,P>T #a ,= ,PHILOSOPHY ,PEOPLE 3 ,AU?OR 3 ,M>K ,BRAY ,AU?OR 3 ,SCOTT ,NAPPOLAS ,TEXT 3 ,P>T #a3 ,PHILOSOPHY ,= ,PHILOSOPHY ,) MU* ( ! WORLD UP5D$1 TO TURN TO PHILOSOPHY MIS A /RANGE B$FELL[ = A TIME :5 SMALL FIRES >E COM+ \T ( ! GR\ND H]E & !RE3 ,EGYPT1 ,*ILI1 ,*9A1 ,S\!RN ,EUROPE1 ,9DIA1 & EV5 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4 ,= DECADES !RE'S BE5 A PHILOSOPHICAL SLUMB] 9 ! POLITICAL WORLD2 A CAUTI\S BALANCE ( TRADITIONS GU>D$ BY ACADEMIA & A DRIFT ACROSS VA/ OCEANS SWIMM+ AWAY FROM ALL ! TUMULT RAG+ A%ORE4 ,IT'S PRECISELY 9 TIMES ( GREAT *ANGE ?AT PEOPLE TURN AGA9 TO PHILOSOPHY4 ,TODAY WE /& AT CROSSROADS 9 WORLD HI/ORY AGA9 ) ! GLOBAL FL[S ( CAPITAL REORGANIZ+1 ! LOSS ( ! 0/ABILITY0 ( ,WE/]N & =M]LY ,SOVIETALIGN$ P[]S1 NEW /RUGGLES >IS+ >\ND ! WORLD1 & AN UNC]TA9 FUTURE BO? = LIB]ATION & SURVIVAL AT LEA/ 9 ! WORLD AS WE'VE KN[N IT4 ,) ! BREAKD[N ( ! PREVI\S GEOPOLITICAL BALANCE ( =CES1 AGREEM5TS1 & MODELS1 ! DOM9ANT =MS ( ?\E UND] FIRE4 ,! FAILURES ( ! P[]FUL TO ORGANIZE SOCIETY HAVE RAIS$ MANY QUE/IONS AB\T ! ABILITY ( EXI/+ PHILOSOPHIES TO ACC\NT = HI/ORY'S S\R TURNS4 ,:5 MATT]S LIKE 5VIRONM5TAL CATA/ROPHE1 ! POT5TIAL = MASSIVE W>S 7& EXP&+ >EAS ( CONFLICT71 ECONOMIC COLLAPSE1 & SO ON >E ON ! TABLE1 KEY SECTORS )9 ! LIB]ATORY POLITICAL L&SCAPE RETURN TO PHILOSOPHY TO REEVALUATE & SEEK NEW WAYS =W>D4 ,! SURPRIS+ POPUL> SUCCESS ( ,M>X'S ,CAPITAL 9 BOOK/ORES DUR+ ! ?ROES ( WORLD F9ANCIAL CRISIS EXPLA9$ ?USLY MAKES P]FECT S5SE4 ,FUNDAM5TAL QUE/IONS >E BE+ RAIS$1 & PEOPLE :O NORMALLY DO NOT 5GAGE 9 ?AT K9D ( ACTIVITY >E GO+ BACK TO ! BASICS & PICK+ UP :ATEV] TOOLS !Y'RE AW>E (4 ,P>T ( ! /RUGGLE = A MORE JU/ SOCIETY IS \R UND]/&+1 CONCEPTION1 & ANALYSIS ( \R REALITY & /RUGGLES4 ,WE DON'T JU/ REPRODUCE IDEAS ?AT WE F9D1 BUT WE ALSO 9V5T NEW CONCEPTS1 CREATE NEW WAYS ( ?9K+ AB\T *ANG+ REALITY1 & PROPOSE WAYS ( ?9K+ TO HELP US *ANGE ! WORLD4 ,WE MAKE & RE=M ME?ODOLOGIES1 ANALYZES1 & CONCEPTS4 ,?AT IS1 WE BUILD !ORY4 ,! FRAMEWORK WE USE TO BUILD !ORIES IS CALL$ META!ORY1 OR ! TOOLS US$ TO CON/RUCT !ORY \T (4 ,IT IS ! BASIC UNIT OR VOCABUL>Y ( POLITICAL WORK--! BRICKS & MORT> ( A BUILD+1 ! BASIC CONCEPTIONS ?AT ALL[ US TO HAVE ?\I/OTLE'S PHYSICS )9 ,WE/]N ?\I/OTLE'S !ORIES4 ,TODAY IMAG9+ ANY SCI5TIFIC !ORY1 LET ALONE ONE CREAT$ BY A PHILOSOPH]1 LA/+ A G5]ATION W\LD BE UNUSUAL LET ALONE C5TURIES4 ,\T ( PHILOSOPHY ! SCI5CES & DISCIPL9ES W]E CON/RUCT$ & ! EXPANSION ( KN[L$GE BR\D] TO PICK \T ?AN EV] BE=E--BORD]S ?AT >E RAPIDLY %IFT+ & CONTE/$4 ,/RONG ANTI-9TELLECTUAL CURR5TS1 AT LEA/ 9 ,U,S SOCIETY1 MAKE PHILOSOPHY SEEM TO MANY ! PURE/ =M ( ]UDITE ELITISM & AB/RACTION = AB/RACTION'S SAKE4 ,PURG$ ( ITS EMPIRICAL ELEM5TS1 PHILOSOPHY APPE>S TO BE ! BUS9ESS ( SETTL+ PROBLEMS :OSE SOLUTIONS HAVE NO \TCOME ANYWAY--PURE SPECULATION & M5TAL MA/URBATION4 ,NONE ( ?IS IS AID$ BY ACTUALLY EXI/+ PHILOSOPHY1 :I* UN=TUNATELY IS (T5 *>ACT]IZ$ BY FEUD+ M5 AT ELITE 9/ITUTIONS :O VIEW !IR ROLE MORE AS GLADIATORS = HIRE 9 AN >5A ?AN AS 5GAG$ CITIZ5S4 ,!SE S5TIM5TS >E P>TICUL>LY TRUE = LIB]ATORY POLITICAL ?\*IES /ACK$ AGA9/ ! EXPLOIT$ & OPPRESS$4 ,AT ! SAME TIME BATTLES >E BE+ WAG$ OV] DIFF]5T TRADITIONS PHILOSOPH]S1 CANONS1 & :AT ROLE PREVI\S PHILOSOPHIES WILL PLAY 9 UND]/&+ ! VICTORIES & TRAG$IES ( POLITICAL /RUGGLE4 ,! 9TELLECTUAL CRISES ( TRADITIONAL LEFT MOVEM5TS ) ! FALL ( ! ,U,S,S,R 7COMB9$ ) A TW9 ?REAT ( AN 9SURG5T & RIS+ GLOBAL AN>*ISM ECLIPS+ ! ,M>XISM & SOCIALISM ( PREVI\S G5]ATIONS7 HAVE CREAT$ A VACUUM ( PHILOSOPHICAL SPACE4 ,L9EAGE1 TRADITION1 F\NDATIONS1 & />T+ PO9TS >E BE+ REWRITT5 & REEVALUAT$4 ,! WORK ( ,FR5* & ,ITALIAN REVOLUTION>IES BR\XISM & ,M>X'S ,HEGELIANISM TO !IR EXP]I5CES 9 ,P>IS 9 #aifh & ,ITALY'S /RUGGLES ?R\<\T ! #fS & #gS4 ,MANY ,MAOI/S & ,M>XI/-,L59I/S ( TODAY LOOK TO ! WORK ( ,ALA9 ,BADI\ TO PROVIDE A PHILOSOPHICAL F\NDATION = UND]/&+ ! LIMITATIONS ( ! (FICIAL AU?ORIT>IAN ,M>XI/-,L59I/ /ATE EXP]I5CES ( ! #b? C5TURY & PA?S =W>D :ILE /ILL RETA9+ ! LEGACY ( SU* MOVEM5TS4 ,AN>*I/ & LIB]T>IAN ?9K]S LIKEWISE HAVE S\T FROM ! DIALECTICS1 ,HEGELIANISM1 & MO/ ( ALL ! DOM9ATION ( ,M>XISM & LIB]ALISM )9 LIB]ATORY ?\E EXAMPLES ( REC5T ?9K]S :O HAVE HAD 9FLU5CE ON A WIDE >RAY ( RELEVANT POLITICAL ISSUES4 ,! IMPORTANCE = EXAMPLE ( ,NEGRI & ,H>DT'S ,EMPIRE EXEMPLIFI$ ?AT4.<#c.> ,ITS 9FLU5CE WAS GROSSLY DISPROPORTIONATE TO ITS ACTUAL CONT5T1 & 9 RETROSPECT CAN BE VIEW$ AS CAPTUR+ ! UNC]TA9TY ( ! TIME AT :I* PEOPLE BEGAN RIS+ UP AGA9/ NEOLIB]ALISM :ILE LEFTI/ DOGMAS ONE BY ONE CRUMBL$4 ,) ! ,WORLD ,TRADE ,ORGANIZATION PROTE/S COM+ ON ITS HEELS1 ,EMPIRE WAS 9 ! RIRE & /RA9$ ATTEMPTS TO APPLY SU* ?9K]S TO CONCRETE WORK SPEAKS TO ! POV]TY ( & HUNG] = !SE IDEAS4 ,!RE IS A PU% & PULL BETWE5 ANTI-9TELLECTUALISM ON ! ONE H&1 & !N A POV]TY ( !ORY ?AT SPEAKS TO ! MOM5TS & POSITIONS PEOPLE :O >E /RUGGL+ F9D !MSELVES 9 )\T ROADMAPS OR M5TORS4 ,! GAP BETWE5 !ORY & PRACTICE IS MORE LIT]AL ?AN FIGURATIVE4 ,:ILE IT IS TRUE ?AT V]Y FEW1 EV5 AMONG H>DCORE POLITICAL ACTIVI/S1 LOOK TO SU* PHILOSOPHICAL WORK1 ! IMPACT ( IT %\LD NOT BE UND]E/IMAT$4 ,!ORY & PHILOSOPHY MATT] 9 P>T BECAUSE SOME PEOPLE ?9K !Y DO4 ,ONLY A T9Y FRACTION ( PEOPLE 5GAG$ 9 ,M>XI/ /RUGGLES ACTUALLY READ ,M>X HIMSELF1 BUT ! 9FLU5CE ( ,M>X & HIS WORKS WAS MASSIVE4 ,?IS IS BECAUSE KEY ACTORS ALWAYS COME BACK TO PHILOSOPHY TO HELP MAKE S5SE ( EXP]I5CES4 ,:ILE ! 9FLU5CE ( !ORY IS DIFFUS$ ?R\< 9NUM]ABLE FACTORS1 ! FACT REMA9S ?AT PHILOSOPHY IS A PLACE :]E IMPORTANT ELEM5TS RETURN TO FREQU5TLY & ESPECIALLY SO 9 MOM5TS ( *ANGE4 ,PHILOSOPHY DOES NOT D]IVE ITS IMPORTANCE FROM ! SIMPLE FACT ?AT 9FLU5TIAL 7H[EV] WE UND]/& ?AT7 PEOPLE USE IT & TAKE IT S]I\SLY4 ,IF ?AT W]E ! 5D ( ! /ORY1 WE MIT ( HUMAN LIFE & ?\E BUILT UPON PHILOSOPHY & ALL PEOPLE 5GAGE 9 PHILOSOPHICAL ?9K+1 ?\< NOT NECESS>ILY AS A CONSCI\S EF=T4 ,IT IS ?R\< F9D+ ANSW]S TO O!R QUE/IONS ?AT PHILOSOPHY RISES TO ! SURFACE1 & :5 \R ABILITY TO F9D ANSW]S 9 \R DAILY LIVES BREAKS D[N1 ! UND]LY+ PHILOSOPHICAL ELEM5TS BECOME MORE OBVI\S4 ,?IS IS TO SAY ?AT !RE >E 9H]5T PHILOSOPHICAL ELEM5TS TO ALL HUMAN ?\ FEATURE ( PHILOSOPHY4 ,IF SOMEONE ASKS ! QUE/ION :AT IS MA!MATICS1 WE CAN GIVE HIM A DICTION>Y DEF9ITION1 LET US SAY ! SCI5CE ( NUMB]1 = ! SAKE ( >GUM5T4 ,AS F> AS IT GOES ?IS IS AN UNCONTROV]SIAL /ATEM5T444 ,DEF9ITIONS MAY BE GIV5 9 ?IS WAY ( ANY FIELD :]E A BODY ( DEF9ITE KN[L$GE EXI/S4 ,BUT PHILOSOPHY CANNOT BE SO DEF9$4 ,ANY DEF9ITION IS CONTROV]SIAL & ALREADY EMBODIES A PHILOSOPHIC ATTITUDE4 ,! ONLY WAY TO F9D \T :AT PHILOSOPHY IS1 IS TO DO PHILOSOPHY4.<#c#a.> ,A CORE COMPON5T ( DO+ PHILOSOPHY IS LOOK+ AT ! UND]LY+ ASSUMPTIONS1 /RUCTURES1 & VALUES ( V>I\S PROBLEMS OR FIELDS ( ?\E PHILOSOPHICAL QUE/IONS = PHYSICS1 SOCIOLOGY1 >T1 LIT]ATURE1 RELIGION1 ! M9D1 SPACE1 TIME1 & SO ON4 ,PHILOSOPHY IS NOT AB\T TOPICS1 TEXTS1 OR SUBJECTS1 BUT RA!R IT IS A TYPE ( APPROA* & TYPES ( QUE/IONS4 ,TRADITIONALLY ! APPROA* ( PHILOSOPHY IS PRIM>ILY AIM$ AT EXPLOR+ ELEM5TS ( \R KN[L$GE1 EVALUATIONS1 ULTIMATE NATURE OR BE+1 & ME?ODOLOGIES UND]LY+ FUNDAM5TAL PROBLEMS4 ,IMMANUEL ,KANT DEL9EATES ! T]RA9 WELL %[+ ! WOND] ?AT PHILOSOPHY CAN 9SPIRE 9 US AS AG5TS APPROA*+ A WORLD EMP[]$ & REQUIR$ TO 9QUIRE & 9T]V5E3 ,TWO ?+S FILL ! M9D ) EV] NEW & 9CREAS+ ADMIRATION & AWE1 ! MORE (T5 & /EADILY WE REFLECT UPON !M3 ! />RY HEAV5S ABOVE ME & ! MORAL LAW )9 ME4 ,I DO NOT SEEK OR CONJECTURE EI!R ( !M AS IF !Y W]E VEIL$ OBSCURITIES OR EXTRAVAGANCES BEYOND ! HORIZON ( MY VISION2 ,I SEE !M BE=E ME & CONNECT !M IMM$IATELY ) ! CONSCI\SNESS ( MY EXI/5CE4 ,! FIR/ />TS AT ! PLACE ?AT ,I OCCUPY 9 ! EXT]NAL WORLD ( ! S5SES1 & EXT5DS ! CONNECTION 9 :I* ,I /& 9TO ! LIMITLESS MAGNITUDE ( WORLDS UPON WORLDS1 SY/EMS UPON SY/EMS1 AS WELL AS 9TO ! B\NDLESS TIMES ( !IR P]IODIC MOTION1 !IR BEG9N+ & CONT9UATION4 ,! SECOND BEG9S ) MY 9VISIBLE SELF1 MY P]SONALITY1 & DISPLAYS TO ME A WORLD ?AT HAS TRUE 9F9ITY1 BUT :I* CAN ONLY BE DETECT$ ?R\< ! UND]/&+1 & ) :I* 444 ,I KN[ MYSELF TO BE 9 NOT1 AS 9 ! FIR/ CASE1 M]ELY CONT+5T1 BUT UNIV]SAL & NECESS>Y CONNECTION4 ,! FIR/ P]SPECTIVE ( A C\NTLESS MULTITUDE ( WORLDS AS IT W]E ANNIHILATES MY IMPORTANCE AS AN ANIMAL CREATURE1 :I* MU/ GIVE ! MATT] \T ( :I* IT HAS GR[N BACK TO ! PLANET 7A M]E SPECK 9 ! COSMOS7 AFT] IT HAS BE5 7ONE KN[S NOT H[7 FURNI%$ ) LIFE-=CE = A %ORT TIME4.<#c#b.> ,IF WE /EP BACK1 WE CAN DISC]N TWO BROAD K9DS ( PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES3 DESCRIPTIVE & NORMATIVE4 ,NORMATIVE ISSUES >E ISSUES ( EVALUATIONS 7OR NORMS71 MO/ COMMONLY MORALS & E?ICS1 BUT NOT EXCLUSIVELY4 ,ISSUES SU* AS BEAUTY1 GOOD TA/E1 & EV5 ! RATIONALITY ( JUDGM5TS >E =MS ( VALUE JUDGM5TS4 ,IT'S IMPORTANT TO NOTE ?AT !RE IS NO SCI5CE ?AT C\LD EXPLA9 SU* PROBLEMS4 ,SCI5CE MIE ! ONLY ONES :O C>E4 ,NORMATIVE QUE/IONS CONC]N :AT \E WIDESPREAD & EVID5T 9 \R LIVES4 ,?IS IS BECAUSE IT IS FUNDAM5TALLY HUMAN TO HAVE TO CONTEMPLATE \R ACTIONS1 !IR EFFECT1 & ?OSE ( O!RS :O CAN DECIDE :AT TO DO OR NOT TO DO4 ,LIKEWISE1 !SE JUDGM5TS >E CONTE/$4 ,ONE G5]ATION MAY NOT EV5 CONTEMPLATE ABORTION AS RELEVANT TO MORAL ?9K+1 YET ! NEXT MIE RATIONAL1 & SO ON ALL EMBODY A PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEW & LAT5T VALUE ASSUMPTIONS ?AT >E CONTE/$ ON ALL SIDES TODAY4 ,?\< FEW DISCUSS !SE ISSUES AS PHILOSOPHY IT IS A DEBATE ?AT T\*ES NE>LY ALL ( US ?R\< ! M$IA1 ADV]TIS+1 & $UCATION4 ,?IS IS ! FIR/ WAY 9 :I* PHILOSOPHY IS 9EVITABLE4 ,BECAUSE WE >E CREATURES ?AT MU/ EVALUATE ACTIONS1 WE >E 9H]5TLY TI$ TO PHILOSOPHY4 ,DESCRIPTIVE PHILOSOPHY DEALS ) QUE/IONS ?AT TRY TO CAPTURE ELEM5TS ( \R WORLD4 ,!RE IS MORE OV]LAP H]E ) SCI5CE ?AN ) NORMATIVE MATT]S4 ,= 9/ANCE1 SOM$AY NEUROSCI5CE MAY DEMON/RATE H[ ! M9D & BODY >E ONE & ! SAME4 ,PEOPLE CAN >GUE ?AT DIFF]5T WAYS 7& 9 FACT ! BELIEF ?AT SCI5CE CAN IS ITSELF A PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION74 ,! SCI5CE ( ! M9D IS AB\T EXPLA9+ ! DATA ( ITS FUNCTION+4 ,A ROBU/ NEUROSCI5CE W\LD BE ABLE TO EXPLA9 ! *EMI/RY & BIOLOGY ( \R BODIES1 & ?R\< SOME ELABORATE EXPLANATION1 ! M5TAL /ATES1 BEHAVIORS1 & SO ON ?AT HUMANS HAVE4 ,SCI5CE IS 7R\E ONE ELEM5T ( DESCRIPTIVE PHILOSOPHY4 ,CONSID] H[ WE ATTA9 KN[L$GE ( ! NATURE ( ! M9D4 ,:ATEV] ! M9D IS1 :ATEV] ! ACC\NT ( ITS BEHAVIOR & LAWS1 QUE/IONS AB\ND AS TO H[ WE W\LD COME TO KN[ ANY ( ?IS4 ,SCI5CE PROVIDES ACC\NTS ( ! WORLD AS WE HAPP5 TO KN[ IT1 BUT ?AT DOESN'T ANSW] ANY EVALUATION ( :E!R OR NOT ?AT PROCESS GIVES US KN[L$GE1 ! UND]LY+ REALITY ( \R KN[L$GE1 OR 9DE$ :AT WE >E OR REALITY IS4 ,!SE >E PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES4 ,9 G5]AL1 DESCRIPTIVE PHILOSOPHY DEALS ) H[ WE COME TO KN[ ?+S & ! ESS5CE OR BE+ ( ?+S4 ,?\< IT IS LESS OBVI\S ?AN ) NORMATIVE QUE/IONS1 DESCRIPTIVE PHILOSOPHY IS AN 9H]5T COMPON5T ( \R ?\5T4 ,RELIGIONS *ANGE1 :I* CAUSES PHILOSOPHICAL EXPLANATIONS TO %IFT4 ,SOME RELIGIONS PLAC$ HUMANITY )9 A FALSE REALITY1 9 ! BELLY ( HELL AWAIT+ \R AWAK5+ TO A HIDD5 REALITY4 ,O!R RELIGI\S ?\AT+ US AS PURELY 9DIVIDUAL OR AUTONOM\S BE+S1 OR PLAC+ US AS ACTUALLY A S+LE BE+ DIVID$ BY ILLUSIONS ( SEP>ATE EXI/5CE FROM A UNIFI$ TOTALITY4 ,RELIGI\S ?\E 9 ! BELLY ( A DEVIL4 ,PEOPLE'S ASPIRATION TO UND]/& ! KN[L$GE & REALITY ( ! WORLD LEAD !M TO POPUL> =MS ( PHILOSOPHY4 ,ANO!R EXAMPLE ( 9H]5T PHILOSOPHIZ+ IS POLITICS ITSELF4 ,:ILE MU* ( POLITICS FALLS 9 ! NORMATIVE DOMA91 PEOPLE COME TO =M POLITICAL BELIEFS BAS$ ON A LATTICEWORK ( MORE BASIC PHILOSOPHICAL POSITIONS4 ,! DEBATE AB\T ABORTION MAKES ?IS EXPLICIT4 ,?\< RELIGION DOM9ATES ! DISCUSSION1 IT'S WOR? NOT+ ?AT SOME A!I/S ALSO REJECT ABORTION1 & MANY RELIGI\S PEOPLE DO NOT SEE ABORTION AS MURD]4 ,! BASIC DISAGREEM5T C5T]S ON A PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION ( :AT CON/ITUTES LIFE1 :I* IS :OLLY DI/9CT FROM SCI5TIFIC NOTIONS4 ,ONE WAY TO LOOK AT ! DEBATE IS ?AT !RE IS NO FACT ( ! MATT] ( :5 LIFE />TS 9 ! S5SE ?AT PEOPLE C>E AB\T2 !RE >E ONLY DEBATES AB\T ! BASIC CONCEPTIONS ( LIFE1 ITS VALUE1 & ! MEAN+ ( \R ACTIONS4 ,UND] ! POLITICAL ISSUE LIES QUE/IONS AB\T CAUSALITY1 \R AG5CY1 ! NATURE ( LIFE1 & MORALITY4 ,!SE P]SI/ BECAUSE !Y >E QUE/IONS ?AT CONC]N US1 BUT :I* NO AM\NT ( EMPIRICAL DATA OR EXP]IM5TS C\LD HELP US SOLVE4 ,BECAUSE ( \R VALUES1 ABORTION PU%ES PHILOSOPHICAL QUE/IONS AB\T LIFE & \R ACTIONS ONTO US4 ,IT ?R[S US 9TO PHILOSOPHY UNKN[+LY4 ,! /RUCTURE ( \R M9DS & WORLD MAKES US FACE QUE/IONS LIKE !SE ?AT >E CAN'T BE APPROA*$ )\T PHILOSOPHY4 ,) ?IS 9 M9D1 WE CAN SAY ?AT ALL PEOPLE 5GAGE 9 PHILOSOPHY1 ?\< NOT NECESS>ILY OV]TLY4 ,EV]YONE HAS PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS1 ASSUMPTIONS1 & !ORIES TO EXPLA9 ! WORLD4 ,SOMETIMES ?IS IS MANIFE/$ 9 RELIGI\S BELIEFS1 FOLK WISDOM1 & UNCONSCI\S REASON+4 ,AT O!R TIMES PEOPLE PUT =W>D OV]T !ORIES1 ?\< G5]ALLY NOT AS PHILOSOPHY P] SE4 ,9 ! ABORTION EXAMPLE WE CAN SEE H[ DIFF]5T POSITIONS1 :I* NE>LY EV]YONE ON SOME LEVEL HAS1 TAKE DI/9CT POSITIONS ON BO? DESCRIPTIVE & NORMATIVE PHILOSOPHY ( M9D1 E?ICS1 METAPHYSICS1 & LIFE4 ,?IS IS DI/9CT FROM MAK+ ?OSE PROCESSES CONSCI\S1 CODIFY+ !M1 HAV+ A LANGUAGE SPECIFIC TO DESCRIBE !M1 & SO ON4 ,PEOPLE MAY HAVE TACIT BELIEFS AB\T :AT ! ULTIMATE REALITY ( LIFE IS )\T EI!R NAM+ OR BE+ AW>E ( !M1 & YET 5GAGE 9 SELF-REFLECTION & *ANGE !IR UND]LY+ !ORIES BAS$ ON REASON+4 ,WE CAN COMP>E ?9K+ ( LIFE AS ! BEG9N+ ( A *A9 ( EV5TS />T+ AT SEX1 ! GR[? ( A S5TI5T HUMANLIKE BE+1 OR ! MOM5T :5 A NEW =M ( LIFE IS %IFT$ FROM ! CELLS ( ! EGG UPON CONCEPTION4 ,EA* C>RIES A PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ) ASSOCIAT$ BELIEFS & EXPLANATIONS4 ,ANTONIO ,GRAMSCI1 AN ,ITALIAN REVOLUTION>Y1 MADE A FAM\S DI/9CTION BETWE5 GOOD S5SE & COMMON S5SE4 ,= ,GRAMSCI1 ALL PEOPLE HAD BO? GOOD S5SE & COMMON S5SE4 ,COMMON S5SE IS SOCIALLY 9H]IT$ = ! MO/ P>T4 ,EA* 9DIVIDUAL HAS !IR [N ?\E F\ND$ UPON HABIT & TRADITION EMBODI$ 9 A PLACE & !IR P]IOD4 ,?IS IS ! FRAGM5T$ CONTRADICTORY SET ( PHILOSOPHICAL ?9K+ WE ALL HAVE4 ,GOOD S5SE ON ! O!R H& IS :]E PEOPLE'S ?\GUES ?AT WE %\LD P]FECT IT4 ,YET WE'RE NOT P]FECT+ PHILOSOPHY AS AN AB/RACT1 BUT RA!R TO FIT \R CONCRETE CONTEXT3 \R /RUGGLES1 POSITION1 & ASPIRATIONS BO? 9=M+ & BE+ 9=M$ BY \R EXP]I5CES4 ,! DI/9CTION BETWE5 GOOD S5SE & COMMON S5SE PO9TS TO ! REASONABLE NOTION ?AT ALL PEOPLE NO MATT] !IR $UCATION1 9TELLIG5CE1 OR POSITION 5GAGE 9 PHILOSOPHICAL ?9K+ ?\< ) DIFF]5T LEVELS ( CONSCI\S PROCESSES1 SPECIFICITY1 & EF=T4.<#c#c.> ,PEOPLE DO NOT NORMALLY CONSID] ?IS !ORIZ+ OR 5GAG+ 9 HI< 9TELLECTUAL ACTIVITY1 BUT IT IS4 ,OBVI\SLY !RE'S A DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! WORK ( 9DIVIDUALS :O SP5D DECADES WORK+ \T AN ANALYZES ( !IR [N & ! POSITIONS 9DIVIDUALS COME TO AS A REACTION TO ?+S OCCURR+ TO !M & >\ND !M4 ,YET ! GULF IS NOT AS WIDE AS MIE NOT M]ELY RESPONSIVE1 BUT ALSO MU/ FILT] !IR RESPONSES4 ,RESPONSES COME ?R\< ! L5S ( !IR BELIEFS1 DESIRES1 & 9T5TIONS4 ,AS PEOPLE LIVE & GR[1 !Y 9EVITABLY 5C\NT] ELEM5TS ( LIFE ?AT CONTRADICT :AT !Y ?9K & :AT !Y HAVE BE5 TAUI\S %IFTS 9 DISC\RSE1 SURVEYS1 & ACTIVITY FOLL[+ ! F9ANCIAL CRISIS ( #bh TO SEE EVID5CE = WIDESPREAD PHILOSOPHICAL ?\RI] TO RECOGNIZ+ ?IS ULTIMATELY COMES FROM AN EXCESSIVELY 9DIVIDUALI/IC WORLD VIEW 9 :I* PEOPLE =M !IR IDEAS R\E \R EYES AT ! WORLD \TSIDE1 & ONLY !N RETURN TO SOCIAL LIFE TO IMPLEM5T !IR IDEAS4 ,9 REALITY ! SITUATION IS MU* MORE COMPLEX S9CE DIVISIONS BETWE5 9DIVIDUAL & SOCIAL LIFE >E 9CR$IBLY BLURR$4 ,PEOPLE'S RESPONSES & QUE/IONS DO NOT OCCUR 9 ISOLATION4 ,! SPEE*1 ACTIONS1 & REACTIONS ( ! C\NTLESS O!RS ) :OM WE >E 9 9TIMATE CONTACT 79 MOD]N CITIES & SUBURBS7 9FLU5CE \R CONSCI\S ?9K+ & UNCONSCI\S ACTIVITY4 ,WE DO NOT ASK QUE/IONS \T ( NO:]E1 BUT RA!R WE BR+ \R [N CONTRIBUTIONS TO ! EXP]I5CES & OPTIONS (F]$ TO US4 ,\R [N IDEAS & BEHAVIOR 9H]5TLY REF] TO ! ?\E UND]LY+ ISSUES 9H]5T TO BE+ ! ?9K+ CREATURE ?AT WE >E1 & !Y >E BO? 9ESCAPABLE & COMPLETELY WIDESPREAD ?R\<\T \R SOCIETIES4 ,PHILOSOPH]S MAY HAVE ! DI/9CTION ( BE+ CALL$ SU*1 BUT IT IS ONLY BECAUSE !Y HAVE A DISCIPL9E1 TRADITION1 & 9/ITUTIONS ?AT SUPPORT !IR TITLES & WORK4 ,WE >E ALL PHILOSOPH]S4 ,?IS ISN'T TO DIM9I% ! UNIQUE CONTRIBUTIONS 9DIVIDUALS MAKE1 NOR ! IDEA ?AT PEOPLE CAN 9NOVATE & CREATE G5U9ELY NEW IDEAS4 ,IT IS SIMPLY TO ACKN[L$GE ?AT WE CAN'T MAKE S5SE ( ANY ASPECT ( HUMAN M5TAL & SOCIAL LIFE )\T REF]5C+ ! LIVES1 ?\E ONE MANIFE/ATION ( ?AT BROAD] SOCIAL PROCESS AT H&4 ,YET MORE FUNDAM5TALLY IT IS ! 9H]5T PROCESS )9 US ALL ?AT MAKES !ORIES POSSIBLE4 ,MOVES TO ,DEFLATE ,YET ONE MIY LANGUAGE PHILOSOPH]S >GU$ AS SU*1 CLAIM+ ?AT PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS DEVELOP \T ( SN>ES 9 ORD9>Y USE ( LANGUAGE ?AT PHILOSOPH]S TAKE \T ( !IR USE-CONTEXT TO G5]ATE !IR QU&>IES4 ,9 SOME 9/ANCES1 !Y S\GU$3 .<,PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS.> >E SOLV$444BY LOOK+ 9TO ! WORK+S ( \R LANGUAGE1 & ?AT 9 SU* A WAY AS TO MAKE US RECOGNIZE ?OSE WORK+S3 9 DESPITE ( AN URGE TO MISUND]/& !M4 ,! PROBLEMS >E SOLV$1 NOT BY GIV+ NEW 9=MATION1 BUT BY >RANG+ :AT WE HAVE ALWAYS KN[N4 ,PHILOSOPHY IS A BATTLE AGA9/ ! BEWIT*M5T ( \R 9TELLIG5CE BY MEANS ( LANGUAGE4.<#c#d.> ,?IS APPROA* CAN R$UCE PHILOSOPHICAL QUE/IONS TO PUZZLES ?AT FALL \T ( ! QUE/IONS OR PROBLEM ITSELF4 ,PHILOSOPHY !N DOES NOT ACTUALLY *ANGE \R C\RSE1 BUT 9/EAD ONLY HELPS US EXPLA9 AWAY ! PROBLEMS ?AT COME \T ( \R LANGUAGE4 ,= EXAMPLE1 TAKE ! ISSUE ( TRU?4 ,DEFLATIONISM AB\T TRU? SIMIL>LY ATTEMPTS TO DEFLATE OR ELIM9ATE ! PHILOSOPHICAL T5SION AB\T ! NATURE ( TRU? ?R\< AN ACC\NT ?AT IS AB\T LANGUAGE & \R USE ( ! CONCEPT4.<#c#e.> ,DEFLATIONI/S >GU$ ?AT TO SAY ?AT 0GRASS IS GRE50 IS TRUE1 WE >E SIMPLY SAY+ 0GRASS IS GRE540 ,TRU? ADDS NO NEW CONT5T TO ! S5T5CE1 BUT CAN BE A USEFUL WAY TO USE LANGUAGE AS A %OR?& = REPETITION4 ,9 DO+ SO1 !Y R$UC$ ! PROBLEM ( TRU? TO A SYNTACTIC ONE1 & %[$ ?AT ! ABILITY TO ASS]T S5T5CES US+ TRU? AS A TOOL PLAY$ A ROLE4.<#c#f.> ,?IS MOVE WAS QUITE P]VASIVE 9 ! FIELD 9 AN E>LI] ]A & P>ALLELS POPUL> IDEAS AB\T ! IRRELEVANCY ( !ORETICAL ISSUES4 ,AT ITS MO/ EXTREME ?IS APPROA* REJECT$ ! RELEVANCE ( PHILOSOPHY ALTOGE!R4 ,EXTRAPOLAT+1 WE SEE ?AT IF SU* QUE/IONS >E M]ELY SEMANTIC TRICKS :I* ADD NO NEW CONT5T TO \R UND]/&+ ( QUE/IONS1 !N :AT BE>+ C\LD !Y HAVE ON ANY?+ ( SUB/ANCE8 ,EV5 IF WE 9H]5TLY 5D UP PHILOSOPHIZ+1 ?IS DOESN'T %[ ?AT IT HAS ANY USE BEYOND ! CURIOSITY ( ! !ORY-PHILE4 ,FIR/1 IT'S WOR? CONSID]+ ?AT PHILOSOPHY = ITS [N SAKE HAS AN 9H]5T GOOD4 ,IT MAY BE GOOD = PEOPLE 5GAG+ 9 9QUIRY TO TE/ !IR M9DS1 MORE DEEPLY ANALYZE ASSUMPTIONS UNEXAM9$1 & DEVELOP ABILITIES )9 ! PHILOSOPHICAL REALM ?AT HELP ) ANALYSIS & REASON+ ?AT >E MORE APPLI$4 ,PHILOSOPHICAL PRACTICE C\LD BE A TYPE ( M5TAL EX]CISE TO BUILD ABILITIES ONE W\LDN'T O!RWISE GET4 ,! PROCESS ALONE CAN IMPROVE US & B5EFIT US4 ,YET1 BROAD SKEPTICISM CONC]N+ ! IMPORTANCE ( ALL PHILOSOPHICAL 9QUIRIES IS H>D TO SU/A94 ,= ONE1 L>GE SECTIONS ( CONTE/$ SOCIAL LIFE >E IMBU$ ) PURELY !ORETICAL QUE/IONS4 ,E?ICS IS AN OBVI\S EXAMPLE4 ,IT IS NOT ?AT !RE >E TIMELESS & UNMOV+ E?ICAL CONT5TS ?AT PHILOSOPHY M]ELY TRIES TO RECONCILE ) \R 9TUITIVE BELIEFS & PRACTICES4 ,9/EAD1 E?ICAL S5TIM5TS HAVE BO? APP>5T UNIV]SALS & HI/ORICAL & SOCIOLOGICAL V>IATION4 ,! VALUES ( ! ANCI5TS >E NOT NECESS>ILY ! VALUES ( TODAY4 ,:E!R WE \TICUL>LY CONC]N+ ! L[] ORD]S ( SOCIETY1 ! DOM9AT$1 & ! EXPLOIT$4 ,EU?ANASIA1 RACISM1 SEXISM1 & C\NTLESS =MS ( DEHUMANIZATION PO9T TO ! CONTEXTUAL & *ANG+ NATURE ( VALUES4 ,!RE IS NO WAY ( APPROA*+ !SE QUE/IONS1 :I* >E CLE>LY VITAL1 )\T PHILOSOPHY 9 ONE =M OR ANO!R4 ,BEYOND E?ICAL ISSUES !RE >E ALWAYS FUNDAM5TAL ASSUMPTIONS B5EA? ALL =MS ( ?\E LIKEWISE CONTE/$4 ,PSY*OLOGY1 POLITICS1 SOCIOLOGY1 ! SCI5CES1 & LIT]ATURE ALL HAVE !IR PHILOSOPHICAL B$ROCK !Y >E BUILT UPON4 ,9 ! LIT]>Y >TS1 = EXAMPLE1 GR[+ 9T]E/ 9 LANGUAGE1 GLOBALIZATION1 & BROAD CROSS-L+UI/IC TR5DS L$ TO AN EXAM9ATION ( ! NOTION ( TRANSLATION4 ,TRANSLAT+ WORKS ( LIT]ATURE IS COMMON1 & :5 REFLECT$ UPON *OICES >\ND TRANSLATION %[ ELEM5TS ( >TI/IC CREATION4 ,= TRANSLATORS ( LIT]ATURE1 CONCEPTS LIKE MEAN+1 9T5TION1 =M1 & ES!TIC JUDGM5TS =M ! CORE ( !IR ACTIVITY4 ,EA* DISCIPL9E & HUMAN 5DEAVOR HAS ITS PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES LIKE TRANSLATION 9 LIT]ATURE4 ,PHYSICS W\LD APPE> TO BE ! MO/ SOLID ( ALL SUBJECTS4 ,YET1 PHYSICS IS BESET BY ME?ODOLOGICAL ISSUES RAIS$ BY !ORIES ?AT EXPLA9 ! BEHAVIOR ( SUBATOMIC P>TICLES4 ,QUANTUM ME*ANICS & /R+ !ORY >E TWO EXAMPLES ( !ORIES ?AT PROVIDE ANSW]S ?AT CONTRADICT BASIC BELIEFS WE HAVE AB\T :AT IT MEANS TO BE AN OBS]V]1 H[ WE COME TO HAVE KN[L$GE AB\T OBS]V$ PH5OM5A1 SPACE1 TIME1 & MOTION4.<#c#g.> ,H>D PROBLEMS 9 ! PHYSICAL SCI5CES ?AT CONTRADICT :AT WE BELIEVE AB\T ! WORLD CAN LEAD TO PHILOSOPHICAL 9VE/IGATIONS1 :I* LIKEWISE CAN G5]ATE NEW RESE>*4 ,IT IS NO ACCID5T ?AT MANY ( ! GREAT SCI5TI/S !MSELVES W]E 9VE/$ 9 PHILOSOPHICAL DEBATES ( !IR TIME1 SU* AS ,E9/E9 ) ! LOGICAL POSITIVI/S & ,NEWTON ) ! RATIONALI/S & ,NEO-,PLATONI/S4 ,! PROBLEM ( CONSCI\SNESS 9 REC5T TIME IS ONE EXAMPLE ( AN ISSUE RAIS$ BY PHILOSOPH]S1 DRAW+ FROM NEUROSCI5CE1 :I* HAS BE5 TAK5 UP FUR!R BY NEUROSCI5TI/S = NEW K9DS ( RESE>*4 ,PHILOSOPHICAL 9T]E/ 9 ! RAW EXP]I5TIAL S5SE ( 0:AT IS IT LIKE0 HAS L$ TO 9VE/IGATIONS & MODEL FROM COGNITIVE SCI5TI/S & NEUROSCI5TI/S4.<#c#h.> ,PHILOSOPH]S ( M9D DRAW FROM NEW RESE>* TO HELP F9D ?OSE B\ND>IES AS WELL3 :]E DOES \R CONCEPT ( CONSCI\SNESS MEET ) :AT WE KN[ AB\T ! BRA98 ,PHILOSOPHY CAN HELP US ) ROADBLOCKS 9 O!R DOMA9S1 & IT ALSO PROVIDES ! UND]LY+ BASIS = DO+ WORK 9 O!R FIELDS1 :I* CAN HELP OR H9D] \R UND]/&+ ( ?AT WORK 7SU* AS CONCEPTUALIZATIONS ( ?+S LIKE TIME1 CAUSATION1 P]CEPTION1 & SO ON 9 PHYSICS74 ,DISCIPL9E-SPECIFIC PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS REFLECT ! E?ICAL1 METAPHYSICAL1 & EPI/EMOLOGICAL QU&>IES ( !IR DOMA94 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 !Y RAISE ! UND]LY+ G5]AL PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS !Y DRAW FROM & CONTRIBUTE TO4 ,PHILOSOPHY IS P]HAPS LESS ( A SEP>ATE SPH]E OR BR& ?AN A TYPE ( ACTIVITY EXHIBIT$ 9 BROAD SWA?S ( HUMAN LIFE ) ASSOCIAT$ CONT5T & QUE/IONS4 ,9 POLITICS1 CONSID] ! ROLE ( PHILOSOPHY 9 MAJOR WORLD EV5TS4 ,M>XISM 9 ! POLITICAL WORLD BECAME ONE ( ! MO/ 9FLU5TIAL CURR5TS 9 HI/ORY4 ,M>XISM LIKEWISE >OSE P>TLY FROM DEBATES )9 ! ,HEGELIAN SOCIETIES1 :I* 9 TURN W]E DEBATES G5]AT$ BY DISAGREEM5TS OV] HI/ORY1 KN[L$GE1 & ! ULTIMATE NATURE ( SUBJECTIVITY & REALITY4 ,?IS ISN'T TO AB/RACT AWAY ! ROLE ( HI/ORY & /RUGGLE 9 =M+ POLITICAL CURR5TS1 BUT JU/ TO RAISE ! RELEVANCY ( A PHILOSOPHICAL ELEM5T AMONG O!RS4 ,ALL MAJOR POLITICAL ?\E ONES ?AT ADDRESS US BO? AS MEMB]S ( SOCIETIES & AS AG5TS )9 ! WORLD4 ,IT IS UNAVOIDABLE ?AT !RE BE DEEP QUE/IONS AB\T ! DIRECTION1 F\NDATION1 & JU/IFICATION = \R JUDGM5TS1 A PA? TO A GOOD SOCIETY1 & H[ WE COME TO HAVE \R BELIEFS AB\T POLITICAL QUE/IONS4 ,?IS IS EV5 TRU] = ANY CRITICAL POLITICS4 ,REJECT+ DO+ PHILOSOPHY )9 LIB]ATORY ?\E PHILOSOPHICAL QUE/IONS ( SUB/ANTIVE CONT5T & ?AT !SE >E UNAVOIDABLE AT LEA/ ON SOME LEVEL1 !N ADDITIONAL QUE/IONS >E RAIS$4 ,GOOD ,S5SE & ! ,PR(ESSIONALS ,\R WORLD ?US REFLECTS \R 9H]5T PHILOSOPHICAL BELIEFS1 & :5 \R BELIEFS *ANGE !Y CAN RE%APE ! WORLD 7?\< NOT NECESS>ILY DIRECTLY OR SIMPLY74 ,PHILOSOPHY1 AS WE DISCUSS$1 HELPS US :5 \R ?\TICUL>LY 9 TIMES ( TURMOIL1 PHILOSOPHY IS TURN$ TO = HELP4 ,BUT :AT >E ! CONSEQU5CES ( HAV+ IT BE ! DOMA9 ONLY ( PHILOSOPH]S8 ,?AT IS1 IF ONLY PR(ESSIONAL PHILOSOPH]S DO PHILOSOPHY1 H[ WILL ?AT AFFECT \R [N ?9K+8 ,IF WE REFUSE TO 5GAGE 9 IT1 WE C$E ?AT T]RITORY TO O!RS & (T5 O!RS :O MAY OR MAY NOT HAVE \R BE/ 9T]E/S 9 M9D4 ,PHILOSOPHY AS A PR(ESSIONAL FIELD RELIES UPON A S]IES ( ELITE 9/ITUTIONS TO FUND1 TRA91 & EMPLOY !IR /AFF4 ,! POLITICS & DYNAMICS ( ACADEMIC EMPLOYM5T IS SORDID 5\< TO RAISE QUE/IONS AB\T ! ABILITY ( PR(ESSIONAL ACADEMICS TO G5]ATE TOOLS = PEOPLE TRY+ TO BETT] !IR LIVES & SOCIETIES4 ,!IR 9/ITUTIONS >E L>GELY RUN BY ELITE 9TELLECTUALS :O UPHOLD PHILOSOPHY AS ! PROP]TY ( FULLTIME ACADEMICS1 :I* S]VES A HI]>*ICAL SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ?AT CONT9UALLY PLACES ! ?9K+ ( :AT IS BE/ = SOCIETY 9TO ! H&S ( ! FEW4 ,IMM5SE SOCIAL PRESSURE EX]T$ ?R\< COMPETITION1 FUND+1 & ! MOD]AT+ EFFECT ( EMPLOYM5T JUDG$ ?R\< ABILITY TO PUBLI% HAS DEEPLY CONS]VATIVE EFFECTS ON EV]Y DISCIPL9E 9 ACADEMIA4 ,ON ! ONE H& !RE IS A /EADY /REAM ( TRIVIAL TE*NICAL WORK AIM$ AT SECUR+ & MA9TA9+ ONE'S EMPLOYM5T1 &1 ON ! O!R H&1 /RONG DEF5SE ( ! EXI/+ P[] /RUCTURES 9 ONE MODIFI$ =M OR ANO!R4 ,?IS IS M]ELY TO SAY ?AT PR(ESSIONAL 9/ITUTIONS REFLECT ! P[] DYNAMICS )9 SOCIETY AS A :OLE4 ,PRIVILEGE & P[] GET DISPROPORTIONATE VOICES & HAVE EXT5SIVE MEANS TO REPRODUCE IDEOLOGY ?R\<\T SOCIETY1 ACADEMIA 9CLUD$4 ,BY FAIL+ TO TAKE UP ! !ORIES ?AT >E CONT9UALLY PU%$ UPON US1 & QUE/ION+ \R [N1 WE ALL[ LEAD]S 7EI!R ( MOVEM5TS OR ( DOM9ANT SOCIETY7 TO (T5 DECIDE KEY QUE/IONS = US ?AT NOT ONLY CAN IMPACT ! UND]LY+ !ORIES1 BUT (T5 DAY-TO-DAY /RATEGIES & TACTICS ( /RUGGLES = LIB]ATION4 ,= 9/ANCE1 CONTEMPLATE WRIT+S & COV]AGE ( ?+S LIKE ! =ECLOSURE CRISIS 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4 ,?R\< ! M$IA1 ACADEMIC PUBLICATIONS1 ?9K-TANKS1 & GOV]NM5T REPORTS V>I\S POSITIONS ON RESI/ANCE1 ! PROBLEM1 & POT5TIAL SOLUTIONS >E DEVELOP$4 ,PEOPLE 9T]ACT ) !SE ?R\< PO9TS ( 9T]SECTION 9 !IR DAILY LIFE3 !IR UNION1 *UR*1 S*OOL1 WORKPLACE1 TELEVISION1 ASSOCIATIONS1 & POLITICAL AFFILIATIONS4 ,!SE POSITIONS >E DEVELOP$ L>GELY BY PEOPLE :O HAVE DIRECT 9VE/M5T 9 ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! SY/EM ?R\< ! FUND+ ( !IR EMPLOYM5T1 & ! SIMPLE FACT ?AT IT IS WORK+ = !M4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 9/ITUTIONS ( ! P[]FUL T5D TO SET ! DEBATES4 ,9 ! CASE ( =ECLOSURES KEY ACTORS LIKE ,S,E,I,U1 ! ,DEMOCRATIC ,P>TY1 & A NETWORK ( NON-PR(ITS TI$ TO F\NDATION GRANTS OR UNIONS L$ TO FOCUS+ ON ! DEF5SE ( PRIVATE PROP]TY ( 9DIVIDUALS RA!R ?AN QUE/ION+ CAPITALI/ H\S+ ITSELF ?AT TURNS PEOPLE'S HOMES & NEI CRISES4 ,:ILE ?IS DOES NOT MEAN ?AT IT'S NOT POSSIBLE = SU* PEOPLE TO BE CRITICAL1 ON A BROAD] SOCIAL LEVEL IT IS TRUE ?AT P]SPECTIVES ?AT PROTECT ! DOM9ANT VIEW >E CONSI/5TLY OV]REPRES5T$ & DEF5D$ BY PR(ESSIONAL ?9K]S4 ,?IS TRANSLATES 9TO PEOPLE SEEK+ TO REM$Y ! PROBLEM LOOK+ T[>DS (FICIAL *ANNELS SET BY ! DOM9ANT P[] HOLD]S4 ,DISSID5TS DO EXI/ ( C\RSE4 ,YET /ILL TOO (T5 WE >E LACK+ A VEHICLE = 9DEP5D5T ?\E ABLE TO USE A MONOPOLY ( PR(ESSIONAL 9TELLECTUALS TO MOVE CONCRETE PHILOSOPHIES 9 EV]YDAY LIFE ?AT S]VE !IR 9T]E/S1 (T5 AGA9/ ! 9T]E/S ( ! GREAT MAJORITY4 ,?IS IS NOT TO PASS JUDGM5T ON ?OSE 9DIVIDUALS OR TO R$UCE !IR POSITIONS TO !IR SOCIAL CLASS1 BUT RA!R TO RAISE ! ISSUE ?AT ALL[+ = A :OLE REALM ( HUMAN M5TAL LIFE TO BE DOM9AT$ BY PR(ESSIONALS OR EV5 TO WRITE IT (F IS TO PASSIVELY ACCEPT ! REPRODUCTION ( ! RUL+ IDEOLOGY ON FUNDAM5TAL QUE/IONS = PEOPLE TRY+ TO 5ACT *ANGE4 ,IF WE WANT TO SEE CRITICAL P]SPECTIVES1 ESPECIALLY ?OSE ( ! DOM9AT$1 WE HAVE TO 9DEP5D5TLY 9T]V5E & CREATE PHILOSOPHY ) WID] P>TICIPATION4 ,RECOGNIZ+ ! ROLE ( PHILOSOPHY 9 \R LIVES BEGS = ANO!R APPROA*4 ,! DIVISION ( LABOR BETWE5 ?9K]S & WORK]S1 ! ACADEMIES & SOCIETY AT L>GE %\LD BE QUE/ION$4 ,!RE %\LD BE AN EF=T TO EXP& WORK+ 9TELLECTUAL LIFE1 & TO DEEP5 BO? ! CAPACITY ( PEOPLE TO 5GAGE ) PHILOSOPHY 9 !IR DAILY LIVES4 ,OBVI\SLY NOT EV]YONE WILL BECOME A PHILOSOPH] & WRITE !ORIES1 BUT EV]YONE CAN LE>N TO ?9K PHILOSOPHICALLY1 QUE/ION DOM9ANT PHILOSOPHICAL ?9K+1 & DEVELOP !IR [N POSITIONS4 ,EV]YONE1 ?\< P>TICUL>LY LIB]ATORY MOVEM5TS1 %\LD 5GAGE 9 QUE/ION+ & DEVELOP+ !ORY 9 ! C\RSE ( !IR ACTIONS4 ,!RE'S NO REASON TO ASSUME ?IS IS ONLY A MATT] ( 9DIVIDUAL $UCATION & WILLP[]1 EI!R4 ,\R $UCATION SY/EM PU%ES US TO ?9K 9DIVIDUALI/ICALLY 9 A WAY ?AT DOESN'T REFLECT H[ PEOPLE LE>N4 ,SCI5TI/S MO/ EVID5TLY DO NOT DO RESE>* 9 ?IS MANN]4 ,COLLABORATION & COLLECTIVE PROJECTS >E AT ! HE>T ( !IR PRACTICE1 BEYOND SOME BASE LEVEL ( MA/]Y ?AT ALL SCI5TI/S MU* 5GAGE ON !IR [N4 ,IF WE RECOGNIZE ! POT5TIAL = PEOPLE TO LE>N COLLABORATIVELY ) COMMON AIMS & 9T]E/S1 ! POSSIBILITY ( A POPUL> 9TELLECTUAL LIFE 9=M$ BY PEOPLE'S ASPIRATIONS C\LD BE A TANGIBLE REALITY4 ,?IS IS NOT A CALL = EV]YONE TO SIT1 AS ,DESC>TES DID1 9 FRONT ( A FIREPLACE CONTEMPLAT+ ! MY/]IES ( ! UNIV]SE4 ,?AT IS F9E & (T5 FULFILL+ TO MANY1 YET IT IS DIFF]5T FROM :AT WE HAVE BE5 DISCUSS+4 ,)9 US1 PHILOSOPHY GR[S & DEVELOPS1 TRAC+ ! >CS ( \R LIVES & \R BELIEFS4 ,!ORY & PHILOSOPHY >E NOT ISL&S TO :I* WE SWIM ONLY :5 ?+S HAVE GOTT5 R\< ON ! MA9L&4 ,\R !ORY IS NOT SIMPLY 9T]NAL TO US1 BUT IT ADDITIONALLY UND]GIRDS ! RE/ ( \R ACTIVITIES & ?9K+4 ,!ORY EVOLVES ) \R EXP]I5CES4 ,HUMANS >E BIOLOGICAL CREATURES ) AN 5D[M5T ?AT %APES \R ?\N+ FROM PRACTICE & CREAT+ NEW !ORY1 & ! !ORY G5]AT+ NEW PRACTICE4 ,?IS IS SOMETIMES CALL$ PRAXIS4 ,PRAXIS IS AN IDEAL WE ASPIRE TO4 ,?AT IS1 ?AT WE %\LD MAKE \R PHILOSOPHIES EXPLICIT1 QUE/ION !M1 WEI< !M AGA9/ \R EXP]I5CES1 & RE=MULATE !M SO WE HAVE MORE TOOLS TO KEEP DO+ :AT WE ?9K IS ! BE/ ?+ TO DO4 ,?IS 9T5TIONAL1 CONSCI\S PROCESS CAN HELP US ?9K MORE CLE>LY & LE>N FROM \R MI/AKES4 ,ACTION IS MORE ?AN \R CONSCI\S 9T5TIONS1 & YET AT ! SAME TIME ?IS DOESN'T 9VALIDATE ! USEFULNESS ( TRY+ TO A*IEVE A PRAXIS4 ,PHILOSOPHY AS SOME?+ 9H]5T TO \R M5TAL LIVES1 SOME?+ )9 REA* ( ALL1 CAN BE LIB]AT+ BO? 9 UND]/&+ !SE PO9TS & 9 APPLY+ !M4 ,! UNIV]SALITY ( PHILOSOPHY )9 SOCIETY DOESN'T MEAN ?AT WE %\LD DIM9I% NOR EXALT EXPLICITLY- !ORETICAL TEXTS LIKE ?IS ONE4 ,9/EAD1 IT IS TO RECOGNIZE ?AT PHILOSOPHY IS ! DOMA9 ( ALL PEOPLE IRRESPECTIVE ( !IR 9TELLIG5CE1 G5D]1 CLASS1 RACE1 OR POSITION4 ,9 SOCIETIES BAS$ ON DOM9ATION ! ALI5ATION FROM PHILOSOPHY IS APP>5T4 ,IT IS ALSO A GRAVE MI/AKE TO LOOK AT SU* ACTIVITY AS ALI5 TO ! OPPRESS$ & ! SOLE PROP]TY ( ELITES4 ,!RE IS NO OPTION TO AVOID DO+ PHILOSOPHY2 !RE IS ONLY A *OICE TO DO IT WELL OR NOT4 ,?IS ISN'T TO SAY !RE >5'T B>RI]S4 ,TODAY'S SOCIETY IS BUILT ON DIVISIONS ?AT TRY TO 5=CE ! [N]%IP ( !ORETICAL ?\ IS NOT 5\<4 ,WE CAN'T M]ELY OV]COME !SE ISSUES BY MANIPULAT+ ! T]M9OLOGY OR ME?OD TO BE MORE ACCESSIBLE1 :ILE PEOPLE CONT9UE TO EXP]I5CE ! LIMIT+ & ALI5AT+ EFFECTS ( CAPITALI/ WORK & ALL ITS /UPEFACTION ( EV]YDAY LIFE4 ,JU/ AS >TI/IC CREATION HAS BE5 /OL5 FROM ! PUBLIC & RELEGAT$ TO A SPECTACLE BY PR(ESSIONALS REPRODUC+ >TI/IC COMMODITIES = ! M>KET1 SO PHILOSOPHY (T5 HAS BE5 *A9$ TO AN EXPLOITIVE SY/EM ( ?\E CONFRONT$ ?R\< ! C\RSE ( ! >GUM5TS WORK+ FROM EM]G5CE TO AG5CY4 ,?\< WE'VE BE5 SPEAK+ AB\T PHILOSOPHY 9 G5]AL1 MU* ( ?IS WORK TAKES ON CRITICAL POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY SPECIFICALLY4 ,9 ?IS S5SE IT COMES FROM ! P]SPECTIVE ( A CRITIQUE ( TODAY'S SOCIETY ALONGSIDE ASPIRATIONS = A FUNDAM5TALLY DIFF]5T SOCIAL ORD]4 ,! MA9 FOCUS ( SU* IS ) POLITICAL QUE/IONS1 & SPECIFICALLY ) ! UND]LY+ ME?OD & FRAMEWORK = DO+ POLITICS4 ,POLITICAL QUE/IONS CAN BE DIVID$ 9TO TWO DIFF]5T LEVELS ( ANALYSIS4 ,ONE ! ONE H& >E RAW POLITICAL QUE/IONS LIKE3 ,IS ABORTION WRONG8 ,IS IT JU/ = />VATION TO EXI/8 ,:AT IS ! BE/ =M ( GOV]NANCE = SOCIETY8 ,!SE QUE/IONS DEAL ) CONT5T & SPECIFIC ISSUES )9 A BROAD] FRAMEWORK = POLITICAL DEBATE4 ,?IS IS SIMPLY POLITICS OR P]HAPS SOCIAL QUE/IONS4 ,ANSW]S AT ?IS LEVEL ADDRESS ASS]TIONS1 SU* AS 0,ABORTION IS MORALLY P]MISSIBLE BECAUSE IT IS NOT MURD]1 & !RE=E %\LD BE SOCIALLY P]MITT$ BY LAW40 ,B5EA? !SE IS A DIFF]5T TYPE ( QUE/ION+1 QUE/IONS AB\T ! UND]LY+ ME?ODOLOGY & !ORETICAL F\NDATIONS = ASK+ ANY POLITICAL QUE/IONS AT ALL4 ,?IS IS ! METAPOLITICAL4 ,METAPOLITICS DEALS ) ! FUNDAM5TALS ?AT MAKE SETTL+ POLITICAL QUE/IONS POSSIBLE4 ,= EXAMPLE1 WE MIE BUILT4 ,ALL POLITICAL ACTORS HAVE LAT5T PHILOSOPHICAL F\NDATIONS ?AT !Y USE TO UND]/& & GUIDE !IR /RUGGLES4 ,E?ICAL1 SOCIAL1 & PHILOSOPHICAL BELIEFS =M ! CORE FROM :I* PEOPLE CREATE !IR IDEAS = A POLITICAL PA? TO ! WORLD !Y SEEK1 & AN UND]/&+ ( ! CURR5T ONE4 ,METAPOLITICAL !ORIES !N GIVE US ! TOOLS ) :I* WE BUILD \R !ORIES4 ,?IS DOES NOT MEAN ?AT :5 PEOPLE COME TO POLITICAL CONCLUSIONS & TAKE P>T 9 POLITICAL ACTS ?AT TAKE SIDES !Y >E EXPLICITLY ?9K+ FIR/ ( !IR METAPOLITICAL ASSUMPTIONS & !N SECOND WORK+ \T A RESPONSE4 ,METAPOLITICS IS A LEVEL ( ANALYSIS1 A PLACE :]E QUE/IONS ( A C]TA9 SORT CAN BE ASK$4 ,ANYONE :O 5GAGES 9 POLITICAL LIFE 7:I* MEANS SOCIAL LIFE 9 G5]AL & NOT M]ELY CONSCI\S POLITICAL ACTIVITY71 5GAGES 9 METAPOLITICAL ?\E ! SAME AS = ! UNIV]SALITY ( DO+ PHILOSOPHY4 ,S9CE WE >E CREATURES ) M9DS & LIVE 9 SOCIETIES LIKE WE DO1 METAPOLITICS IS AN IMPLICIT & UNCONSCI\S ELEM5T ( HUMAN SOCIAL LIFE4 ,WE CAN ATTRIBUTE METAPOLITICAL ASSUMPTIONS TO PEOPLE EI!R BY !IR ?\E METAPOLITICAL2 BUT SIMPLY BY HAV+ BELIEF AB\T HUMAN NATURE1 PEOPLE HAVE TACIT COMMITM5TS TO IDEAS AB\T NATURE ITSELF4 ,BESIDES LAT5T ?\IABLE DOM9ANCE ( HUMAN NATURE CORRUPT+ ALL SOCIAL LIFE4 ,)9 !SE ATTITUD9AL RESPONSES TO POLITICAL EV5TS1 PEOPLE TAKE ON POLITICAL POSITIONS PROP]1 BUT ALSO >E *ANG+ !IR UND]LY+ ASSUMPTIONS AB\T H[ SOCIETIES OP]ATE1 & =M+ NEW OP9IONS BAS$ ON ?IS4 ,SIMPLY MAK+ \R 9T]NAL PROCESS CONSCI\S DOESN'T GU>ANTEE IT WILL HELP US EI!R ?\<4 ,MO/ ( HUMAN M5TAL LIFE IS UNCONSCI\S ANYWAY1 & BE+ CONSCI\S ( UND]LY+ ASSUMPTIONS DOES NOT NECESS>ILY ALL[ US TO ESCAPE P]VASIVE ]RORS OR 9TRODUCE NEW ONES4 ,5GAG+ 9 EXPLICIT METAPOLITICS AS ?IS WORK IS 9T5D$ TO DO IS SIMPLY TO ADD TO \R CAPABILITIES & EXP]I5CE AS PEOPLE TRY+ TO WORK CRITICALLY )9 A PROCESS = LIB]ATION4 ,! EXPLICITNESS IS NOT A HOLY GRAIL1 NOR IS IT A /&ALONE SOLUTION4 ,IT IS ONE P>T ( \R POLITICAL ACTIVITY1 AMONG MANY4 ,! RELATIVE IMPORTANCE ( ?IS IS AN OP5 QUE/ION4 ,REALI/ICALLY1 IT IS LIKELY TO HELP US ?R\< ADDRESS+ REAL UND]LY+ ISSUES1 BUT IT ALSO DOES NOT HAVE ANY GREAT PRIVILEG$ /ATUS ?AT 9VALIDATES O!R ELEM5TS ( POLITICAL LIFE4 ,! CONTE/ATION ( !ORY1 PRACTICE1 9TUITION1 CREATIVITY1 EMOTION1 REASON1 & SO ON REFLECT ! DIVISIONS )9 SOCIETY ?AT TRY TO ADV]TISE & MONOPOLIZE !IR DOM9ANCE ALONGSIDE ! /RUGGLE ( 9DIVIDUALS & 9/ITUTIONS )9 ?IS SY/EM4 ,MORE COLLABORATION1 HUMILITY1 & RESPECT = ! PLURALITY ( CONTRIBUTIONS IS SORELY NE$$4 ,! CRISIS 9 POLITICAL ?9K+ IS UNFOLD+ RAPIDLY 9 AN EVOLV+ WORLD1 MAK+ RE?9K+ F\NDATIONS = POLITICAL 9QUIRY MORE RELEVANT TODAY ?AN EV]4 ,ME?OD & ,CONT5T ,AN>*ISM IS NOT1 AS SOME MAY SUPPOSE1 A !ORY ( ! FUTURE TO BE REALIZ$ ?R\< DIV9E 9SPIRATION4 ,IT IS A LIV+ =CE 9 ! AFFAIRS ( \R LIFE1 CON/ANTLY CREAT+ NEW CONDITIONS4 ,! ME?ODS ( ,AN>*ISM !RE=E DO NOT COMPRISE AN IRON-CLAD PROGRAM TO BE C>RI$ \T UND] ALL CIRCUM/ANCES4 ,ME?ODS MU/ GR[ \T ( ! ECONOMIC NE$S ( EA* PLACE & CLIME1 & ( ! 9TELLECTUAL & TEMP]AM5TAL REQUIREM5TS ( ! 9DIVIDUAL4 -,EMMA ,GOLDMAN4.<#c#i.> ,ONE APPROA* TO DO+ POLITICS C5T]S ON ! NATURE ( POLITICAL ME?ODS4 ,SOME RADICALS HAVE PROPOS$ VIEW+ POLITICAL ME?ODOLOGY AS ! FUNDAM5TAL BASIS = POLITICS4 ,)9 ! ,M>XI/ TRADITION ONE S*OOL ( ?\XISM4 ,= EXAMPLE1 ,K>L ,KORS*.<#d.> >GU$ ?AT3 ',SCI5TIFIC SOCIALISM' PROP]LY SO-CALL$ IS QUITE ESS5TIALLY ! PRODUCT ( ! APPLICATION ( ?AT MODE ( ?\X & ,5GELS DESIGNAT$ AS !IR 'DIALECTICAL ME?OD'444 ,ONLY ?OSE :O COMPLETELY OV]LOOK ?AT ,M>X'S 'PROLET>IAN DIALECTIC' DIFF]S ESS5TIALLY FROM EV]Y O!R 7METAPHYSICAL & DIALECTICAL7 MODE ( ?\IAN CLASS VIEWS =M$ 9 ! PROLET>IAN CLASS /RUGGLE CAN F9D A !ORETICAL-SCI5TIFIC EXPRESSION CORRESPOND+ TO ITS TRUE BE+2 ONLY ?OSE C\LD GET ! IDEA ?AT ?IS DIALECTICAL MODE ( ?\ ,S9CE ?IS POSITION IS AB\T H[ WE C>RY \T POLITICS ALTOGE!R1 IT IS A METAPOLITICAL POSITION1 ?\< ONE ?AT ATTEMPTS TO SIDE/EP DO+ !ORETICAL WORK 9 A WAY4 ,! POPUL>ITY AMONG POLITICAL ?9K]S 9 DISCUSS+ ME?OD & POLITICAL-/RUGGLE-AS-ME?OD W>RANTS 9VE/IGATIONS ( ! PROBLEM4 ,:AT IS ME?OD8 ,:AT IS CONT5T8 ,:AT RELATION%IP IS !RE BETWE5 !ORY & ME?OD8 ,ALONGSIDE ISSUES ) PHILOSOPHY SITS ! PROBLEM ( ME?ODS4 ,ME?ODS >E NOT SIMPLY A SECTION ( !ORETICAL ISSUES4 ,9 !IR RAWE/ =M1 ME?ODS >E SY/EMATIC WAYS 7& ASSOCIAT$ CONCEPTUAL TOOLS1 ANALYSIS ( SU*1 & SO ON7 ( TRY+ TO A*IEVE SOME?+4 ,ME?ODS 9VOLVE /EPS1 SEQU5CES1 & 9/RUM5TS = C>RY+ \T PRACTICES 9 SOME =M OR ANO!R4 ,?IS IS (T5 OBSCUR$ 9 METAPOLITICAL DISCUSSIONS ( ME?OD1 :I* MORE FREQU5TLY FOCUS ON HAZY NOTIONS ( FRAMES1 WORLD-VIEWS1 & P]SPECTIVES AS ME?ODS4 ,H>D CASES MAKE BAD LAW1 SO LET'S TAKE UP MORE CONCRETE NOTIONS ( ME?OD4 ,! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD IS ONE ( ! MO/ TANGIBLE EXAMPLES WE HAVE4 ,9 A NUT%ELL1 ! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD CONSI/S ( RESE>*1 POS+ A HYPO!SIS OR SOME?+ WE PROPOSE 9 ORD] TO TE/ IT1 CONDUCT+ EXP]IM5TS1 & DRAW+ CONCLUSIONS4 ,! P>TS >E RELAT$1 BUT ALSO RELAT$ 9 ! S5SE ( MOV+ ?R\< ! /EPS 9 A DIRECTION4 ,ME?ODS HAVE ELEM5TS ( !ORY OR CONCEPTS & ELEM5TS ( CON/RUCTION OR PROCESS4 ,FROM ANO!R P]SPECTIVE1 ! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD IS AB\T SY/EMATICALLY WEI<+ C]TA9 K9DS ( BELIEFS 7SCI5TIFIC ONES7 AGA9/ !IR ABILITY TO PR$ICT REAL WORLD EV5TS4.<#d#b.> ,!RE >E PA/ EVID5CE1 HYPO!SES1 FUTURE EXP]IM5TS1 &_/OR PR$ICTIONS WE TE/ !M AGA9/4 ,EA* COMPON5T IS RELAT$ & S]VES TO GA9 \R OBJECT 7KN[+ :AT'S RI /EPS TO DRAW CONCLUSIONS AB\T ! WORLD4 ,?IS ISN'T TO SAY PEOPLE ALWAYS 9TUITIVELY 5GAG$ 9 ! ME?OD1 BUT PEOPLE C]TA9LY =M$ HYPO!SES1 CONDUCT$ EXP]IM5TS1 & US$ ! DATA AS ! JUDGE ( !IR BELIEFS4.<#d#c.> ,A ME?OD !N IS NOT ONLY SOME?+ WE CONSCI\SLY FOLL[ OR EV5 UND]/&1 !RE'S ALSO AN UNCONSCI\S PRACTICAL ELEM5T TO IT ?AT \R !ORY ( ME?ODS TRIES TO CODIFY & CAPTURE4 ,AT ! SAME TIME ! PRODUCTION ( ! !ORY ( ! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD GAVE SCI5TI/S FUR!R TOOLS = DO+ !IR WORK4 ,>M$ ) A WAY TO UND]/& ?AT WORK1 FUTURE SCI5TI/S 9H]IT$ AN UND]/&+ ( H[ TO ACC\NT = EXI/+ DATA 7RESE>*7 AS WELL AS FUTURE DATA 7EXP]IM5TS7 9 A WAY ?AT CAN BE REPRODUC$1 ?US V]IFY+ HYPO!SES4 ,! !ORY POS$ A *ALL5GE2 RUN Y\R BELIEF ?R\< ?IS C\RSE ( TE/S1 & ! LIKELIHOOD ( IT BE+ TRUE IS HI<4 ,?AT COMMON GR\ND ALL[$ = COLLABORATION1 EVALUATION1 & ASSESS+ SCI5TIFIC WORK4 ,) SET RULES ( ! GAME OP5 TO ALL1 IT =MS A %>$ WAY ( HA%+ \T \R BELIEFS NOT JU/ AS 9DIVIDUALS BUT ALSO COLLECTIVELY4 ,IT CREAT$ ! BACKBONE !N NOT JU/ ( SPECIFIC !ORIES1 BUT = H[ SCI5CE AS A COLLECTIVE ACTIVITY ( HUMANITY W\LD DEVELOP4 ,! FIR/ ?+ WE %\LD TAKE FROM ?IS IS ?AT !ORY 7OR PHILOSOPHY7 & ME?ODS >E NOT ID5TICAL4 ,!ORIES >E NOT NECESS>ILY ORGANIZ$ 9TO ME?ODS1 & ME?ODS >E MORE ?AN JU/ SPECIFIC !ORIES4 ,! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD WAS PRACTIC$ 9 V>I\S =MS BE=E IT WAS !ORIZ$1 SY/EMIZ$1 OR 9/ITUTIONALIZ$4 ,LIKEWISE1 ME?ODS !MSELVES HAVE !ORETICAL COMPON5TS4 ,!RE >E ! /EPS1 SEQU5CES1 RELATION%IPS AMONG ! ELEM5TS 7HYPO!SISEVID5CE-EXP]IM5TS-CONCLUSIONS71 & IMPORTANTLY PRACTICES4 ,!RE'S !ORETICAL WORK & !RE'S ME?ODOLOGICAL WORK2 RELAT$ BUT DI/9CT4 ,! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD COMMITS PEOPLE TO !ORIES AB\T EVID5CE1 EXP]IM5TATION1 PR$ICTIONS1 9F]5CE1 TIME1 OBS]VATION1 & SO ON4 ,!RE MAY BE MANY POSITIONS COMPATIBLE ) A ME?OD1 BUT IT IS NOT !ORY-NEUTRAL4 ,SOMETIMES PEOPLE TRY TO >GUE ?AT !ORY IS A WA/E ( TIME & ?AT 9/EAD WE %\LD FOCUS ON /RATEGY & ME?ODS ONLY 7OR WORSE1 JU/ DO :AT'S MO/ IMM$IATE74 ,IT %\LD BE CLE> :Y ?IS IS A FALSE DI*OTOMY4 ,!ORY IS 9H]5TLY A P>T ( ME?ODS4 ,)\T REFLECT+ ON \R UND]LY+ ASSUMPTIONS 7& !ORIES71 PEOPLE T5D TO REPRODUCE UNCRITICALLY ! DOM9ANT S*OOLS ( ?\IFIES :AT USE !ORY CAN HAVE4 ,BY CREAT+ A ME?OD1 ) ASSOCIAT$ !ORIZ+1 ! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD WAS ABLE TO BLOSSOM & EXP& ! SCOPE ( 9QUIRY4 ,?\< ANY ME?OD WE MID OR HOLD+ US BACK4 ,?IS IS ALL TRUE 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! FACT ?AT EXPLICIT !ORIZ+ ISN'T ! BE-ALL & 5D-ALL ( DO+ GOOD WORK4 ,ME?OD IS JUDG$ NOT BY \R CONCEPTUALIZATION ( IT1 BUT BY ! SUM FUNCTION+ ( GETT+ US :AT WE WANT4 ,!ORY HAS A ROLE !RE1 BUT ONLY AS A COMPON5T ( ! TOTAL EF=T4 ,WE DON'T GET TO OPT \T ( !ORY1 BUT LIKEWISE WE CAN'T ONLY DO !ORY & BELIEVE ?AT WE HAVE A ME?OD4 ,ME?ODS = ,LIB]ATION ,:AT AB\T ME?ODS = LIB]ATION SPECIFICALLY8 ,UND]/&+ ! DIFF]5CES & RELATION%IPS BETWE5 PHILOSOPHY & ME?ODS1 & !IR RESPECTIVE USES1 LEADS US TO FUR!R QUE/IONS4 ,RADICAL ?9K]S HAVE (T5 S\*ISM4 ,GOLDMAN WAS AN ,EA/]N ,EUROPEAN IMMIGRANT RADICALIZ$ BY H] EXP]I5CE ( LIFE 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4 ,%E CAME TO BE ONE ( ! =EMO/ RADICAL VOICES ( H] DAY = NOT ONLY AN>*ISM1 BUT ALSO ! LIB]ATION ( WOM5 & ! /RUGGLES ( WORK]S4 ,GEORGE ,LUKACS IS ANO!R )9 ,M>XISM4 ,A P>TICIPANT 9 ! ,HUNG>IAN 9SURRECTION1 HE WAS A ONE-TIME DISSID5T ,M>XI/ :O LAT] JO9$ ! (FICIALDOM1 REPUDIAT$ HIS [N IDEAS1 & ULTIMATELY BECAME A FAI?FUL DEF5D] ( ! OR?ODOXY ( ! ,SOVIET ,UNION4 ,! Y\NG ,LUKACS >GU$ ?AT ,M>XISM WAS NOT A SET ( !SES TO IMPLEM5T AS A CANON1 BUT 9/EAD A ME?OD = COM+ TO CONCLUSIONS4 ,OR?ODOX ,M>XISM444 DOES NOT IMPLY ! UNCRITICAL ACCEPTANCE ( ! RESULTS ( ,M>X'S 9VE/IGATIONS4 ,IT IS NOT ! 'BELIEF ' 9 ?IS OR ?AT !SIS1 NOR ! EXEGESIS ( A 'SACR$' BOOK4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 OR?ODOXY REF]S EXCLUSIVELY TO ME?OD4 ,IT IS ! SCI5TIFIC CONVICTION ?AT DIALECTICAL MAT]IALISM IS ! ROAD TO TRU? & ?AT ITS ME?ODS CAN BE DEVELOP$1 EXP&$ & DEEP5$ ONLY ALONG ! L9ES LAID D[N BY ITS F\ND]S4.<#d#d.> ,S9CE ,LUKACS & ,GOLDMAN1 MANY ?9K]S S\RY+ IT \T4 ,IT V>IES BAS$ ON ! 5VIRONM5T IT IS REALIZ$ 94 ,!SE W]E IDEAS ALSO RAIS$ BY ,]RICO ,MALATE/A1 ! ,ITALIAN REVOLUTION>Y ELECTRICIAN & !ORI/ ( AN>*ISM :OSE P>TICIPATION 9 ! MOVEM5T L$ HIM TO ORGANIZ+ & P>TICIPAT+ 9 REVOLTS ACROSS ,EUROPE1 ! ,AM]ICAS1 & ,AFRICA4.<#d#e.> ,MALATE/A TOOK SU* A POSITION 9 DISCUSS+ H[ AN AN>*I/ SOCIETY W\LD DEVELOP ECONOMICALLY ?R\< A S]IES ( EXP]IM5TS V>Y+ ) LOCAL CONTEXT4 ,KROPOTK9 HIMSELF >GU$ SIMIL>LY 9 DESCRIB+ ! FUNCTION ( AN>*I/ SOCIETY4.<#d#f.> ,IF WE UND]/& ME?ODS TO BE A SET ( PRACTICES 9 SEQU5CE ) ASSOCIAT$ !ORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS1 !RE IS GOOD REASON TO BE A SKEPTIC AB\T ! USE ( ME?ODS ?AT >E 9 CURR5CY AMONG SOME RADICAL ?9K]S4 ,= 9/ANCE1 CONSID] ! DIFF]5CES BETWE5 ,LUKACS' ME?OD & ?OSE ( ! AN>*I/S DISCUSS$ ABOVE4 ,LUKACS C5T]S HIS IDEAS ON ME?OD ON NOTIONS ( DIALECTICAL MAT]IALISM1 & ! TEA*+S ( ITS F\ND]S4 ,:AT W\LD ?OSE /EPS BE & H[ C\LD !Y BE UND]/OOD TO FOLL[ A SY/EMATIC PATT]N8 ,UND]/&+ 9 ANY USABLE WAY H[ DIALECTICS >E A ME?OD TO DRAW CONCLUSIONS IS NOTORI\SLY OBSCURE4 ,:ATEV] USE ( DIALECTICS !RE IS1 !RE'S A LOOS5ESS AB\T ME?OD BE+ EMPLOY$ H]E4.<#d#g.> ,COMP>E ?IS TO ,GOLDMAN'S NOTIONS OR ,MALATE/A CONCEPTION ( CREAT+ A JU/ ECONOMY BAS$ ON EXP]IM5TATION 9 A PO/REVOLUTION>Y MOM5T4 ,! AN>*I/ CONCEPTION ( ME?OD EMBODI$ H]E IS AB\T IMPLEM5T+ LIB]T>IAN PRACTICE ) LIB]T>IAN MEANS4 ,SOMETIMES ?IS IS P>TIALLY *>ACT]IZ$ BY HAV+ ONE'S MEANS MAT* ONE'S 5DS4 ,?IS IS MU* MORE ME?ODICAL ?AN :AT ,LUKACS IS PROPOS+4 ,!RE >E !ORETICAL COMMITM5TS 7E?ICS1 NOTIONS ( PRACTICE71 A S]IES ( /RATEGIC & TACTICAL PROPOSALS1 & A ME?OD = H[ TO RELATE !M ACROSS TIME4 ,!RE IS GOOD REASON TO BE SKEPTICAL 9 G5]AL AB\T :AT ,LUKACS CALLS A ME?OD AT ALL4 ,IF IT IS TAK5 AT ITS CRUDE/1 ONE W\LD HAVE TO TRY TO EXTRACT SEQU5CES FROM DIALECTICS4 ,ONE APPROA* W\LD BE TRY+ TO R$UCE PH5OM5A TO !IR CONTRADICTIONS & LOOK TO A SYN!SIS 9 SOME COMPLICAT$ MANN]4 ,LUKACS & MO/ ,M>XI/S W\LD LIKELY REJECT ?IS AS A CRASS DE=MATION ( !IR IDEAS1 ?\< IT IS (T5 :AT ! ,/AL9I/ OR?ODOXY 7& NOTABLY ! OV]:ELM+ MAJORITY ( ,M>XI/S ?R\<\T HI/ORY7 TRI$ TO PASS (F AS !IR DIALECTICAL SCI5CE = DECADES4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 A BROAD] APPROA* ( DEF9+ ! DIALECTICAL ME?OD AS LOOK+ TO MULTI-LEVEL *ANG+ PROCESSES ACROSS TIME IS NOT A ME?OD4 ,IT'S MU* MORE ( A FRAM+ = PROBLEMS1 OR A SET ( VOCABUL>Y & WAYS ( ?9K+ ?AT WE CAN USE4 ,US$ 9 ?IS WAY1 ,LUKACS GIVES US MORE ( A !ORETICAL P]SPECTIVE ?AN A ME?OD4 ,!RE'S A LAXITY H]E AB\T :AT C\NTS AS A ME?OD4 ,A ME?OD IS NOT SIMPLY A WAY ( LOOK+ AT ?+S & BROAD LESSONS TO LE>N FROM4 ,9DE$1 :5 MO/ WRITE AB\T 0A ,M>XI/ ME?OD10 !Y 9 FACT DO NOT MEAN A ME?OD AT ALL1 BUT 9/EAD A COLLECTION ( WAYS ( FRAM+ ?+S1 QUE/ION-POS+1 & ASSUMPTIONS ?AT HAVE NO CLE> ME?ODOLOGY4 ,9 PRACTICE ?IS IS EVID5T4 ,! R>ITY ( PEOPLE ABLE TO UND]/& & APPLY A DIALECTICAL OR ,M>XI/ ME?OD MAKES ITS OBSCURITY & DIFFICULTY APPLY+ IT CLE>4 ,HI/ORICALLY !RE WAS A /RONG /R& ( ?\ P]HAPS MORE IMPORTANT ?AN !Y >E4 ,MANY ,M>XI/S & A FEW AN>*I/S 7SU* AS P]HAPS ,KROPOTK97 FOLL[$ ! BELIEF ( ! 9EVITABILITY ( !IR FUTURE SOCIETY4 ,! VICTORY AGA9/ CAPITALISM WAS SE5 AS BE+ SECUR$ BY NATURAL ECONOMIC LAWS GOV]N+ SOCIETY4 ,BELIEV+ ?AT SU* LAWS GU>ANTE$ ULTIMATE VICTORY L$ TO PRIVILEG+ ME?ODS BO? = 9T]PRET+ HI/ORY & 9 TRY+ TO ACT4 ,IF HI/ORICAL FATE SECURES VICTORY1 !N !ORY AS WELL AS ACTION >E SOME:AT LESS IMPORTANT ?AN \R ME?OD = UND]/&+ & PROCE$+ ) ! 9H]5T LAWS ?AT >E ALREADY UNFOLD+4 ,ANALYSIS 7& ME?ODOLOGY ( ANALYSIS7 W\LD HAVE A HI<] PLACE ?AN ACTUALLY TRY+ TO SOLVE PROBLEMS & 9T]V5E S9CE WE ALREADY KN[ ! \TCOME4 ,DET]M9ISM PU%ES PEOPLE T[>DS PASSIVITY1 S9CE ! 9EVITABILITY ( VICTORY PROBLEMATIZES :I*1 IF ANY1 ACTIONS >E NECESS>Y4 ,AT ITS WOR/ IT PROVID$ JU/IFICATION = RELIGIOSITY T[>DS ! ACTIONS ( ITS ADH]5TS1 (T5 AT ! SAME TIME !Y P]PETRAT$ GREAT CRIMES ( HI/ORY4.<#d#h.> ,TODAY DET]M9ISM HAS FALL5 \T ( /YLE1 P]HAPS 9 P>T BECAUSE ( ! HI/ORICAL FAILURES ( ! ,M>XI/-,L59I/ /ATES & ! SEEM+LY NEV]-5D+ HUMAN TRAG$IES ( ! #b? C5TURY & BEYOND 7FASCISM1 E?NIC CLEANS+1 RELIGI\S & NATIONALISM T]RORS1 LIFE 9 ! CAPITALI/ P]IPH]IES1 & SO ON74 ,:ATEV] HI/ORY'S C\RSE1 IT DOESN'T SEEM TO BE HEAD$ /EP-BY-/EP T[>DS P>ADISE4 ,BAS$ ON ! PREVI\S DISCUSSION1 WE %\LD BE SKEPTICAL ( A /RONG WAY ( 9T]PRET+ ?OSE IDEAS 9 G5]AL4 ,AN>*ISM = EXAMPLE IS MORE ?AN SIMPLY A ME?OD = A*IEV+ AN>*I/ GOALS4 ,IF DIFF]5T RADICAL PHILOSOPHIES >E ONLY ME?ODS1 !N !Y RUN UP AGA9/ ! PROBLEM ?AT !Y CONTA9 )9 !IR ME?ODS UND]LY+ !ORIES1 & !ORIES ?AT GO BEYOND ! /EPS & PROCESS ( !IR ME?OD4 ,! VISION1 GOALS1 & ASSUMPTIONS ( ALL RADICAL PROJECTS COMMIT US TO DO+ !ORY 9 ONE =M OR ANO!R4 ,ME?ODOLOGY IS ALSO IMPORTANT1 BUT DOESN'T ALL[ US TO EVADE !ORY AS ME?ODOLOGY ITSELF HAS ITS [N !ORETICAL WORK4 ,/EPP+ BACK A BIT ALL[S US TO EXTRACT TRU?S FROM !SE IDEAS4 ,A MORE *>ITABLE WAY ( READ+ IT1 P]HAPS1 IS LESS AS A WAY ( REJECT+ !ORY ALTOGE!R 79 FAVOR ( PURE ME?OD71 & 9/EAD ?AT RADICALS DO NOT HOLD !IR !ORETICAL =EFA!RS AS PURE TRU?-BE>]S4 ,EV]Y?+ IS ON ! TABLE4 ,PEOPLE SET \T FROM ! PA? ( !IR 9SPIRATION1 BUT ! ULTIMATE JUDGE ( ! BELIEFS IS \R PRACTICES4 ,!SE IMPULSES >E BROADLY CORRECT & USEFUL4 ,:ILE WE MAY NOT BE ABLE TO CIRCUMV5T POLITICS OR !ORY BY FOCUS+ ON A PURE ME?ODOLOGY1 ME?ODS >E CLE>LY IMPORTANT4 ,AGA9/ DOGMAS & /AGNANT IDEOLOGIES1 LOOK+ TO ME?ODS & PRACTICES GIVES US WAYS TO DISCUSS & TE/ \R IDEAS 9 ! POLITICAL WORLD4 ,9 ?IS WAY1 ME?ODOLOGY-C5TRIC POLITICS DOES /RESS IMPORTANT ELEM5TS ( POLITICAL WORK4 ,A ,LIB]ATORY ,ME?OD ,:AT AB\T A LIB]ATORY ME?OD8 ,:AT W\LD A ME?OD ( LIB]ATORY ?\IANS HAVE ELABORAT$ CONSID]ABLE WORK4 ,TACTICAL ELEM5TS1 ! OBJECTS ( LIB]T>IAN /RUGGLE1 & TRU? HAVE BE5 EXPLOR$ BY ! TRADITION4 ,YET EXPLICIT DISCUSSIONS ( ! ME?OD >E UN=TUNATELY R>E & UNSETTL$4 ,FIR/1 !RE IS ! SCOPE ( ! LIB]T>IAN'S OBJECTIVES4 ,!RE IS NO S+LE !ORY ( SU*1 & 9DE$ IT IS CONTE/$4 ,ONE C5TRAL !ME IS ?AT ( LIB]T>IAN /RUGGLE AS BE+ DEF9$ NOT BY P>TICUL> 9/ITUTIONS1 BUT ?R\< ! RELATION%IPS ( ?OSE /RUGGL+ TO ! P[] RELATIONS !Y >E COMBAT+ OR NEW P[]S BE+ CON/RUCT$4 ,LIB]T>IANS DO NOT SEEK TO RID US ( 9JU/ICE SIMPLY BY ATTACK+ ! EXI/+ ,/ATE AS AN 9/ITUTION1 BUT RA!R BY TRANS=M+ ! RELATION%IPS BETWE5 ?OSE 9 P[] & ?OSE SUFF]+ ! CONSEQU5CES ( ILLEGITIMATE P[]4 ,! CON/RUCTION ( LIB]ATORY ANSW]S IS !RE=E BAS$ ON CONTEXTUAL HI/ORICAL & REGIONAL CIRCUM/ANCES4 ,SOCIAL RELATIONS ( P[] V>Y1 & ?US P>TICUL> SOLUTIONS REFLECT ! HI/ORICAL1 OBJECTIVE1 & SUBJECTIVE FEATURES ( ! PROBLEMS POS$4 ,! LIB]T>IAN /RUGGLE IS DEF9$ BY ITS MAT]IAL CIRCUM/ANCES1 ITS P>TICIPANTS1 & !IR PLACE 9 HI/ORY4 ,!RE IS NEI!R A TIMELESS C5TRAL FRAM+ 7GOOD VS4 EVIL71 NOR IS IT ONLY DEF9$ ?R\< C5TRAL 9/ITUTIONS LIKE P>TICUL> /ATES OR CAPITALI/S4 ,NOAM ,*OMSKY PUTS =W>D A DEF9ITION ( AN>*ISM QUITE CLOSE TO ?IS VIEW 9 HIS 9TRODUCTION ORIG9ALLY TO ,DANIEL ,GU]9'S BOOK1 ,AN>*ISM3 ,AT EV]Y /AGE ( HI/ORY \R CONC]N MU/ BE TO DISMANTLE ?OSE =MS ( AU?ORITY & OPPRESSION ?AT SURVIVE FROM AN ]A :5 !Y MIILY1 A SPECIFIC & UN*ANG+ CONCEPT ( ! GOALS T[>DS :I* SOCIAL *ANGE %\LD T5D4.<#d#i.> ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN LIKEWISE EMPHASIZ$ ! RELATIVITY ( ! APPLICATION ( AN AN>*I/ ME?OD 9 ! QUOTE AT ! \TSET ( ! *APT]4 ,?IS ISN'T TO SAY SIMPLY ?AT !RE IS A PLURALITY ( DIFF]5T WAYS AN>*ISM C\LD MANIFE/1 BUT RA!R ?AT ME?ODOLOGY GETS ITS LIFE DIRECTLY ?R\< ITS /RUGGLES4 ,IF WE ?9K 9 T]MS ( :AT ,*OMSKY WRITES1 ! ME?OD IS WORK$ \T BAS$ ON ! OPPRESSIONS & ILLEGITIMATE AU?ORITIES ?AT PEOPLE SEEK TO DISMANTLE4 ,! DOCTR9E IS UND]/OOD ?R\< APPLICATION ( ! ME?OD TO ! REALITY ( ! REBELS SEEK+ LIB]ATION1 & NOT M]ELY ?R\< ATTEMPT+ TO CODIFY IT OR IMPOS+ A SET ( BELIEFS TO A SUBS]VI5T REALITY4 ,SECONDLY1 !RE >E ! ACTUAL TACTICS & TE*NIQUES 9H]5T TO ! ME?OD ?AT DEF9E IT4 ,TYPICALLY1 AN>*I/S FOCUS ON TACTICS1 & USUALLY DIRECT ACTION1 DIRECTLY DEMOCRATIC ASSEMBLIES1 & HORIZONTAL DELEGATION4 ,US+ !SE WAYS ( SOLV+ PROBLEMS IS SUPPOS$ TO BR+ US T[>DS ! AN>*I/ IDEALS4 ,IT IS NOT SIMPLY ! T>GETS 7! ,/ATE1 CAPITAL1 OPPRESSION1 & SO ON71 NOR A DEC5TRALIZ$ & HI/ORICALLY ROOT$ APPLICATION4 ,9H]5T TO ! ME?OD ITSELF >E C]TA9 PRACTICES ?AT MAKE IT AN>*I/4 ,!RE IS A RELATION%IP BETWE5 ! 5DS 7GOALS7 & ! MEANS1 & ! MEANS >E SECUR$ BY *OICE ( TACTICS4 ,DIRECT ACTION & DIRECT DEMOCRACY >E !MSELVES ?\*I/ BASIS4 ,?IS FRAM+ ( ! ISSUE IS NOT COMPLETELY RIIAN ME?OD USES LIB]T>IAN MEANS TO LIB]T>IAN 5DS4 ,?IS CONNECTS ! ?IRD PIECE4 ,!RE IS A CORE SET ( VALUES ?AT HELPS US *OOSE \R TACTICS1 EVALUATE /RUGGLES1 & ANALYZE \R SITUATION4 ,YET 9 ! SECOND COMPON5T ( ! ME?OD1 PEOPLE (T5 PUT =W>D /RUCTURES OR =MS ( TACTICS4 ,DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS A /RUCTURE 9 :I* DECISIONS >E MADE1 BUT NOT NECESS>ILY ! RELATION%IPS OR DECISIONS ( ?OSE PEOPLE4 ,DIRECT ACTION IS A TYPE ( ACTION C>RI$ \T BY PEOPLE1 BUT IT IS NOT NECESS>ILY DIRECT ACTION TO LIB]T>IAN 5DS BY PEOPLE ) LIB]T>IAN 9T5TIONS4 ,DIRECT ACTION CAN ALSO BE US$ TO DIFF]5T 5DS--AU?ORIT>IAN & REPRESSIVE ONES LIKE RADICAL FASCI/ ACTIONS4 ,US+ LIB]T>IAN MEANS WILL NOT NECESS>ILY BR+ US LIB]T>IAN \TCOMES4 ,CONSID] :5 HI]>*Y EM]GES FROM HORIZONTAL /RUCTURES4 ,!RE >E MANY MUNDANE EXAMPLES4 ,=MAL DEMOCRATIC PROC$URES DON'T B> PEOPLE FROM DOM9AT+ ?R\< O!R MEANS1 SU* AS *>ISMA1 SOCIAL CONNECTIONS1 $UCATION1 OR KN[L$GE4 ,FASCI/ GR\PS USE DIRECT ACTION TO ATTACK IMMIGRANTS1 QUE]S1 & LEFTI/S4 ,PEOPLE CAN USE 9=MAL HI]>*IES & RE-CREATE BUREAUCRACIES 9 DIRECTLY DEMOCRATIC C\NCILS TO DOM9ATE4 ,HORIZONTAL DELEGATION CAN BE MANIPULAT$ ?R\< NETWORKS ( P[]1 :I* CAN BE UTILIZ$ TO C>RY \T AG5DAS AGA9/ M9ORITIES OR EV5 MAJORITIES4 ,= 9/ANCE1 A MILITANT RACI/ & ANTI-COMMUNI/ 9 ! ,U,S MILIT>Y DEVELOP$ A CONCEPT ( LEAD]LESS RESI/ANCE AGA9/ A POT5TIAL SOVIET 9VASION4 ,L\IS ,BEAM1 A ,KU ,KLUX ,KLAN LEAD]1 TOOK ?IS UP & >GU$ = DEC5TRALIZ$ CELLS ORGANIZ$ )\T HI<] BODIES3 ,AN ALT]NATIVE TO ! PYRAMID TYPE ( ORGANIZATION IS ! CELL SY/EM4 ,9 ! PA/1 MANY POLITICAL GR\PS 7BO? RIBOR AT ,BO/ON1 W]E ! ACTION >M ( ! COMMITTEES ( CORRESPOND5CE4 ,EA* COMMITTEE WAS A SECRET CELL ?AT OP]AT$ TOTALLY 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! O!R CELLS4 ,9=MATION ON ! GOV]NM5T WAS PASS$ FROM COMMITTEE TO COMMITTEE1 FROM COLONY TO COLONY1 & !N ACT$ UPON ON A LOCAL BASIS4 ,YET EV5 9 !SE BYGONE DAYS ( POOR COMMUNICATION1 ( WEEKS TO MON?S = A LETT] TO BE DELIV]$1 ! COMMITTEES )\T ANY C5TRAL DIRECTION :ATSOEV]1 W]E REM>KABLE SIMIL> 9 TACTICS EMPLOY$ TO RESI/ GOV]NM5T TYRANNY4 ,IT WAS1 AS ! FIR/ ,AM]ICAN PATRIOTS KNEW1 TOTALLY UNNECESS>Y = ANYONE TO GIVE AN ORD] = ANY?+4 ,9=MATION WAS MADE AVAILABLE TO EA* COMMITTEE1 & EA* COMMITTEE ACT$ AS IT SAW FIT4 ,A REC5T EXAMPLE ( ! CELL SY/EM TAK5 FROM ! LEFT W+ ( POLITICS >E ! ,COMMUNI/S4 ,! ,COMMUNI/1 9 ORD] TO GET >\ND ! OBVI\S PROBLEMS 9VOLV$ 9 PYRAMIDAL ORGANIZATION1 DEVELOP$ TO AN >T ! CELL SY/EM4 ,!Y HAD NUM]\S 9DEP5D5T CELLS :I* OP]AT$ COMPLETELY ISOLAT$ FROM ONE ANO!R & P>TICUL>LY ) NO KN[L$GE ( EA* O!R1 BUT W]E OR*E/RAT$ TOGE!R BY A C5TRAL HEADQU>T]S4 ,= 9/ANCE1 DUR+ ,WORLD ,W> ,I,I1 9 ,WA%+TON1 IT IS KN[N ?AT !RE W]E AT LEA/ SIX SECRET ,COMMUNI/ CELLS OP]AT+ AT HI< LEVELS 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES GOV]NM5T 7PLUS ALL ! OP5 ,COMMUNI/S :O W]E PROTECT$ & PROMOT$ BY ,PRESID5T ,ROOSEVELT71 H[EV]1 ONLY ONE ( ! CELLS WAS ROOT$ \T & DE/ROY$4 ,H[ MANY MORE ACTUALLY W]E OP]AT+ NO ONE CAN SAY = SURE4.<#e.> ,?IS DID NOT MAKE ,BEAM'S IDEAS LIB]ATORY OBVI\SLY1 NO MORE ?AN O!RS US+ DEC5TRALIZ$ ORGANIZATIONS TO AU?ORIT>IAN 5DS4 ,:ILE A LIB]T>IAN ME?ODOLOGY IS NECESS>Y TO A*IEV+ EQUALITY & LIB]TY1 IT ISN'T SUFFICI5T4 ,/RUCTURES & =MS ALONE DON'T COME ) AUTOMATIC GU>ANTEES4 ,Y\ MAY UTILIZE A LIB]T>IAN ME?OD & /ILL PRODUCE NEW 7OR OLD7 =MS ( DE/RUCTIVE HI]>*Y4 ,US+ LIB]T>IAN /RUCTURES C]TA9LY WILL HELP US4 ,DIRECT DEMOCRACY LIKELY M9IMIZES POT5TIALS = AU?ORIT>IAN ABUSE4 ,ALL ?+S BE+ EQUAL DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS BETT] ?AN DIRECTIVES FROM DICTATORS OR ! >I/OCRACY ( REPRES5TATIVE /RUCTURES4 ,DIRECT ACTION DOES HAVE AN 9H]5T LIB]ATORY POT5TIAL AS WELL4 ,ACT+ DIRECTLY MEANS CUTT+ \T ! M$IATION FROM \R LIVES3 REPRES5TATIVES1 BUREAUCRATS1 RECUP]ATIVE 9/ITUTIONS1 & SO ON4 ,YET ?IS IS DIFF]5T FROM ID5TIFY+ \R GOALS ) ! /RUCTURES ?AT CAN HELP US A*IEVE ?OSE GOALS4 ,:AT MAKES SOME?+ LIB]ATORY IS ITS RECOGNITION ( ! CAPACITY ( PEOPLE TO SELF-GOV]N1 IMPLEM5T EGALIT>IAN SOCIAL RELATIONS1 OR :ATEV]4 ,! CONT5T ( \R GOALS IS S]V$ BY /RUCTURES1 BUT /RUCTURES & MEANS PROVIDE NO GU>ANTEES ?AT WE WILL A*IEVE !M4 ,!RE IS ANO!R COMPON5T MISS+ H]E4 ,?IS IS ANO!R WAY TO SAY ?AT !RE IS ALSO A NE$ = CONT5T 9 ! RADICAL PROJECT ( TRANS=M+ SOCIETY4 ,ON ! SKELETON ( \R ME?OD & TACTICS1 WE BUILD IT UP ?R\< PUTT+ ! FLE% ( CONT5T ON ! BONES4 ,AN>*ISM CAN BE LIB]ATORY NOT ONLY BECAUSE IT USES DIRECT DEMOCRACY TO A*IEVE ITS 5DS1 BUT ALSO BECAUSE ( ITS 5DS3 ORGANIZATION ( SOCIETY'S PRODUCTS = ALL1 SELF-ORGANIZATION1 COOP]ATIVE LABOR1 & A HOLI/IC DEVELOPM5T ( 9DIVIDUALS = !IR [N *OS5 5DS 7TO GIVE POT5TIAL EXAMPLES74 ,TACTICS >E APPLI$ TO 5DS2 5DS >5'T AUTOMATICALLY G5]AT$ BY TACTICS4 ,?IS CUTS BO? WAYS = 9/ANCE BETWE5 DIFF]5T TR5DS 9 ! LIB]T>IAN WORLD3 SOCIAL AN>*ISM & 9SURRECTION>Y AN>*ISM4 ,MILITANCY ITSELF ISN'T 9H]5TLY LIB]AT+1 EV5 DEC5TRALIZ$ OR POPUL> MILITANCY4 ,LIKEWISE1 POPUL> DEMOCRACY CAN JU/ AS EASILY PRODUCE AU?ORIT>IAN CONSEQU5CES AS LIB]ATORY ONES4 ,!RE IS NO REASON TO ASSUME ?AT /RUGGLES AGA9/ AU?ORITY T[>DS A BETT] SOCIAL ORD] C\LD BE DIVORC$ FROM ! E?ICAL CONT5T ( SU* AIMS4 ,IT IS EASY TO =GET ?AT LIB]T>IAN MEANS CAN BE DIRECT$ AT CONTRADICTORY 5DS1 LIKE :5 PEOPLE USE PROCESS & SPACES = !IR [N EMOTIONAL NE$S AGA9/ ! COLLECTIVITY4 ,)\T SU*1 WE RELY UPON EI!R A BELIEF 9 ! 9EVITABILITY ( \R VICTORY1 OR ?AT ! MEANS !MSELVES 9H]5TLY PRODUCE JU/ & GOOD \TCOMES4 ,BO? BELIEFS >E FALSE S9CE :AT PRODUCES 9JU/ICE & HI]>*Y IS NOT SIMPLY H[ !Y >E A*IEV$1 BUT ALSO :Y4 ,P>T ( /RUCTURES & SOCIAL RELATION%IPS >E ! IDEAS & GOALS ( ! PEOPLE )9 !M4 ,!RE >E LESSONS WE CAN EXTRACT FROM ! EXPLORATION ( ME?ODOLOGICAL ?\E ?\E CONTEMPLAT$1 LAID \T1 & BR\E NOT ! SAME 9 EV]Y AGE4 ,A SLAVE1 PEASANT1 WORK]1 & A SUBSI/5CE F>M] ALL EXP5D TIME = !IR ABILITY TO LIVE1 BUT ! SOCIAL RELATION%IPS ?AT DEF9E !IR WORK *ANGE ACROSS ! AGES4 ,?IS *ANGE IS BO? DEF9$ BY ! SOCIETY !Y GR[ UP 91 & ! TIME P]IOD !Y EXI/ 94 ,AN EMPHASIS ON UND]/&+ \R IDEAS ?R\< ME?OD HELPS KEEP US GR\ND$ 9 ANALYZ+ !SE FACTORS4 ,IF WE SEEK LIB]ATION1 :AT DOES ?AT MEAN 9 ?IS 5VIRONM5T = !SE PEOPLE ) ?IS SITUATION & ?IS HI/ORY8 ,SECONDLY1 !SE ACC\NTS HIDS \R AIMS4 ,IT IS NOT M]ELY GETT+ TO ! GATES ( P[] ?AT MATT]S1 BUT ! PROCESS & TOOLS BY :I* WE GOT !RE4 ,A PUTS* IS DIFF]5T FROM A POPUL> UPRIS+4 ,! SEQU5CES ( EV5TS ?AT PRODUCES PUTS*ES & POPUL> UPRIS+S HAVE HI/ORICALLY MEANT A GREAT DEAL 9 T]MS ( ! ABILITY ( RUL]S OR W\LD-BE RUL]S TO /EM ! TIDE ( POPUL> P[]4 ,& AS ANO!R EXAMPLE3 W9+ ! FRE$OM ( POLITICAL PRISON]S ?R\< TAK+ ACTION V]SUS IT BE+ GRANT$ BY ! C\RTS ACT+ ON A PURELY LEGAL BASIS IS DIFF]5T4 ,PROCESS IS AN 9H]5T P>T ( LIB]ATORY POLITICS--NOT M]ELY \TCOMES4 ,LA/LY1 ! CONT5T ( \R /RUGGLES COMB9$ ) \R ME?ODOLOGY >E :AT MAKES /RUGGLES LIB]ATORY OR NOT4 ,LIB]ATORY ME?ODS >E GR\ND$ 9 ! CONJUNCTURE ( ?OSE /RUGGL+1 >E BAS$ ON LIB]ATORY PROCESSES1 BUT !Y ALSO >E DIRECT$ AT LIB]ATORY CONT5T4 ,?IS CONT5T MU/ ALSO BE F\IAN /RUGGLES !RE >E O!R T5D5CIES ?AT LEAD US AWAY FROM \R GOALS4 ,?OSE BATTLES >E F\GELY >\ND CONT5T4 ,:5 PA/ ?9K]S HON$ 9 ON ME?OD !Y UNE>!D /RONG RELATION%IPS AMONG HI/ORY1 AIMS1 & TACTICS4 ,?IS IS A RELEVANT 9SI H[EV] ?AT SOME?+ DEEP] IS NECESS>Y AS WELL4 ,P>T ( ! TASK ( BUILD+ A LIB]ATORY ?\VE/S ! MAT]IAL REALITY ( ITS APPLICATION AT ! SAME TIME4 ,SU* A ME?OD CONNECTS ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 SOCIAL =CES & \R ORI5TATION AS AG5TS FIGUR+ \T :AT TO DO 9 A CON/ANTLY *ANG+ WORLD4 ,! TOOLS EXTRACT$ 9 ! C\RSE ( ?IS 9QUIRY WILL GIVE US 9SI*Y CAN EM]GE FROM ANTI-HI]>*Y1 H[ DISPOSITIONS & 9T5TIONS RELATE TO BELIEFS & DESIRES1 & :]E MOTIVATION FITS 94 ,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 ,*RONOLOGY 3 ,JANU>Y #b#b1 #bba 3 ,P>T #a -- ,ADD$4 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3 HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/