,*APT] #ab 
,DEVELOPM5T ( ,MORAL ,TEA*+S -- ,X,I,X ,]A 7,CONT9U$7 

#aibdaibd 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,POP ,H1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,! N9ETE5? C5TURY APPROA*$ ! PROBLEM ( MORALITY FROM A  
NEW VIEWPO9T-?AT ( ITS GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T  9 MANK9D1 BEG9N+  
) ! PRIMITIVE P]IOD4 ,REG>D+ ALL NATURE AS ! RESULT (  
! ACTIVITY ( PHYSICAL =CES & ( EVOLUTION1 ! NEW PHILOSOPHY 
HAD TO 9T]PRET MORALITY FROM ! SAME PO9T ( VIEW4 

,! GR\ND = SU* AN 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY HAD BE5 
ALREADY PREP>$ AT ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,! /UDY ( 
! LIFE ( ! PRIMITIVE SAVAGES1 ,LAPLACE'S HYPO!SIS AS TO ! 
ORIG9 ( \R SOL> SY/EM1 & ESPECIALLY ! !ORY ( EVOLUTION 
9 ! PLANT & ! ANIMAL WORLD1-:I* WAS ALREADY 9DICAT$ BY  
,BUFFON & ,LAM>CK1 & !N1 9 ! TW5TIES ( ! LA/ C5TURY  
PROMULGAT$ BY ,GE(FROY-,SA9T-,HILAIRE1-! HI/ORICAL WORKS 9 ! 
SAME DIRECTION WRITT5 BY ! ,SA9T-,SIMONIANS1 ESPECIALLY ,AUGU/9 
,?I]RY1 & F9ALLY ! POSITIVI/ PHILOSOPHY ( ,AUGU/E ,COMTE-ALL 
!SE TAK5 TOGE!R PREP>$ ! WAY = ! ASSIMILATION ( !  
!ORY ( EVOLUTION 9 ! 5TIRE PLANT & ANIMAL WORLDS1 &1  
CONSEQU5TLY1 AS AFFECT+ ! HUMAN RACE AS WELL4 ,9 #ahei APPE>$ 
,*>LES ,D>W9'S FAM\S WORK 9 :I* ! !ORY ( EVOLUTION F\ND  
A COMPLETE & SY/EMATIC ELABORATION4 

,BE=E ,D>W91 9 #a#h#e1 ! !ORY ( EVOLUTION1 ?\< BY NO  
MEANS COMPLETELY DEVELOP$1 WAS PUT =? BY ,H]B]T ,SP5C] 9 HIS  
0,SOCIAL ,/ATICS40 ,BUT ! ?\<TS ?AT HE EXPRESS$ 9 ?IS BOOK  
W]E SO %>PLY AT V>IANCE ) ! CONCEPTIONS !N CURR5T 9  
,5GL&1 ?AT ,SP5C]'S NEW IDEAS W]E DISREG>D$4 ,SP5C] WAS  
ACCORD$ APPRECIATION AS A ?9K]1 ONLY :5 HE BEGAN TO PUBLI%  
UND] ! COLLECTIVE NAME ( 0,SYN!TIC ,PHILOSOPHY0 A S]IES (  
REM>KABLE PHILOSOPHICAL RESE>*ES 9 :I* HE EXP\ND$ !  
DEVELOPM5T ( \R SOL> SY/EM1 ! DEVELOPM5T ( LIFE ON !  
E>?1 & F9ALLY ! DEVELOPM5T ( MANK9D1 ITS ?\<T & ITS  
SOCIETIES4 

,E?ICS1 AS ,SP5C] V]Y JU/LY HELD1 WAS TO CON/ITUTE ONE (  
! DIVISIONS ( ! G5]AL PHILOSOPHY ( NATURE4 ,HE FIR/  
ANALYZ$ ! BASIC PR9CIPLES ( ! COSMOS & ! ORIG9 ( \R  
SOL> SY/EM1 :I* CAME 9TO EXI/5CE AS ! RESULT ( !  
ACTIVITY ( ME*ANICAL =CES2 !N ! PR9CIPLES ( BIOLOGY1 I4E41  
( ! SCI5CE ( LIFE 9 ! =M IT ASSUM$ ON ! E>?2 !N !  
PR9CIPLES ( PSY*OLOGY1 I4E41 ! SCI5CE ( ! PSY*IC LIFE (  
ANIMALS & ( MAN2 NEXT1 ! PR9CIPLES ( SOCIOLOGY1 I4 E41 !  
SCI5CE ( SOCIALITY2 & F9ALLY1 ! PR9CIPLES ( E?ICS1 I4 E41  
! SCI5CE ( ?OSE MUTUAL RELATIONS ( LIV+ BE+S :I* HAVE  
! NATURE ( OBLIGATION   & :I* !RE=E W]E = A LONG TIME  
CONFUS$ ) RELIGION4 #a 

,ONLY T[>D ! 5D ( HIS LIFE1 9 ! ,SPR+ ( #a#h#i1 :5 !  
GREAT] P>T ( HIS 0,E?ICS0 WAS ALREADY WRITT51 ,SP5C] PUBLI%$  
TWO MAGAZ9E >TICLES 9 :I* = ! FIR/ TIME HE SPOKE (  
SOCIALITY & MORALITY 9 ANIMALS1#b :]EAS UP TO ?AT TIME HE HAD  
CONC5TRAT$ HIS ATT5TION ON ! 0/RUGGLE = EXI/5CE0 &  
9T]PRET$ IT 9 ITS APPLICATION TO ANIMALS AS WELL AS TO M51 AS  
! /RUGGLE ( EA* AGA9/ ALL = ! MEANS ( SUBSI/5CE4 

,!N1 AL?\< !SE IDEAS W]E ALREADY EXPRESS$ BY HIM 9 HIS  
0,SOCIAL ,/ATICS10 ,SP5C] PUBLI%$ 9 ! 'N9ETIES A LITTLE BOOK1  
0,! ,9DIVIDUAL V]SUS ! ,/ATE10 9 :I* HE EXP\ND$ HIS VIEWS  
AGA9/ ! 9EVITABLE ,/ATE C5TRALIZATION & OPPRESSION4 ,ON ?IS  
PO9T HE CLOSELY APPROA*$ ! FIR/ !ORI/ ( AN>*ISM1 ,WILLIAM  
,GODW91 :OSE BOOK1 0,9QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ,POLITICAL JU/ICE10 WAS SO  
MU* MORE REM>KABLE 9 ?AT IT APPE>$ AT ! MOM5T ( !  
TRIUMPH 9 ,FRANCE ( REVOLUTION>Y ,JACOB9ISM1 I4E41 ( !  
UN-LIMIT$ P[] ( ! REVOLUTION>Y GOV]NM5T4 ,GODW9 WAS 9  
COMPLETE AGREEM5T ) ! ,JACOB9 IDEALS ( POLITICAL & ECONOMIC  
EQUALITY1#c BUT HE TOOK A NEGATIVE ATTITUDE T[>D !IR 5DEAVOR TO  
CREATE ! ALL-ABSORB+ ,/ATE1 :I* W\LD DE/ROY ! RI<TS (  
! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,SP5C] /OOD1 SIMIL>LY1 AGA9/ ! DESPOTISM (  
! ,/ATE1 & HE EXPRESS$ HIS VIEWS ON ?IS SUBJECT 9 #ahdb 4#d 

,BO? 9 HIS 0,SOCIAL ,/ATICS0 & 0,! ,PR9CIPLES ( ,E?ICS10  
,SP5C] EXP\ND$ ! FUNDAM5TAL IDEA ?AT ,MAN1 9 COMMON ) !  
L[] CREATURES1 IS CAPABLE ( 9DEF9ITE *ANGE BY ADAPTATION TO  
CONDITIONS4 ,!RE=E1 ?R\< A S]IES ( GRADUAL *ANGES1 MAN IS  
UND]GO+ TRANS=MATION FROM A NATURE APPROPRIATE TO HIS  
ABORIG9AL WILD LIFE1 TO A NATURE APPROPRIATE TO A SETTL$1  
CIVILIZ$ LIFE4 ,?IS PROCESS IS EFFECT$ BY ! REPRESSION (  
C]TA9 PRIMITIVE TRAITS ( ! HUMAN ORGANISM1 SU*1 = EXAMPLE1  
AS ! W>LIKE TRAITS ( *>ACT] ?AT >E NO LONG] NE$$ 9 VIEW  
( ! *ANG$ CONDITIONS & [+ TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORE  
PEACEFUL RELATIONS4 

,GRADUALLY1 UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! EXT]NAL CONDITIONS (  
LIFE & ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! 9T]NAL1 9DIVIDUAL FACULTIES1  
& ) ! 9CREAS+ COMPLEXITY ( SOCIAL LIFE1 MANK9D EVOLVES  
MORE CULTURAL =MS ( LIFE & MORE PEACEFUL HABITS & USAGES1  
:I* LEAD TO A CLOS] COOP]ATION4 ,! GREATE/ FACTOR 9 ?IS  
PROGRESS ,SP5C] SAW 9 ! FEEL+ ( SYMPA?Y  7OR COMMIS]ATION 74 

,MORE OR LESS H>MONI\S COOP]ATION IMPLIES1 ( C\RSE1 A  
C]TA9 LIMITATION ON 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM1 :I* RESULTS FROM  
SYMPA!TIC REG>D = ! FRE$OM ( O!RS4 ,GRADUALLY !RE  
EVOLVES 9 SOCIETY AN EQUITABLE 9DIVIDUAL CONDUCT1 & AN EQUITABLE  
SOCIAL ORD]1 9 :I* EA* 9DIVIDUAL ACTS 9 CON=MITY ) !  
LAW ( EQUAL FRE$OM = ALL ! MEMB]S ( SOCIETY4 ,9 PROPORTION  
AS M5 BECOME ACCU/OM$ TO SOCIAL LIFE !Y DEVELOP MUTUAL  
SYMPA?Y1 :I* LAT] CON/ITUTES :AT IS CALL$ 0! MORAL S5SE40  
,P>ALLEL ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( ?IS METAL S5SE !RE >ISE 9 MAN  
9TEL-LECTUAL P]CEPTIONS ( RI<T HUMAN RELATIONS1 :I* BECOME  
CLE>] AS ! =M ( SOCIAL LIFE BECOMES BETT]4 ,?US IS ATTA9$  
! RECONCILIATION ( 9DIVIDUAL NATURES ) SOCIAL REQUIREM5TS4  
,SP5C] HOPES ?AT SOCIAL LIFE WILL PROGRESS 9 SU* A MANN] AS  
EV5TUALLY TO A*IEVE ! GREATE/ DEVELOPM5T ( P]SONALITY   
709DIVIDUATION10 I4E41 ! DEVELOPM5T ( 9DIVIDUALITY1 & NOT  
( 09DIVIDUALISM071 TOGE!R ) ! GREATE/ DEVELOPM5T (  
SOCIALITY4 ,SP5C] IS CONV9C$ ?AT EVOLUTION & PROGRESS WILL  
LEAD TO A SOCIAL EQUILIBRIUM SO BALANC$ ?AT EA*1 9 FULFILL+  
! WANTS ( HIS [N LIFE1 WILL SPONTANE\SLY & VOLUNT>ILY AID 9  
FULFILL+ ! WANTS ( ALL O!R LIVES4#e 

,! AIM ( E?ICS1 AS ,SP5C] UND]/OOD IT1 IS !  
E/ABLI%M5T ( RULES ( MORAL CONDUCT ON A SCI5TIFIC BASIS4 ,!  
PLAC+ ( MORAL SCI5CE ON SU* A F\NDATION IS P>TICUL>LY  
NECESS>Y N[1 :5 ! AU?ORITY ( RELIGION IS DW9DL+ & MORAL  
TEA*+S >E BE+ DEPRIV$ ( ?IS SUPPORT4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1  
MORAL REA*+ MU/ BE FRE$ FROM PREJUDICES & FROM MONA/IC  
ASCETICISM1 :I* HAVE BE5 V]Y DETRIM5TAL TO ! PROP]  
UND]/&+ ( MORALITY4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 E?ICS %\LD NOT BE  
WEAK5$ BY ! HESITATION TO REJECT COMPLETELY A N>R[ EGOISM4  
,MORALITY1 RE/+ ON A SCI5TIFIC BASIS1 SATISFIES ?IS REQUIREM5T1  
= SCI5TIFICALLY D]IV$ E?ICAL PR9CIPLES CO9CIDE 9 ALL WAYS  
) ! E?ICAL PR9CIPLES O!RWISE D]IV$1--A FACT :I*1  
UN=TUNATELY1 ! RELIGI\S PEOPLE CATEGORICALLY REFUSE TO  
RECOGNIZE1 & >E EV5 (F5D$ :5 ?IS CO9CID5CE IS PO9T$  
\T TO !M4 

,HAV+ ?US 9DICAT$ ! AIM ( E?ICS1 ,SP5C] APPROA*$ !  
MORAL PROBLEM1 TAK+ AS HIS />T+ PO9T ! SIMPLE/  
OBS]VATIONS4 ,9 ORD] TO UND]/& HUMAN CONDUCT & MODE (  
LIFE1--!Y MU/ BE REG>D$1 9 A S5SE1 AS AN ORGANIC :OLE1  
BEG9N+ ) ! ANIMALS4 ,AS WE PASS FROM ! SIMPLE/ =MS (  
LIFE TO ! HI<] & MORE COMPLICAT$1 WE F9D ?AT !IR CONDUCT  
& !IR MODE ( EXI/5CE BECOME BETT] & BETT] ADAPT$ TO !  
5VIRONM5T4 ,!SE ADAPTATIONS1 MOREOV]1 ALWAYS AIM EI!R AT !  
/R5G!N+ ( 9DIVIDUAL VITALITY1 OR ! /R5G!N+ ( !  
VITALITY ( ! SPECIES1 ! LATT] BECOM+ MORE & MORE CLOSELY  
CONNECT$ ) ! PRES]VATION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL 9 PROPORTION AS  
WE APPROA* ! HI<] =MS 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD4 ,& 9DE$1 !  
P>5TS' C>E ( !IR (FSPR+ IS ALREADY A CASE ( CLOSE  
CONNECTION BETWE5 9DIVIDUAL SELF-PRES]VATION & ! PRES]VATION  
( ! SPECIES2 & ?IS C>E 9CREASES & ASSUMES ! *>ACT] (  
P]SONAL ATTA*M5T AS WE APPROA* ! HI<] =MS ( ANIMAL LIFE4 

,UN=TUNATELY1 IT MU/ BE REM>K$ ?AT1 C>RI$ AWAY BY !  
!ORY ( /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1 ,SP5C] DID NOT AT ?IS TIME  
DEVOTE SUFFICI5T ATT5TION TO ! FACT ?AT 9 EV]Y CLASS (  
ANIMALS SOME SPECIES %[ A DEVELOPM5T ( MUTUAL AID1 & 9  
PROPORTION AS ?IS FACTOR ACQUIRES GREAT] IMPORTANCE 9 ! LIFE (  
! SPECIES1 ! 9DIVIDUAL SPAN ( LIFE IS L5G!N$ & AT !  
SAME TIME EXP]I5CE IS ACCUMULAT$1 :I* AIDS ! SPECIES 9 ITS  
/RUGGLE ) ITS 5EMIES4 

,BUT M]E ADAPTATION TO EXT]NAL CONDITIONS IS 9SUFFICI5T1  
CONT9U$ ,SP5C]3 ! C\RSE ( EVOLUTION IS P>ALLEL$ BY !  
G5]AL IMPROVEM5T 9 ! =MS ( LIFE4 ,! /RUGGLE =  
EXI/5CE AMONG ! 9DIVIDUALS DIM9I%ES AMONG M51 9 PROPORTION  
AS ! MILITANT & PR$ATORY /AGE IS REPLAC$ BY :AT MAY BE  
CALL$ 9DU/RIAL COOP]ATION4 ,& 9 ! C\RSE ( ?IS PROCESS  
! RUDIM5TS ( MORAL JUDGM5TS APPE>4 

,:AT DO WE CALL GOOD OR BAD8 ,WE CALL GOOD ?AT :I* FULFILLS  
ITS PURPOSE2 & WE CALL BAD ?AT :I* DOES ,DOT ANSW] ITS PURPOSE1  
DOES NOT FIT IT4 ,?US1 ! GOOD H\SE IS ONE :I* PROP]LY  
%ELT]S US FROM COLD & /ORM4 ,WE APPLY ! SAME CRIT]ION TO \R  
ACTIONS3 0,Y\ DID WELL TO *ANGE Y\R WET CLO!S10 OR 0,Y\ W]E  
WRONG 9 TRU/+ ?AT P]SON10 :]EBY WE MEAN ?AT \R ACTIONS  
W]E OR W]E NOT SUIT$ TO !IR 5D4 ,BUT ?IS IS JU/ :AT  
CON/ITUTES ! GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T ( \R CONDUCT4 

,!RE >E ALSO DIFF]5T K9DS ( AIMS4 ,!Y MAY BE PURELY  
P]SONAL1 AS 9 ! TWO CASES M5TION$1 OR !Y MAY BE BROADLY  
SOCIAL4 ,!Y MAY 9VOLVE ! FATE NOT ONLY ( AN 9DIVIDUAL1 BUT  
ALSO ( ! SPECIES4 78 #h7 

,ALL AIMS1 MOREOV]1 >E CONC]N$ NOT ONLY ) ! PRES]VATION  
( LIFE1 BUT ALSO ) ! 9T5SIFICATION ( VITALITY1 SO ?AT !  
PROBLEM BECOMES BROAD] & BROAD] & ! GOOD ( SOCIETY MORE &  
MORE T5DS TO 9CLUDE ! GOOD ( ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 WE  
CALL CONDUCT GOOD :5 IT CONTRIBUTES TO ! FULLNESS & V>IETY (  
\R LIFE & ( ! LIFE ( O!RS-?AT :I* MAKES LIFE FULL (  
PLEASURABLE EXP]I5CES1 I4 E41 RI*] 9 ,CONT5T1 ,MORE BEAUTIFUL1  
,MORE 9T5SE4#f ,?IS IS ! WAY 9 :I* ,SP5C] EXPLA9S ! ORIG9  
& ! GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS 9 MAN2 HE DOES  
NOT SEEK !M 9 AB/RACT METAPHYSICAL CONCEPTIONS OR 9 !  
DICTATES ( RELIGION1 OR F9ALLY1 9 ! COMP>ATIVE EVALUATION (  
P]SONAL PLEASURES & ADVANTAGES1 AS IS PROPOS$ BY ! UTILIT>IAN  
?9K]S4 ,LIKE ,COMTE1 ,SP5C] CONSID]S ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS JU/  
AS MU* A NECESS>Y PRODUCT ( SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T1 AS IS !  
PROGRESS ( REASON1 >T1 KN[L$GE1 MUSICAL TA/E1 OR ! ES!TIC  
S5SE4 ,ONE MI<T ADD TO ?IS ?AT ! FUR!R DEVELOPM5T ( !  
H]D 9/9CT1 :I* EVOLVES 9TO ! FEEL+ ( A 0RECIPROCAL  
BOND10 ( ! SOLID>ITY OR ! MUTUAL DEP5D5CE ( ALL UPON EV]Y  
ONE1 & ( EA* UPON ALL1 IS AS MU* AN 9EVITABLE RESULT ( SOCIAL  
LIFE1 AS ! DEVELOPM5T ( REASON1 ! P[] ( OBS]VATION1  
S5SIBILITY TO IMPRESSIONS1 & O!R HUMAN FACULTIES4 

,?US IT IS UNQUE/IONABLE ?AT ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN HAVE  
BE5 ACCUMULAT+ 9 ! HUMAN RACE FROM ! REMOTE/ TIME4 ,!IR  
RUDIM5TS MANIFE/$ !MSELVES AMONG ANIMALS BY VIRTUE ( !IR  
SOCIAL LIFE4 ,BUT :Y DID ! C\RSE ( EVOLUTION FOLL[ ?IS  
DIRECTION & NOT ! OPPOSITE8 ,:Y NOT ! DIRECTION ( /RUGGLE (  
EA* AGA9/ ALL8 ,TO ?IS QUE/ION ! EVOLUTIONI/ E?ICS %\LD1  
9 \R OP9ION1 REPLY3--BECAUSE SU* A DEVELOPM5T L$ TO !  
PRES]VATION ( ! SPECIES1 TO ITS SURVIVAL1 :]EAS ! 9ABILITY  
TO DEVELOP !SE FACULTIES ( SOCIALITY1 9 ! CASE ( ANIMALS AS  
WELL AS ( HUMAN TRIBES1 FATALLY L$ TO ! 9ABILITY TO SURVIVE 9  
! G5]AL /RUGGLE AGA9/ NATURE = EXI/5CE1 & CONSEQU5TLY1  
L$ TO EXT9CTION4 ,OR1 AS ,SP5C] ANSW]S TOGE!R ) ALL !  
EUDEMONI/S3-BECAUSE MAN F\ND PLEASURE 9 !SE ACTS ?AT LEAD TO  
! GOOD ( SOCIETY2 & HE PO9T$ \T TO ?OSE :O TAKE !  
RELIGI\S /&1 ?AT ! V]Y WORDS ( ! ,GOSPEL1 0,BLESS$ >E !  
M]CIFUL02 0,BLESS$ >E ! PEACE-MAK]S02 0,BLESS$ IS HE ?AT  
CONSID]E? ! POOR10-ALREADY IMPLY ! /ATE ( BLESS$NESS1 I4E41  
! PLEASURE FROM P]=M+ SU* ACTS4 7"9SECT2 #a#d7 ,?IS ANSW] DOES NOT1 (  
C\RSE1 PRECLUDE AN OBJECTION ON ! P>T ( 9TUITIONAL E?ICS1  
:I* CAN & DOES SAY ?AT 0IT WAS ! WILL ( ! GODS OR ( !  
,CREATOR ?AT MAN %\LD FEEL P>TICUL>LY GRATIFI$ :5 HIS ACTS  
LEAD TO ! GOOD ( O!RS1 OR :5 M5 :5 !Y OBEY ! COMM&S  
( ! DEITY40 

,NO MATT] :AT CRIT]ION IS ASSUM$ = ! JUDG+ (  
ACTIONS--BE IT HI< P]FECTION ( *>ACT] OR RECTITUDE (  
MOTIVE1--WE WILL SEE1 CONT9UES ,SP5C]1 0?AT DEF9ITION ( !  
P]FECTION1 ! VIRTUE1 ! RECTITUDE1 9EVITABLY BR+S US D[N TO  
HAPP9ESS EXP]I5C$ 9 SOME =M1 AT SOME TIME1 BY SOME P]SON1 AS  
! FUNDAM5TAL IDEA404440,SO ?AT NO S*OOL CAN AVOID TAK+ = !  
ULTIMATE MORAL AIM A DESIRABLE /ATE ( FEEL+ CALL$ BY :ATEV]  
NAME--GRATIFICATION1 5JOYM5T1 HAPP9ESS40 78 #a#e47 ,! EVOLUTIONI/ E?ICS1  
H[EV]1 CANNOT FULLY AGREE ) ?IS EXPLANATION1 = IT CANNOT  
ADMIT ?AT ! MORAL ELEM5T CON/ITUTES NO?+ BUT ! ACCID5TAL  
ACCUMULATION ( HABITS ?AT W]E HELPFUL TO ! SPECIES 9 ITS  
/RUGGLE = EXI/5CE4 ,:Y IS IT1 ASKS ! EVOLUTIONI/  
PHILOSOPH]1 ?AT NOT ! EGOI/IC BUT ! ALTRUI/IC HABITS GIVE  
MAN GREATE/ GRATIFICATION8 ,DO NOT ! SOCIALITY :I* WE OBS]VE  
EV]Y:]E 9 NATURE1 & ! MUTUAL AID :I* IS DEVELOP$ ?R\<  
SOCIAL LIFE1-DO NOT !Y CON/ITUTE A MEANS SO G5]AL 9 !  
/RUGGLE = EXI/5CE ?AT EGOI/IC SELF-ASS]TION & VIOL5CE  
PROVE WEAK & IMPOT5T BE=E !M8 ,!RE=E1 DO NOT ! FEEL+S  
( SOCIALITY & ( MUTUAL AID1 FROM :I* GRADUALLY & 9EVITABLY  
\R MORAL CONCEPTIONS HAD TO DEVELOP1--DO NOT !Y CON/ITUTE JU/  
AS FUNDAM5TAL A PROP]TY  ( HUMAN OR EV5 ( ANIMAL NATURE1 AS !  
NE$ ( N\RI%M5T8 

,I %ALL DISCUSS !SE TWO QUE/IONS 9 DETAIL 9 ! !ORETICAL  
P>T ( ?IS BOOK1 = ,I CONSID] !M FUNDAM5TAL 9 E?ICS4 ,I  
WILL ONLY NOTE = ! PRES5T ?AT ,SP5C] LEFT !SE BASIC  
QUE/IONS UNANSW]$4  ,IT WAS ONLY LAT] ?AT HE TOOK !M UP =  
CONSID]ATION1 SO ?AT ! CONTROV]SY BETWE5 ! NATURALI/1  
EVOLUTIONI/ E?ICS1 & ! 9TUITIONAL1 7I4 E41 9SPIR$ FROM  
ABOVE71 HE LEFT UNSETTL$4 ,BUT HE FULLY PROV$ ! NECESSITY (  
PLAC+ ! PR9CIPLES ( MORALITY ON A SCI5TIFIC BASIS1 AS WELL AS  
! LACK ( SU* A BASIS 9 ! E?ICAL SY/EMS PREVI\SLY ADVANC$4 788 #a#h-#b#c47 

,SP5C] PO9T$ \T ?AT 9 /UDY+ ! V>I\S SY/EMS (  
MORAL SCI5CE1 ONE IS A/\ND$ AT ! ABS5CE 9 !M ( !  
CONCEPTION ( CAUSALITY 9 ! REALM ( ! MORAL4 ,! ANCI5T  
?9K]S HELD ?AT MORAL CONSCI\SNESS IS IMPLANT$ 9 MAN BY ,GOD OR  
BY ! GODS1 BUT !Y =GOT ?AT IF ! ACTS :I* WE CALL BAD1  
BECAUSE !Y >E CONTR>Y TO ! WILL ( ! ,DEITY1 HAD NOT P] SE   
5TAIL$ H>MFUL CONSEQU5CES1 WE %\LD NEV] HAVE DISCOV]$ ?AT  
DISOB$I5CE TO ! DIV9E WILL HAS A H>MFUL EFFECT UPON SOCIETY1  
& ?AT ! FULFILLM5T ( ! DIV9E WILL LEADS TO GOOD4 

,BUT EQUALLY WRONG >E ! ?9K]S :O1 LIKE ,PLATO1 ,>I/OTLE1  
& ,HOBBES1 SEE ! S\RCE ( GOOD & EVIL 9 ! LAWS E/ABLI%$  
?R\< COMPULSION BY ! RUL+ P[]1 OR ?R\< ! SOCIAL  
COV5ANT4 ,IF ?IS W]E REALLY ! CASE1 WE W\LD HAVE TO  
ACKN[L$GE ?AT !RE IS NO 9TR9SIC DI/9CTION BETWE5 !  
CONSEQU5CES ( ACTIONS1 BO? GOOD & EVIL1 BECAUSE !  
CLASSIFICATION ( ALL ACTIONS 9TO GOOD & EVIL IS MADE BY !  
RUL+ P[]1 OR BY M5 !MSELVES1 :5 CONCLUD+ !  
COV5ANT4 78 #a#i47 

,SIMIL>LY1 SAYS ,SP5C]1 :5 PHILOSOPH]S EXPLA9 ! MORAL  
ELEM5T 9 MAN ?R\< A REVELATION FROM ABOVE1 !Y TACITLY ADMIT  
!REBY ?AT HUMAN ACTS & !IR RESULTS >E NOT CONNECT$ BY  
9EVITABLE & NATURAL CASUAL RELATIONS :I* WE CAN KN[  & :I*  
CAN TAKE ! PLACE ( DIV9E REVELATION4 78 #b47 

,EV5 ! ,UTILIT>IANS1 CONT9UES ,SP5C]1 >E NOT COMPLETELY  
FREE FROM ?IS ]ROR1 = !Y ONLY P>TIALLY RECOGNIZE ! ORIG9  
( MORAL CONCEPTIONS 9 NATURAL CAUSES4 LIE !N PROCE$S TO MAKE  
CLE> HIS ?\<T BY ! FOLL[+ EXAMPLE3--EV]Y SCI5CE BEG9S BY  
ACCUMULAT+ OBS]VATIONS4 ,! ANCI5T ,GREEKS & ! ,EGYPTIANS  
W]E ABLE TO PR$ICT ! POSITION ( V>I\S PLANETS ON A C]TA9  
DAY LONG BE=E ! DISCOV]Y ( ! LAW ( UNIV]SAL GRAVITATION4  
,?IS KN[L$GE WAS OBTA9$ ?R\< OBS]VATION1 )\T ANY IDEA AS  
TO ! CAUSES4 ,& ONLY AFT] ! DISCOV]Y ( ! LAW (  
GRAVITATION1 AFT] WE LE>N$ ! CAUSES & ! LAWS ( PLANET>Y  
MOTION1 ONLY !N DID \R DET]M9ATIONS ( !IR MOVEM5TS CEASE TO  
BE EMPIRICAL1 & BECOME SCI5TIFIC1 RATIONAL4 ,! SAME APPLIES TO  
! UTILIT>IAN E?ICS4 ,! UTILIT>IANS1 ( C\RSE1 RECOGNIZE !  
EXI/5CE ( SOME CAUSAL CONNECTION1 BY VIRTUE ( :I* WE CONSID]  
C]TA9 ACTS GOOD & SOME O!RS BAD2 BUT !Y FAIL TO EXPLA9  
:]E9 ?IS CONNECTION LIES4 ,IT IS NOT1 H[EV]1 SUFFICI5T TO SAY  
?AT C]TA9 ACTS >E USEFUL TO SOCIETY & ?AT O!RS >E H>MFUL2  
?IS IS A M]E /ATEM5T ( FACT1 :]EAS WE WANT TO KN[ !  
G5]AL CAUSE ( MORALITY-! G5]AL CRIT]ION :]EBY WE MAY  
DI/+UI% BETWE5 ! GOOD & ! BAD4 ,WE SEEK A RATIONAL  
G5]ALIZATION 9 ORD] TO D]IVE ! G5]AL RULES ( CONDUCT FROM  
A CLE>LY DEF9$ G5]AL CAUSE4 ,SU* IS ! AIM ( ! SCI5CE (  
MORALITY-,E?ICS4 78 #b#a47 

,( C\RSE1 ! GR\ND WAS PREP>$ = ,E?ICS ?R\< !  
DEVELOPM5T ( ! O!R SCI5CES4 ,WE HAVE N[ COME TO CONSID]  
MORAL PH5OM5A AS PH5OM5A ( EVOLUTION1 :I* >E 9 ACCORD )  
! PHYSICAL1 BIOLOGICAL1 & SOCIAL LAWS4 788 #b#b-#b#c47 

,9 G5]AL1 ,SP5C] DEF9ITELY TOOK ! VIEWPO9T ( !  
UTILIT>IAN MORALITY1 & HE ASS]T$ ?AT S9CE ! GOOD 9 LIFE IS  
?AT :I* 9CREASES HAPP9ESS1 & ! BAD ?AT :I* DECREASES IT1  
IT FOLL[S ?AT MORALITY 9 MANK9D IS UNQUE/IONABLY ?AT :I*  
9CREASES ! ELEM5T ( HAPP9ESS 9 LIFE4 ,NO MATT] H[ RELIGI\S  
OR POLITICAL PREJUDICES MAY T5D TO OBSCURE ?IS IDEA1 SAYS ,SP5C]1  
ALL ! V>I\S SY/EMS ( MORALITY HAVE BE5 BUILT ALWAYS UPON ?IS  
FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE4 78 #a#a47 

,! *APT]S DEVOT$ BY ,SP5C] TO ! CONSID]ATION ( CONDUCT  
FROM ! PHYSICAL & FROM ! BIOLOGICAL PO9T ( VIEW1 >E V]Y  
9/RUCTIVE1 = !Y CLE>LY %[1 BY MEANS ( EXAMPLES TAK5 FROM  
LIFE1 :AT ATTITUDE A SCI5CE BAS$ ON ! !ORY ( EVOLUTION  
%\LD TAKE ) RESPECT TO ! 9T]PRETATIONS ( MORALITY4#g 

,9 !SE TWO *APT]S1 ,SP5C] GIVES ! EXPLANATION ( !  
NATURAL ORIG9  ( ?OSE FUNDAM5TAL FACTS ?AT 5T] 9TO EV]Y  
MORAL TEA*+4 ,WE KN[1 = EXAMPLE1 ?AT A C]TA9 LOGICAL  
SEQU5CE ( ACTIONS1 A COH]5CE1 CON/ITUTES ONE ( !  
DI/+UI%+ FEATURES ( HUMAN MORALITY1 TOGE!R ) A  
DEF9IT5ESS  7WE CAN NEV] PR$ICT ! ACTIONS ( M5 ( WEAK1  
VACILLAT+ WILL72 !N COMES BALANCE 9 ACTIONS1 EQUILIBRIUM  7WE DO  
NOT EXPECT FROM A MORALLY DEVELOP$ MAN A FITFUL1 UNBALANC$  
CONDUCT1 IRRECONCILABLE ) HIS PA/ LIFE71 C\PL$ ) !  
ADAPTABILITY TO ! V>I$ 5VIRONM5T4 ,F9ALLY1 !RE IS ALSO A  
NE$ ( V>IETY  & FULLNESS  ( LIFE4 ,?IS IS :AT WE EXPECT FROM A  
DEVELOP$ 9DIVIDUAL4 ,! EXI/5CE ( !SE FACULTIES S]VES US AS  
! CRIT]ION = ! MORAL EVALUATION ( M54 ,!SE QUALITIES  
ATTA9 GREAT] DEVELOPM5T 9 ANIMALS1 AS WE PASS FROM ! MO/  
PRIMITIVE ORGANISMS TO MORE COMPLEX ONES1 & F9ALLY TO MAN4 

,?US1 DI/9CTLY MORAL QUALITIES EVOLVE 9 ! C\RSE ( !  
GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T ( ANIMALS4 ,SIMIL>LY1 9 MANK9D1 AS WE PASS  
FROM ! PRIMITIVE1 SAVAGE /ATE TO ! MORE COMPLEX =MS ( SOCIAL  
LIFE1 WE OBS]VE ! GRADUAL EVOLV+ ( A HI<] TYPE ( MAN4 ,BUT  
! HI<] TYPE ( MAN CAN DEVELOP ONLY 9 A SOCIETY ( HI<LY  
DEVELOP$ M54 ,A FULL1 RI*LY V>I$ 9DIVIDUAL LIFE CAN MANIFE/  
ITSELF ONLY 9 A SOCIETY ?AT LIVES A FULL & V>I$ LIFE4 

,SU* >E ! CONCLUSIONS REA*$ BY ,SP5C] CONSID]+ !  
QUALITIES :I* WE CALL MORAL1 FROM ! VIEWPO9T ( ! GREATE/  
FULLNESS ( LIFE1 I4E41 FROM ! BIOLOGICAL PO9T ( VIEW4 ,& !  
FACTS LEAD HIM TO CONCLUDE ?AT !RE UND\BT$LY EXI/S A NATURAL  
9N] CONNECTION BETWE5 ?AT :I* AF=DS US PLEASURE & ?AT  
:I* BR+S 9CREAS$ VITALITY1 & CONSEQU5TLY1 BETWE5 !  
9-T5SITY ( EMOTIONAL EXP]I5CES & ! DURATION ( LIFE4 ,&  
?IS CONCLUSION IS1 ( C\RSE1 A DIRECT CONTRADICTION TO ! CURR5T  
CON-CEPTIONS ( ! SUP]NATURAL ORIG9 ( MORALITY4 

,SP5C] FUR!R PO9TS \T ?AT !RE >E C]TA9 TYPES (  
PLEASURES ?AT W]E EVOLV$ DUR+ ! TIME :5 ! PR$ATORY  
SY/EM PRE-VAIL$ 9 HUMAN SOCIETIES2 BUT GRADUALLY1 ) !  
TRANSITION FROM ! MILITANT SY/EM TO ! PEACEFUL1 9DU/RIAL  
SY/EM1 ! EVALUATION ( ! PLEASANT & ! UNPLEASANT UND]GOES  
A *ANGE4 ,WE NO LONG] F9D ! SAME PLEASURE 9 FI<T+ & 9  
MILIT>Y CUNN+ & MURD]1 AS DOES A SAVAGE4 

,9 G5]AL1 IT WAS EASY = ,SP5C] TO %[ TO :AT AN EXT5T  
PLEASURE & JOY 9 LIFE 9CREASE VITALITY1 CREATIV5ESS1 &  
PRODUCTIVITY1 ADD+1 !RE=E1 TO ! HAPP9ESS ( LIFE2 :]EAS  
SORR[ & SUFF]+ DECREASE VITALITY4 ,NE$LESS TO SAY1 EXCESS (  
PLEASURE MAY TEMPOR>ILY OR EV5 P]MAN5TLY L[] VITALITY1 WORK+  
CAPACITY1 & CREATIV5ESS4 

,! FAILURE TO RECOGNIZE ?IS LATT] TRU?1-A FAILURE = :I*  
!OLOGY 7& ALSO ! W>LIKE SPIRIT ( PRIMITIVE SOCIETIES7 IS TO  
BLAME1-NOT ONLY GIVES A WRONG DIRECTION TO ALL REASON+ AB\T  
MORALITY1 BUT IS DETRIM5TAL TO LIFE ITSELF4 ,LIFE DOES NOT 9QUIRE  
AS TO ! MOTIVES ?AT LEAD A MAN TO LIVE A PHYSICALLY DEBILITAT+  
LIFE2 IT PUNI%ES ! OV]-DEVOT$ SCI5TI/ AS MU* AS ! HABITUAL  
DRUNK>D4 

,IT IS CLE>1 !N1 ?AT ,SP5C] DI/9CTLY RANG$ HIMSELF ON !  
SIDE ( ! 0EUDEMONI/S0 OR 0H$ONI/S10 I4E41 ( ?OSE :O SEE 9  
! DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY A /RIV+ AFT] ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS1  
! GREATE/ FULLNESS ( LIFE4 ,BUT IT IS /ILL NOT CLE> :Y MAN  
F9DS HIS GREATE/ PLEASURE 9 ! K9D ( LIFE :I* WE CALL MORAL4  
,! QUE/ION >ISES3 IS !RE NOT 9 ! V]Y NATURE ( MAN  
SOME-?+ ?AT GIVES ! PREF]5CE TO PLEASURE D]IV$ FROM !  
0MORAL0 ATTITUDE T[>D O!RS8 ,SP5C] LEAVES ?IS QUE/ION  
UNANSW]$4 

,! V]Y ESS5CE ( ,SP5C]'S E?ICAL TEA*+ IS1 H[EV]1  
CONTA9$ 9 HIS *APT] ON PSY*OLOGY1 ON ! PSY*IC EXP]I5CE  
:I*1 9 ! C\RSE ( ! SL[ DEVELOPM5T ( MANK9D1 L$ TO !  
ELABORATION ( C]TA9 CONCEPTIONS :I* >E CALL$ 0MORAL40 

,AS ALWAYS1 ,SP5C] BEG9S ) ! SIMPLE/ CASE4 ,AN AQUATIC  
CREATURE S5SES ! APPROA* ( SOME?+4 ,?IS EXCITATION  
PRO-DUCES 9 ! CREATURE A SIMPLE S5SATION1 & ?IS S5SATION  
CALLS =? A MOVEM5T4 ,! CREATURE EI!R HIDES1 OR RU%ES AT !  
OBJECT1 DEP5D+ ON :E!R IT TAKES IT = AN 5EMY OR SEES 9 IT  
A PREY4 

,WE HAVE H]E ! SIMPLE/ =M ( ?AT :I* FILLS \R :OLE  
LIFE4 ,SOME?+ EXT]NAL PRODUCES 9 US A C]TA9 S5SATION1 & WE  
RESPOND ) ACTION1 AN ACT4 ,= EXAMPLE1 WE READ 9 ! NEWS-PAP]  
AN ADV]TISEM5T ( AN AP>TM5T TO LET4 ,! ADV]TISEM5T  
DESCRIBES ! CONV5I5CES ( ! AP>TM5T & WE =M A C]TA9  
M5TAL PICTURE ( IT1 :I* PRODUCES A C]TA9 S5SATION1 FOLL[$  
BY ACTION3 WE EI!R MAKE FUR!R 9QUIRIES AB\T ! AP>TM5T1 OR  
GIVE UP ! IDEA ( TAK+ IT4 

,BUT ! CASE MAY BE MU* MORE COMPLICAT$4 ,& 9DE$1 0\R  
M9D CONSI/S ( FEEL+S & ! RELATIONS AMONG FEEL+S4 ,BY  
COMPOSITION ( ! RELATIONS & IDEAS ( RELATIONS1 9TELLIG5CE  
>ISES4 ,BY COMPOSITION ( ! FEEL+S & IDEAS ( FEEL+S1  
EMO-TION >ISES40 78 #d#a47 ,:ILE A L[] ANIMAL1 OR AN UNDEVELOP$ SAVAGE1  
RA%LY ATTACKS ! SUPPOS$ PREY1 A MORE DEVELOP$ MAN OR A MORE  
EXP]I5C$ ANIMAL WEI<S ! CONSEQU5CES ( ! ACT4 ,WE F9D !  
SAME C\RSE 9 ALL MORAL ACTS4 ,A ?IEF DOES NOT WEI< ALL !  
POSSIBILITIES & ! CONSEQU5CES ( HIS ACT1 BUT A CONSCI5TI\S  
MAN CONSID]S !M NOT ONLY 9 APPLICATION TO HIMSELF BUT ALSO TO  
! O!R MAN1 & NOT 9FREQU5TLY EV5 TO ALL O!RS1 TO SOCIETY4  
,& F9ALLY1 9 ! CASE ( 9TELLECTUALLY DEVELOP$ MAN1 ! ACTS  
:I* WE CALL JUDICIAL >E FREQU5TLY DET]M9$ BY V]Y COMPLEX  
CONSID]ATIONS ( REMOTE AIMS1 & 9 SU* CASES !Y BE-COME MORE  
& MORE IDEAL4 

,( C\RSE1 EXAGG]ATION IS POSSIBLE 9 ALL ?+S4 ,REASON+  
MAY BE C>RI$ TO EXTREME CONCLUSIONS4 ,?IS HAPP5S TO ?OSE :O1  
9 REJECT+ ! PRES5T JOYS = ! SAKE ( ! FUTURE1 REA* !  
PO9T ( ASCETICISM & LOSE ! V]Y ABILITY TO LIVE AN ACTIVE  
LIFE4 ,BUT WE >E NOT CONC]N$ ) EXAGG]ATIONS4 ,! IMPORTANT  
PO9T 9 \R DISCUSSION IS ?AT IT GIVES US AN IDEA ( ! ORIG9 (  
MORAL JUDGM5TS & ( !IR DEVELOPM5T SIMULTANE\SLY ) !  
DE-VELOPM5T ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,IT %[S US H[ MORE COMPLEX1 &  
CONSEQU5TLY BROAD] JUDGM5TS ATTA9 PREPOND]ANCE OV] ! SIMPL]  
& ! PRIMITIVE ONES4 

,9 ! LIFE ( HUMAN SOCIETIES A V]Y LONG P]IOD ( TIME MU/1  
( NECESSITY1 ELAPSE BE=E ! MAJORITY ( ! MEMB]S LE>N TO  
SUBORD9ATE !IR FIR/ SPONTANE\S IMPULSES TO ! CONSID]ATIONS  
( MORE OR LESS REMOTE CONSEQU5CES4 ,! HABIT ( SUBORD9AT+  
ONE'S UNCONSCI\S T5D5CIES TO SOCIAL CONSID]ATIONS ON ! BASES  
( P]SONAL EXP]I5CE1 DEVELOPS FIR/ 9 SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS1 &  
!N ! GREAT MULTITUDE ( SU* 9DIVIDUAL 9DUCTIONS COMB9ES 9TO  
TRIBAL MORALITY1 SUPPORT$ BY TRADITION & TRANSMITT$ FROM  
G5]A-TION TO G5]ATION4 

,AT FIR/ PRIMITIVE M5 DEVELOP FE> ( ! ANG] ( !IR FELL[  
SAVAGES2 !N FE> ( ! LEAD] 7USUALLY ! MILIT>Y LEAD]71 :O  
IS TO BE OBEY$ IF W> AGA9/ ! NEI<BOR+ TRIBE IS TO BE  
WAG$2 & F9ALLY1 FE> ( <O/S1 I4 E41 ! SPIRITS ( ! DEAD1  
:O >E BELIEV$ TO BE CON/ANTLY 9FLU5C+ ! AFFAIRS ( !  
LIV+4 ,!SE ?REE K9DS ( FE> RE/RA9 ! /RIV+ ( !  
SAVAGE = ! IMM$IATE SATISFACTION ( HIS DESIRES1 & !Y  
F9ALLY EVOLVE 9TO ?OSE PH5OM5A ( SOCIAL LIFE :I* WE N[ CALL  
PUBLIC OP9ION1 POLITICAL P[]1 & *UR* AU?ORITY4 ,H[EV]1 A  
DI/9CTION %\LD BE MADE BETWE5 !SE RE/RA9+ FACTORS1 &  
! MORAL S5TIM5TS & HABITS PROP] :I* DEVELOP$ FROM  
!M1 = MORAL S5TIM5T & CONSCI5CE HAVE 9 VIEW NOT !  
EXT]NAL CONSEQU5CES ( ! ACT UPON O!RS1 BUT ! 9T]NAL--UPON  
! MAN HIMSELF4 

,9 O!R WORDS1 AS ,SP5C] WROTE TO ,MILL1 ! FUNDAM5TAL MORAL  
9TUITION ( ! HUMAN RACE IS ! RESULT ( ! ACCUMULAT$  
EX-P]I5CE ( ! UTILITY ( C]TA9 K9DS ( MUTUAL RELATIONS4 ,IT  
IS ONLY GRADUALLY ?AT ?IS 9TUITION CAME TO BE 9DEP5D5T (  
EXP]I5CE4 ,?US1 AT ! TIME :5 ,SP5C] WAS WRIT+ ?IS P>T (  
HIS 0,PR9CIPLES ( ,E?ICS10 79 #a#h#g#i71 HE SAW NO 9N] CAUSE ( !  
MORAL ELEM5T 9 MAN4 ,HE MADE ! FIR/ /EP 9 ?IS DIRECTION ONLY  
9 #a#h#i1 :5 HE WROTE = ! MAGAZ9E1 0,N9ETE5? ,C5-TURY10 TWO  
>TICLES ON ,MUTUAL ,AID1 CIT+ SOME DATA ON ! MORAL FEEL+S 9  
C]TA9 ANIMALS4 #h 

,FUR!R1 9 CONSID]+ ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS  
FROM ! SOCIOLOGICAL PO9T ( VIEW1 I4E41 FROM ! VIEWPO9T ( !  
DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1 ,SP5C] FIR/ ( ALL PO9T$ \T  
?AT1 S9CE M5 LIVE 9 SOCIETIES1 !Y 9EVITABLY BECOME CONV9C$  
?AT IT IS 9 ! 9T]E/S ( EA* MEMB] ( SOCIETY TO SUPPORT !  
LIFE ( SOCIETY1 EV5 IF AT TIMES SU* ACTION IS CONTR>Y TO ONE'S  
P]SONAL IMPULSES & DESIRES4 ,BUT1 UN=TUNATELY1 HE /ILL BAS$  
HIS REASON+ ON ?AT FALSE IDEA1 :I* HAD BECOME E/ABLI%$ FROM  
! TIME ( ,HOBBES1 ?AT PRIMITIVE M5 LIV$ NOT 9 SOCIETIES1 BUT  
S+LY OR 9 SMALL GR\PS4 ,) RESPECT TO ! LAT] EVOLUTION (  
MANK9D1 HE ADH]$ TO ! SIMPLIFI$ VIEW E/ABLI%$ BY ,COMTE1-!  
GRADUAL TRANSITION ( MOD]N SOCIETIES FROM ! W>LIKE1 MILITANT  
/ATE1 TO ! PEACEFUL1 9DU/RIAL COMMUNITY4 

,DUE TO ?IS CIRCUM/ANCE1 HE WROTE1 WE F9D AMONG MODEM MANK9D  
TWO CODES ( MORALITY3 0,HATE & DE/ROY Y\R 5EMY10 & 0,LOVE &  
AID Y\R FELL[-MAN40 0,BE OB$I5T TO ! MILITANT ,/ATE10 &1 0,BE  
AN 9DEP5D5T CITIZ5 & /RIVE = LIMITATION ( ! P[] ( !  
,/ATE40 

,EV5 AMONG MOD]N CIVILIZ$ PEOPLES SUBJECTION ( WOM5 &  
*ILDR5 IS P]MITT$1 AL?\< PROTE/S >E HE>D & DEM&S MADE  
= EQUALITY ( RI<TS ( BO? SEXES BE=E ! LAW4 ,ALL ?IS TAK5  
TOGE!R LEADS TO ANT9OMY1 TO HALFWAY MORALITY1 :I* CONSI/S ( A  
S]IES ( COMPROMISES & B>GA9S ) ONE'S CONSCI5CE4 

,CONTR>IWISE1 ! MORALITY ( ! PEACEFUL SOCIAL SY/EM1 IF WE  
>E TO EXPRESS ITS ESS5CE1 IS EXTREMELY SIMPLE2 IT MAY EV5 BE SAID  
TO CONSI/ ( TRUISMS4 ,OBVI\SLY1 ?AT :I* CON/ITUTES EVIL 9  
SOCIETY 9CLUDES ALL ACTS ( AGGRESSION ( ONE MEMB] ( SOCIETY  
AGA9/ ! O!R1 = IF WE >E TO TOL]ATE SU* ACTS1 !  
/ABILITY ( ! SOCIAL BOND IS WEAK5$4 ,IT IS ALSO OBVI\S ?AT  
! MA9T5ANCE ( SOCIETY REQUIRES ! MUTUAL COOP]ATION ( M54  
,&1 :AT IS MORE1 IF COOP]ATION IS NOT PRACTIC$ = !  
DEF5SE ( ! GR\P1 IT WILL NOT BE =?COM+ = !  
GRATIFICATION ( ! MO/ PRESS+ NE$S3 FOOD1 DWELL+1 HUNT+1  
ETC4 ,ALL CONSID]ATION ( ! USEFULNESS ( SOCIETY WILL BE  
LO/4 78 #e#a47 

,NO MATT] H[ FEW ! NE$S ( SOCIETY1 & NO MATT] H[  
PRIMITIVE ! MEANS ( !IR SATISFACTION1 COOP]ATION IS NECESS>Y3  
IT MANIFE/S ITSELF AMONG ! PRIMITIVE PEOPLES 9 HUNT+1 9 !  
CULTIVATION ( L& 9 COMMON1 ETC4 ,& !N1 ) ! HI<]  
DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL LIFE1 !RE APPE>S A =M ( COOP]ATION 9  
:I* ! TASKS ( ! DIFF]5T MEMB]S ( SOCIETY >E NOT ALIKE1  
?\< !Y ALL PURSUE A COMMON AIM4 ,& F9ALLY1 ANO!R =M (  
COOP]ATION DEVELOPS UND] :I* BO? ! NATURE ( ! WORK &  
ITS AIMS >E DIFF]5T1 BUT UND] :I* ?IS WORK CONTRIBUTES1  
NEV]!LESS1 TO ! G5]AL WELF>E4 ,H]E WE ALREADY MEET ) !  
SUBDIVISION ( LABOR1 & ! QUE/ION >ISES3-0,H[ >E !  
PRODUCTS ( LABOR TO BE DIVID$80 ,!RE CAN BE BUT ONE ANSW] TO  
?IS QUE/ION3 UND] VOLUNT>Y AGREEM5T1 SO ?AT ! COMP5SATION  
= WORK WILL MAKE POSSIBLE ! REPL5I%+ ( ! 5]GY EXP5D$1  
JU/ AS OCCURS 9 NATURE4 ,TO ?IS WE MU/ ADD3-0& 9 ORD] TO  
MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO EXP5D 5]GY UPON WORK :I* MAY NOT BE AS YET  
RECOGNIZ$ AS NECESS>Y1 & :I* GIVES PLEASURE TO 9DIVIDUAL  
MEMB]S ( SOCIETY1 BUT :I* MAY 9 TIME PROVE USEFUL TO SOCIETY AS  
A :OLE40 

,?IS1 H[EV]1 IS NOT 5\<1 CONT9UES ,SP5C]1 ,AN 9DU/RIAL  
SOCIETY IS CONCEIVABLE 9 :I* M5 LEAD A PEACEFUL LIFE & FULFILL  
ALL !IR CONTRACTS1 BUT :I* LACKS COOP]ATION = ! COMMON  
GOOD1 & 9 :I* NO ONE IS CONC]N$ AB\T ! PUBLIC 9T]E/S4  
,9 SU* A SOCIETY ! LIMIT ( ! EVOLUTION ( CONDUCT IS NOT  
ATTA9$1 = IT MAY BE %[N ?AT ! =M ( DEVELOPM5T :I*  
SUPPLEM5TS JU/ICE ) B5EFIC5CE1 IS A =M ADAPT$ TO AN  
IMP]FECT SOCIAL SY/EM4 78 #e#d47 

0,?US ! SOCIOLOGICAL VIEW ( ,E?ICS SUPPLEM5TS ! PHYSICAL1  
BIOLOGICAL1 & PSY*OLOGICAL VIEWS40 78 #e#e47 ,HAV+ ?US E/ABLI%$ !  
FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( E?ICS FROM ! /&PO9T ( EVOLUTION1  
,SP5C] WROTE AN ADDITIONAL *APT] 9 :I* HE ANSW]S ! ATTACKS  
UPON UTILIT>IANISM1 &1 AMONG O!R ?+S1 DISCUSSES ! P>T  
PLAY$ BY JU/ICE 9 ! ELABORATION ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 #i 

,9 >GU+ AGA9/ ! ACCEPTANCE ( JU/ICE AS ! BASIS ( !  
MORAL1 ! UTILIT>IAN ,B5?AM WROTE3 0,BUT JU/ICE1 :AT IS IT ?AT  
WE >E TO UND]/& BY JU/ICE8-& :Y NOT HAPP9ESS1 BUT  
JU/ICE8 ,:AT HAPP9ESS IS1 EV]Y MAN KN[S4 4 4 4 ,BUT :AT JU/ICE  
IS1-?IS IS :AT ON EV]Y OCCASION IS ! SUBJECT MATT] ( DISPUTE4  
,BE ! MEAN+ ( ! WORD JU/ICE :AT IT WILL1 :AT REG>D IS IT  
5TITL$ TO1 O!RWISE ?AN AS A MEANS ( HAPP9ESS80  
70,CON/ITUTIONAL ,CODE10 *4 XVI1 ,SECTION #f74 

,SP5C] ANSW]$ ?IS QUE/ION BY PO9T+ \T ?AT ALL HUMAN  
SOCIETIES-NOMADIC1 P]MAN5TLY SETTL$1 & 9DU/RIAL1 /RIVE AFT]  
HAPP9ESS1 AL?\< EA* USES DIFF]5T MEANS TO ATTA9 ?AT AIM4  
,BUT !RE >E C]TA9 NECESS>Y CONDITIONS ?AT >E COMMON TO !M  
ALL-H>MONI\S COOP]ATION1 ABS5CE ( DIRECT AGGRESSION1 &  
ABS5CE ( 9DIRECT AGGRESSION 9 ! =M ( BREA* ( CONTRACT4  
,& !SE ?REE CONDITIONS TOGE!R R$UCE !MSELVES TO ONE3  
MA9T5ANCE ( FAIR1 EQUITABLE RELATIONS4 78#f#a7 ,?IS ASS]TION ON ! P>T  
( ,SP5C] IS V]Y SIGNIFICANT1 = IT /RESSES ! FACT ?AT WIDELY  
DIFF]5T MORAL SY/EMS1 RELIGI\S AS WELL AS NONRELIGI\S1  
9CLUD+ ! EVOLUTION !ORY1 AGREE 9 RECOGNIZ+ EQUITY AS !  
BASIC PR9CIPLE ( MORALITY4 ,!Y ALL AGREE ?AT ! AIM (  
SOCIALITY IS ! WELLBE+ ( EA* & ( ALL1 & ?AT EQUITY   
CON/ITUTES ! NECESS>Y MEANS = ATTA9+ ?IS WELL-BE+4 ,&1 
,I WILL ADD1 NO MATT] H[ (T5 ! PR9CIPLE ( EQUITY WAS  
VIOLAT$ 9 ! HI/ORY ( MANK9D1 NO MATT] H[ ASSIDU\SLY  
LEGISLATORS UP TO ! PRES5T DAY HAVE MADE EV]Y EF=T TO  
CIRCUMV5T IT1 & MORAL PHILOSOPH]S TO PASS IT OV] 9  
SIL5CE-NEV]!LESS1 ! RECOGNITION ( EQUITY LIES AT ! BASIS (  
ALL MORAL CONCEPTIONS & EV5 ( ALL MORAL TEA*+S4 

,?US1 9 REPLY+ TO ! UTILIT>IAN1 ,B5?AM1 ,SP5C] REA*$  
! ESS5CE ( \R 9T]PRETATION ( JU/ICE1 I4 E41 ! RECOGNITION  
( EQUITY4 ,?IS WAS ! CONCLUSION ALREADY COME TO BY ,>I/OTLE1  
:5 HE WROTE3 0! JU/ WILL !RE=E1 BE ! LAWFUL & !  
EQUAL2 & ! UNJU/ ! UNLAWFUL & ! UNEQUAL40 ,! ,ROMANS  
SIMIL>LY ID5TIFI$ JU/ICE ) EQUITY1 0:I* IS A D]IVATIVE (  
AEQUUS1 ! WORD AEQUUS  ITSELF HAV+ = ONE ( ITS MEAN+S1 JU/  
OR IMP>TIAL4#a 78 #f7 ,?IS MEAN+ ( ! WORD JU/ICE HAS  
BE5 COMPLETELY PRES]V$ 9 MOD]N LEGISLATION1 :I* =BIDS  
DIRECT AGGRESSION1 AS WELL AS 9DIRECT1 9 ! =M ( BREA* (  
CONTRACT1 BO? ( :I* W\LD CON/ITUTE 9EQUALITY4 ,ALL !SE  
CONSID]ATIONS1 CONCLUDES ,SP5C]1 0%[ ! ID5TIFICATION (  
JU/ICE ) EQUALNESS40 78 #f47 

,P>TICUL>LY 9/RUCTIVE >E ! *APT]S DEVOT$ BY ,SP5C] TO  
! DISCUSSION ( EGOISM & ALTRUISM4 ,9 !SE *APT]S ! V]Y  
F\NDATIONS ( HIS E?ICS >E EXP\ND$40#a#a 

,TO BEG9 )1 DIFF]5T RACES ( M5 AT DIFF]5T TIMES W]E  
NOT 9 AGREEM5T 9 !IR 9T]PRETATIONS ( PLEASURE & PA94  
,?AT :I* WAS HELD TO BE A PLEASURE CEAS$ TO BE CONSID]$ AS  
SU*2 & 9V]SELY1 ?AT :I* WAS CONSID]$ A BURD5SOME  
PROC$URE BECOMES A PLEASURE UND] NEW CONDITIONS ( LIFE4 ,?US1  
= EXAMPLE1 WE N[ F9D PLEASURE 9 S[+1 BUT NOT 9 REAP+4  
,BUT ! CONDITIONS ( WORK >E BE+ *ANG$ & WE BEG9 TO F9D  
PLEASURE 9 ?+S :I* W]E =M]LY CONSID]$ WE>ISOME4 ,IT MAY  
BE SAID 9 -G5]AL ?AT ANY WORK NECESSITAT$ BY ! CONDITIONS (  
LIFE CAN1 & 9 TIME WILL1 BE ACCOMPANI$ BY PLEASURE4 

,:AT1 !N1 IS ALTRUISM1 I4 E41 IF NOT DEF9$ AS LOVE =  
O!RS1 !N1 AT LEA/1 CONC]N AB\T !IR NE$S2 & :AT IS  
EGOISM1 I4E41 SELF-LOVE8 

0,A CREATURE MU/ LIVE  BE=E IT CAN ACT40 ,!RE=E !  
MA9T5ANCE ( ITS LIFE IS ! PRIM>Y CONC]N ( EV]Y LIV+  
BE+4 0,EGOISM COMES BE=E ALTRUISM10 WROTE ,SP5C]4 0,! ACTS  
REQUIR$ = CONT9U$ SELF-PRES]VATION1 9CLUD+ ! 5JOYM5T  
( B5EFITS A*IEV$ BY SU* ACTS1 >E ! FIR/ REQUISITES TO  
UNIV]SAL WELF>E4 ,?IS P]MAN5T SUPREMACY ( EGOISM OV]  
ALTRUISM1 IS FUR!R MADE MANIFE/ BY CONTEMPLAT+ LIFE 9 C\RSE  
( EVOLUTION40 78 #f#h47 ,?US ! IDEA ?AT EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL %ALL GA9 OR  
LOSE 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! PROP]TIES ( HIS [N NATURE1 :E!R  
9H]IT$ OR ACQUIR$1 BECOMES MORE & MORE S\ND4 ,?IS IS  
EQUIVAL5T TO RECOGNIZ+ ?AT 0EGOI/IC CLAIMS MU/ TAKE PREC$5CE  
( ALTRUI/IC CLAIMS40 788 #f#h-#f#i47 ,?IS CONCLUSION1 H[EV]1 IS 9CORRECT1 EV5  
IF = ! SOLE REASON ?AT ! MOD]N DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIETY T5DS  
T[>D 5ABL+ EA* ONE ( US TO 5JOY NOT ONLY P]SONAL B5EFITS1  
BUT TO A MU* GREAT] EXT5T1 SOCIAL B5EFITS4 

,\R CLO!S1 \R DWELL+S & !IR MOD]N CONV5I5CES1 >E  
! PRODUCTS ( ! WORLD'S 9DU/RY4 ,\R CITIES1 ) !IR  
/REETS1 !IR S*OOLS1 >T GALL]IES1 & !AT]S >E ! PRODUCTS  
( ! WORLD'S DEVELOPM5T DUR+ MANY C5TURIES4 ,WE ALL 5JOY !  
ADVANTAGES ( ! RAILROADS3-NOTE H[ !Y >E APPRECIAT$ BY A  
PEASANT :O1 = ! FIR/ TIME1 SITS D[N 9 A RAIL-COA* AFT] A  
LONG J\RNEY AFOOT 9 ! RA94 ,BUT IT WAS NOT HE :O CREAT$  
!M4 

,BUT ALL ?IS IS ! PRODUCT ( COLLECTIVE1 & NOT ( 9DIVIDUAL  
CREATION1 SO ?AT ! LAW ( LIFE DIRECTLY CONTRADICTS ,SP5C]'S  
CONCLUSION4 ,?IS LAW /ATES ?AT ) ! DEVELOPM5T (  
CIVILIZATION MAN BECOMES MORE & MORE ACCU/OM$ TO TAKE ADVANTAGE  
( ! B5EFITS ACQUIR$ NOT BY HIM1 BUT BY HUMANITY AS A :OLE4  
,& HE EXP]I5C$ ?IS AT ! E>LIE/ P]IOD ( ! TRIBAL SY/EM4  
,/UDY A VILLAGE ( ! MO/ PRIMITIVE ISL&]S ( ! ,PACIFIC1 )  
ITS L>GE BALAI  7COMMON H\SE71 ) ITS R[S ( TREES1 ITS BOATS1  
ITS RULES ( HUNT+1 RULES ( PROP] RELATIONS ) ! NEI<BORS1  
ETC4 ,EV5 ! SURVIV+ REMNANTS ( M5 ( ! ,GLACIAL ,P]IOD1 !  
,ESQUIMAUX1 HAVE A CIVILIZATION ( !IR [N & !IR [N /ORE (  
KN[L$GE ELABORAT$ BY ALL1 & NOT BY AN 9DIVIDUAL4 ,SO ?AT EV5  
,SP5C] HAD TO =MULATE ! FUNDAM5TAL RULE ( LIFE TO ADMIT !  
FOLL[+ RE/RICTION03 ! PURSUIT ( 9DIVIDUAL HAPP9ESS )9  
! LIMITS PRESCRIB$ BY SOCIAL CONDITIONS40 78 #g1 P4 #a#i47 ,& 9DE$1 9 !  
P]IOD ( ! TRIBAL MODE ( LIFE1-& !RE NEV] WAS A P]IOD (  
LIV+ 9 SOLITUDE1-! SAVAGE WAS TAU<T FROM E>LY *ILDHOOD ?AT  
ISOLAT$ LIFE & ISOLAT$ 5JOYM5T ( IT >E IMPOSSIBLE4 ,IT IS ON  
?IS BASIS1 & NOT ON ! BASIS ( EGOISM1 ?AT HIS LIFE %APES  
ITSELF1 JU/ AS 9 A COLONY ( ROOKS OR 9 AN ANT-HILL4 

,SPEAK+ G5]ALLY1 ! P>T ( ,SP5C]'S BOOK DEVOT$ TO !  
DEF5SE ( EGOTISM 788 #g#a-#g#c47 IS V]Y WEAK4 ,A DEF5SE ( EGOTISM WAS  
UND\BT$LY NE$$1 ALL ! MORE S9CE1 AS ,SP5C] %[$ AT !  
BEG9N+ ( HIS TREATISE1 ! RELIGI\S MORALI/S MADE MANY ON  
REASONABLE DEM&S UPON ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,BUT ,SP5C]'S >GUM5TS  
R$UC$ !MSELVES TO A V9DICATION ( ! ,NIETZS*EAN 0BLOND  
BEA/10 RA!R ?AN TO A JU/IFICATION ( A 0S\ND M9D 9 A S\ND  
BODY40 ,?IS IS :Y HE >RIVES AT ! FOLL[+ CONCLUSION3 0,?AT  
EGOISM PREC$ES ALTRUISM 9 ORD] ( IMP]ATIV5ESS1 IS ?US CLE>LY  
%[N01 78 #g#d7-- A /ATEM5T SO 9DEF9ITE AS EI!R TO CONVEY NO  
9=MATION OR LEAD+ TO FALSE CONCLUSIONS4 

,IT IS TRUE ?AT 9 ! NEXT *APT]1 0,ALTRUISM VS4 ,EGOISM10  
,SP5C]1 FOLL[+ ! C\RT-(-LAW SY/EM ( ACCUSATION &  
DEF5SE1 5DEAVOR$ TO EMPHASIZE ! GREAT IMPORTANCE ( ALTRUISM  
9 ! LIFE ( NATURE4 ,AMONG BIRDS1 9 !IR EF=TS TO PROTECT  
!IR Y\NG FROM DANG] AT ! RISK ( !IR [N LIVES1 WE AT ONCE  
HAVE EVID5CE ( TRUE ALTRUISM1 EV5 IF /ILL SEMI-CONSCI\S4 ,BUT  
! RISK W\LD BE ! SAME :E!R ! FEEL+ IS CONSCI\S OR  
UNCONSCI\S4 ,?US ,SP5C] WAS COMPELL$ TO ACKN[L$GE ?AT  
0SELF-SACRIFICE IS NO LESS PRIMORDIAL ?AN SELF-PRES]VATION40 78 #g#e47 

,9 ! LAT] /AGES ( EVOLUTION ( ANIMALS & M51 !RE IS  
MORE & MORE COMPLETE TRANSITION FROM ! UNCONSCI\S P>5TAL  
ALTRUISM TO ! CONSCI\S K9D1 & !RE APPE> NEW =MS ( !  
ID5TIFICATION ( P]SONAL 9T]E/S ) ! 9T]E/S ( A  
COMRADE1 & !N ( SOCIETY4 

,EV5 ! ALTRUI/IC ACTIVITIES CONTA9 ! ELEM5T ( EGOI/IC  
PLEASURE1 AS IS EXEMPLIFI$ 9 >T1 :I* T5DS TO UNITE ALL 9 A  
COMMON 5JOYM5T4 0,FROM ! DAWN ( LIFE1 !N1 EGOISM HAS BE5  
DEP5D5T UPON ALTRUISM AS ALTRUISM HAS BE5 DEP5D5T UPON EGOISM40 78 #h#a47 

,?IS REM>K ( ,SP5C]'S IS P]FECTLY TRUE4 ,BUT IF WE >E TO  
ACCEPT ! WORD ALTRUISM1 9TRODUC$ BY ,COMTE1 AS ! OPPOSITE (  
EGOISM1 :AT1 !N1 IS E?ICS8 ,:AT WAS IT ?AT MORALITY1 EVOLV+  
9 ANIMAL & HUMAN SOCIETIES1 WAS /RIV+ =1 IF NOT = !  
OPPOSITION TO ! PROMPT+S ( N>R[ EGOISM1 & = BR++ UP  
HUMANITY 9 ! SPIRIT ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( ALTRUISM8 ,! V]Y  
EXPRESSIONS 0EGOISM0 & 0ALTRUISM0 >E 9CORRECT1 BECAUSE !RE CAN  
BE NO PURE ALTRUISM )\T AN ADMIXTURE ( P]SONAL PLEASURE &1  
CONSEQU5TLY1 )\T EGOISM4 ,IT W\LD !RE=E BE MORE NE>LY  
CORRECT TO SAY ?AT E?ICS AIMS AT ! DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL HABITS  
& ! WEAK5+ ( ! N>R[LY P]SONAL HABITS4 ,!SE LA/ MAKE  
! 9DIVIDUAL LOSE SI<T ( SOCIETY ?R\< HIS REG>D = HIS [N  
P]SON1 & !RE=E !Y EV5 FAIL TO ATTA9 !IR OBJECT1 I4E41  
! WELF>E ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 :]EAS ! DEVELOPM5T ( HABITS (  
WORK 9 COMMON1 & ( MUTUAL AID 9 G5]AL1 LEADS TO A S]IES (  
B5EFICIAL CONSEQU5CES 9 ! FAMILY AS WELL AS 9 SOCIETY4 

,HAV+ CONSID]$ 9 ! FIR/ P>T ( HIS BOOK 70,! ,DATA (  
,E?ICS07 ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL ELEM5T 9 MAN FROM ! PHYSICAL1  
BIOLOGICAL1 PSY*OLOGICAL1 & SOCIOLOGICAL VIEWPO9T1 ,SP5C] !N  
PROCE$$ TO ANALYZE ! ESS5CE ( MORALITY4 ,9 MAN & 9  
SOCIETY1 HE WROTE1 !RE IS A CONT9UAL /RUGGLE BETWE5 EGOISM &  
ALTRUISM1 & ! AIM ( MORALITY IS ! RECONCILIATION ( !SE TWO  
OPPOS+ T5D5CIES4 ,M5 COME TO ?IS RECONCILIATION1 OR EV5 TO  
! TRIUMPH ( SOCIAL T5D5CIES OV] ! EGOI/IC T5D5CIES1  
?R\< ! GRADUAL MODIFICATION ( ! V]Y BASES ( !IR  
SOCIETIES4 

,) REF]5CE TO ! ORIG9 ( ?IS RECONCILIATION ,SP5C]1  
UN=TUNATELY1 CONT9U$ TO ADH]E TO ! VIEW EXPRESS$ BY ,HOBBES4  
,HE ?\<T ?AT ONCE UPON A TIME M5 LIV$ LIKE C]TA9 WILD  
ANIMALS1 SU* AS TIG]S1 7V]Y FEW ANIMALS1 IT MU/ BE SAID1 LEAD  
?IS TYPE ( LIFE N[71 ALWAYS READY TO ATTACK & TO KILL ONE  
ANO!R4 ,!N1 ONE F9E DAY1 M5 DECID$ TO UNITE 9TO A SOCIETY1  
& S9CE !N !IR SOCIALITY HAS BE5 DEVELOP+4 

,ORIG9ALLY ! SOCIAL ORGANIZATION WAS MILIT>Y1 OR MILITANT4  
,EV]Y?+ WAS SUBJECT$ TO ! DEM&S ( W> & /RUGGLE4  
,MILIT>Y PR[ESS WAS REG>D$ AS ! HI<E/ VIRTUE1 ! ABILITY TO  
TAKE AWAY FROM ONE'S NEI<BORS !IR W9ES1 !IR CATTLE1 OR ANY  
O!R PROP]TY1 WAS EXTOLL$ AS ! HI<E/ M]IT1 &1 AS A  
CONSEQU5CE1 MORALITY %AP$ ITSELF 9 ACCORDANCE ) ?IS IDEAL4  
,ONLY GRADUALLY DID ! NEW SOCIAL SY/EM BEG9 TO DEVELOP1 !  
9DU/RIAL SY/EM 9 :I* WE >E N[ LIV+1 AL?\< !  
DI/+UI%+ FEATURES ( ! MILITANT SY/EM HAVE BY NO MEANS  
COMPLETELY DISAPPE>$4 ,BUT AT PRES5T ! *>ACT]I/IC FEATURES  
( ! 9DU/RIAL SY/EM >E ALREADY BE+ EVOLV$1 & ) !M A  
NEW MORALITY 9 :I* SU* FEATURES ( PEACEFUL SOCIALITY AS  
SYMPA?Y OBTA9 ! ASC5DANCY2 AT ! SAME TIME !RE APPE>$ MANY  
NEW VIRTUES1 UNKN[N TO ! E>LI] MODE ( LIFE4 

,! READ] CAN ASC]TA9 FROM MANY WORKS ( CONTEMPOR>Y &  
E>LI] WRIT]S1 M5TION$ 9 MY BOOK1 0,MUTUAL ,AID10 TO :AT AN  
EXT5T ,SP5C]'S CONCEPTION ( PRIMITIVE PEOPLES IS WRONG OR EV5  
FANTA/IC4 ,BUT ?IS IS NOT ! QUE/ION4 ,IT IS P>TICUL>LY  
IMPORTANT = US TO KN[ ! LAT] C\RSE ( DEVELOPM5T ( !  
MORAL CONCEPTIONS 9 MAN4 

,AT FIR/1 ! E/ABLI%M5T ( RULES ( CONDUCT WAS ! DOMA9  
( RELIGION4 ,IT EXTOLL$ W> & ! MILIT>Y VIRTUES3 C\RAGE1  
OB$I5CE TO SUP]IORS1 RU?LESSNESS1 ETC4 ,BUT SIDE BY SIDE )  
RELIGI\S E?ICS ! UTILIT>IAN  E?ICS BEGAN TO DEVELOP4 ,TRACES (  
IT >E TO BE NOTIC$ 9 ,ANCI5T ,EGYPT4 ,LAT]1 9 ,SOCRATES &  
,>I/OTLE1 MORALITY IS SEP>AT$ FROM RELIGION & ! ELEM5T (  
SOCIAL UTILITY1 I4 E41 ( UTILIT>IANISM1 IS 9TRODUC$ 9TO !  
EVALUATION ( HUMAN CONDUCT4 ,?IS ELEM5T /RUGGLES AGA9/ !  
RELIGI\S ELEM5T ?R\<\T ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 & !N1 AS WE HAVE  
SE51 FROM ! TIME ( ! ,R5AISSANCE1 ! UTILIT>IAN BIAS AGA9  
COMES TO ! =EGR\ND1 & GA9S SPECIAL /R5G? 9 ! SECOND  
HALF ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 FROM !  
TIME ( ,B5?AM & ,MILL1 SAYS ,SP5C]1 0WE HAVE UTILITY E/ABLI%$  
AS ! SOLE /&>D ( CONDUCT10 78 #a#a#f471-- :I* IS1 BY ! WAY1 QUITE  
9CORRECT1 = ,SP5C] HIMSELF DEVIATES SOME:AT 9 HIS E?ICS FROM  
SO N>R[ AN 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY4 ,! HABIT ( FOLL[+  
DEF9ITE RULES ( CONDUCT1 AS WELL AS RELIGION & ! EVALUATION (  
! UTILITY ( V>I\S CU/OMS1 GAVE RISE TO FEEL+S &  
CONCEPTIONS ADAPT$ TO C]TA9 MORAL RULES1 & 9 ?IS MANN] WAS  
DEVELOP$ ! PREF]5CE = ! MODE ( CONDUCT :I* LEADS TO  
SOCIAL WELF>E2 !N CAME NONSYMPA?Y OR EV5 DISAPPROVAL ( !  
CONDUCT ?AT LEADS TO ! OPPOSITE RESULTS4 ,9 CONFIRMATION ( ?IS  
OP9ION1 ,SP5C] CITES 78 #a#a#g7 EXAMPLES FROM ! BOOKS ( ,ANCI5T ,9DIA &  
FROM ,CONFUCIUS1 :I* %[ H[ MORALITY EVOLV$1 IRRESPECTIVE ( !  
PROMISE ( REW>D FROM ABOVE4 ,?IS DEVELOPM5T1 ACCORD+ TO  
,SP5C]1 WAS DUE TO ! SURVIVAL ( ?OSE :O W]E BETT] ADAPT$  
?AN O!RS TO ! PEACEFUL SOCIAL SY/EM4 

,H[EV]1 ,SP5C] SAW NO?+ BUT UTILITY 9 ! 5TIRE PROGRESS  
( ! MORAL S5TIM5TS4 ,HE NOT$ NO GUID+ PR9CIPLE ORIG9AT+  
9 REASON OR 9 FEEL+4 ,9 A C]TA9 SY/EM M5 F\ND IT USEFUL TO  
WAGE W>S & TO PLUND]1 & !Y ACCORD+LY DEVELOP$ RULES (  
CONDUCT ?AT ELEVAT$ VIOL5CE & PLUND] TO ! LEVEL ( MORAL  
PR9CIPLES4 ,! DEVELOPM5T ( ! 9DU/RIAL-COMM]CIAL SY/EM  
BR\<T ) IT A *ANGE 9 FEEL+S & CONCEPTIONS1 AS ALSO 9 !  
RULES ( CONDUCT1--& A NEW RELIGION & A NEW E?ICS FOLL[$4  
,TOGE!R ) !SE !RE CAME ALSO ?AT :I* ,SP5C] CALLS ! AID  
TO E?ICS 70PROE?ICS10 I4 E41 9 LIEU  ( E?ICS71 A S]IES ( LAWS  
& ( RULES ( CONDUCT1 AT TIMES PREPO/]\S1 LIKE ! DUEL1 &  
AT TIMES ( A V]Y 9DEF9ITE ORIG94 

,IT IS 9T]E/+ TO NOTE ?AT ,SP5C]1 ) A CONSCI5TI\SNESS  
*>ACT]I/IC ( HIM1 PO9T$ \T C]TA9 FACTS :I* C\LD NOT BE  
EXPLA9$ FROM HIS PO9T ( VIEW EXCLUSIVELY BY ! UTILIT>IAN  
C\RSE ( MORALITY4 

,AS IS WELL KN[N1 ?R\<\T ! :OLE ( ! N9ETE5 C5TURIES  
?AT ELAPS$ AFT] ! FIR/ APPE>ANCE ( ! ,*RI/IAN TEA*+1  
MILIT>Y PR$ATOR9ESS NEV] CEAS$ TO BE EXTOLL$ AS ! HI<E/  
VIRTUE4 ,TO \R [N TIME ,ALEX&] ! ,GREAT1 ,K>L1 ,PET] ,I41  
,FR$]ICK #a#a41 ,NAPOLEON1 >E REG>D$ AS H]OES4 ,& YET1 9 !  
,9DIAN 0,MAHABH>ATA10 ESPECIALLY 9 ! SECOND P>T1 A V]Y  
DIFF]5T C\RSE ( CONDUCT WAS ADVOCAT$3 

0,TREAT O!RS AS ?\ W\LD'/ ?YSELF BE TREAT$4 

,DO NO?+ TO ?Y NEI<BOR1 :I* H]EAFT] 

,?\ W\LD'/ NOT HAVE ?Y NEI<BOR DO TO !E1 

,A MAN OBTA9S A RULE ( ACTION BY LOOK+ ON HIS NEI<BOR AS  
HIMSELF40 

,! ,*9ESE ?9K]1 ,LAO-,TSZE1 ALSO TAU<T ?AT 0PEACE IS !  
HI<E/ AIM40 ,P]SIAN ?9K]S & ! ,HEBREW BOOK ( ,LEVITICUS  
TAU<T !SE ?+S LONG BE=E ! APPE>ANCE ( ,BUDDHISM &  
,*RI/IANITY4 ,BUT ! GREATE/ CONTRADICTION TO ,SP5C]'S !ORY IS  
F\ND 9 ?AT :I* HE HIMSELF CONSCI5TI\SLY NOT$ 9 CONNECTION  
) ! PEACEFUL MODE ( LIFE ( SU* 0SAVAGE0 TRIBES AS1 =  
EXAMPLE1 ! PRIMITIVE 9HABITANTS ( ,SUMATRA1 OR ! ,?>US ( !  
,HIMALAYAS1 ! LEAGUE ( ! ,IROQUOIS1 DESCRIB$ BY ,MORGAN1 ETC4 78 #a#b#h47#a#b  
,!SE FACTS1 AS WELL AS ! NUM]\S 9/ANCES ?AT ,I PO9T$ \T 9  
MY 0,MUTUAL ,AID0 9 CONNECTION ) ! SAVAGES & MANK9D DUR+  
! SO-CALL$ 0B>B>IAN10 I4E41 DUR+ ! 0TRIBAL0 P]IOD1 & !  
MULTITUDE ( FACTS ?AT >E CONTA9$ 9 ! EXI/+ WORKS ON  
AN?ROPOLOGY1-ALL !SE >E FULLY E/ABLI%$4 ,!Y %[ ?AT  
:ILE1 DUR+ ! F\ND+ ( NEW /ATES OR 9 /ATES ALREADY  
EXI/+1 ! E?ICS ( PLUND]1 VIOL5CE1 & SLAV]Y WAS 9 HI<  
E/EEM AMONG ! RUL+ CLASSES1 !RE EXI/$ AMONG ! POPUL>  
MASSES FROM ! TIME ( ! MO/ PRIMITIVE SAVAGES1 ANO!R E?ICS3  
! E?ICS ( EQUITY1 &1 CONSEQU5TLY1 ( MUTUAL B5EVOL5CE4  
,?IS E?ICS WAS ALREADY ADVOCAT$ & EXEMPLIFI$ 9 ! MO/  
PRIMITIVE ANIMAL EPOS1 AS WAS PO9T$ \T 9 ! SECOND *APT] (  
?IS BOOK4 

,9 ! SECOND P>T ( HIS 0,PR9CIPLES ( ,E?ICS1 9 !  
DIVISION1 0,! ,9DUCTIONS ( ,E?ICS10 ,SP5C] CAME TO ! CONCLUSION  
?AT MORAL PH5OM5A >E EXTREMELY COMPLEX & ?AT IT IS DIFFICULT  
TO MAKE ANY G5]ALIZATION CONC]N+ !M4 ,&1 9DE$1 HIS  
CONCLUSIONS >E VAGUE1 & !RE IS BUT ONE ?+ HE DEF9ITELY  
ATTEMPTS TO PROVE1-NAMELY1 ?AT ! TRANSITION FROM ! MILITANT  
SY/EM TO ! PEACEFUL1 9DU/RIAL LIFE LEADS TO ! DEVELOPM5T (  
A S]IES ( PEACEFUL SOCIAL VIRTUES1 AS HAD BE5 ALREADY PO9T$ \T  
BY ,COMTE4 ,FROM ?IS FOLL[S1 WROTE ,SP5C]1 0?AT ! .<9NATE.>  
MORAL-S5SE DOCTR9E 9 ITS ORIG9AL =M IS NOT TRUE1 BUT IT  
ADUMBRATES A TRU?1 & A MU* HI<] TRU?1--NAMELY1 ?AT !  
S5TIM5TS & IDEAS CURR5T 9 EA* SOCIETY BECOME ADJU/$ TO !  
K9DS ( ACTIVITY PR$OM9AT+ 9 IT40 78 #a#i#a47 

,! READ] HAS PROBABLY NOTIC$ ! UNEXPECT$NESS ( ?IS  
ALMO/ PLATITUD9\S CONCLUSION4 ,IT W\LD BE MORE NE>LY CORRECT TO  
SUMM>IZE ! DATA GIV5 BY ,SP5C]1 & A MASS ( SIMIL> DATA  
OBTA9$ BY ! /UDY ( PRIMITIVE PEOPLES1 9 ! FOLL[+ =M3  
,! BASIS ( ALL MORALITY LIES 9 ! FEEL+ ( SOCIALITY1 9H]5T  
9 ! 5TIRE ANIMAL WORLD1 & 9 ! CONCEPTIONS ( EQUITY1 :I*  
CON/ITUTES ONE ( ! FUNDAM5TAL ,PRIM>Y JUDGM5TS ( HUMAN  
REASON4 ,UN=TUNATELY1 ! RAPACI\S 9/9CTS ?AT /ILL SURVIVE  
9 M5 FROM ! TIME ( ! PRIMITIVE /AGES ( !IR DEVELOPM5T  
9T]F]E ) ! RECOGNITION ( ! FEEL+ ( SOCIALITY & !  
CONSCI\SNESS ( EQUITY AS ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE ( ! MORAL  
JUDGM5TS4 ,!SE 9/9CTS W]E NOT ONLY PRES]V$ BUT EV5 BECAME  
/RONGLY DEVELOP$ AT V>I\S P]IODS ( HI/ORY1 9 PROPORTION AS  
NEW ME?ODS ( ACQUIR+ WEAL? W]E BE+ CREAT$2 9 PROPORTION  
AS AGRICULTURE DEVELOP$ 9/EAD ( HUNT+1 FOLL[$ BY COMM]CE1  
9DU/RY1 BANK+1 RAILROADS1 NAVIGATION1 & F9ALLY MILIT>Y  
9V5TIONS1 AS ! 9EVITABLE CONSEQU5CE ( 9DU/RIAL  
9V5TIONS1-9 %ORT1 ALL ?AT :I* 5ABL$ C]TA9 SOCIETIES1 ?AT  
=G$ AHEAD ( O!RS1 TO 5RI* !MSELVES AT ! EXP5SE (  
!IR BACKW>D NEI<BORS4 ,WE HAVE WITNESS$ ! LATE/ ACT ( ?IS  
PROCESS 9 ! FE>FUL W> ( #a#i#a#d4 

,! SECOND VOLUME ( ,SP5C]'S E?ICS IS DEVOT$ TO ! TWO  
FUNDAM5TAL CONCEPTIONS ( MORALITY TO JU/ICE1 & TO ?AT :I*  
GOES BEYOND M]E JU/ICE & :I* HE CALL$ 0,B5EFIC5CE-NEGATIVE  
& POSITIVE10 I4 E41 :AT WE W\LD CALL MAGNANIMITY1 ?\< ?IS  
T]M1 LIKE ! O!R1 IS NOT QUITE SATISFACTORY4 ,EV5 9 ANIMAL  
SOCIETIES WROTE ,SP5C] 9 ! *APT]S :I* HE 9S]T$ 9 HIS  
0,E?ICS0 9 #a#h#i-,WE CAN DI/+UI% GOOD & BAD ACTS1 & WE CALL  
GOOD1 I4 E41 ALTRUI/IC1 ?OSE ACTS ?AT B5EFIT NOT SO MU* !  
9DIVIDUAL AS ! GIV5 SOCIETY & :I* AID ! PRES]VATION (  
O!R 9DIVIDUALS1 OR ( ! SPECIES 9 G5]AL4 ,FROM !SE EVOLVES  
?AT :I* MAY BE CALL$ 0SUBHUMAN JU/ICE10 :I* GRADUALLY  
ATTA9S AN ALWAYS HI<] DEGREE ( DEVELOPM5T4 ,EGOI/IC IMPULSES  
BECOME RE/RA9$ 9 SOCIETY1 ! /RONG] BEG9 TO DEF5D !  
WEAK1 9DIVIDUAL PECULI>ITIES ATTA9 GREAT] IMPORTANCE1 &1 9  
G5]AL1 TYPES ESS5TIAL = SOCIAL LIFE >E PRODUC$4 ,?US1  
V>I\S =MS ( SOCIALITY >E DEVELOP$ AMONG ! ANIMALS4 ,!RE  
>E1 ( C\RSE1 SOME EXCEPTIONS1 BUT !SE GRADUALLY DIE \T4 

,FUR!RMORE1 9 ! TWO *APT]S ON JU/ICE1 ,SP5C] %[S ?AT  
?IS FEEL+ AT FIR/ GREW \T ( P]SONAL1 EGOI/IC MOTIVES 7FE>  
( ! V5GEANCE ( ! WRONG$ OR ( HIS COMRADES1 OR ( ! DEAD  
TRIBES-M57 & ?AT1 TOGE!R ) ! 9TELLECTUAL DEVELOPM5T (  
M51 !RE >OSE GRADUALLY ! FEEL+ ( MUTUAL SYMPA?Y4 ,!N !  
RATIONAL CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE BEGAN TO BE EVOLV$1 AL?\< ITS  
DEVELOPM5T WAS1 ( C\RSE1 IMP$$ BY W>S1-AT FIR/ AMONG TRIBES1  
!N AMONG NATIONS4 ,) ! ,ANCI5T ,GREEKS1 AS MAY BE SE5 9 !  
WRIT+S ( !IR ?9K]S1 ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE WAS V]Y  
DEF9ITE4 ,! SAME APPLIES TO ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 :5 MURD] OR  
MAIM+ WAS ATON$ = BY COMP5SATION TO ! WRONG$1 9 UNEQUAL  
AM\NTS DEP5D+ ON ! CLASS TO :I* !Y BELONG$4 ,& ONLY AT  
! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? & ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5?  
C5TURY DO WE READ 9 ,B5?AM & ,MILL3-0EV]YBODY TO C\NT = ONE1  
NOBODY = MORE ?AN ONE40 ,?IS CONCEPTION ( EQUITY IS N[ ADH]$  
TO BY ! SOCIALI/S4 ,SP5C]1 H[EV]1 DOES NOT APPROVE ?IS NEW  
PR9CIPLE ( EQUALITY1 :I*1 ,I WILL ADD1 HAS BE5 RECOGNIZ$ ONLY  
S9CE ! TIME ( ! FIR/ ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION2-HE SEES 9 IT A  
POSSIBLE EXT9CTION ( ! SPECIES4 78 #b#f#h47 ,!RE=E1 :ILE NOT REJECT+  
?IS PR9CIPLE1 HE SEEKS A COMPROMISE1 AS HE HAD REPEAT$LY DONE 9  
V>I\S DIVISIONS ( HIS SYN!TIC PHILOSOPHY4 

,9 !ORY HE COMPLETELY RECOGNIZES ! EQUALITY ( RI<TS1 BUT1  
REASON+ ALONG ! SAME L9ES AS :5 HE WROTE AB\T !  
ASSOCIATION & ! TRANSC5D5TAL !ORIES ( 9TELLECT1 HE SEEKS  
9 LIFE A RECONCILIATION BETWE5 ! DESIRABLE EQUITY & !  
9EQUITABLE DEM&S ( M54 ,FROM G5]ATION TO G5]ATION1 WROTE  
,SP5C]1 !RE TOOK PLACE ! ADAPTATION ( \R FEEL+S TO !  
REQUIREM5TS ( \R LIFE1 & AS A RESULT1 A RECONCILIATION ( !  
9TUITIONAL & ! UTILIT>IAN !ORIES ( MORALITY WAS  
EFFECT$4 

,9 G5]AL1 ,SP5C]'S 9T]PRETATION ( JU/ICE IS AS FOLL[S3  
0,EV]Y MAN IS FREE TO DO ?AT :I* HE WILLS1 PROVID$ HE 9FR+ES  
NOT ! EQUAL FRE$OM ( ANY O!R MAN4 ,LIB]TY ( EA* IS LIMIT$  
ONLY BY ! LIKE LIB]TIES ( ALL40 78 #b#g#b47 

0,IF WE BE> 9 M9D10 WROTE ,SP5C]1 0?AT ?\< NOT !  
IMM$IATE 5D1 ! GREATE/ SUM ( HAPP9ESS IS ! REMOTE 5D1 WE  
SEE CLE>LY ?AT ! SPH]E )9 :I* EA* MAY PURSUE HAPP9ESS  
HAS A LIMIT1 ON ! O!R SIDE ( :I* LIE ! SIMIL>LY LIMIT$  
SPH]ES ( ACTIONS ( HIS NEI<BORS40 78 #b#g#c47,?IS CORRECTION1 SAYS  
,SP5C]1 IS GRADUALLY 9TRODUC$ 9 ! C\RSE ( ! MUTUAL  
RELATIONS AMONG HUMAN TRIBES & )9 EA* TRIBE2 & 9  
PROPORTION AS IT BECOMES HABITUAL 9 LIFE !RE DEVELOPS ! DESIR$  
CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE4 

,SOME PRIMITIVE TRIBES1 9 A V]Y L[ /AGE ( DEVELOPM5T1 HAVE1  
NEV]!LESS1 A F> CLE>] P]CEPTION ( JU/ICE ?AN ! MORE  
DEVELOP$ PEOPLES1 :O /ILL PRES]VE ! HABITS ( ! E>LI]  
MILITANT SY/EM 9 !IR LIFE AS WELL AS 9 !IR ?9K+4 ,IT IS  
UNQUE/IONABLE ?AT1-IF ! ,EVOLUTION-HYPO!SIS IS TO BE  
RECOGNIZ$1 -?IS NATURALLY =M$ CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE1 ACT+  
UPON ! HUMAN M9D = AN 5ORM\SLY LONG P]IOD ( TIME1 PRODUC$  
DIRECTLY OR 9DIRECTLY A DEF9ITE ORGANIZATION ( \R N]V\S SY/EM  
& ORIG9AT$ !REBY A DEF9ITE MODE ( ?9K+1 SO ?AT !  
CONCLUSIONS ( \R REASON D]IV$ FROM ! EXP]I5CES ( C\NTLESS  
NUMB]S ( M5 >E JU/ AS VALID AS ! CONCLUSIONS ( AN 9DIVIDUAL  
D]IV$ FROM HIS P]SONAL EXP]I5CES4 ,EV5 IF !Y >E NOT CORRECT  
9 ! LIT]AL S5SE ( ! WORD1 !Y MAY1 NEV]!LESS1 S]VE TO  
E/ABLI% ! TRU?4 #ac 

,) ?IS ,SP5C] T]M9ATES ! DISCUSSION ( ! BASES ( E?ICS  
& PASSES TO !IR APPLICATION 9 ! LIFE ( SOCIETIES1 FROM ! VIEW- 
PO9T ( ABSOLUTE AS WELL AS ( RELATIVE E?ICS1 ( ?AT :I* EVOLVES  
9 ACTUAL LIFE 7*APT]S ,I,X TO ,X,X,I,I74 ,AFT] ?IS HE DEVOTES SEV5 *APT]S  
TO ! DISCUSSION ( ! ,/ATE1 ITS ESS5CE & ITS FUNCTIONS4 ,LIKE HIS  
PR$ECESSOR1 ,GODW91 HE SUBJECTS TO SEV]E CRITICISM ! MOD]N !ORIES  
( ! ,/ATE1 & ! SUBORD9ATION ( ALL ( SOCIAL LIFE TO IT4 

,SP5C] WAS P]FECTLY RI<T 9 9TRODUC+ 9TO E?ICS ! DISCUSSION  
( ! =M 9TO :I* SOCIAL LIFE HAD %AP$ ITSELF2 BE=E HIS TIME ?IS  
SUBJECT WAS GIV5 V]Y LITTLE CONSID]ATION4 ,M5'S CONCEPTIONS ( MORALITY  
>E COMPLETELY DEP5D5T UPON ! =M ?AT !IR SOCIAL LIFE ASSUM$ AT A  
GIV5 TIME 9 A GIV5 LOCALITY4 ,:E!R IT BE BAS$ ON ! COMPLETE  
SUBJECTION TO ! C5TRAL P[]--ECCLESIA/ICAL OR SECUL>--ON ABSOLUTISM  
OR ON REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T1 ON C5TRALIZATION OR ON ! COV5ANTS (  
! FREE CITIES & VILLAGE COMMUNES2 :E!R ECONOMIC LIFE BE BAS$ ON !  
RULE ( CAPITAL OR ON ! PR9CIPLE ( ! COOP]ATIVE COMMONWEAL?-ALL ?IS  
IS REFLECT$ 9 ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( M5 & 9 ! MORAL TEA*+S (  
! GIV5 EPO*4 

,9 ORD] TO BE CONV9C$ ( ! TRU? ( ?IS /ATEM5T IT IS SUFFICI5T  
TO SCRUT9IZE ! E?ICAL CONCEPTIONS ( \R TIME4 ,) ! =MATION (  
L>GE /ATES & ) ! RAPID DEVELOPM5T ( MANUFACTUR+1 9DU/RY1 &  
BANK+1 & ?R\< !M ( ! NEW WAYS ( ACQUIR+ WEAL?1 !RE ALSO  
DEVELOP$ ! /RUGGLE = DOM9ATION & ! 5RI*M5T ( SOME ?R\< !  
TOIL ( O!RS4 ,= ! S]V+ ( !SE 5DS1 BLOODY W>S HAVE BE5 CONT9UALLY  
WAG$ = ! LA/ ONE HUNDR$ & ?IRTY YE>S4 ,H5CE ! QUE/IONS ( ,/ATE  
P[]1 ( ! /R5G!N+ ( DIM9I%+ ( ?IS P[]1 ( C5TRALIZATION &  
DEC5TRALIZATION1 ( ! RI<T ( ! PEOPLE TO !IR L&1 ( ! P[] (  
CAPITAL1 ETC41-ALL !SE PROBLEMS BECAME BURN+ QUE/IONS4 ,& 9 !IR SOLUTION  
9 ONE OR ! O!R DIRECTION DEP5DS 9EVITABLY ! SOLUTION ( ! MORAL  
PROBLEMS4 ,! E?ICS ( EV]Y SOCIETY REFLECTS ! E/ABLI%$ =MS ( ITS SOCIAL  
LIFE4 ,SP5C]1 !RE=E1 WAS RI<T 9 9TRODUC+ 9TO E?ICS HIS 9QUIRY 9TO  
! ,/ATE4 

,FIR/ ( ALL BE E/ABLI%$ ! PREMISE ?AT ! =MS ( ! ,/ATE1I4E41  
! MODES ( POLITICAL LIFE1 >E *ANGEABLE1 LIKE EV]Y?+ ELSE 9 NATURE4  
,& 9DE$1 WE KN[ FROM HI/ORY H[ ! =MS ( HUMAN SOCIETIES HAVE V>I$3 
-! TRIBAL SY/EM1 ! F$]ATIONS ( COMMUNITIES1 C5TRALIZ$ /ATES4 ,!N1  
FOLL[+ ,AUGU/E ,COMTE1 ,SP5C] PO9T$ \T ?AT HI/ORY DISPLAYS TWO TYPES  
( SOCIAL ORGANIZATION3 ! W>LIKE OR MILITANT =M ( ! /ATE1 :I*1  
ACCORD+ TO ,SP5C]1 PR$OM9AT$ 9 PRIMITIVE SOCIETIES2 & A PEACEFUL1  
9DU/RIAL =M1 ! TRANSITION TO :I* IS N[ BE+ GRADUALLY EFFECT$ BY !  
CIVILIZ$ P>T ( HUMANITY4 

,HAV+ RECOGNIZ$ ! EQUAL FRE$OM ( EV]Y MEMB] ( SOCIETY1 M5 HAD  
ALSO TO ACKN[L$GE POLITICAL EQUALITY ( RI<TS1 I4 E41 ! RI<T ( M5 TO  
SELECT !IR [N GOV]NM5T4 ,BUT IT HAPP5$1 REM>KS ,SP5C]1 ?AT EV5  
?IS IS NOT SUFFICI5T1 = SU* A SY/EM DOES NOT OBLIT]ATE ! ANTAGONI/IC  
9T]E/S ( DIFF]5T CLASSES4 ,SP5C] COMES TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT MOD]N  
HUMANITY1 DESPITE ! ADVANTAGES ( :AT IS KN[N AS POLITICAL EQUALITY (  
RI<TS1 WILL FAIL TO SECURE REAL EQUITY 9 ! NE> FUTURE4 78 #c#e#b47 

,I %ALL NOT DISCUS1 H]E ,SP5C]'S IDEAS AS TO ! RI<TS ( CITIZ5S 9  
! ,/ATE2 HE CONCEIV$ !M AS !Y W]E UND]/OOD BY ! AV]AGE MIDDLE-CLASS  
P]SON 9 ! '=TIES ( ! LA/ C5TURY2 !RE=E1 HE WAS /RONGLY OPPOS$  
TO ! RECOGNITION ( ! POLITICAL RI<TS ( WOM54 ,WE MU/ CONSID]1 H[EV]1  
,SP5C]'S G5]AL IDEA ( ! ,/ATE4 ,! ,/ATE WAS CREAT$ BY W>1 HE ASS]TS4  
0,:]E !RE NEI!R IS1 NOR HAS BE51 ANY W> !RE IS NO GOV]NM5T40 78 #c#e#f47 ,ALL  
GOV]NM5TS & ALL RUL+ P[] ORIG9AT$ 9 W>4 ,( C\RSE1 AN IMPORTANT  
ROLE 9 ! =MATION ( ! ,/ATE P[] WAS PLAY$ NOT ONLY BY ! NE$ ( A  
*IEF 9 CASE ( W>1 BUT ALSO BY ! NE$ ( A JUDGE = ADJUDICATION (  
9T]CLASS DISPUTES4 ,SP5C] RECOGNIZ$ ?IS NE$1 & YET HE SAW ! PR9CIPAL  
CAUSE = ! RISE & DEVELOPM5T ( ! ,/ATE 9 ! NECESSITY ( HAV+ A  
LEAD] 9 TIME ( W>4#a#d ,IT TAKES A LONG W> TO CONV]T ! GOV]NM5T'S RUL+  
P[] 9TO A MILIT>Y DICTATOR%IP4 

,IT IS TRUE ?AT ,SP5C]'S IDEAS >E REACTION>Y 9 MANY RESPECTS2 EV5 FROM  
! VIEWPO9T ( ! AU?ORIT>IANS ( \R TIME4 ,BUT 9 ONE RESPECT HE W5T EV5  
FUR!R ?AN MANY RADICAL AU?ORIT>IANS1 9CLUD+ ! COMMUNI/IC GR\P ( /ATE 
APOLOGI/S1 :5 HE PROTE/$ AGA9/ ! UNLIMIT$ RI<T ( ! ,/ATE TO DISPOSE  
( ! P]SON & LIB]TY ( ! CITIZ5S4 ,9 HIS 0,PR9CIPLES ( ,E?ICS0 ,SP5C]  
DEVOT$ TO ?IS SUBJECT A FEW PAGES M>K$ BY PR(\ND IDEAS AB\T ! ROLE & !  
IMPORTANCE ( ! ,/ATE2 H]E ,SP5C] IS A CONT9UATOR ( ,GODW91 ! FIR/ ADVOCATE  
( ! ANTI-,/ATE TEA*+1 N[ KN[N UND] TIRE NAME ( AN>*ISM4 

0,:ILE ! NATIONS ( ,EUROPE10 WROTE ,SP5C]1 0>E P>TITION+ AMONG !MSELVES  
P>TS ( ! ,E>? 9HABIT$ BY 9F]IOR PEOPLES1 ) CYNICAL 9DIFF]5CE TO !  
CLAIMS ( !SE PEOPLES1 IT IS FOOLI% TO EXPECT ?AT 9 EA* ( !SE NATIONS !  
GOV]NM5T CAN HAVE SO T5D] A REG>D = ! CLAIMS ( 9DIVIDUALS AS TO BE  
DET]R$ BY !M FROM ?IS OR ?AT APP>5TLY POLITIC MEASURE4 ,SO LONG AS ! P[]  
TO MAKE CONQUE/S ABROAD IS SUPPOS$ TO GIVE RI<TS TO ! L&S TAK51 !RE MU/  
( C\RSE P]SI/ AT HOME ! DOCTR9E ?AT AN ,ACT ( ,P>LIAM5T CAN DO ANY?+ ?AT  
! AGGREGATE WILL MAY RI<TLY IMPOSE ITSELF ON 9DIVIDUAL WILLS )\T ANY LIMIT40 78 #c#f#d47 

,H[EV]1 SU* AN ATTITUDE T[>D HUMAN P]SONALITY IS NO?+ BUT A SURVIVAL (  
=M] TIMES4 ,! PRES5T AIM ( CIVILIZ$ SOCIETIES IS TO 5ABLE EV]YONE 0TO FULFILL  
! REQUIREM5TS ( HIS [N NATURE )\T 9T]F]+ ) ! FULFILLM5T ( SU*  
REQUIREM5TS BY O!RS40 78#c#f#e47 ,& 9 ANALYZ+ ?IS SITUATION ,SP5C] CAME TO ! CONCLUSION  
?AT ! FUNCTION ( ! ,/ATE %\LD BE LIMIT$ EXCLUSIVELY TO MA9TA9+ JU/ICE4  
,ANY ACTIVITY BEYOND ?AT WILL CON/ITUTE A TRANSGRESSION ( JU/ICE4 

,BUT1 CONCLUDES ,SP5C]1 IT IS NOT TO BE EXPECT$ = A LONG TIME TO COME ?AT  
P>TY POLITICIANS1 :O PROMISE ! PEOPLE ALL K9DS ( B5EFITS 9 ! NAME (  
!IR P>TY1 WILL PAY ATT5TION TO ?OSE :O DEM& ! LIMITATION ( GOV]NM5T  
9T]F]5CE 9 ! LIFE ( 9DIVIDUALS4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ,SP5C] DEVOTES ?REE  
*APT]S TO ! DISCUSSION ( 0,! ,LIMITS ( ,/ATE-,DUTIES 0,I & 9 !  
CONCLUSION TO !SE *APT]S HE ATTEMPT$ TO %[ H[ PREPO/]\S >E !  
EF=TS ( LEGISLATORS TO ]ADICATE ! V>IATIONS 9 HUMAN NATURE BY MEANS (  
LAWS4 ,) ?IS 5D 9 VIEW ! CRIM9AL ABSURDITIES1 LIKE ?OSE P]PETRAT$  
9 =M] TIMES = ! PURPOSE ( CONV]T+ ALL M5 TO ONE FAI?1 >E BE+  
REPEAT$ TO ! PRES5T DAY1 & ! ,*RI/IAN PEOPLES1 ) !IR C\NTLESS  
*UR*ES & CL]GY1 >E JU/ AS V5GEFUL & W>LIKE AS ! SAVAGES4 ,MEAN:ILE1  
LIFE ITSELF1 IRRESPECTIVE ( GOV]NM5TS1 LEADS T[>D ! DEVELOPM5T ( !  
BETT] TYPE ( MAN4 

,UN=TUNATELY1 ,SP5C] FAIL$ TO PO9T \T 9 HIS ,E?ICS :AT IT IS 9  
MOD]N SOCIETY ?AT *IEFLY SUPPORTS ! GRE$ = 5RI*M5T AT ! EXP5SE  
( BACKW>D TRIBES & PEOPLES4 ,HE PASS$ OV] LI<TLY ! FUNDAM5TAL FACTS  
?AT MOD]N CIVILIZ$ SOCIETIES AF=D A BROAD OPPORTUNITY1 )\T QUITT+  
! HOMEL&1 TO REAP ! B5EFITS ( ! TOIL ( PROP]TYLESS M51 COMPELL$  
TO SELL !IR LABOR & !MSELVES 9 ORD] TO MA9TA9 !IR *ILDR5 &  
H\SEHOLD4 ,ON ACC\NT ( ?IS POSSIBILITY1 :I* CON/ITUTES ! V]Y ESS5CE  
( MOD]N SOCIETY1 HUMAN LABOR IS SO POORLY ORGANIZ$ & SO UNECONOMICALLY  
UTILIZ$ ?AT ITS PRODUCTIV5ESS1 BO? 9 AGRICULTURE & 9 9DU/RY1  
REMA9S TO ?IS DAY MU* SMALL] ?AN IT CAN & %\LD BE4 

,LABOR1 & EV5 ! LIFE ( ! WORK]S & PEASANTS1 >E VALU$ SO L[  
9 \R DAYS ?AT ! WORK]S HAD TO CONDUCT A LONG & WE>Y /RUGGLE M]ELY  
TO OBTA9 FROM !IR RUL]S FACTORY 9SPECTION & ! PROTECTION ( !  
WORK]S AGA9/ 9JURIES BY MA*9]Y & AGA9/ ! POISON+ ( ADULTS  
& *ILDR5 BY NOXI\S GASES4 

,:ILE COM+ =? AS A FAIRLY BRAVE OPPON5T ( ! POLITICAL P[] (  
! ,/ATE1 ,SP5C]1 ?\< HE HAD ! SUFFICI5T AU?ORITY ( A NUMB] (  
PR$ECESSORS 9 ! FIELD ( ECONOMICS1 REMA9$1 NEV]!LESS1 TIMID 9 ?IS  
FIELD1 & LIKE HIS FRI5DS ( ! LIB]AL CAMP1 HE M]ELY PROTE/$ AGA9/  
! MONOPOLY ( L&4 ,?R\< FE> ( REVOLUTION HE DID NOT D>E COME \T  
OP5LY & BRAVELY AGA9/ ! 9DU/RIAL EXPLOITATION ( LABOR4 

,SP5C] DEVOTES ! LA/ TWO P>TS ( HIS 0,PR9CIPLES ( ,E?ICS0 TO  
0,! ,E?ICS ( ,SOCIAL ,LIFE10 SUBDIVID+ IT 9TO TWO P>TS3 0,NEGATIVE  
,B5EFIC5CE0 & 0,POSITIVE ,B5EFIC5CE40 

,AT ! V]Y BEG9N+ ( HIS WORK 78 #e#d71 ,SP5C] NOT$ ?AT JU/ICE ALONE WILL 
NOT SUFFICE = ! LIFE ( SOCIETY1 ?AT JU/ICE MU/ BE SUPPLEM5T$ BY  
ACTS-= ! GOOD ( O!RS OR ( ! :OLE ( SOCIETY = :I* MAN DOES  
NOT EXPECT REW>D4 

,TO ?IS CATEGORY ( ACTS HE GAVE ! NAME ( 0B5EFIC5CE10 0G5]OSITY10  
& HE PO9T$ \T ! 9T]E/+ FACT ?AT1 9 ! C\RSE ( ! *ANGES  
?AT >E N[ TAK+ PLACE 9 SOCIAL LIFE1 MANY CEASE TO RECOGNIZE 0! L9E  
( DEM>CATION BETWE5 ?+S :I* >E TO BE CLAIM$ AS RI<TS & ?+S  
:I* >E TO BE ACCEPT$ AS B5EFACTIONS40 78 #c#h#i47 

,SP5C] WAS P>TICUL>LY AFRAID ( ?IS 0CONFUSION0 & HE WILL+LY  
WROTE AGA9/ ! MOD]N DEM&S ( ! TOIL+ MASSES4 ,!SE DEM&S1  
9 HIS OP9ION1 LEAD 0TO DEG5]ACY10 &1 :I* IS EV5 MORE H>MFUL1  
0TO COMMUNISM & AN>*ISM40 ,EQUALITY 9 COMP5SATION = LABOR1 HE WROTE1  
LEADS TO COMMUNISM1 & !N COMES 0! DOCTR9E ( ,RAVA*OL0 ADVOCAT+  
?AT 0EA* MAN %\LD SEIZE :AT HE LIKES & 'SUPPRESS1' AS ,RAVA*OL SAID1  
EV]YONE :O /&S 9 HIS WAY4 ,!RE COMES AN>*ISM & A RETURN TO !  
UNRE/RA9$ /RUGGLE = LIFE1 AS AMONG BRUTES40 78 #c#i#a47 

,IT IS NECESS>Y TO /RIVE TO MITIGATE ! SEV]ITY ( ! LAW (  
EXT]M9ATION ( ! LEA/ ADAPT$1 :I*1 ACCORD+ TO ,SP5C]1 EXI/S 9  
NATURE1 BUT ?IS 0MITIGATION0 %\LD BE LEFT TO PRIVATE *>ITY1 & NOT  
TO ! ,/ATE4 

,AT ?IS PO9T ,SP5C] CEASES TO BE A ?9K] & REV]TS TO ! PO9T (  
VIEW ( ! MO/ ORD9>Y P]SON4 ,HE COMPLETELY =GETS ! 9ABILITY (  
! GREAT MASS ( M5 TO PROCURE ! NECESSITIES ( LIFE1-AN 9ABILITY DEVELOP$  
9 \R SOCIETIES ?R\< ! USURPATION ( P[] & ?R\< CLASS LEGISLATION2 
AL?\< 9 ANO!R PASSAGE HE HIMSELF V]Y SAGELY SPEAKS AGA9/ ! USURPATION  
( L& 9 ,5GL& BY ITS PRES5T [N]S4 ,BUT HE IS WORRI$ BY ! ?\<T ?AT  
9 MOD]N ,EUROPE TOO MU* IS DEM&$ 9 ! WAY ( LEGISLATION = ! B5EFIT  
( ! TOIL+ MASSES4 ,& 9 ATTEMPT+ TO SEP>ATE ?AT :I* IS RI<TFULLY  
DUE TO ! MASSES FROM ?AT :I* MAY BE GIV5 !M ONLY \T ( B5EFIC5CE1 HE  
=GETS ?AT ! CAUSES ( PAUP]ISM & ( L[ PRODUCTIVITY AMONG ! MASSES  
LIE PRECISELY 9 ! RAPACI\S SY/EM1 E/ABLI%$ ?R\< CONQUE/S &  
LEGISLATION1 SO ?AT WE MU/ AT PRES5T DE/ROY ! EVILS ACCUMULAT$ BY !  
,/ATE & ITS LAWS4 

,SP5C]'S TEA*+ HAS UND\BT$LY SUFF]$ ALSO FROM ! MI/AK5  
9T]PRETATION ( ! 0/RUGGLE = EXI/5CE40 ,HE SAW 9 IT ONLY !  
EXT]M9ATION  ( ! NON-ADAPT$1 :]EAS ITS PR9CIPAL FEATURE %\LD BE  
SE5 9 ! SURVIVAL ( ?OSE :O ADAPT !MSELVES TO ! *ANG+ CONDITIONS  
( LIFE4 ,AS ,I HAVE ALREADY PO9T$ \T ELSE:]E1#a#e ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5  
!SE TWO 9T]PRETATIONS IS 5ORM\S ,9 ONE CASE ! OBS]V] SEES ! /RUGGLE  
BETWE5 ! 9DIVIDUALS ( ! SAME GR\P-OR1 MORE ACCURATELY1 HE DOES NOT  
SEE1 BUT M5TALLY PICTURES TO HIMSELF SU* A /RUGGLE4 ,9 ! O!R CASE HE  
SEES ! /RUGGLE ) ! HO/ILE =CES ( NATURE OR ) O!R SPECIES (  
ANIMALS1 & ?IS /RUGGLE IS CONDUCT$ BY ANIMAL GR\PS 9 COMMON1 ?R\<  
MUTUAL AID4 ,& ANYONE :O WILL ATT5TIVELY OBS]VE ! ACTUAL LIFE ( ANIMALS  
7AS WAS DONE1 = EXAMPLE1 BY ,BREHM1 :OM ,D>W9 RI<TLY CALL$ A GREAT  
NATURALI/7 WILL SEE :AT A VA/ P>T IS PLAY$ BY SOCIALITY 9 ! /RUGGLE  
= EXI/5CE4 ,HE WILL BE COMPELL$ TO ACKN[L$GE ?AT AMONG ! C\NTLESS  
SPECIES ( ANIMALS1 ! SPECIES OR ?OSE GR\PS SURVIVE ?AT >E MORE S5SITIVE  
TO ! DEM&S ( ! *ANGEABLE CONDITIONS ( LIFE1 ?OSE ?AT >E  
PHYSIOLOGICALLY MORE S5SITIVE & MORE PRONE TO V>IATION1 & ?OSE ?AT %[  
! GREAT] DEVELOPM5T ( ! H]D 9/9CT & ( SOCIALITY1 :I* FIR/ ( ALL  
LEADS1 AS WAS JU/LY PO9T$ \T BY ,D>W91#a#f TO ! BETT] DEVELOPM5T ( !  
M5TAL FACULTIES4 

,SP5C]1 UN=TUNATELY1 DID NOT NOTE ?IS CIRCUM/ANCE1 & AL?\< 9 !  
TWO >TICLES :I* HE PR9T$ 9 ! MAGAZ9E1 0,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY10 9 #a#h#i1  
HE AT LA/ P>TIALLY CORRECT$ ?IS ]ROR BY DEMON/RAT+ SOCIALITY AMONG  
ANIMALS1 & ITS IMPORTANCE10#a#g 7!SE TWO >TICLES >E 9CLUD$ 9 ! SECOND  
VOLUME ( HIS 0,PR9CIPLES ( ,E?ICS071 NEV]!LESS1 ! 5TIRE /RUCTURE ( HIS  
E?ICAL !ORY1 :I* WAS2 ELABORAT$ AT AN E>LI] TIME1 SUFF]$ FROM ! FAULTY  
PREMISE4 

  
,FOOTNOTES 

#a ,9 ACCORDANCE ) SU* AN  
9T]PRETATION ( PHILOSOPHY1 PRIOR TO BEG9N+ HIS ,PR9CIPLES (  
,ETBICS1 ,SP5C] PUBLI%$ UND] ! G5]AL TITLE ( ,SYNTBETIC  
,PHILOSOPHY  ! FOLL[+ S]IES ( WORKS3 ,FIR/ ,PR9CIPLES1 ,!  
,PR9CIPLES ( ,BIOLOGY1 ,! ,PR9CIPLES ( ,PSYCBOLOGY1 ,! ,PR9CIPLES  
( ,SOCIOLOGY4 

#b .<,SEE NOTE #d1 PAGE #c#e4.>--,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#c SEE ! FIR/ $ITION ( !  
,9QUIRY CONC]N+ ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE4 ,9 ! SECOND $ITION 79  
OCTAVO7 ! COMMUNI/IC PASSAGES W]E OMITT$1 PROBABLY ON ACC\NT  
( ! C\RT PROSECUTIONS 9/ITUT$ AGA9/ ,GODW9'S FRI5DS4  
.<,LONDON1 #a#g#i#f2 FIR/ $41 ,L5D41 #a#g#i#c4.>--,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#d ,SEE1 ,! ,PROP] ,SPH]E (  
,GOV]NM5T1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#d#b4 

#e ,9 ?IS EXPOSITION ,I FOLL[ V]Y  
CLOSELY :AT ,SP5C] HIMSELF WROTE 9 ! PREFACE TO ! #ahic  
$ITION1 9 CONNECTION ) ! COMB9$ WEI<T ( HIS ,SOCIAL  
,/ATICS  & HIS ,PR9CIPLES ( ,E?ICS4 ,IT WILL BE SE5 ?AT HIS  
0EVOLUTIONI/ E?ICS10 :I* HE EXP\ND$ 9 ! ,SOCIAL ,/ATICS1  
%AP$ ITSELF 9 HIS M9D BE=E ! APPE>ANCE ( ,D>W9'S ,ORIG9  
( ,SPECIES4 ,BUT ! 9FLU5CE ( ,AUGU/E ,COMTE'S IDEAS UPON ,SP5C]  
IS UNQUE/IONABLE4 

#f ,9 %ORT1 SAYS ,SP5C]1 0?AT  
P]FECT ADJU/M5T ( ACTS TO 5DS 9 MA9TA9+ 9DIVIDUAL LIFE  
& RE>+ NEW 9DIVIDUALS1 :I* IS EFFECT$ BY EA* )\T  
H9D]+ O!RS FROM EFFECT+ LIKE P]FECT ADJU/M5TS1 IS1 9 ITS  
V]Y DEF9ITION1 %[N TO CON/ITUTE A K9D ( CONDUCT ?AT CAN BE  
APPROA*$ ONLY AS W> DECREASES & DIES \T40 78#f47 

#g ,!RE IS A LONG-FELT NE$ = A  
BRIEF POPUL> EXPOSITION ( ,SP5C]'S E?ICS1 ) A GOOD  
9TRODUCTION :I* W\LD PO9T \T ITS DEFECTS4 

#h .<,SEE NOTE #d1 PAGE #c#e4.>--,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#i ,9 OBJECT+ TO H$ONISM1 I4E41  
TO A TEA*+ :I* EXPLA9S ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! MORAL  
CONCEPTIONS BY RATIONAL /RIV+ AFT] HAPP9ESS1 P]SONAL OR  
SOCIAL1 ,SIDGWICK PO9T$ \T ! IMPOSSIBILITY ( MEASUR+ !  
PLEASANT & ! UNPLEASANT EFFECT ( A GIV5 ACT ACCORD+ TO !  
S*EME DEVIS$ BY ,MILL4 ,9 ANSW]+ ,SIDGWICK1 ,SP5C] CAME TO !  
CONCLUSION ?AT ! UTILIT>IANISM :I* CONSID]S 9 EA*  
P>TICUL> CASE :AT CONDUCT WILL LEAD TO ! GREATE/ SUM (  
PLEASURABLE S5SATIONS1 I4E41 ! 9DIVIDUALLY EMPIRICAL  
UTILIT>IANISM1 S]VES ONLY AS AN 9TRODUCTION TO RATIONAL  
UTILIT>IANISM4 ,?AT :I* S]V$ AS ! MEANS = ATTA9+  
WELF>E1 GRADUALLY BECOMES ! AIM ( MANK9D4 ,C]TA9 WAYS (  
REACT+ TO ! PROBLEMS ( LIFE BECOME HABITUAL1 & MAN NO LONG]  
HAS TO ASK HIMSELF 9 EA* P>TICUL> CASE3 0,:AT WILL GIVE ME  
GREAT] PLEASURE1 TO RU% TO ! AID ( A MAN :O IS 9 DANG]1 OR  
TO REFRA9 FROM SO DO+8 ,TO ANSW] RUD5ESS ) RUD5ESS1 OR NOT80  
,A C]TA9 WAY ( ACT+ BECOMES HABITUAL4  

#a ,SP5C] REF]S H]E ALSO TO !  
SEV5TE5? ,PSALM ( ,DAVID1 FIR/ & SECOND V]SES3 

 0,HE> ! RI<T1  ,LORD4 4 4 4 ,LET ?9E EYES BEHOLD ! ?+S ?AT >E EQUAL40 .<,! ,RUSSIAN TEXT1 AS QUOT$ BY ,KROPOTK9 FROM ! ,SYNOD V]SION1 DIFF]S FROM ! ,5GLI% GIV5 H]E4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#aa ,!SE >E ! TITLES ( !  
*APT]S3 ,! ,RELATIVITY ( ,PA9S & ,PLEASURES4 ,EGOISM V]SUS  
,ALTRUISM4 ,ALTRUISM V]SUS ,EGOISM4 ,TRIAL & ,COMPROMISE4  
,CONCILIATION4 

#ab .<,L4 ,H4 ,MORGAN1 ,LEAGUE ( ! 4 4 4 ,IROQUOIS1 ,RO*E/]1 #a#h#e#a4#a-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#ac ,IF ?IS P>AGRAPH 78 #b#g#h7 W]E NOT SO  
LONG IT W\LD BE WELL WOR? CIT+ 9 FULL4 ,! NEXT TWO P>AGRAPHS  
>E ALSO IMPORTANT = ! UND]/&+ ( ,SP5C]'S E?ICS 9  
CONNECTION ) ! QUE/ION ( JU/ICE4 ,HE WROTE ON ! SAME  
SUBJECT 9 ! N9? *APT]1 0,CRITICISMS & ,EXPLANATIONS10 :ILE  
ANSW]+ ,SIDGWICK'S OBJECTIONS TO ,H$ONISM1 I4E41 TO ! !ORY (  
MORALITY BAS$ ON ! PURSUIT ( HAPP9ESS4 ,HE AGRE$ ) ,SIDGWICK  
?AT ! MEASUREM5TS ( PLEASURES & PA9S MADE BY !  
UTILIT>IANS NE$ CONFIRMATION OR *ECK+ BY SOME O!R MEANS1 &  
HE CALL$ ATT5TION TO ! FOLL[+3-AS MAN DEVELOPS ! MEANS =  
GRATIFY+ HIS DESIRES1 ! LATT] BECOME 9CREAS+LY COMPLEX4  
,V]Y (T5 MAN PURSUES NOT EV5 ! AIM ITSELF 7C]TA9 PLEASURES1  
= EXAMPLE1 OR WEAL?71 BUT ! MEANS LEAD+ TO IT4 ,?US A  
REASONABLE1 RATIONAL UTILIT>IANISM IS BE+ GRADUALLY DEVELOP$  
FROM ! SPONTANE\S /RIV+ = PLEASURE4 ,& ?IS RATIONAL  
UTILIT>IANISM URGES US T[>D A LIFE :I* IS 9 ACCORDANCE )  
C]TA9 FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( MORALITY4 ,IT IS 9CORRECT TO  
ASS]T1 AS ,B5?AM DID1 ?AT JU/ICE1 AS ! AIM ( LIFE1 IS  
9COMPREH5SIBLE TO US1 :]EAS HAPP9ESS IS QUITE COMPREH5SIBLE4  
,! PRIMITIVE PEOPLES HAVE NO WORD EXPRESS+ ! CONCEPTION (  
HAPP9ESS1 :]EAS !Y HAVE A QUITE DEF9ITE CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE1  
:I* WAS DEF9$ BY ,>I/OTLE AS FOLL[S3 0,! UNJU/ MAN IS ALSO  
ONE :O TAKES MORE ?AN HIS /I>E40 ,TO ?IS ,I WILL ADD ?AT !  
RULE H]E /AT$ IS 9 REALITY V]Y /RICTLY OBS]V$ BY SAVAGES 9  
! MO/ PRIMITIVE /AGE KN[N TO US4 ,9 G5]AL1 ,SP5R] WAS RI<T  
9 ASS]T+ ?AT JU/ICE IS MORE CORN4 PREH5SIBLE ?AN HAPP9ESS  
AS ! RULE ( CONDUCT4 

#ad ,9 G5]AL1 ,SP5C]1 LIKE MANY O!RS1  
APPLI$ ! WORD 0,/ATE0 9-DISCRIM9ATELY TO V>I\S =MS ( SOCIALITY1  
:]EAS IT %\LD BE RES]V$ = ?OSE SOCIETIES ) ! HI]>*IC  
SY/EM & C5TRALIZATION1 :I* EVOLV$ 9 ,ANCI5T ,GREECE FROM ! TIME  
( ! EMPIRE ( ,PHILIP ,I,I41 & ,ALEX&] ! ,GREAT1 9 ,ROME1 T[>D !  
5D ( ! ,REPUBLIC & ! P]IOD ( ! ,EMPIRE1-& 9 ,EUROPE FROM !  
FIFTE5? & SIXTE5? C5TURIES4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 ! F$]ATIONS ( TRIBES & ! FREE M$IEVAL  
CITIES1 ) !IR LEAGUES1 :I* ORIG9AT$ 9 ! ELEV5? & TWELF?  
C5TURIES & SURVIV$ UP TO ! =MATION ( ! ,/ATES PROP] ) !IR  
C5TRALIZ$ P[]1 %\LD RA!R BE CALL$ 0FREE CITIES10 0LEAGUES ( CITIES10  
0F$]ATIONS ( TRIBES10 ETC4 ,& 9DE$1 TO APPLY ! T]M 0,/ATE0 TO ,GAUL  
( ! TIME ( ! ,M]OV+IANS1 OR TO ! ,MONGOLIAN F$]ATIONS ( ! TIME  
( ,J5<IS-,KHAN1 OR TO ! M$IEVAL FREE CITIES & !IR FREE LEAGUES1 LEADS  
TO AN UTT]LY FALSE IDEA ( ! LIFE ( ?OSE TIMES4 7,SEE MY ,MUTUAL ,AID1  
*APT]SV1 VI1 & VII47 

#ae ,SEE ,MUTUAL ,AID AMONG ANIMALS & M51 AS A  
FACTOR ( ,EVOLUTION4 

#af ,9 HIS ,DESC5T ( ,MAN4 :]E HE MAT]IALLY  
REVIS$ HIS =M] VIEWS ON ! /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1 EXPRESS$ 9 ,! ,ORIG9 
 ( ,SPECIES4 

#ag .<,BO? >TICLES HAVE A COMMON TITLE1 ,ON ,JU/ICE1  
& >E DIVID$ 9TO FIVE SECTIONS1 AS FOLL[S3 ,M>* NUMB]3 #a7 ,ANIMAL ,E?ICS2  
#b7 ,SUB-,HUMAN JU/ICE2 ,APRIL NUMB]3 #c7 ,HUMAN JU/ICE2 #d7 ,! ,S5TIM5T ( ,JU/ICE1  
#e7 ,! ,IDEA ( JU/ICE4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aibc 3 ,*APT] #ab -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#e1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #ab -- ,ADD$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/