDLY CONNECTIONS--CAN BE 5TIRELY ANNIHILAT$1 :]E SOCIAL ATTA*M5TS >E SE5 AS =MS ( BONDAGE2 JU/ AS ! BODY IS A PRISON4 

#g7 ,RUL]S' ATTITUDES *ANG$ OV] TIME4 ,AT FIR/1 MO/ APPE> TO HAVE AFFECT$ AN ATTITUDE ( BEMUS$ TOL]ANCE T[>D ! NEW PHILOSOPHICAL & RELIGI\S MOVEM5TS :ILE PRIVATELY EMBRAC+ SOME V]SION ( CYNICAL REALPOLITIK1 ,BUT AS W>R+ CITIES & PR9CIPALITIES W]E REPLAC$ BY GREAT EMPIRES1 & ESPECIALLY1 AS ?OSE EMPIRES BEGAN TO REA* ! LIMITS ( !IR EXPANSION1 S5D+ ! MILIT>Y-CO9AGE-SLAV]Y COMPLEX 9TO CRISIS1 ALL ?IS SUDD5LY *ANG$4 ,9 ,9DIA1 ,ASOKA TRI$ TO RE-F\ND HIS K+DOM ON ,BUDDHISM2 9 ,ROME1 ,CON/ANT9E TURN$ TO ! ,*RI/IANS2 9 ,*9A1 ! ,HAN EMP]OR ,WU-,TI 7#a#e#g-#h#g ,B,C71 FAC$ ) A SIMIL> MILIT>Y & F9ANCIAL CRISIS1 ADOPT$ ,CONFUCIANISM AS ! PHILOSOPHY ( /ATE4 ,( ! ?REE1 ONLY ,WU ,TI WAS ULTIMATELY SUCCESSFUL3 ! ,*9ESE EMPIRE 5DUR$1 9 ONE =M OR ANO!R1 = TWO ?\S& YE>S1 ALMO/ ALWAYS ) ,CONFUCIANISM AS ITS (FICIAL IDEOLOGY4 ,9 ,CON/ANT9E'S CASE ! ,WE/]N EMPIRE FELL AP>T1 BUT ! ,ROMAN *UR* 5DUR$4 ,ASOKA'S PROJECT C\LD BE SAID TO BE ! LEA/ SUCCESSFUL4 ,NOT ONLY DID HIS EMPIRE FALL AP>T1 REPLAC$ BY AN 5DLESS S]IES ( WEAK]1 USUALLY FRAGM5T>Y K+DOMS1 BUT ,BUDDHISM ITSELF WAS L>GELY DRIV5 \T ( HIS ONE-TIME T]RITORIES1 ?\< IT DID E/ABLI% ITSELF MU* MORE FIRMLY 9 ,*9A1 ,NEPAL1 ,TIBET1 ,SRI ,LANKA1 ,KOREA1 ,JAPAN1 & MU* ( ,S\!A/ ,ASIA4 

#h7 ,! ULTIMATE EFFECT WAS A K9D ( IDEAL DIVISION ( SPH]ES ( HUMAN ACTIVITY ?AT 5DURES TO ?IS DAY3 ON ! ONE H& ! M>KET1 ON ! O!R1 RELIGION4 ,TO PUT ! MATT] CRUDELY3 IF ONE RELEGATES A C]TA9 SOCIAL SPACE SIMPLY TO ! SELFI% ACQUISITION ( MAT]IAL ?+S1 IT IS ALMO/ 9EVITABLE ?AT SOON SOMEONE ELSE WILL COME TO SET ASIDE ANO!R DOMA9 9 :I* TO PREA* ?AT1 FROM ! P]SPECTIVE ( ULTIMATE VALUES1 MAT]IAL ?+S >E UNIMPORTANT2 ?AT SELFI%NESS--OR EV5 ! SELF-->E ILLUSORY1 & ?AT TO GIVE IS BETT] ?AN TO RECEIVE4 ,IF NO?+ ELSE1 IT IS SURELY SIGNIFICANT ?AT ALL ! ,AXIAL ,AGE RELIGIONS EMPHASIZ$ ! IMPORTANCE ( *>ITY1 A CONCEPT ?AT HAD B>ELY EXI/$ BE=E4 ,PURE GRE$ & PURE G5]OSITY >E COMPLEM5T>Y CONCEPTS2 NEI!R C\LD REALLY BE IMAG9$ )\T ! O!R2 BO? C\LD ONLY >ISE 9 9/ITUTIONAL CONTEXTS ?AT 9SI/$ ON SU* PURE & S+LE-M9D$ BEHAVIOR2 & BO? SEEM TO HAVE APPE>$ TOGE!R :]EV] IMP]SONAL1 PHYSICAL1 CA% MONEY ALSO APPE>$ ON ! SC5E4 

,AS = ! RELIGI\S MOVEM5TS3 IT W\LD BE EASY 5\< TO WRITE !M (F AS ESCAPI/1 AS PROMIS+ ! VICTIMS ( ! ,AXIAL ,AGE EMPIRES LIB]ATION 9 ! NEXT WORLD AS A WAY ( LETT+ !M ACCEPT !IR LOT 9 ?IS ONE1 & CONV9C+ ! RI* ?AT ALL !Y REALLY [$ ! POOR W]E OCCASIONAL *>ITABLE DONATIONS4 ,RADICAL ?9K]S ALMO/ 9V>IABLY DO WRITE !M (F 9 ?IS WAY4 ,SURELY1 ! WILL+NESS ( ! GOV]NM5TS !MSELVES TO EV5TUALLY EMBRACE !M W\LD SEEM TO SUPPORT ?IS CONCLUSION4 ,BUT ! ISSUE IS MORE COMPLICAT$4 ,FIR/ ( ALL1 !RE IS SOME?+ TO BE SAID = ESCAPISM4 ,POPUL> UPRIS+S 9 ! ANCI5T WORLD USUALLY 5D$ 9 ! MASSACRE ( ! REBELS4 ,AS ,I'VE ALREADY OBS]V$1 PHYSICAL ESCAPE1 SU* AS VIA EXODUS OR DEFECTION1 HAS ALWAYS BE5 ! MO/ EFFECTIVE RESPONSE TO OPPRESSIVE CONDITIONS S9CE ! E>LIE/ TIMES WE KN[ AB\T4 ,:]E PHYSICAL ESCAPE IS NOT POSSIBLE1 :AT1 EXACTLY1 IS AN OPPRESS$ PEASANT SUPPOS$ TO DO8 ,SIT & CONTEMPLATE H] MIS]Y8 ,AT ! V]Y LEA/1 O!RWORLDLY RELIGIONS PROVID$ GLIMPSES ( RADICAL ALT]NATIVES4 ,(T5 !Y ALL[$ PEOPLE TO CREATE O!R WORLDS )9 ?IS ONE1 LIB]AT$ SPACES ( ONE SORT OR ANO!R4 ,IT IS SURELY SIGNIFICANT ?AT ! ONLY PEOPLE :O SUCCE$$ 9 ABOLI%+ SLAV]Y 9 ! ANCI5T WORLD W]E RELIGI\S SECTS1 SU* AS ! ,ESS5ES--:O DID SO1 EFFECTIVELY1 BY DEFECT+ FROM ! L>G] SOCIAL ORD] & =M+ !IR [N UTOPIAN COMMUNITIES4.<#e#e#c.> ,OR1 9 A SMALL] BUT MORE 5DUR+ EXAMPLE3 ! DEMOCRATIC CITY-/ATES ( NOR!RN ,9DIA W]E ALL EV5TUALLY /AMP$ \T BY ! GREAT EMPIRES 7,KAUTILYA PROVIDES EXT5SIVE ADVICE ON H[ TO SUBV]T & DE/ROY DEMOCRATIC CON/ITUTIONS71 BUT ! ,BUDDHA ADMIR$ ! DEMOCRATIC ORGANIZATION ( !IR PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES & ADOPT$ IT AS ! MODEL = HIS FOLL[]S4.<#e#e#d.> ,BUDDHI/ MONA/]IES >E /ILL CALL$ SAN<A1 ! ANCI5T NAME = SU* REPUBLICS1 & CONT9UE TO OP]ATE BY ! SAME CONS5SUS-F9D+ PROCESS TO ?IS DAY1 PRES]V+ A C]TA9 EGALIT>IAN DEMOCRATIC IDEAL ?AT W\LD O!RWISE HAVE BE5 5TIRELY =GOTT54 

,F9ALLY1 ! L>G] HI/ORICAL A*IEVEM5TS ( !SE MOVEM5TS >E NOT1 9 FACT1 9SIGNIFICANT4 ,AS !Y TOOK HOLD1 ?+S BEGAN TO *ANGE4 ,W>S BECAME LESS BRUTAL & LESS FREQU5T4 ,SLAV]Y FAD$ AS AN 9/ITUTION1 TO ! PO9T AT :I*1 BY ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 IT HAD BECOME 9SIGNIFICANT OR EV5 NONEXI/5T ACROSS MO/ ( ,EURASIA4 ,EV]Y:]E TOO1 ! NEW RELIGI\S AU?ORITIES BEGAN TO S]I\SLY ADDRESS ! SOCIAL DISLOCATIONS 9TRODUC$ BY DEBT4 

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