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,DEVELOPM5T ( ,MORAL ,TEA*+S -- ,X,I,X ,]A 

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,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,FR$RIK ,RUB5SSON1,C,C ,B,Y-,S,A ,LIC5SE ,9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY !RE APPE>$ ?REE NEW CURR5TS 9 E?ICS3 #a7 ,POSITIVISM1 :I* WAS DEVELOP$ BY ! ,FR5* PHILOSOPH]1 ,AUGU/E ,COMTE1 & :I* F\ND A PROM95T REPRES5TATIVE 9 ,G]MANY 9 ! P]SON ( ,FEU]BA*2 #b7 ,EVOLUTIONISM1 I4 E41 ! TEA*+ AB\T ! GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T ( ALL LIV+ BE+S1 SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1 & BELIEFS1 & ALSO ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN4 ,?IS !ORY WAS CREAT$ BY ,*>LES ,D>W9 & WAS LAT] ELABORAT$ 9 DETAIL BY ,H]B]T ,SP5C] 9 HIS FAM\S 0,SYN!TIC ,PHILOSOPHY40 #c7 ,SOCIALISM1 I4 E41 A TEA*+ ( ! POLITICAL & SOCIAL EQUALITY ( M54 ,?IS TEA*+ D]IV$ FROM ! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION & FROM LAT] ECONOMIC DOCTR9ES ORIG9AT+ UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! RAPID DEVELOPM5T ( 9DU/RY & CAPITALISM 9 ,EUROPE4 ,ALL ?REE CURR5TS EX]T$ A /RONG 9FLU5CE UPON ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,H[EV]1 UP TO ! PRES5T TIME1 !RE HAS NOT BE5 DEVELOP$ A COMPLETE SY/EM ( E?ICS BAS$ ON ! DATA ( ALL ! ?REE TEA*+S4 ,SOME MOD]N PHILOSOPH]S1 SU* AS1 = EXAMPLE1 ,H]B]T ,SP5C]1 ,M4 ,GUYAU1 & P>TLY ,WILHELM ,WUNDT1 ,PAULS51 ,H(FD+1 ,GIZYCKI1 & ,EUCK51 MADE ATTEMPTS TO CREATE A SY/EM ( E?ICS ON ! BASES ( POSITIVISM & EVOLUTIONISM1 BUT ALL ( !M MORE OR LESS IGNOR$ SOCIALISM4 ,& YET WE HAVE 9 SOCIALISM A GREAT MORAL CURR5T1 & FROM N[ ON NO NEW SY/EM ( E?ICS CAN BE BUILT )\T 9 SOME WAY CONSID]+ ?IS TEA*+1 :I* IS ! EXPRESSION ( ! /RIV+ ( ! WORK+ MASSES = SOCIAL JU/ICE & EQUITY4 

,BE=E DISCUSS+ ! VIEWS ON MORALITY ( ! *IEF REPRES5TATIVES ( ! ?REE DOCTR9AL CURR5TS1 WE %ALL BRIEFLY EXP\ND ! E?ICAL SY/EM ( ! ,5GLI% ?9K]S ( ! FIR/ HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,! ,SCOT* PHILOSOPH] ,MACK9TO% IS ! =]UNN] ( ,POSITIVISM 9 ,5GL&4 ,BY HIS CONVICTIONS HE WAS A RADICAL & AN >D5T DEF5D] ( ! IDEAS ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 ,HE EXP\ND$ HIS MORAL TEA*+ 9 HIS BOOK1 0,VIEW ( ,E?ICAL ,PHILOSOPHY10#a :]E HE SY/EMIZ$ ALL ! !ORIES ( ! ORIG9 ( MORALITY ADVANC$ BY ,%AFTESBURY1 ,HUT*ESON1 ,HUME1 & ,ADAM ,SMI?4 ,LIKE !SE ?9K]S ,MACK9TO% RECOGNIZ$ ?AT MAN'S MORAL ACTIONS >E PROMPT$ BY FEEL+ & NOT BY REASON4 ,MORAL PH5OM5A1 HE TAU<T1 >E A SPECIAL K9D ( FEEL+S3 SYMPA?Y & ANTIPA?Y1 APPROVAL & DISAPPROVAL1 ) RESPECT TO ALL \R PROP5SITIES :I* GIVE BIR? TO ALL \R ACTIONS2 GRADUALLY !SE FEEL+S COMB9E & CON/ITUTE A SORT ( UNIFI$ :OLE1 A SPECIAL PROP]TY ( \R PSY*IC SELF1 A FACULTY :I* CAN BE CALL$ MORAL CONSCI5CE4 

,WE FEEL1 !REBY1 ?AT IT DEP5DS UPON \R WILL :E!R WE ACT ) OR AGA9/ \R CONSCI5CE1 & :5 WE ACT AGA9/ \R CONSCI5CE WE BLAME UPON IT ! WEAKNESS ( \R WILL OR \R WILL = EVIL4 

,?US IT IS SE5 ?AT ,MACK9TO% R$UC$ EV]Y?+ TO FEEL+4 ,!RE WAS NO ROOM :ATSOEV] = ! WORK+ ( REASON4 ,MOREOV]1 ACCORD+ TO HIM ! MORAL FEEL+ IS SOME?+ 9NATE1 SOME?+ 9H]5T 9 ! V]Y NATURE ( MAN1 & NOT A PRODUCT ( REASON+ OR UP-BR++4 

,?IS MORAL FEEL+1 WROTE ,MACK9TO%1 UND\BT$LY POSSESSES AN IMP]ATIVE *>ACT]2 IT DEM&S A C]TA9 ATTITUDE T[>D M51 & ?IS IS BECAUSE WE FEEL CONSCI\S ?AT \R MORAL FEEL+S1 ! CONDEMNATION OR APPROVAL BY !M ( \R ACTIONS1 OP]ATE )9 ! B\NDS ( \R WILL4 

,V>I\S MORAL MOTIVES M]GE LITTLE BY LITTLE 9TO A :OLE 9 \R CONCEPTION1 & ! COMB9ATION ( TWO GR\PS ( FEEL+S1 ?AT HAVE1 9 FACT1 NO?+ 9 COMMON1-! EGOI/IC FEEL+ ( SELF-PRES]VATION & ! FEEL+ ( SYMPA?Y = O!RS-DET]M9E ! *>ACT] ( A MAN4 

,SU* WAS1 ACCORD+ TO ,MACK9TO%1 ! ORIG9 ( MORALITY1 & SU* WAS ITS CRIT]ION4  ,BUT !SE E?ICAL BASES >E SO B5EFICIAL TO 

 MAN1 !Y SO CLOSELY B9D EA* ONE ( US TO ! GOOD ( ! 5TIRE SOCIETY1 ?AT !Y1 9EVITABLY1 HAD TO DEVELOP 9 MANK9D4 

,ON ?IS ISSUE ,MACK9TO% TAKES ! VIEWPO9T ( ! ,UTILIT>IANS4 ,& HE P>TICUL>LY 9SI/$ ?AT IT IS WRONG TO CONFUSE 7AS IS CONT9UALLY BE+ DONE7 ! CRIT]ION ( MORALITY1 I4 E41 ?AT :I* S]VES US AS ! /&>D 9 EVALUAT+ ! QUALITIES & ! ACTIONS ( MAN1 ) ?AT :I* URGES US P]SONALLY TO DESIRE C]TA9 ACTIONS & TO ACT 9 A C]TA9 WAY4 ,!SE TWO FACTORS BELONG TO DIFF]5T FIELDS1 & !Y %\LD BE ALWAYS DI/+UI%$ 9 A S]I\S /UDY4 ,IT IS IMPORTANT = US TO KN[ :AT ACTIONS & :AT QUALITIES WE APPROVE & DISAPPROVE FROM ! MORAL PO9T ( VIEW1-?IS IS \R CRIT]ION1 \R /&>D ( MORAL EVALUATION4 ,BUT WE MU/ ALSO KN[ :E!R \R APPROVAL & DISAPPROVAL >E ! PRODUCT ( A SPONTANE\S FEEL+1 OR :E!R !Y COME ALSO FROM \R M9D1 ?R\< REASON+4 ,&1 F9ALLY1 IT IS IMPORTANT = US TO KN[3 IF \R APPROVAL & DISAPPROVAL ORIG9ATE 9 A FEEL+1 :E!R ?AT FEEL+ IS A PRIM>Y PROP]TY ( \R ORGANISM1 OR HAS IT BE5 GRADUALLY DEVELOP+ 9 US UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( REASON8 

,BUT IF WE >E TO =MULATE ?US ! PROBLEMS ( E?ICS1 !N1 AS ,JODL JU/LY REM>K$3 0,9 C]TA9 RESPECTS ?IS IS ! CLE>E/ & ! TRUE/ OBS]VATION EV] MADE AB\T ! BASES ( MORALITY4 ,!N IT REALLY BECOMES CLE> ?AT IF !RE IS ANY?+ 9NATE 9 \R MORAL FEEL+1 ?IS FACT DOES NOT PREV5T REASON FROM REALIZ+ AFT]W>DS ?AT C]TA9 FEEL+S & ACTIONS1 DEVELOP+ ?R\< SOCIAL $UCATION1 >E VALUABLE = ! COMMON GOOD40#b 

,IT ALSO BECOMES CLE> ,I WILL ADD1 ?AT SOCIALITY1 & ITS NECESS>Y ACCOMPANIM5T-MUTUAL AID1 *>ACT]I/IC ( ! VA/ MAJORITY ( ANIMAL SPECIES & SO MU* MORE ( MAN1-W]E ! S\RCE ( MORAL S5TIM5TS FROM ! TIME ( ! V]Y FIR/ APPE>ANCE ( MAN-LIKE CREATURES ON ! E>?1 & ?AT SOCIAL S5TIM5TS W]E FUR!R /R5G!N$ BY ! REALIZATION & ! UND]/&+ ( ! FACTS 

 ( SOCIAL LIFE1 I4 E41 BY ! EF=T ( REASON4 ,& 9 PROPORTION TO ! DEVELOPM5T & 9CREAS+ COMPLEXITY ( SOCIAL LIFE1 REASON ACQUIR$ EV] GREAT] 9FLU5CE UPON ! MORAL MAKE-UP ( MAN4 

,F9ALLY1 IT IS EQUALLY UNQUE/IONABLE ?AT MORAL FEEL+ CAN EASILY BECOME DULL$ DUE TO ! /]N /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1 OR TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( 9/9CTS ( ROBB]Y :I* AT TIMES ACQUIRE GREAT 9T5SITY AMONG C]TA9 TRIBES & NATIONS4 ,& ?IS MORAL FEEL+ MI<T HAVE WI!R$ ALTOGE!R IF ! V]Y NATURE ( MAN1 AS WELL AS ( ! MAJORITY ( ! MORE HI<LY DEVELOP$ ANIMALS1 DID NOT 9VOLVE1 ASIDE FROM ! H]D 9/9CT1 A C]TA9 M5TAL B5T :I* SUPPORTS & /R5G!NS ! 9FLU5CE ( SOCIALITY4 ,?IS 9FLU5CE1 ,I BELIEVE1 CONSI/S 9 ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE1 :I* 9 ! F9AL ANALYSIS IS NO?+ BUT ! RECOGNITION ( EQUITY = ALL ! MEMB]S ( A GIV5 SOCIETY4 ,TO ?IS PROP]TY ( \R ?9K+1 :I* WE ALREADY F9D AMONG ! MO/ PRIMITIVE SAVAGES & TO A C]TA9 EXT5T AMONG H]D ANIMALS1 WE [E ! GR[? 9 US ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS 9 ! =M ( A P]SI/5T1 & AT TIMES EV5 UNCONSCI\SLY IMP]ATIVE =CE4 ,AS REG>DS MAGNANIMITY1 BORD]+ ON SELF-SACRIFICE1 :I* ALONE1 P]HAPS1 TRULY DES]VES ! NAME 0MORAL10 ,I %ALL DISCUSS ?IS ?IRD MEMB] ( ! MORAL TRILOGY LAT]1 9 CONNECTION ) ! E?ICAL SY/EM ( ,GUYAU4 

,I %ALL NOT DWELL UPON ! ,5GLI% PHILOSOPHY ( ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? & ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,IT REPRES5TS A REACTION AGA9/ ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION & AGA9/ ! PRE-REVOLUTION>Y PHILOSOPHY ( ! ,5CYCLOPA$I/S1 AS WELL AS AGA9/ ! D>+ IDEAS EXPRESS$ BY ,WILLIAM ,GODW9 9 HIS BOOK1 0,9QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ,POLITICAL JU/ICE40 ,?IS BOOK IS A COMPLETE & S]I\S EXPOSITION ( ?AT :I* BEGAN TO BE ADVOCAT$ LAT] UND] ! NAME ( ,AN>*ISM4#c ,IT IS V]Y 9/RUCTIVE TO BECOME ACQUA9T$ ) ! 

 ,5GLI% PHILOSOPHY ( ?IS P]IOD4 ,I !RE=E REF] ALL ?OSE 9T]E/$ TO ! EXCELL5T EXPOSITION BY ,JODL1 9 ! SECOND VOLUME ( HIS 0,GES*I*TE D] ,E?IK40 

,I WILL ONLY ADD ON MY P>T ?AT1 9 G5]AL1 ! ,5GLI% ?9K]S ( ?IS P]IOD ESPECIALLY 5DEAVOR$ TO PROVE ! 9SUFFICI5CY ( M]E FEEL+ = ! EXPLANATION ( MORALITY4 ,?US ,/EW>T1 A PROM95T REPRES5TATIVE ( ?IS EPO*1 MA9TA9S ?AT MORALITY CANNOT BE SUFFICI5TLY ACC\NT$ = EI!R BY ! 0REFLECTIVE AFFECTS0 ( ,%AFTESBURY1 OR BY ,BUTL]'S 0CONSCI5CE10 ETC4 ,HAV+ PO9T$ \T ! IRRECONCILABILITY ( V>I\S !ORIES ( MORALITY1 SOME ( :I* >E BUILT ON B5EVOL5CE1 O!RS ON JU/ICE1 ON RATIONAL SELF-LOVE1 OR ON ! OB$I5CE TO ,GOD'S WILL1 HE DID NOT WI% TO ACKN[L$GE1 LIKE ,HUME1 ?AT RATIONAL JUDGM5T ALONE IS ALSO 9CAPABLE ( GIV+ US A CONCEPTION ( GOOD1 OR ( BEAUTY2 HE %[$1 AT ! SAME TIME1 H[ F> MORAL PH5OM5A >E REMOV$ 9 MAN FROM A M]E EMOTIONAL IMPULSE4 

,IT W\LD SEEM ?AT1 HAV+ >RIV$ AT ! CONCLUSION ?AT 9 ALL MORAL CONCEPTIONS REASON B9DS \R V>I\S P]CEPTIONS TOGE!R1 & !N DEVELOPS NEW CONCEPTIONS )9 ITSELF 7& HE EV5 M5TION$ ! 0MA!MATICAL IDEA ( EQUALITY071 ,/EW>T %\LD HAVE >RIV$ AT ! IDEA ( JU/ICE4 ,BUT :E!R IT WAS UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! OLD IDEAS ( ! 9TUITIVE S*OOL1 OR ( ! NEW T5D5CIES :I*1 AFT] ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 D5I$ ! V]Y ?\<T ( ! EQUALITY ( RI<TS ( ALL M51 ,/EW>T DID NOT DEVELOP HIS ?\<TS & FAIL$ TO COME TO ANY DEF9ITE CONCLUSION4#d 

,NEW IDEAS 9 ! REALM ( E?ICS W]E 9TRODUC$ 9 ,5GL& BY A CONTEMPOR>Y ( ,MACK9TO%1 ,J]EMY ,B5?AM4 ,B5?AM WAS NOT A PHILOSOPH] 9 ! /RICT S5SE ( ! WORD4 ,HE WAS A LAWY]1 & HIS SPECIALTY WAS ! LAW & ! PRACTICAL LEGISLATION RESULT+ FROM IT4 ,TAK+ A NEGATIVE ATTITUDE TO ! LAW 9 ! =M 9 :I* IT WAS EXPRESS$ 9 LEGISLATION ?R\<\T ?\S&S ( YE>S ( HI/ORICAL ABS5CE ( HUMAN RI<TS1 ,B5?AM /ROVE TO F9D DEEP1 /RICTLY 

 SCI5TIFIC1 !ORETICAL BASES ( LAW1 SU* AS C\LD BE APPROV$ BY REASON & CONSCI5CE4 

,9 ,B5?AM'S VIEW LAW CO9CIDES ) MORALITY1 & !RE=E HE NAM$ HIS FIR/ BOOK1 :]E HE EXP\ND$ HIS !ORY1 0,AN ,9TRODUCTION TO ! ,PR9CIPLES ( ,MORALS & ,LEGISLATION40#e 

,B5?AM1 LIKE ,HELVETIUS1 SEES ! BASIC PR9CIPLE ( ALL MORALITY & LAW 9 ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS ( ! GREATE/ NUMB] ( M54 ,! SAME PR9CIPLE1 AS WE HAVE SE51 WAS ADOPT$ BY ,HOBBES AS ! BASIS ( HIS E?ICS4 ,BUT ,B5?AM & HIS FOLL[]S 7,MILL & O!RS7 D]IV$ FROM ?IS PR9CIPLE CONCLUSIONS DIRECTLY CONTR>Y TO ?OSE ( ,HOBBES4 ,! REACTION>Y ,HOBBES1 UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,REVOLUTION ( #a#f#d#h1 ?R\< :I* HE HAD LIV$1 MA9TA9$ ?AT ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS CAN BE GIV5 TO MAN ONLY BY A FIRM RUL+ P[]4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ,B5?AM1 A 0PHILAN?ROPI/0 AS HE CALL$ HIMSELF1 W5T SO F> AS TO RECOGNIZE EQUALITY AS A DESIRABLE AIM4 ,AL?\< HE REJECT$ ! SOCIALI/IC TEA*+S ( ,[51 HE NEV]!LESS ACKN[L$G$ ?AT 0EQUALITY ( WEAL? W\LD HELP TO ATTA9 ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS ( ! GREATE/ NUMB] ( M51 PROVID$ ONLY ! REALIZATION ( ?IS EQUALITY DOES NOT LEAD TO REVOLUTION>Y \TBREAKS40 ,AS REG>DS ! LAW 9 G5]AL HE EV5 REA*$ AN>*I/IC CONCLUSIONS1 HOLD+ ?AT ! FEW] LAWS1 ! BETT]4 0,! LAWS10 HE WROTE1 0>E A LIMITATION ( MAN'S 9H]5T ABILITY TO ACT1 & !RE=E1 FROM ! ABSOLUTE PO9T ( VIEW1 !Y REPRES5T AN EVIL40 

,B5?AM SUBJECT$ TO SEV]E EXAM9ATION ALL ! EXI/+ SY/EMS & ALL ! CURR5T !ORIES ( MORALITY4 ,BUT1 AS ,I HAVE ALREADY PO9T$ \T1 :ILE APPROA*+ SOCIALI/IC & EV5 AN>*I/IC CONCLUSIONS1 ,B5?AM DID NOT V5TURE TO FOLL[ HIS IDEAS TO !IR LOGICAL CONCLUSION1 & HE DIRECT$ HIS MA9 EF=TS T[>D DET]M9+ :I* PLEASURES >E /RONG]1 MORE LA/+1 & MORE FRUITFUL4 ,S9CE DIFF]5T PEOPLE UND]/& 9 DIFF]5T WAYS !IR [N & ! G5]AL HUMAN HAPP9ESS1 & >E F> FROM BE+ ABLE TO DET]M9E :AT LEADS !M TO HAPP9ESS & :AT TO SUFF]+1 BE+ EV5 MORE APT TO BE MI/AK5 AS TO :AT CON/ITUTES SOCIAL GOOD1 ,B5?AM1 ACCORD+LY1 TRI$ TO DET]M9E :AT GIVES ! 9DIVIDUAL AS WELL AS ,SOCIETY ! POSSIBILITY ( GREATE/ HAPP9ESS4 

,! SE>* = HAPP9ESS IS A /RIV+ = P]SONAL PLEASURE1-!RE=E ,B5?AM1 LIKE HIS PR$ECESSOR 9 ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 ,EPICURUS1 5DEAVOR$ TO DET]M9E :I* ( \R PLEASURES >E CAPABLE ( GIV+ US ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS1-NOT ONLY A MOM5T>Y HAPP9ESS BUT A LA/+ ONE1 EV5 IF IT HAS TO BE L9K$ ) PA94 ,= ?IS PURPOSE HE TRI$ TO E/ABLI% A SORT ( 0SCALE ( PLEASURES10 & AT ! HEAD ( ?IS SCALE HE PUT ! /RONGE/ & ! DEEPE/ PLEASURES2 ?OSE ?AT >E NOT ACCID5TAL OR MOM5T>Y1 BUT ?OSE ?AT CAN LA/ = LIFE2 ?OSE ?AT >E C]TA91 & F9ALLY ?OSE :OSE REALIZATION IS NE> & IS NOT PO/PON$ TO A DI/ANT & 9DEF9ITE FUTURE4 

,! 9T5SITY ( A PLEASURE1 ITS DURATION2 ITS C]TA9LY OR UNC]TA9TY2 ITS PROP9QUITY OR REMOT5ESS1-!SE >E ! F\R CRIT]IA :I* ,B5?AM 5DEAVOR$ TO E/ABLI% 9 HIS 0>I?METIC ( PLEASURES10 & HE ALSO ADD$ FECUNDITY1 I4 E41 ! CAPACITY ( A GIV5 PLEASURE TO PRODUCE NEW PLEASURES1 & ALSO ! EXT5T1 I4 E41 ! CAPACITY TO GIVE PLEASURE NOT ONLY TO ME BUT ALSO TO O!RS4#f ,P>ALLEL ) HIS 0SCALE ( PLEASURES0 ,B5?AM ALSO DREW UP 0! SCALE ( PA9S01 :]E HE DI/+UI%$ BETWE5 ! TR\BLES ?AT H>M 9DIVIDUALS & ?OSE ?AT H>M ALL ! MEMB]S ( SOCIETY OR A GR\P ( M51 & F9ALLY1 ! SUFF]+S & ! CALAMITIES ?AT UND]M9E IRREP>ABLY ! /R5G? ( ! 9DIVIDUAL OR EV5 ( ! :OLE ( SOCIETY4 

,9 SEEK+ ! EXPLANATION ( ! MORAL FEEL+ ,B5?AM WAS NOT CONT5T ) ! PREVI\SLY GIV5 EXPLANATIONS ( ! ORIG9 ( MORALITY FROM AN 9NATE MORAL FEEL+ 7NATURAL OR 9SPIR$ FROM ABOVE71 SYMPA?Y & ANTIPA?Y1 0CONSCI5CE10 0MORAL DUTY10 ETC41-! V]Y M5TION ( 0VIRTUE10 CONNECT$ 9 HI/ORY ) ! T]RORS ( ! 9QUISITION1 >\S$ HIS 9DIGNATION4 

,!SE ?\<TS ( HIS >E ?R\<\T %>PLY EXPRESS$ & DEVELOP$ 9 DETAIL 9 HIS 0,DEONTOLOGY2 OR ! ,SCI5CE ( ,MORALITY10 :I* WAS >RANG$ & $IT$ AFT] ,B5?AM'S DEA? BY HIS FRI5D1 ,JOHN ,B[R+4#g 

,MORALITY MU/ BE BUILT ON DIFF]5T BASES1 TAU<T ,B5?AM4 ,IT IS ! DUTY ( ?9K]S TO PROVE ?AT A 0VIRTU\S0 ACT IS A CORRECT CALCULATION1 A TEMPOR>Y SACRIFICE :I* WILL GIVE ONE ! MAXIMUM ( PLEASURE2 :]EAS AN IMMORAL ACT IS AN 9CORRECT CALCULATION4 ,MAN %\LD SEEK HIS P]SONAL PLEASURE1 HIS P]SONAL 9T]E/4 

,?US SPOKE ,EPICURUS & MANY ( HIS FOLL[]S1-= EXAMPLE1 ,M&EVILLE 9 HIS FAM\S 0,FABLE ( ! ,BEES40 ,BUT AS ,GUYAU PO9T$ \T1#h ,B5?AM 9TRODUCES H]E A CONSID]ABLE CORRECTION1 :]EBY UTILIT>IANISM MAKES A GREAT /EP =W>D4 ,VIRTUE IS NOT M]ELY A CALCULATION1 WROTE ,B5?AM1 IT ALSO IMPLIES A C]TA9 EF=T1 A /RUGGLE1-MAN SACRIFICES IMM$IATE PLEASURE = ! SAKE ( A GREAT] PLEASURE 9 ! FUTURE4 ,B5?AM P>TICUL>LY 9SI/S UPON ?IS SACRIFICE1 :I* IS1 9 FACT1 A SELF-SACRIFICE1 EV5 IF IT IS A TEMPOR>Y ONE4 ,& 9DE$1 NOT TO SEE ?IS W\LD BE REFUS+ TO RECOGNIZE ?AT :I* CON/ITUTES AT LEA/ HALF ( ! 5TIRE LIFE ( ! ANIMAL WORLD1 ( ! LEA/ DEVELOP$ SAVAGES1 & EV5 ( ! LIFE ( \R 9DU/RIAL SOCIETIES4 ,MANY :O CALL !MSELVES UTILIT>IANS ACTUALLY FALL 9TO ?IS ]ROR4 ,BUT ,B5?AM UND]/OOD :]E UTILIT>IANISM W\LD LEAD )\T ?IS CORRECTION1 & !RE=E HE P]SI/5TLY CALL$ ATT5TION TO IT4 ,SO MU* MORE ONE W\LD EXPECT ,JOHN ,/U>T ,MILL TO 9SI/ UPON ?IS CORRECTION1 = BE WROTE AT ! TIME :5 ! COMMUNI/ TEA*+S ( ,[51-:I* ALSO REJECT$ ALL MORALITY 9SPIR$ FROM ABOVE1-HAD ALREADY BECOME WIDESPREAD 9 ,5GL&4 

,!SE CRIT]IA ( GOOD & EVIL1 ,B5?AM PROV$1 S]VE NOT ALONE AS ! BASIS ( ! MORAL EVALUATION ( \R [N ACTIONS1 BUT !Y MU/ ALSO S]VE AS ! BASIS ( ALL LEGISLATION4 ,!Y >E ! 

 CRIT]ION ( MORALITY1 ITS /&>D1 ITS T\*/ONE4 ,BUT H]E 5T]S ALSO A S]IES ( O!R CONSID]ATIONS :I* CONSID]ABLY 9FLU5CE & MODIFY ! CONCEPTIONS ( :AT IS MORAL & DESIRABLE = 9DIVIDUALS AS WELL AS = :OLE SOCIETIES AT DIFF]5T P]IODS ( !IR DEVELOPM5T4 ,! 9TELLECTUAL DEVELOPM5T ( MAN1 HIS RELIGION1 HIS TEMP]AM5T1 ! /ATE ( HIS HEAL?1 HIS UP-BR++1 HIS SOCIAL POSITION1 & ALSO ! POLITICAL SY/EM1-ALL !SE FACTORS MODIFY ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( 9DIVIDUALS & ( SOCIETIES1 & ,B5?AM1 PURSU+ HIS LEGISLATIVE PROBLEMS1 C>EFULLY ANALYZ$ ALL !SE 9FLU5CES4 ,) ALL ?AT1 ?\< HE WAS 9SPIR$ BY ! HI<E/ MOTIVES & FULLY APPRECIAT$ ! MORAL BEAUTY ( SELF-SACRIFICE1 HE HAS NOT %[N :]E1 H[1 & :Y1 9/9CT TRIUMPHS OV] ! COLD JUDGM5TS ( REASON1 :AT ! RELATION IS BETWE5 REASON & 9/9CT1 & :]E ! VITAL CONNECTION IS BETWE5 !M4 ,WE F9D 9 ,B5?AM ! 9/9CTIVE P[] ( SOCIALITY1 BUT WE CANNOT SEE H[ IT KEEPS PACE ) HIS ME?ODICAL REASON1 & H5CE WE FEEL ! 9COMPLET5ESS ( HIS E?ICS & WE UND]/& :Y MANY1 ON BECOM+ ACQUA9T$ ) IT1 W]E LEFT UNSATISFI$1 & CONT9U$ TO SEEK RE9=CEM5T = !IR E?ICAL T5D5CIES1-SOME 9 RELIGION1 & O!RS 9 ITS (FSPR+-! ,KANTIAN E?ICS ( DUTY4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 IT IS UNQUE/IONABLE ?AT ,B5?AM'S CRITIQUE IS P]MEAT$ ) ! DESIRE TO URGE M5 T[>D CREATIV5ESS1 :I* W\LD GIVE !M NOT ONLY P]SONAL HAPP9ESS1 BUT ALSO A BROAD UND]/&+ ( SOCIAL PROBLEMS2 HE SEEKS ALSO TO 9SPIRE !M ) NOBLE IMPULSES4 ,B5?AM'S AIM IS TO HAVE LAW & LEGISLATION 9SPIR$ NOT BY ! CURR5T CONCEPTIONS ( HUMAN HAPP9ESS UND] ! FIRM H& ( ! RUL+ P[]1 BUT BY ! HI<] CONSID]ATIONS ( ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS ( ! GREATE/ NUMB] ( ! MEMB]S ( SOCIETY4 

,BE>+ 9 M9D ?IS FEATURE ( ,B5?AM'S E?ICS1 & ! G5]AL SPIRIT ( HIS WORK1 HIS L(TY AIM1 HIS CONC]N = ! PRES]VATION 9 SOCIETY ( ! MEANS = SATISFY+ ! ,P]SONAL 5T]PRISE ( 9DIVIDUAL MEMB]S1 & HIS UND]/&+ ( ! AES!TIC ELEM5T 

 9 ! S5SE ( DUTY1 IT IS EASY TO GRASP :Y1 9 SPITE ( ! >I?METICAL DRYNESS ( HIS />T+ PO9T1 ,B5?AM'S TEA*+ EX]CIS$ SU* POT5T 9FLU5CE UPON ! BE/ M5 ( HIS TIME4 ,IT IS ALSO CLE> :Y M5 :O HAVE ?OR\<LY /UDI$ HIS TEA*+1 SU* AS ,GUYAU1 = EXAMPLE1 9 HIS EXCELL5T WORK ON MOD]N ,5GLI% E?ICS1 CONSID] ,B5?AM ! TRUE F\ND] ( ! 5TIRE ,5GLI% ,UTILIT>IAN S*OOL1-TO :I* ,SP5C] P>TLY BELONGS4 

,B5?AM'S IDEAS W]E FUR!R DEVELOP$ BY A GR\P ( HIS FOLL[]S1 HEAD$ BY ,JAMES ,MILL & HIS SON1 ,JOHN ,/U>T ,MILL 7#a#h#f-#a#h#g#c74 ,! LATT]'S LITTLE BOOK1 0,UTILIT>IANISM10 REPRES5TS ! BE/ EXPOSITION ( UTILIT>IAN E?ICS4#i 

,AL?\< ,JOHN ,/U>T ,MILL WROTE ONLY ?IS LITTLE BOOK ON ! !ORY ( MORALITY1 HE NEV]!LESS MADE A CONSID]ABLE CONTRIBUTION TO MORAL SCI5CE & C>RI$ ! UTILIT>IAN TEA*+ TO A LOGICAL COMPLET5ESS4 ,9 HIS BOOK1 AS WELL AS 9 HIS WRIT+S ON ,ECONOMICS1 ,MILL IS FILL$ ) ! IDEA ( ! NECESSITY ( REBUILD+ SOCIAL LIFE ON ! NEW E?ICAL BASES4 

,TO EFFECT ?IS REBUILD+ ,MILL SAW NO NE$ EI!R ( ! RELIGI\S MOTIVATION ( MORALITY OR ( LEGISLATION D]IV$ FROM PURE REASON 7,KANT'S ATTEMPT 9 ?IS DIRECTION 5D$ 9 COMPLETE FAILURE72-HE ?\<T IT POSSIBLE TO F\ND ! :OLE ( MORAL TEA*+ ON ONE FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE-! /RIV+ = ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS1 CORRECTLY1 I4 E41 RATIONALLY1 UND]/OOD4 ,?IS 9T]PRETATION ( ! ORIG9 ( MORALITY WAS ALREADY GIV5 BY ,HUME4 ,BUT ,MILL1 AS WAS TO BE EXPECT$ ( A ?9K] ( ! SECOND HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 COMPLET$ ?IS IDEA BY PO9T+ TO ! CONT9U\S DEVELOPM5T ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS 9 MANK9D1 [+ TO SOCIAL LIFE4 ,! MORAL ELEM5T IS NOT 9NATE 9 MAN BUT PRES5TS A PRODUCT ( DEVELOPM5T4 

,HUMANITY POSSESSES SOME EXCELL5T PROP5SITIES1 BUT IT HAS ALSO EVIL ONES2 SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS >E READY TO WORK = ! GOOD ( ! :OLE1 BUT O!RS DO NOT WANT TO CONC]N !MSELVES ) ?IS4 

 ,CONCEPTIONS ( :AT IS GOOD = SOCIETY1 & CONSEQU5TLY = ! 9DIVIDUAL1 >E /ILL V]Y CONFUS$4 ,BUT IF WE OBS]VE 9 ?IS /RUGGLE A PROGRESS T[>D ! BETT]1 IT IS DUE TO ! FACT ?AT EV]Y HUMAN SOCIETY IS 9T]E/$ 9 HAV+ 9 ! ASC5DANCY ! ELEM5TS1 ( GOOD1 I4 E41 ! COMMON WELF>E1 OR1 SPEAK+ 9 ,KANTIAN LANGUAGE 9 HAV+ ! ALTRUI/IC ELEM5TS TRIUMPH OV] ! EGOI/IC4 ,9 O WORDS1 WE F9D 9 SOCIAL LIFE A SYN!SIS ( ! MORAL T5D5CIES BAS$ ON ! S5SE ( DUTY1 & ?OSE ?AT ORIG9ATE 9 ! PR9CIPLE ( ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS 7EUDEMONISM71 OR ( GREATE/ UTILITY 7UTILIT>IANISM74 

,MORALITY1 SAYS ,MILL1 IS ! PRODUCT ( ! 9T]ACTION BETWE5 ! PSY*IC /RUCTURE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 & SOCIETY2 & IF WE REG>D MORALITY 9 ?IS LI<T WE OP5 A S]IES ( BROAD & ALLUR+ VI/AS & A S]IES ( FRUITFUL & L(TY PROBLEMS 9 ! REALM ( RECON/RUCT+ SOCIETY4 ,FROM ?IS ,PO9T ( VIEW WE %\LD SEE 9 MORALITY ! SUM ( DEM&S ?AT SOCIETY MAKES ON ! *>ACT] & ! WILL ( ITS MEMB]S 9 ! 9T]E/ ( !IR [N WELF>E & FUR!R DEVELOPM5T4 ,?IS1 H[EV]1 IS NOT A DEAD =MULA1 BUT ON ! CONTR>Y1 SOME?+ LIV+1 SOME?+ NOT ONLY LEGALIZ+ *ANGEABILITY1 BUT EV5 REQUIR+ IT2 ?IS IS NOT ! LEGALIZATION ( ?AT :I* HAS BE51 & :I* HAS P]HAPS ALREADY \TLIV$ ITS TIME1 BUT A VITAL PR9CIPLE = BUILD+ ! FUTURE4 ,& IF !RE IS A CLA% ( FACTIONS :I* 9T]PRET 9 DIFF]5T WAYS ! PROBLEMS ( ! FUTURE1 IF ! /RIV+ = IMPROVEM5T COLLIDES ) ! HABIT ( ! OLD1 !RE CAN BE NO O!R PRO(S1 ,OR ANY O!R CRIT]ION = *ECK+ !M1 ?AN ! WELF>E ( MANK9D & ITS IMPROVEM5T4 

,IT MAY BE SE5 EV5 FROM ?IS BRIEF \TL9E1 :AT VI/AS ,MILL OP5$ BY ! APPLICATION TO LIFE ( ! PR9CIPLE ( UTILITY4 ,[+ TO ?IS CIRCUM/ANCE HE EX]T$ A GREAT 9FLU5CE UPON HIS CONTEMPOR>IES1 ALL ! MORE ?AT ALL HIS WORKS W]E WRITT5 9 SIMPLE & CLE> LANGUAGE4 ,BUT ! PR9CIPLE ( JU/ICE1 :I* WAS ALREADY PO9T$ \T BY ,HUME1 WAS ABS5T FROM ,MILL'S REASON+1 & HE MAKES ALLUSION TO JU/ICE ONLY AT ! 5D ( ! BOOK1 :]E HE SPEAKS ( A CRIT]ION 

 BY MEANS ( :I* C\LD BE *ECK$ ! CORRECTNESS ( V>I\S CONCLUSIONS REA*$ BY V>I\S MOVEM5TS /RIV+ = PREPOND]ANCE 9 ! C\RSE ( ! PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIETY4 

,AS REG>DS ! QUE/ION1-TO :AT EXT5T ! PR9CIPLE ( UTILITY1 I4 E41 UTILIT>IANISM1 CAN BE DEEM$ SUFFICI5T = ! EXPLANATION ( ! MORAL ELEM5T 9 HUMANITY1-WE WILL CONSID] IT AT A LAT] TIME4 ,H]E IT IS IMPORTANT M]ELY TO NOTE ! =W>D /EP MADE BY E?ICS1 ! DESIRE TO BUILD IT EXCLUSIVELY ON A RATIONAL BASIS1 )\T ! COV]T OR O/5SIBLE 9FLU5CE ( RELIGION4#a ,PRIOR TO PASS+ TO ! EXPOSITION ( ! E?ICS ( POSITIVISM & EVOLUTIONISM IT IS NECESS>Y TO DWELL1 EV5 IF BRIEFLY1 ON ! MORAL TEA*+S ( SOME PHILOSOPH]S ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 :O1 ?\< !Y TOOK ! METAPHYSICAL & SPIRITUALI/IC VIEWPO9T1 /ILL EX]T$ A C]TA9 9FLU5CE UPON ! DEVELOPM5T ( MOD]N E?ICS4 ,9 ,G]MANY SU* A ?9K] WAS ,>?UR ,S*OP5HAU]1 & 9 ,FRANCE1 ,VICTOR ,C\S9 & HIS PUPIL1 ,!ODORE ,J\FFROY4 

,! E?ICAL TEA*+ ( ,S*OP5HAU] IS GIV5 A V]Y DIFF]5T APPRECIATION BY V>I\S WRIT]S1 AS IS1 9 FACT1 EV]Y?+ WRITT5 BY ?IS PESSIMI/-PHILOSOPH]1 :OSE PESSIMISM ORIG9AT$ NOT 9 HIS ACTIVE SYMPA?Y = HUMANITY1 BUT 9 HIS EXTREMELY EGOI/IC NATURE4 

,\R WORLD1 TAU<T ,S*OP5HAU]1 IS AN IMP]FECT WORLD2 \R LIFE IS SUFF]+2 \R 0WILL TO LIVE0 BEGETS 9 US DESIRES1 9 TRY+ TO REALIZE :I* WE MEET OB/ACLES2 & 9 /RUGGLE ) !SE OB/ACLES WE EXP]I5CE SUFF]+4 ,BUT AS SOON AS ! OB/ACLE IS CONQU]$ 

 & ! DESIRE IS FULFILL$1 DISSATISFACTION AGA9 >ISES4 ,AS ACTIVE P>TICIPANTS 9 LIFE WE BECOME M>TYRS1 ,PROGRESS DOES NOT DO AWAY ) SUFF]+4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( CULTURE \R NE$S ALSO 9CREASE2 FAILURE TO SATISFY !M BR+S NEW SUFF]+S1 NEW DISAPPO9TM5TS4 

,) ! DEVELOPM5T ( PROGRESS & CULTURE1 ! HUMAN M9D BECOMES MORE S5SITIVE TO SUFF]+ & ACQUIRES ! CAPACITY ( FEEL+ NOT ONLY ITS [N PA9 & SUFF]+1 BUT ALSO ( LIV+ ?R\< ! SUFF]+S ( O!R M5 & EV5 ( ANIMALS4 ,AS A RESULT MAN DEVELOPS ! FEEL+ ( COMMIS]ATION1 :I* CON/ITUTES ! BASIS ( MORALITY & ! S\RCE ( ALL MORAL ACTS4 

,?US ,S*OP5HAU] REFUS$ TO SEE ANY?+ MORAL 9 ACTIONS OR 9 A MODE ( LIFE BAS$ ON ! CONSID]ATIONS ( SELF-LOVE & /RIV+ = HAPP9ESS4 ,BUT HE ALSO REJECT$ ! ,KANTIAN S5SE ( DUTY AS ! BASIS ( MORALITY4 ,MORALITY1 ACCORD+ TO ,S*OP5HAU]1 BEG9S ONLY :5 MAN ACTS 9 A C]TA9 WAY \T ( SYMPA?Y = O!RS1 \T ( COMMIS]ATION4 ,! FEEL+ ( COMMIS]ATION1 WROTE ,S*OP5HAU]1 IS A PRIM>Y FEEL+1 9H]5T 9 MAN1 & IT IS 9 ?IS FEEL+ ?AT ! BASIS ( ALL MORAL T5D5CIES LIES1 & NOT 9 P]SONAL CONSID]ATIONS ( SELF-LOVE OR 9 ! S5SE ( DUTY4 

,MOREOV]1 ,S*OP5HAU] PO9T$ \T TWO ASPECTS ( ! FEEL+ AL ( SYMPA?Y3 9 C]TA9 CASES SOME?+ RE/RA9S ME FROM 9FLICT+ SUFF]+ UPON ANO!R1 & 9 O!RS SOME?+ URGES ME TO ACTION :5 SOMEONE ELSE IS MADE TO SUFF]4 ,9 ! FIR/ CASE ! RESULT IS SIMPLE JU/ICE1 :ILE 9 ! SECOND CASE WE HAVE A MANIFE/ATION ( LOVE = ONE'S NEI<BOR4 

,! DI/9CTION DRAWN H]E BY ,S*OP5HAU] IS UNQUE/IONABLY A /EP =W>D4 ,IT IS NECESS>Y4 ,AS ,I HAVE ALREADY PO9T$ \T 9 ! SECOND *APT] ?IS DI/9CTION IS MADE BY ! SAVAGES1 :O SAY ?AT ONE MU/ DO C]TA9 ?+S1 :ILE IT IS M]ELY %AMEFUL NOT TO P]=M O!RS1 & ,I AM CONV9C$ ?AT 9 TIME ?IS DI/9CTION WILL BE CONSID]$ FUNDAM5TAL1 = \R MORAL CONCEPTIONS >E BE/ ( ALL EXPRESS$ BY ! ?REE-MEMB]$ =MULA3 SOCIALITY1 JU/ICE1 & MAGNANIMITY1 OR ?AT :I* IS TO BE CONSID]$ MORALITY PROP]4 

,UN=TUNATELY1 ! PO/ULATE ASSUM$ BY ,S*OP5HAU] = ! PURPOSE ( DIVID+ ?AT :I* HE CALL$ JU/ICE FROM ! LOVE = FELL[-M51 IS H>DLY CORRECT4 ,9/EAD ( %[+ ?AT S9CE COMMIS]ATION HAS BR\<T MAN TO JU/ICE IT IS ! RECOGNITION ( EQUITY = ALL M51 A CONCLUSION :I* WAS ALREADY REA*$ BY E?ICS AT ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? & 9 ! FIR/ P>T ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 HE S\<T ! EXPLANATION ( ?IS FEEL+ 9 ! METAPHYSICAL EQUALITY ( ALL M5 9 ESS5CE4 ,MOREOV]1 BY ID5TIFY+ JU/ICE ) COMMIS]ATION1 I4E41 UNIT+ A CONCEPTION & A FEEL+ ?AT HAVE DIFF]5T ORIG9S1 HE CONSID]ABLY DIM9I%$ !REBY ! IMPORTANCE ( SO FUNDAM5TAL AN ELEM5T ( MORALITY AS JU/ICE4 ,AFT] ALL HE JO9$ TOGE!R ?AT :I* IS JU/1 & HAS !RE=E AN OBLIGATORY *>ACT]1 & ?AT :I* IS DESIRABLE1 SU* AS A G5]\S IMPULSE4 ,LIKE MO/ WRIT]S ON E?ICS1 !RE=E1 HE 9SUFFICI5TLY DI/+UI%$ BETWE5 TWO MOTIVES1 ONE ( :I* SAYS3 0DO NOT UNTO ANO!R :AT Y\ DO NOT WANT DONE UNTO Y\RSELF10 & ! SECOND3 0GIVE FREELY TO ANO!R1 )\T CONSID]+ :AT Y\ WILL GET 9 RETURN40 

,9/EAD ( %[+ ?AT WE HAVE H]E A MANIFE/ATION ( TWO DIFF]5T CONCEPTIONS ( \R ATTITUDE T[>D O!RS1 ,S*OP5HAU] SAW ! DIFF]5CE ONLY 9 ! DEGREE TO :I* !Y 9FLU5CE \R WILL4 ,9 ONE CASE MAN REMA9S 9ACTIVE & AB/A9S FROM HURT+ ANO!R1 :ILE 9 ! SECOND CASE HE COMES =W>D ACTIVELY1 URG$ BY HIS LOVE = HIS FELL[-M54 ,9 REALITY ! DI/9CTION GOES MU* DEEP]1 & IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO DISCUSS CORRECTLY ! BASES ( E?ICS )\T RECOGNIZ+ AS ITS FIR/ PR9CIPLE JU/ICE 9 ! S5SE ( EQUITY1 AFT] :I* ONE CAN ALSO RECOMM5D MAGNANIMITY1 :I* ,GUYAU SO EXCELL5TLY *>ACT]IZ$ AS ! LAVI% SP5D+ ( ONE'S 9TELLECT1 FEEL+S1 & WILL1 = ! GOOD ( O!RS OR ( ALL4 

,( C\RSE1 S9CE ,S*OP5HAU] SAW 9 COMMIS]ATION AN ACT ( JU/ICE1 HE C\LD NOT ALTOGE!R DO )\T ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE1 9T]PRET$ 9 ! S5SE ( A RECOGNITION ( EQUITY4 ,& 9DE$1 ! FACT ?AT WE >E CAPABLE ( FEEL+ SYMPA?Y = O!RS1 TO BE AFFECT$ BY !IR JOYS & SORR[S1 & TO LIVE ?R\< BO? ( !SE ) O!R M51-?IS FACT W\LD BE 9EXPLICABLE IF WE DID NOT 

 POSSESS A CONSCI\S OR SUBCONSCI\S ABILITY TO ID5TIFY \RSELVES ) O!RS4 ,& NO ONE C\LD POSSESS SU* AN ABILITY IF HE CONSID]$ HIMSELF AS AP>T FROM O!RS & UNEQUAL TO !M1 AT LEA/ 9 HIS SUSCEPTIBILITY TO JOYS & SORR[S1 TO GOOD & EVIL1 TO FRI5DL9ESS & HO/ILITY4 ,! IMPULSE ( A MAN :O PLUNGES 9TO A RIV] 7EV5 ?\< UNABLE TO SWIM7 9 ORD] TO SAVE ANO!R1 OR :O EXPOSES HIMSELF TO BULLETS 9 ORD] TO PICK UP ! W\ND$ ON ! BATTLEFIELD1 CANNOT BE EXPLA9$ 9 ANY O!R WAY ?AN BY ! RECOGNITION ( ONE'S EQUALITY ) ALL O!RS4#a#a 

,BUT />T+ ) ! PROPOSITION ?AT LIFE IS EVIL & ?AT ! L[] LEVELS ( MORALITY >E *>ACT]IZ$ BY A /RONG DEVELOPM5T ( EGOISM1 A PASSIONATE DESIRE TO LIVE1 ,S*OP5HAU] ASS]T$ ?AT ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! FEEL+ ( COMMIS]ATION MAN ACQUIRES ! ABILITY TO REALIZE & TO FEEL ! SUFF]+S ( O!RS1 & HE !RE=E BECOMES 1 EV5 MORE UNHAPPY4 ,HE MA9TA9$ ?AT ONLY ASCETICISM1 RETIREM5T FROM ! WORLD1 & AES!TIC CONTEMPLATION ( NATURE CAN BLUNT 9 US ! VOLITIONAL IMPULSES1 FREE US FROM ! YOKE ( \R PASSIONS1 & LEAD US TO ! HI<E/ GOAL ( MORALITY-0ANNIHILATION ( ! WILL TO LIVE40 ,AS ! RESULT ( ?IS ANNIHILATION ( ! WILL TO LIVE1 ! WORLD WILL COME TO ! /ATE ( 9F9ITE RE/1 ,NIRVANA4 

,( C\RSE1 ?IS PESSIMI/IC PHILOSOPHY IS A PHILOSOPHY ( DEA? & NOT ( LIFE1 & !RE=E PESSIMI/IC MORALITY IS 9CAPABLE ( CREAT+ A S\ND & ACTIVE MOVEM5T 9 SOCIETY4 ,I HAVE DWELT ON ! E?ICAL TEA*+ ( ,S*OP5HAU] ONLY BECAUSE1 BY HIS OPPOSITION TO 

 ,KANT'S E?ICS1 ESPECIALLY TO ! ,KANTIAN !ORY ( DUTY1 ,S*OP5HAU] UNQUE/IONABLY HELP$ TO PREP>E ! GR\ND 9 ,G]MANY = ! P]IOD :5 ?9K]S & PHILOSOPH]S BEGAN TO SEEK ! BASES ( MORALITY 9 HUMAN NATURE ITSELF & 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIALITY4 ,BUT1 [+ TO HIS P]SONAL PECULI>ITIES1 ,S*OP5HAU] WAS UNABLE TO GIVE A NEW DIRECTION TO E?ICS4 ,AS REG>DS HIS EXCELL5T ANALYSIS ( ! PROBLEM ( FRE$OM ( WILL & ( ! IMPORTANCE ( WILL AS ! ACTIVE =CE 9 SOCIAL LIFE1 WE WILL DISCUSS !SE SUBJECTS 9 A LAT] SECTION ( ?IS WORK4 ,?\< ! PO/-REVOLUTION>Y P]IOD 9 ,FRANCE DID NOT PRODUCE SU* PESSIMI/IC TEA*+S AS ! DOCTR9ES ( ,S*OP5HAU]1 /ILL ! EPO* ( ! RE/ORATION ( ! ,B\RBONS1 & ! ,JULY ,EMPIRE1 >E M>K$ BY ! FL\RI%+ ( SPIRITUALI/IC PHILOSOPHY4 ,DUR+ ?IS P]IOD ! PROGRESSIVE IDEAS ( ! ,5CYCLOPA$I/S1 ( ,VOLTAIRE1 ,MONTESQUIEU1 & ,CONDORCET1 W]E REPLAC$ BY ! !ORIES ( ,VICTOR DE ,BONALD1 ,JOSEPHE DE ,MAI/RE1 ,MA9E DE ,BIRAN1 ,ROY]-,COLL>D1 ,VICTOR ,C\S91 & O!R REPRES5TATIVES ( REACTION 9 ! REALM ( PHILOSOPHICAL ?\<T4 

,WE WILL NOT ATTEMPT AN EXPOSITION ( !SE TEA*+S1 & WILL ONLY REM>K ?AT ! MORAL DOCTR9E ( ! MO/ PROM95T & 9FLU5TIAL ( !M1 ,VICTOR ,C\S91 IS ! MORAL TEA*+ ( TRADITIONAL SPIRITUALISM4 

,WE MU/ ALSO NOTE ! ATTEMPT ( ,VICTOR ,C\S9'S PUPIL1 ,!ODORE ,J\FFROY1 TO PO9T TO ! SIGNIFICANCE 9 E?ICS ( ?AT ELEM5T ( MORALITY :I* ,I CALL 9 MY E?ICAL SY/EM SELF-SACRIFICE OR MAGNANIMITY1 I4 E41 ( ?OSE MOM5TS :5 MAN GIVES TO O!RS HIS P[]S1 & AT TIMES HIS LIFE1 )\T ?\<T ( :AT HE WILL OBTA9 9 RETURN4 

,J\FFROY FAIL$ DULY TO APPRECIATE ! SIGNIFICANCE ( ?IS ELEM5T1 BUT HE UND]/OOD ?AT ! ?+ :I* M5 CALL SELF-SACRIFICE IS A TRUE ELEM5T ( MORALITY4 ,BUT LIKE ALL HIS PR$ECESSORS1 ,J\FFROY CONFUS$ ?IS ELEM5T ( MORALITY ) MORALITY 9 G5]AL4#a#b ,IT 

 MU/ BE REM>K$1 H[EV]1 ?AT ! :OLE WORK ( ?IS S*OOL HAD ! *>ACT] ( GREAT 9DEF9IT5ESS & ( ECLECTICISM1 &1 P]HAPS = ?IS V]Y REASON1 ( 9COMPLET5ESS4 ,AS WE HAVE SE51 ! SECOND HALF ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY WAS M>K$ BY A D>+ CRITIQUE ( ! SCI5TIFIC1 PHILOSOPHICAL1 POLITICAL1 & E?ICAL CONCEPTIONS CURR5T UNTIL ?AT TIME1 & ?IS CRITIQUE WAS NOT CONF9$ )9 ! WALLS ( ACADEMIES4 ,9 ,FRANCE ! NEW IDEAS GA9$ A WIDE DI/RIBUTION 9 SOCIETY & SOON PRODUC$ A RADICAL *ANGE 9 ! EXI/+ /ATE 9/ITUTIONS1 & LIKEWISE 9 ! 5TIRE MODE ( LIFE ( ! ,FR5* PEOPLE1-ECONOMIC1 9TELLECTUAL1 & RELIGI\S4 ,AFT] ! ,REVOLUTION1 DUR+ A :OLE S]IES ( W>S ?AT LA/$ ) %ORT 9T]RUPTIONS UP TO #a#h#a#e1 ! NEW CONCEPTIONS ( SOCIAL LIFE1 ESPECIALLY ! IDEA ( POLITICAL EQUALITY1 W]E SPREAD AT FIR/ BY ! ,REPUBLICAN & !N BY ! ,NAPOLEONIC >MIES ?R\<\T ! :OLE ( ,WE/]N & P>TLY OV] ,C5TRAL ,EUROPE4 ,( C\RSE1 ! 0,RI<TS ( ,MAN0 9TRODUC$ BY ,FR5*M5 9 ! CONQU]$ T]RITORIES1 ! PROCLAMATION ( ! P]SONAL EQUALITY ( ALL CITIZ5S1 & ! ABOLITION ( S]FDOM1 DID NOT SURVIVE AFT] ! RE/ORATION ( ! ,B\RBONS TO ! ,FR5* ?RONE4 ,& :AT IS MORE1 !RE SOON BEGAN 9 ,EUROPE ! G5]AL 9TELLECTUAL REACTION :I* WAS ACCOMPANI$ BY A POLITICAL REACTION4 ,AU/RIA1 ,RUSSIA1 & ,PRUSSIA CONCLUD$ AMONG !MSELVES A 0,HOLY ,ALLIANCE10 :OSE OBJECT WAS TO MA9TA9 9 ,EUROPE ! MON>*ICAL & ! FEUDAL SY/EM4 ,NEV]!LESS1 NEW POLITICAL LIFE BEGAN 9 ,EUROPE1 ESPECIALLY 9 ,FRANCE1 :]E AFT] FIFTE5 YE>S ( MAD REACTION ! ,JULY ,REVOLUTION ( #ahc 9JECT$ A /REAM ( NEW LIFE 9 ALL DIRECTIONS3 POLITICAL1 ECONOMIC1 SCI5TIFIC1 & PHILOSOPHICAL4 

,NE$LESS TO SAY1 ! REACTION AGA9/ ! ,REVOLUTION & ITS 9NOVATIONS1 ?AT RAG$ 9 ,EUROPE = ?IRTY YE>S1 SUCCE$$ 9 DO+ A GREAT DEAL TO >RE/ ! 9TELLECTUAL & ! PHILOSOPHICAL 9FLU5CE ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY & ( ! ,REVOLUTION1 BUT ) ! V]Y FIR/ BREA? ( FRE$OM ?AT WAS WAFT$ ACROSS ,EUROPE ON ! DAY ( ! ,JULY ,REVOLUTION & ! OV]?R[ ( ! ,B\RBONS1 ! 

 REJUV5AT$ 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T AGA9 REVIV$ 9 ,FRANCE & 9 ,5GL&4 

,ALREADY 9 ! ?IRTIES ( ! LA/ C5TURY NEW 9DU/RIAL P[]S BEGAN TO BE DEVELOP$ 9 ,EUROPE3 RAILROADS BEGAN TO BE BUILT1 SCREW-DRIV5 /EAM%IPS MADE DI/ANT OCEAN VOYAGES POSSIBLE1 L>GE FACTORIES APPLY+ IMPROV$ MA*9]Y TO RAW PRODUCTS W]E E/ABLI%$ A L>GE METALLURGICAL 9DU/RY WAS BE+ DEVELOP$ [+ TO ! PROGRESS ( *EMI/RY1 ETC4 ,! :OLE ( ECONOMIC LIFE WAS BE+ REBUILT ON NEW BASES1 & ! NEWLY =M$ CLASS ( ! URBAN PROLET>IAT CAME =? ) ITS DEM&S4 ,UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! CONDITIONS ( LIFE ITSELF1 & ( ! TEA*+S ( ! FIR/ F\ND]S ( SOCIALISM-,F\RI]1 ,SA9T-,SIMON1 & ,ROB]T ,[5-! SOCIALI/IC LABOR MOVEM5T BEGAN /EADILY TO GR[ 9 ,FRANCE & 9 ,5GL&4 ,AT ! SAME TIME A NEW SCI5CE1 BAS$ 5TIRELY ON EXP]IM5T & OBS]VATION1 & FREE FROM !OLOGICAL & METAPHYSICAL HYPO!SES1 BEGAN TO BE =M$4 ,! BASES ( ! NEW SCI5CE HAD ALREADY BE5 LAID AT ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY BY ,LAPLACE 9 A/RONOMY1 BY ,LAVOISI] 9 PHYSICS & *EMI/RY1 BY ,BUFFON & ,LAM>CK 9 ZOOLOGY & BIOLOGY1 BY ! ,PHYSIOCRATS & BY ,CONDORCET 9 ! SOCIAL SCI5CES4 ,TOGE!R ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! NEW SCI5CE !RE >OSE 9 ,FRANCE1 9 ! ?IRTIES ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 A FRE% PHILOSOPHY :I* RECEIV$ ! NAME ( ,POSITIVISM4 ,! F\ND] ( ?IS PHILOSOPHY WAS ,AUGU/E ,COMTE4 

,:ILE 9 ,G]MANY ! PHILOSOPHY ( ! FOLL[]S ( ,KANT1 ,FI*TE1 & ,S*ELL+ WAS /ILL /RUGGL+ 9 ! FETT]S ( A SEMI-RELIGI\S METAPHYSICS1 I4 E41 ( SPECULATIONS ?AT HAVE NO DEF9ITE SCI5TIFIC BASIS1 ! POSITIVI/ PHILOSOPHY ?REW ASIDE ALL METAPHYSICAL CONCEPTIONS & /ROVE TO BECOME POSITIVE KN[L$GE1 AS ,>I/OTLE HAD ATTEMPT$ TO MAKE IT TWO ?\S& YE>S E>LI]4 ,IT SET AS ITS AIM 9 SCI5CE ! RECOGNITION ( ONLY ?OSE CONCLUSIONS ?AT W]E D]IV$ EXP]IM5TALLY2 & 9 PHILOSOPHY IT S\<T TO UNITE ALL ! KN[L$GE ?US ACQUIR$ BY ! V>I\S SCI5CES 9TO A UNIFI$ CONCEPTION ( ! UNIV]SE4 ,!SE TEA*+S ( ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? & ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY 7! !ORIES ( ,LAPLACE1 

 ,LAVOISI]1 ,BUFFON1 & ,LAM>CK7 OP5$ UP TO MAN A NEW WORLD ( EV]-ACTIVE NATURAL =CES4 ,! SAME WAS DONE 9 ! REALM ( ECONOMICS & HI/ORY BY ,SA9T-,SIMON & HIS FOLL[]S1 ESPECIALLY ! HI/ORIAN ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RY1 & BY A SUCCESSION ( O!R SCI5TI/S :O ?REW (F ! YOKE ( METAPHYSICS4 

,AUGU/E ,COMTE REALIZ$ ! NECESSITY ( UNIFY+ ALL !SE NEW ACQUISITIONS & CONQUE/S ( SCI5TIFIC ?\<T4 ,HE DECID$ TO UNIFY ALL ! SCI5CES 9TO A S+LE ORD]LY SY/EM & TO DEMON/RATE ! CLOSE 9T]DEP5D5CE ( ALL ! PH5OM5A ( NATURE1 !IR SEQU5CE1 !IR COMMON BASIS1 & ! LAWS ( !IR DEVELOPM5T4 ,AT ! SAME TIME ,COMTE ALSO LAID ! F\NDATION ( NEW SCI5CES1 SU* AS BIOLOGY 7! SCI5CE ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( PLANT & ANIMAL LIFE71 AN?ROPOLOGY 7! SCI5CE ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( MAN71 & SOCIOLOGY 7! SCI5CE ( HUMAN SOCIETIES74 ,RECOGNIZ+ ?AT ALL CREATURES >E SUBJECT TO ! SAME NATURAL LAWS1 ,COMTE URG$ ! /UDY ( ANIMAL SOCIETIES = ! PURPOSE ( UND]/&+ PRIMITIVE HUMAN SOCIETIES1 & 9 EXPLA9+ ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL FEEL+S 9 MAN1 ,COMTE ALREADY SPOKE ( SOCIAL 9/9CTS4 

,! ESS5CE ( POSITIVISM IS CONCRETE SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE1-& KN[L$GE1 TAU<T ,COMTE1 IS =ESI<T-SAVOIR C'E/ PREVOIR-7TO KN[ IS TO =ESEE71 & =ESI<T IS NECESS>Y = EXT5D+ ! P[] ( MAN OV] ,NATURE & = 9CREAS+ !REBY ! WELF>E ( SOCIETIES4 ,COMTE EXHORT$ ! SCI5TI/S & ! ?9K]S TO COME TO E>? FROM ! REALM ( DREAMS & 9TELLECTUAL SPECULATIONS1 TO COME TO HUMAN BE+S VA9LY /RUGGL+ FROM C5TURY TO C5TURY1 TO HELP !M BUILD A BETT] LIFE1 A LIFE MORE FULL1 MORE V>I$1 MORE P[]FUL 9 ITS CREATIV5ESS1 TO HELP !M TO KN[ ,NATURE1 TO 5JOY ITS EV]-?ROBB+ LIFE1 TO UTILIZE ITS =CES1 TO FREE MAN FROM EXPLOITATION BY MAK+ HIS LABOR MORE PRODUCTIVE4 ,AT ! SAME TIME ,COMTE'S PHILOSOPHY AIM$ TO LIB]ATE MAN FROM ! *A9S ( ! RELIGI\S FE> ( ,NATURE & ITS =CES1 & IT S\<T ! BASES ( LIFE ( A FREE P]SONALITY 9 ! SOCIAL M$IUM1 NOT 9 COMPULSION1 BUT 9 A FREELY-ACCEPT$ SOCIAL COV5ANT4 ,ALL ?AT ! ,5CYCLOPA$I/S VAGUELY =ESAW 9 SCI5CE & 9 

 PHILOSOPHY1 ALL ?AT %ONE AS AN IDEAL BE=E ! 9TELLECTUAL GAZE ( ! BE/ M5 ( ! ,GREAT ,REVOLUTION1 ALL ?AT ,SA9T-,SIMON1 ,F\RI]1 & ,ROB]T ,[5 BEGAN TO EXPRESS & TO =ETELL1 ALL ?AT ! BE/ M5 ( ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? & ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY /ROVE TO ATTA91-ALL !SE ELEM5TS ,COMTE ATTEMPT$ TO UNITE1 TO /R5G!N1 & TO AFFIRM BY HIS POSITIVI/ PHILOSOPHY4 ,& FROM ?IS 0PHILOSOPHY10 I4E41 FROM !SE G5]ALIZATIONS & IDEAS1 NEW SCI5CES1 NEW >TS1 NEW CONCEPTIONS ( ! ,UNIV]SE1 & A NEW E?ICS HAD TO DEVELOP4 

,( C\RSE1 IT W\LD BE NAIVE TO CONSID] ?AT A SY/EM ( PHILOSOPHY1 H[EV] ?OR\<GO+1 CAN CREATE NEW SCI5CES1 A NEW >T1 & A NEW E?ICS4 ,ANY PHILOSOPHY IS BUT A G5]ALIZATION1 ! RESULT ( 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T 9 ALL ! REALMS ( LIFE1 :]EAS ! ELEM5TS = ?IS G5]ALIZATION >E TO BE SUPPLI$ BY ! DEVELOPM5T ( >T1 SCI5CE1 & SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,PHILOSOPHY CAN M]ELY 9SPIRE SCI5CE & >T4 ,A PROP]LY MOTIVAT$ SY/EM ( ?\<T1 CORRELAT+ ?AT :I* HAS BE5 ALREADY DONE 9 EA* ( !SE REALMS SEP>ATELY1 UNAVOIDABLY IMP>TS TO EA* ( !M A NEW DIRECTION1 GIVES !M NEW P[]S1 NEW CREATIVE IMPULSE1 & A NEW & BETT] SY/EMATIZATION4 

,?IS IS :AT ACTUALLY TOOK PLACE4 ,! FIR/ HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY GAVE1-9 PHILOSOPHY-POSITIVISM2 9 SCI5CE-! !ORY ( EVOLUTION & A S]IES ( BRILLIANT SCI5TIFIC DISCOV]IES ?AT M>K$ ! FEW YE>S FROM #ahef TO #a#h#f#b2#a#c 9 SOCIOLOGY-! SOCIALISM ( ITS ?REE GREAT F\ND]S3 ,F\RI]1 ,SA9T-,SIMON1 & ,ROB]T ,[51 TOGE!R ) !IR FOLL[]S2 & 9 E?ICS-A FREE MORALITY1 NOT =C$ UPON US FROM )\T1 BUT RESULT+ FROM ! 9NATE 5D[M5TS ( HUMAN NATURE4 ,F9ALLY1 UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ALL !SE CONQUE/S ( SCI5CE !RE DEVELOP$ ALSO A CLE>] UND]/&+ ( ! 9TIMATE CONNECTION BETWE5 MAN & O!R S5TI5T C]ATURES1 AS WELL AS BETWE5 MAN'S ?9K+ PROCESSES & HIS \T] LIFE4 

,! PHILOSOPHY ( POSITIVISM 5DEAVOR$ TO B9D 9TO A UNIFI$ :OLE ALL ! RESULTS & ! CONQUE/S ( SCI5TIFIC ?\<T1 & ALL ! HI<] ASPIRATIONS ( MAN1 & IT 5DEAVOR$ TO ELEVATE MAN TO A VIVID REALIZATION ( ?IS UNITY4 ,?AT :I* FLA%$ ?R\< 9 SP>KS ( G5IUS 9 ,SP9OZA & ,GOE! :5 !Y SPOKE ( ! LIFE ( ,NATURE & ( MAN1 HAD TO F9D ITS EXPRESSION 9 ! NEW PHILOSOPHY AS A LOGICALLY 9EVITABLE1 9TELLECTUAL G5]ALIZATION4 

,NE$LESS TO SAY1 ) SU* AN UND]/&+ ( 0PHILOSOPHY0 ,COMTE ASCRIB$ PRIME IMPORTANCE TO E?ICS4 ,BUT HE D]IV$ IT NOT FROM ! PSY*OLOGY ( SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS1 NOT 9 ! =M ( MORAL PREA*+ AS WAS ! ME?OD 9 ,G]MANY1 BUT AS SOME?+ 5TIRELY NATURAL1 FOLL[+ LOGICALLY FROM ! 5TIRE HI/ORY ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN SOCIETIES4 ,9 URG+ ! NE$ ( HI/ORICAL 9VE/IGATION 9 ! REALMS ( AN?ROPOLOGY & E?ICS1 ,COMTE PROBABLY HAD 9 M9D ! WORK DONE 9 ! FIELD ( COMP>ATIVE ZOOLOGY BY ,BUFFON & !N BY ,CUVI]1 :I* COMPLETELY CONFIRM$ ! OP9IONS ( ,LAM>CK1 ON ! SL[1 GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T ( ! HI<] ANIMALS1 AL?\< ! REACTION>Y ,CUVI] DISPUT$ ?IS OP9ION4 ,COMTE COMP>$ ! SIGNIFICANCE ( HI/ORICAL 9VE/IGATION 9 !SE SCI5CES ) ! SIGNIFICANCE ( COMP>ATIVE ZOOLOGY 9 ! FIELD ( BIOLOGY4 

,HE REG>D$ E?ICS AS A GREAT P[] CAPABLE ( ELEVAT+ MAN ABOVE ! LEVEL ( EV]YDAY 9T]E/S4 ,COMTE 5DEAVOR$ TO BASE HIS SY/EM ( E?ICS ON A POSITIVE F\NDATION1 ON ! /UDY ( ITS ACTUAL DEVELOPM5T FROM ! ANIMAL H]D 9/9CT & FROM SIMPLE SOCIALITY UP TO ITS HI<E/ MANIFE/ATIONS4 ,& ?\< T[>D ! 5D ( HIS LIFE1-:E!R DUE TO DECL9E ( 9TELLECTUAL P[]S1 OR TO ! 9FLU5CE ( ,CLOTILDE DE ,VAUX1-HE MADE CONCESSIONS TO RELIGION1 LIKE MANY ( HIS PR$ECESSORS1 EV5 TO ! EXT5T ( F\ND+ HIS [N ,*UR*1 !SE CONCESSIONS CAN UND] NO CIRCUM/ANCES BE D]IV$ FROM HIS FIR/ WORK1 0,POSITIVE ,PHILOSOPHY40 ,!SE CONCESSIONS W]E M]E ADDITIONS1 & QUITE UNNECESS>Y ADDITIONS1 AS WAS WELL UND]/OOD BY ! BE/ PUPILS ( ,COMTE-,LITTRE & ,VYR\BOV1#a#d & BY HIS FOLL[]S 9 ,5GL&1 ,G]MANY1 & ,RUSSIA4#a#e 

,COMTE EXP\ND$ HIS E?ICAL VIEWS 9 HIS 0,PHYSIQUE ,SOCIALE10#a#f & HE D]IV$ HIS PR9CIPAL IDEAS ( ! BASES & ! CONT5T ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS NOT FROM AB/RACT SPECULATIONS1 BUT FROM ! G5]AL FACTS ( HUMAN SOCIALITY & HUMAN HI/ORY4 ,HIS MA9 CONCLUSION WAS ?AT ! SOCIAL T5D5CIES ( MAN CAN BE EXPLA9$ ONLY BY 9H]5T QUALITY1 I4 E41 BY 9/9CT & BY ITS URGE T[>D ! SOCIAL LIFE4 ,AS A CONTRA/ TO EGOISM1 ,COMTE CALL$ ?IS 9/9CT ALTRUISM1 & HE REG>D$ IT AS A FUNDAM5TAL PROP]TY ( HUMAN NATURE2 MOREOV]1 HE WAS ! FIR/ TO PO9T \T BOLDLY ?AT ! SAME 9NATE T5D5CY EXI/S 9 ANIMALS4 

,IT IS UTT]LY IMPOSSIBLE TO DIVIDE ?IS 9/9CT FROM ! 9FLU5CE ( REASON4 ,) ! HELP ( REASON WE CREATE \T ( \R 9NATE FEEL+S & T5D5CIES ?AT :I* WE CALL MORAL CONCEPTIONS1 SO ?AT ! MORAL ELEM5T 9 MAN IS AT ONCE 9H]5T & ! PRODUCT ( EVOLUTION4 ,WE COME 9TO ?IS WORLD AS BE+S ALREADY 5D[$ ) ! RUDIM5TS ( MORALITY2 BUT WE CAN BECOME MORAL M5 ONLY ?R\< ! DEVELOPM5T ( \R MORAL RUDIM5TS4 ,MORAL T5D5CIES >E OBS]V$ ALSO AMONG SOCIAL ANIMALS1 BUT MORALITY AS ! JO9T PRODUCT ( 9/9CT1 FEEL+1 & REASON1 EXI/S ONLY 9 MAN4 ,IT DEVELOP$ GRADUALLY1 IT IS DEVELOP+ N[1 & WILL CONT9UE TO GR[1-:I* CIRCUM/ANCE ACC\NTS = ! DIFF]5CE 9 MORAL CONCEPTIONS AMONG DIFF]5T PEOPLES AT DIFF]5T P]IODS4 ,?IS V>IATION L$ SOME LI<T-M9D$ NEGATORS ( MORALITY TO CONCLUDE ?AT MORALITY IS SOME?+ CONDITIONAL1 HAV+ NO POSITIVE BASES 9 HUMAN NATURE OR HUMAN REASON4 

,9 /UDY+ V>I\S MODIFICATIONS ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS1 IT IS EASY TO BE CONV9C$1 ACCORD+ TO ,COMTE1 ?AT !RE IS 9 ALL ( !M A CON/ANT ELEM5T1-NAMELY1 ! UND]/&+ ( :AT IS DUE TO O!RS ?R\< ! REALIZATION ( \R P]SONAL 9T]E/4 ,?US ,COMTE RECOGNIZ$ ! UTILIT>IAN ELEM5T 9 MORALITY1 I4 E41 ! 9FLU5CE ( ! CONSID]ATIONS ( P]SONAL UTILITY1 ( EGOISM1 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ?AT LAT] EVOLVE 9TO RULES ( CONDUCT4 ,BUT HE UND]/OOD TOO WELL ! IMPORTANCE 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY ( ! ?REE MI<TY =CES3 ! FEEL+ ( SOCIALITY1 MUTUAL SYMPA?Y1 & REASON1 TO FALL 9TO ! ]ROR ( ! ,UTILIT>IANS :O ASCRIB$ ! PR$OM9AT+ 9FLU5CE TO 9/9CT & TO P]SONAL 9T]E/4 

,MORALITY1 TAU<T ,COMTE1 LIKE HUMAN NATURE ITSELF1-& LIKE EV]Y?+ 9 ,NATURE1 WE WILL ADD1-IS SOME?+ ALREADY DEVELOP$ & 9 PROCESS ( DEVELOP+ AT ! SAME TIME4 ,& 9 ?IS PROCESS ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY HE ASCRIB$ A GREAT 9FLU5CE TO ! FAMILY1 AS WELL AS TO SOCIETY4 ,! FAMILY1 HE TAU<T1 AIDS ESPECIALLY ! GR[? ( ?AT ELEM5T 9 MORALITY :I* ORIG9ATES 9 REASON4 ,IT IS1 H[EV]1 DIFFICULT TO AGREE ) ?IS DEM>CATION1 BECAUSE ) ! SOCIAL UP-BR++ ( ! Y\?1 AS 9 \R BO>D+ S*OOLS & RESID5TIAL COLLEGES1 = EXAMPLE1 & AMONG C]TA9 SAVAGES1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! ISL&S ( ! ,PACIFIC1 ! H]D 9/9CT1 ! S5SE ( HONOR & ( TRIBAL PRIDE1 ! RELIGI\S FEEL+1 ETC41 DEVELOP EV5 MORE /RONGLY ?AN 9 ! FAMILY4 

,F9ALLY1 !RE IS ANO!R FEATURE 9 POSITIVI/ E?ICS :I* MU/ BE PO9T$ \T4 ,COMTE P>TICUL>LY 9SI/$ ON ! GREAT IMPORTANCE ( ! POSITIVI/ 9T]PRETATION ( ! ,UNIV]SE4 ,IT MU/ LEAD M5 TO ! CONVICTION ( ! CLOSE DEP5D5CE ( EA* 9DIVIDUAL LIFE UPON ! LIFE ( HUMANITY AS A :OLE4 ,IT IS !RE=E NECESS>Y TO DEVELOP 9 EA* ( US ! UND]/&+ ( ! ,UNIV]SAL LIFE1 ( ! UNIV]SAL ORD]2 & ?IS UND]/&+ %\LD S]VE AS ! BASIS = 9DIVIDUAL AS WELL AS = SOCIAL LIFE4 ,!RE %\LD ALSO DEVELOP 9 EA* ( US SU* CONSCI\SNESS ( ! RI<TE\SNESS ( \R LIVES ?AT \R EV]Y ACT & \R EV]Y MOTIVE MAY BE FREELY EXPOS$ TO ! SCRUT9Y ( ALL4 ,EV]Y LIE IMPLIES A DEBASEM5T ( ! 0EGO10 ! ADMISSION ( ONESELF AS 9F]IOR TO O!RS4 ,H5CE ,COMTE'S RULE1 -- 0VIV] AU GRAN JOR10 TO LIVE SO AS TO HAVE NO?+ TO CONCEAL FROM O!RS4 

,COMTE PO9T$ \T ?REE CON/ITU5T FACTORS 9 E?ICS3 ITS ESS5CE1 I4E41 ITS FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES & ITS ORIG92 !N ITS IMPORTANCE TO SOCIETY2 & F9ALLY ITS EVOLUTION & ! FACTORS ?AT GOV]N ?IS EVOLUTION4 ,E?ICS1 TAU<T ,COMTE1 DEVELOPS ON AN HI/ORICAL BASIS4 ,!RE IS A NATURAL EVOLUTION1 & ?IS EVOLUTION IS PROGRESS1 ! TRIUMPH ( HUMAN QUALITIES OV] ANIMAL QUALITIES1 ! TRIUMPH ( MAN OV] ! ANIMAL4 ,! SUPREME MORAL LAW CONSI/S 9 LEAD+ ! 9DIVIDUAL TO ASSIGN A SECOND>Y PLACE TO HIS EGOI/IC 9T]E/S2 ! SUPREME DUTY IS ! SOCIAL DUTY4 ,?US WE %\LD TAKE AS ! BASIS ( E?ICS ! 9T]E/ ( MANK9D1 --- HUMANITY --- ?AT GREAT BE+ ( :I* EA* ONE ( US CON/ITUTES M]ELY AN ATOM1 LIV+ BUT A MOM5T1 & P]I%+ 9 ORD] TO TRANSMIT LIFE TO O!R 9DIVIDUALS4 ,MORALITY CONSI/S 9 LIV+ = O!RS4 

,SU* IS1 BRIEFLY1 ! ESS5CE ( ,COMTE'S E?ICAL TEA*+4 ,HIS SCI5TIFIC AS WELL AS HIS MORAL IDEAS CONT9U$ TO BE DEVELOP$ 9 ,FRANCE BY HIS PUPILS1 ESPECIALLY BY ,EMILE ,LITTRE & ,G4,N4 ,VYR\BOV1 :O PUBLI%$ FROM #ahfg TO #ahhc ! MAGAZ9E 0,PHILOSOPHIE ,POSITIVE10 :]E >TICLES APPE>$ ?AT ?REW LI<T ON V>I\S ASPECTS ( POSITIVISM4 ,9 A LAT] P>T ( ?IS WORK WE %ALL HAVE OCCASION TO REF] TO A FUNDAM5TAL EXPLANATION ( ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE (F]$ BY ,LITTRE4 

,9 CONCLUSION1 IT MU/ BE NOT$ ?AT POSITIVISM EX]T$ A /RONG & A V]Y FRUITFUL 9FLU5CE ON ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! SCI5CES3 IT CAN BE SAFELY /AT$ ?AT ALMO/ ALL ! BE/ MOD]N SCI5TI/S APPROA* POSITIVISM V]Y CLOSELY 9 !IR PHILOSOPHICAL CONCLUSIONS4 ,9 ,5GL& ! :OLE ( ,SP5C]'S PHILOSOPHY1 ) ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( :I* MO/ NATURALI/S AGREE1 IS A POSITIVI/ PHILOSOPHY1 --- ?\< ,H]B]T ,SP5C]1 :O APP>5TLY EVOLV$ ?IS PHILOSOPHY 9 P>T 9DEP5D5TLY1 EV5 IF LAT] ?AN ,COMTE1 REPEAT$LY 5DEAVOR$ TO DRAW AWAY FROM ! ,FR5* ?9K]4 

,9 ! FIFTIES ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 A TEA*+ SIMIL> 9 MANY RESPECTS TO ! PHILOSOPHY ( ,COMTE WAS PROMULGAT$ 9 ,G]MANY BY ,LUDWIG ,FEU]BA*4 ,WE WILL N[ CONSID] ?IS TEA*+ 9 SO F> AS IT CONC]NS E?ICS4 

,! PHILOSOPHICAL TEA*+ ( ,FEU]BA* 7#a#h#d-#a#h#g#b7 DES]VES A MORE DETAIL$ CONSID]ATION1 = IT UNQUE/IONABLY EX]CIS$ A GREAT 9FLU5CE UPON MOD]N ?\<T IHN ,G]MANY4 ,BUT S9CE ! PR9CIPAL OBJECT ( HIS PHILOSOPHY WAS NOT SO MU* ! ELABORATION ( ! BASES ( MORALITY1 AS ! CRITIQUE ( RELIGION1 A MORE ?OR\< DISCUSSION ( ,FEU]BA*'S TEA*+ W\LD LEAD ME TOO F> AFIELD4 ,I WILL LIMIT MYSELF1 !RE=E1 TO PO9T+ \T :AT NEW ELEM5TS ?IS TEA*+ ADD$ TO POSITIVI/ E?ICS4 ,FEU]BA* DID NOT AT ONCE COME =W>D AS A POSITIVI/ :O BASES HIS PHILOSOPHY ON ! EXACT DATA OBTA9$ BY /UDY+ HUMAN NATURE4 ,HE BEGAN TO WRITE UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ,HEGEL1 & ONLY GRADUALLY1 :ILE SUBJECT+ TO BRILLIANT & D>+ CRITICISM ! METAPHYSICAL PHILOSOPHY ( ,KANT1 ,S*ELL+1 ,HEGEL1 & ! 0IDEALI/0 PHILOSOPHY 9 G5]AL1 DID HE BECOME A PHILOSOPH] ) A 0REALI/0 VIEWPO9T4 ,HE FIR/ EXP\ND$ HIS PR9CIPAL ?\<TS 9 ! =M ( APHORISMS 9 #a#h#d#b-#a#h#d#c1#a#g 9 TWO >TICLES1 & ONLY AFT] #aheh DID HE DEVOTE HIS ATT5TION TO E?ICS4 ,9 #a#h#f#f1 9 HIS WORK1 0,DEITY1 ,FRE$OM1 & ,IMMORTALITY FROM ! ,VIEWPO9T ( ,AN?ROPOLOGY10#a#h HE 9TRODUC$ A SECTION ON FRE$OM ( WILL1 & AFT] ?AT HE WROTE A S]IES ( >TICLES ON MORAL PHILOSOPHY DEAL+ ) ! FUNDAM5TAL PROBLEMS ( E?ICS4 ,BUT EV5 H]E1 AS ,JODL1 FROM :OM ,I TAKE !SE DATA1 REM>KS1 !RE IS NO COMPLET5ESS2 MANY MATT]S >E BUT FA9TLY 9DICAT$4 ,& YET !SE WORKS TAK5 TOGE!R CON/ITUTE A FAIRLY COMPLETE EXPOSITION ( SCI5TIFIC EMPIRICISM 9 E?ICS1 TO :I* ,KNAPP SUPPLI$ A GOOD ADDITION 9 HIS 0,SY/EM ( ! ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,LAW40 #ai ,! ?\<TFUL WRIT+S ( ,FEU]BA*1 :I* HAPPILY1 W]E WRITT5 9 SIMPLE1 READILY UND]/&ABLE LANGUAGE1 HAD A /IMULATE+ EFFECT ON ,G]MAN E?ICAL ?\<T4 

,IT IS TRUE ?AT ,FEU]BA* DID NOT SUCCE$ 9 AVOID+ C]TA9 V]Y M>K$ CONTRADICTIONS4 ,:ILE 5DEAVOR+ TO BASE HIS MORAL PHILOSOPHY ON ! CONCRETE FACTS ( LIFE1 & TAK+ ! POSITION ( A DEF5D] ( EUDEMONISM1 I4E41 EXPLA9+ ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORAL T5D5CIES 9 MANK9D BY ! /RIV+ = A HAPPI] LIFE1 --- HE WAS AT ! SAME TIME LAVI% ) PRAISES ( ! E?ICS ( ,KANT & ,FIT*E1 :O W]E DECID$LY ANTAGONI/IC TO ! ,ANGLO-,SCOT* EUDEMONI/S1 & :O S\<T ! EXPLANATION ( MORALITY 9 RELIGI\S REVELATION4 

,! SUCCESS ( ,FEU]BA*'S PHILOSOPHNY IS FULLY EXPLA9$ BY ! REALI/IC1 SCI5TIFIC TR5D ( ! PUBLIC M9D 9 ! SECOND HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,KANTIAN METAPHYSICS & ! RELIGIOSITY ( ,FI*TE & ,S*ELL+ C\LD NOT POSSIBLY DOM9ATE ! M9D DUR+ AN EPO* :I* WAS M>K$ BY A SUDD5 BLOSSOM+ =? ( KN[L$GE ( NATURE & ( COSMIC LIFE1 --- AN EPO* L9K$ ) ! NAMES ( ,D>W91 ,J\LE1 ,F>ADAY1 ,HELMHOLTZ1 ,CLAUDE-,B]N>D1 & O!RS 9 SCI5CE1 & ( ,COMTE 9 PHILOSOPHY4 ,POSITIVISM1 OR AS !Y PREF] TO CALL IT 9 ,G]MANY1 ,REALISM1 WAS ! NATURAL \TCOME ( ?IS REVIVAL & ( ! SUCCESS ( NATURAL SCI5CE AFT] HALF A C5TURY ( ACCUMULAT+ ( SCI5TIFIC DATA4 

,BUT ,JODL PO9TS \T 9 ,FEU]BA*'S PHILOSOPHY A C]TA9 PECULI>ITY 9 :I* HE SEES 0! SECRET ( ! SUCCESS ( ! REALI/IC MOVEM5T0 9 ,G]MANY4 ,?IS WAS ! 0PURIFI$ & DEEP5$ 9TEPRETATION ( WILL & ITS MANIFE/ATIONS10 AS CONTRA/$ ) ! 0AB/RACT & P$ANTIC 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY BY ! IDEALI/IC S*OOL40 

,?IS LATT] S*OOL !ORETICALLY EXPLA9$ ! HI<E/ MORAL MANIFE/ATIONS ( WILL BY SOME?+ EXT]NAL1 & ! 0]ADICATION ( !SE MISCONCEPTIONS1 EFFECT$ BTY ,S*OP5HAU] & ,B5EKE1 & SECUR$ BY ,FEU]BA*1 CON/ITUTES AN EPO* 9 ,G]MAN E?ICS40 

0,IF10 SAYS ,FEU]BA*1 0EV]Y E?ICS HAS = ITS OBJECT HUMAN WILL & ITS RELATIONS1 IT MUS BE NECESS>ILY ADD$ ?AT !RE CAN BE NO WILL :]E !RE IS NO URGE2 & :]E !RE IS NO URGE T[>D HAPP9ESS !RE CAN BE NO URGE :ATSOEV]4 ,! IMPULSE T[>D HAPP9ESS IS ! URGE ( URGES2 :]EV] EXI/5CE IS B\ND UP ) WILL1 DESIRE & ! DESIRE = HAPP9ESS >E 9SEP>ABLE1 9 FACT1 EV5 ID5TICAL4 ,I WANT1 MEANS ?AT ,I DO NOT WANT SUFF]+1 ,I DO NOT WANT ANNIHILATION1 BUT ?AT ,I WANT TO SURVIVE & TO PROSP]4 444 ,MORALITY )\T HAPP9ESS IS LIKE A WORD )\T MEAN+40 

,?IS 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY NATURALLY PRODUC$ A COMPLETE REVOLUTION 9 ,G]MAN ?\<T4 ,BUT AS ,JODL REM>KS1 0,FEU]BA* HIMSELF L9K$ ?IS REVOLUTION ) ! NAMES ( ,LOCKE1 ,MALEBRANCE1 & ,HELVETIUS0 ,= ! ?9K]S ( ,WE/]N ,EUROPE ?IS 9T]PRETATION ( ! MORAL S5SE PRES5T$ NO?+ NEW1 AL?\< ,FEURBA* EXPRESS$ IT 9 A =M ?AT GA9$ IT WID] CURR5CY ?AN FELL TO ! LOT ( E>LI] EUDEMONI/S4 

,AS REG>DS ! QUE/ION H[ ! EGOI/IC /RIV+ ( AN 9DIVIDUAL = P]SONAL HAPP9ESS BECOMES CONV]T$ 9TO ITS 0APP>5T OPPOSITE -- 9TO SELF-RE/RA9T & 9TO ACTIVITY = ! GOOD ( O!RS10 ! EXPLANATION (F]$ BY ,FEU]BA* REALLY EXPLA9S NO?+4 ,IT SIMPLY REPEATS ! QUE/ION1 BUT 9 ! =M ( AN ASS]TION4 0,UNQUE/IONABLY10 SAYS ,FEU]BA*1 0! BASIC PR9CIPLE ( MORALITY IS HAPP9ESS1 YET NOT HAPP9ESS CONC5TRAT$ 9 ONE P]SON1 BUT EXT5D+ TO V>I\S P]SONS1 EMBRAC+ ME & !E1 I4E41 NOT A ONE-SID$1 BUT A TWO OR MANY-SID$ HAPP9ESS40 ,?IS1 H[EV]1 IS NOT A SOLUTION4 ,! PROBLEM ( MORAL PHILOSOPHY CONSI/S ( F9D+ AN EXPLANATION ( :Y ! FEEL+S & ?\<TS ( MAN TAKE SU* A TURN ?AT HE IS CAPABLE ( FEEL+ & ?9K+ 9 T]MS ( ! 9T]E/S ( O!RS1 OR EV5 ( ALL M51 AS ( HIS [N 9T]E/S4 ,IS ?IS AN 9H]5T 9/9CT1 OR IS IT A JUDGM5T ( \R REASON1 :I* WEI<S ITS 9T]E/S1 ID5TIFIES !M ) ! 9T]E/S ( O!RS1 & :I* LAT] BECOMES A HABIT8 ,OR IS IT AN UNCONSCI\S FEEL+ :I*1 AS ! 9DIVIDUALI/S ASS]T1 %\LD BE RESI/$8 ,& F9ALLY1 :5CE ORIG9AT$ ?IS /RANGE S5SE --- NOT EXACTLY CONSCI\SNESS & NOT REALLY EMOTION --- ( OBLIGATION1 ( DUTY1 ?IS ID5TIFICATION ( ONE'S [N 9T]E/S ) ! 9T]E/S ( ALL8 

,!SE >E ! QUE/IONS ) :I* E?ICS HAS BE5 CONCE]N$ FROM ! TIME ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 & TO :I* IT SUPPLIES MO/ CONTRADICTORY ANSW]S3 VIS3 --- REVELATION FROM ABOVE2 EGOISM1 RATIONALLY UND]/OOD2 ! H]D 9/9CT2 FE> ( PUNI%M5T 9 ! LIFE TO COME2 REASON+2 RA% IMPULSE1 ETC4 ,& ,FEU]BA* C\LD (F] NO NEW OR SATISFACTORY ANSW] TO !SE QUE/IONS4 

,JODL1 :O TAKES SO SYMPA!TIC AN ATTITUDE T[>D ,FEU]BA*1 PO9TS \T ?AT 0!RE IS OBVI\SLY A GAP 9 ,FEU]BA*'S EXPOSITION4 ,HE FAILS TO %[ ?AT ! CONTRAPOSITION BETWE5 ME & !E IS NOT A CONTRAPOSITION BETWE5 TWO P]SONS1 BUT BETWE5 ! 9DIVIDUAL & SOCIETY10 #b ,BUT EV5 ?IS REM>K /ILL LEAVES ! QUE/IONS UNANSW]$ & !Y REMA9 9 ALL !IR =CE4 

,?IS OMISSION1 CONT9UES ,JODL1 WAS MADE GOOD BY ,KNAPP'S 0,SY/EM ( ! ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,LAW40 ,KNAPP DEF9ITELY REPRES5T$ ! 9T]E/S ( ! CLAN AS ! LOGICAL />T+ PO9T 9 ! MORAL PROCESS4#b#a ,& ! RATIONAL VALUE ( MORALITY 9CREASES 9 PROPORTION AS MAN ID5TIFIES HIMSELF & HIS 9T]E/S ) AN EV] L>G] GR\P ( PEOPLE1 & F9ALLY ) HUMANITY AS A :OLE4 ,KNAPP ?US RETURN$ TO ! 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY1 :I* WAS ALREADY UND]/OOD BY ,BACON AS A /RONG] & A MORE P]MAN5TLY ACTIVE 9/9CT ?AN ?AT ( P]SONAL GRATIFICATION4 

,?OSE :O WI% TO GA9 A CLOS] ACQUA9TANCE ) ,FEU]BA*'S E?ICS >E REF]R$ TO HIS EASILY READABLE WORKS1 BAS$ ON OBS]VATION ( LIFE & NOT ON AB/RACT ASSUMPTIONS1 & FULL ( VALUABLE ?\<TS4 ,JODL'S EXCELL5T EXPOSITION MAY BE ALSO RECOMM5D$4 ,I %ALL M]ELY REF]1 BY WAY ( CONCLUSION1 TO ,FEU]BA*'S EXPLANATION ( ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 T5D5CIES 7EGOI/IC AS WELL AS SOCIAL7 & DUTY1 & TO ! SIGNIFICANCE ( ?IS DI/9CTION 9 E?ICS4 ,! FACT ?AT NATIVE PROP5SITY & ! S5SE ( DUTY (T5 CONTRADICT EA* O!R DOES NOT MEAN ?AT !Y >E 9EVITABLY ANTAGONI/IC & MU/ SO REMA94 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 ALL MORAL $UCATION /RIVES TO ELIM9ATE ?IS CONTRADICTION1 & EV5 :5 A MAN RISKS HIS LIFE = ! SAKE ( :AT HE CONSID]S HIS DUTY1 HE FEELS ?AT ?\< ACTION MAY LEAD TO SELF-ANNIHILATION -- 9ACTION WILL UNQUE/IONABLY BE A MORAL-ANNIHILATION4 ,BUT H]E WE >E ALREADY LEAV+ ! REALM ( SIMPLE JU/ICE & >E 5T]+ 9TO ! REGION ( ! ?IRD MEMB] ( ! MORAL TRILOGY1 & ( ?AT ,I %ALL SPEAK LAT]4 ,I WILL SIMPLY NOTE ONE ( ,FEU]BACVH'S DEF9ITIONS :I* APPROA*ES V]Y CLOSELY ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE3 0,MORAL WILL IS A WILL ?AT DOES NOT WI% TO 9FLICT EVIL1 BECAUSE IT DOES NOT WI% TO SUFF] EVIL40 

,! FUNDAM5TAL PROBLEM ( ,FEU]BA*'S PHILOSOPHY IS ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A PROP] ATTITUDE ( PHILOSOPHY T[>DS RELIGION4 ,HIS NEGATIVE ATTITUDE T[>DS RELIGION IS WELL KN[N4 ,BUT :ILE 5DEAVOR+ TO FREE HUMANITY FROM ! DOM9ATION ( RELIGION1 ,FEU]BA*1 LIKE ,COMTE1 DID NOT LOSE SI<T ( ! CAUSES ( ITS ORIG9 & ITS 9FLU5CE ON ! HI/ORY ( MANK9D1 --- ! 9FLU5CE :I* %\LD UND] NO CIRCUM/ANCES BE =GOTT5 BY ?OSE :O1 ASSUM+ A SCI5TIFIC ATTITUDE1 WAGE A BATTLE AGA9/ RELIGION & SUP]/ITION EMBODI$ 9 ! ,*UR* & 9 ITS TEMPORAL ALLIANCE ) ! ,/ATE4 ,! REVELATION ON :I* RELIGION RE/S1 TAU<T ,FEU]BA*1 DOES NOT ORIG9ATE FROM A ,DEITY1 BUT IS AN EXPRESSION ( VAGUE FEEL+S ( :AT IS USEFUL = ! HUMAN RACE AS A :OLE4 ,RELIGI\S IDEALS & PRESCRIPTIONS EXPRESS ! IDEALS ( MANK9D1 & IT IS DESIRABLE ?AT ! 9DIVIDUAL %\LD BE GUID$ BY !SE IDEALS 9 HIS RELATIONS ) HIS FELL[-M54 ,?IS ?\<T IS P]FECTLY TRUE1 = O!RWISE NO RELIGION C\LD HAVE ACQUIR$ ! P[] ?AT RELIGIONS WIELD OV] M54 ,BUT WE MU/ NOT =GET ?AT ! WIZ>DS1 ! SORC]]S1 ! %AMANS1 & ! CL]GY UP TO \R [N TIME1 HAVE BE5 ADD+ TO ! FUNDAM5TAL RELIGI\S & E?ICAL PRESCRIPTIONS A :OLE SUP]/RUCTURE ( 9TIMIDAT+ & SUP]/ITI\S CONCEPTIONS4 ,AMONG !SE %\LD BE 9CLUD$ ! DUTY ( SUBMITT+ TO ! 9EQUALITIES ( CLASS & CA/E1 UPON :I* ! :OLE SOCIAL /RUCTURE WAS BE+ ]ECT$1 & :I* ! REPRES5TATIVES ( ! ,*UR* UND]TOOK TO DEF5D4 ,EV]Y ,/ATE CON/ITUTES AN ALLIANCE ( ! RI* AGA9/ ! POOR1 & ( ! RUL+ CLASSES1 I4E41 ! MILIT>Y1 ! LAWY]S1 ! RUL]S1 & ! CL]GY1 AGA9/ ?OSE GOV]N$4 ,& ! CL]GY ( ALL RELIGIONS1 AS AN ACTIVE MEMB] ( ! ,/ATE ALLIANCE1 NEV] FAIL$ TO 9TRODUCE 9TO ! 0CLAN IDEALS0 SU* RECOMM5DATIONS & COMM&S AS BE/ S]V$ ! 9T]E/ ( ! ,/ATE ALLIANCE1 I4E41 ! PRIVILEG$ CLASSES4 

,FOOTNOTES 

 #a.<,DISS]TATION ,ON ! ,PROGRESS ( ,E?ICAL ,PHILOSOPHY 7#a#h#c7.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #b ,DISS]TATION ON ! PROGRESS ( E?ICAL PHILOSOPHY1 9 ! FIR/ VOLUME ( ! ,5CYCLOPA$IA ,BRITANNICA1 7#h? $ITION74 ,LAT] ?IS WORK WAS REPEAT$LY REPR9T$ AS A SEP>ATE $ITION4 .<,$9BUR<1 #a#h#c4.> 

 #c,GODW91 ,9QUIRY CONC]N+ ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE & ITS ,9FLU5CE ON ,G5]AL ,VIRTUE & ,HAPP9ESS1 #b VOLS41 ,LONDON1 #a#g#i#c4 ,UND] FE> ( ! P]SECUTIONS- TO :I* ,GODW9'S FRI5DS1 ! REPUBLICANS1 W]E SUBJECT$1 ! AN>*I/IC TIC & COMMUNI/IC ASS]TIONS ( ,GODW9 W]E OMITT$ FROM ! SECOND $ITION4 

 #d.<,DUGALD ,/EW>T1 ,\TL9ES ( ,MORAL ,PHILOSOPHY1 #a#g#i#c2 ,PHILOSOPHY ( ! ACTIVE & MORAL P[]S1 #a#h#b#h4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #e.<,LONDON1 #a#g#h#i2 SECOND $ITION1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#b#c4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #f.<,B5?AM ALSO 9CLUDES A SEV5? CRIT]ION1-0PURITY1 OR ! *ANCE IT HAS ( NOT BE+ FOLL[$ BY S5SATIONS ( ! OPPOSITE K9D3 ?AT IS1 PA9 IF IT BE PLEASURE2 PLEASURE1 IF IT BE PA940 7,9TRO41 ETC41 ,$4 ( #a#i#g1 ,*APT] ,I,V1 PAGE #c74.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #g,! FIR/ $ITION ( ,DEONTOLOGY APPE>$ 9 #a#h#c#d1 9 TWO VOLUMES4 .<,LONDON2 ,$9BUR<4.> 

#h,GUYAU1 ,LA ,MORALE ANGLAISE CONTEMPORA9E .<,P>IS1 #a#h#g#i1 #bND4 $ITION1 REV4 & AUG41 #a#h#h#e4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #i ,UTILIT>IANISM APPE>$ 9 #ahfa 9 0,FRAS]'S ,MAGAZ9E10 & 9 #ahfc 9 BOOK =M4 

 #a,IT IS NECESS>Y TO ADD ?AT 9 DEVELOP+ ,B5?AM'S IDEAS ,JOHN ,/U>T ,MILL 9TRODUC$ A GREAT DEAL ( NEW MATT]4 ,B5?AM1 = EXAMPLE1 9 EXP\ND+ HIS UTILIT>IAN !ORY ( MORALITY1 HAD 9 M9D ONLY ! QUANTITY ( GOOD1 & ACCORD+LY HE CALL$ HIS !ORY 0MORAL >I?METIC10 :]EAS ,MILL 9TRODUC$ 9TO UTILIT>IANISM A NEW ELEM5T1-QUALITY1 & !REBY LAID ! BASES ( MORAL AES!TICS4 ,MILL CLASSIFI$ PLEASURES 9TO HI<] & L[]1 9TO ?OSE WOR?Y ( PREF]5CE1 & UNWOR?Y ( IT4 ,?AT IS :Y HE SAID ?AT 0A DISCONT5T$ 7UNHAPPY7 ,SOCRATES1 IS HI<] 9 MORAL REG>D ?AN A CONT5T$ PIG40 ,TO FEEL ONESELF A MAN IS TO BE CONSCI\S ( ONE'S 9N] VALUE1 TO FEEL ONE'S DIGNITY1 & 9 JUDG+ V>I\S ACTIONS MAN %\LD KEEP 9 M9D ! DUTY IMPOS$ UPON HIM BY HUMAN DIGNITY4 ,H]E ,MILL ALREADY RISES ABOVE N>R[ UTILIT>IANISM & 9DICATES BROAD] BASES ( MORALITY ?AN UTILITY & PLEASURE4 .<,NOTE BY ,LEB$EV1 ! ,RUSSIAN ,$ITOR4.> 

 #a#a,9 =M] TIMES1 :5 PEASANT S]FDOM PREVAIL$1 I4E41 :5 SLAV]Y EXI/$1 A L>GE MAJORITY ( L&LORDS-REALLY SLAVE-[N]S1 W\LD NOT = A MOM5T P]MIT ! ?\<T ?AT !IR S]FS W]E 5D[$ ) JU/ AS 0ELEVAT$ & REF9$0 FEEL+S AS !IR [N4 ,H5CE IT WAS CONSID]$ A GREAT M]IT 9 ,TURG5IEV1 ,GRIGOROVI*1 & O!RS1 ?AT !Y SUCCE$$ 9 PLANT+ 9 ! L&LORDS' HE>TS ! ?\<T ?AT ! S]FS W]E CAPABLE ( FEEL+ EXACTLY LIKE !IR [N]S4 ,BE=E !IR TIME SU* AN ADMISSION W\LD HAVE BE5 REG>D$ AS A BELITTL+1 A DEBASEM5T ( ! L(TY 0G5TLEM5'S0 FEEL+S4 ,9 ,5GL&1 ALSO1 AMONG A C]TA9 CLASS ( 9DIVIDUALS1 ,I MET ) A SIMIL> ATTITUDE T[>D ! SO-CALL$ 0H&S10 I4 E41 ! FACTORY WORK]S1 M9]S1 ETC4-AL?\< ! ,5GLI% 0C\NTY10 7ADM9I/RATIVE UNIT71 & ! *UR* 0P>I%0 HAVE ALREADY DONE MU* TO ]ADICATE SU* CLASS >ROGANCE4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aibc 3 ,*APT] #a -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#e1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #a -- ,ADD$4 

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