,*APT] #g 
,DEVELOPM5T ( ,MORAL ,TEA*+S 9 ! ,MOD]N ,]A 

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,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,9HABITAT1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,! SAME TWO CURR5TS 9 E?ICS :I* MANIFE/$ !MSELVES 9 ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 CONT9U$ TO EXI/ AMONG ! ?9K]S ( LAT] TIMES UP TO ! MIDDLE ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,A MAJORITY ( PHILOSOPH]S & ?9K]S /ILL S\<T ! EXPLANATION ( ! ORIG9 ( MORALITY 9 SOME?+ SUP]NATURAL1 REVEAL$ TO MAN FROM ABOVE4 ,! IDEAS ( ,PLATO1 DEVELOP$ & /R5G!N$ BY ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR* CON/ITUT$1 & /ILL MAKE UP ! ESS5CE ( SU* TEA*+S1 SAVE ?AT !Y >E CONSID]ABLY N>R[$4 ,PLATO1 AS WELL AS ,SOCRATES1 CONSID]$ ! KN[L$GE ( GOOD AS ! REAL MOTIVE =CE ( ALL MORALITY4 ,BUT ,PLATO DID NOT PRES5T ?IS KN[L$GE AS SOME?+ ACQUIR$ FROM )\T4 ,AT ! BASE ( ,PLATO'S TEA*+1 & ESPECIALLY ( ! TEA*+ ( ! ,/OICS1 WAS ! IDEA ?AT ! MORAL S5SE1 :I* MANIFE/S ITSELF 9 MAN1 EV5 IF 9 IMP]FECT =M1 IS A P>T ( SOME FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE ( ! UNIV]SE4 ,IF ?IS ELEM5T W]E NOT PRES5T 9 NATURE IT W\LD NOT MANIFE/ ITSELF 9 MAN4 

,?US !RE WAS A C]TA9 K9%IP BETWE5 ! PHILOSOPHY ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE & MOD]N SCI5CE1 BUT ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR* & ! TEA*+S 9SPIR$ BY IT SP>$ NO EF=T TO ]ADICATE ?IS IDEA FROM \R ,WELTANS*AUUNG4 ,IT IS TRUE1 ,*RI/IANITY BR\<T 9TO E?ICS1 OR1 MORE CORRECTLY1 /R5G!N$ 9 IT ! IDEAL ( SELF-SACRIFICE = ! GOOD ( \R FELL[-M52 & BY EMBODY+ ?IS IDEAL 9 ! P]SON ( A MAN-,*RI/1 ,*RI/IANITY1 LIKE ,BUDDHISM1 GAVE MAN A L(TY MORAL LESSON4 ,BUT ! FOLL[]S ( ?IS TEA*+1 & ESPECIALLY ! ,*UR*1 SOON BEGAN TO PREA* ?AT ! VIRTUES ( ?OSE :O ATTEMPT TO REALIZE ?IS IDEAL ( LIFE1 >E NOT AT ALL ( HUMAN ORIG94 0,! WORLD IS /EEP$ 9 EVIL10 !Y SAID1 9 CONTRA/ TO ! ?9K]S ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE4 ,EXPRESS+ ! PESSIMI/IC SPIRIT ( !IR TIME1 ! LEAD]S ( ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR* ASS]T$ ?AT MAN IS SO IMMORAL A CREATURE1 & ! WORLD IS SO MU* SUBJECT$ TO ! EVIL P[]1 ?AT ! ,CREATOR ( ! WORLD HAD TO S5D HIS SON TO ! E>? 9 ORD] TO %[ M5 ! ROAD TO GOODNESS1 & 0R$EEM ! WORLD0 FROM EVIL ?R\< HIS SUFF]+S & HIS DEA?4 

,?IS TEA*+1 AS WE HAVE SE5 BECAME SO FIRMLY E/ABLI%$ ?AT MORE ?AN FIFTE5 C5TURIES ELAPS$ BE=E1 AMID ! NEW =MS ( LIFE ?AT SPRANG 9TO EXI/5CE 9 ,EUROPE1 VOICES BEGAN TO BE RAIS$ ASS]T+ ?AT ! G]MS ( MORALITY >E CONTA9$ 9 ,NATURE ITSELF4 ,!Y HAVE BE5 ALREADY M5TION$ 9 ! PREC$+ *APT]4 ,BUT EV5 9 \R TIME SU* VOICES >E SIL5C$ BY ?OSE :O CONT9UE TO ASS]T ) GREAT SELF-CONFID5CE1 BUT CONTR>Y TO PAT5T FACTS1 ?AT NATURE CAN GIVE US ONLY LESSONS ( EVIL4 ,!Y HOLD ?AT ! FUNCTION ( REASON 9 MORAL QUE/IONS %\LD BE ! EVALUATION ( ?AT :I* GIVES US ! GREATE/ SATISFACTION UND] ! GIV5 SOCIAL SY/EM1 &1 !RE=E1 ?AT :5 ! MORAL ELEM5T MANIFE/S ITSELF 9 MAN1 IT HAS A SUP]NATURAL ORIG94 

,NEV]!LESS1 ! NEW CURR5T 9 E?ICS1 :I* SAW ! S\RCES ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN 9 MAN HIMSELF & 9 ,NATURE 5COMPASS+ HIM1 /EADILY GA9$ 9 MOM5TUM 9 ! LA/ ?REE HUNDR$ YE>S1 DESPITE ALL ! OB/ACLES PUT 9 ITS PA? BY ,*UR* & ,/ATE4 ,& ?IS MOVEM5T PUT MORE & MORE EMPHASIS ON ! ASS]TION ?AT ALL \R MORAL CONCEPTIONS HAVE DEVELOP$ 9 A P]FECTLY NATURAL WAY \T ( ! FEEL+ ( SOCIALITY 9H]5T 9 MAN & 9 MO/ ANIMALS4 

,WE WILL N[ PROCE$ TO ANALYZE !SE NEW TEA*+S & WE %ALL SEE H[ !Y HAVE HAD TO MA9TA9 A CON/ANT /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! OPPOS$ TEA*+1 :I* =EV] ASSUMES NEW1 & AT TIMES SKILLFULLY DISGUIS$1 =MS4 ,BUT S9CE ! NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY HAS BE5 FOLL[+ SOME:AT DIFF]5T PA?S 9 ,5GL& & 9 ,FRANCE1 WE WILL EXAM9E ?IS DEVELOPM5T SEP>ATELY 9 EA* ( !SE C\NTRIES4 ,WE WILL BEG9 ) ,5GL&1 :]E ,BACON WAS ! ORIG9ATOR ( ! NEW MOVEM5T2 AFT] HIM ,HOBBES BECAME = A LONG TIME ITS PROM95T REPRES5TATIVE4 

,WE HAVE SE5 ?AT ! ,GREEK PHILOSOPH]S1 9 SPITE ( ! DIFF]5CES 9 !IR V>I\S S*OOLS1 ALL RECOGNIZ$ ?AT ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN >E SOME?+ ?AT EVOLVES FROM HIS NATURAL T5D5CIES1 & ?AT !SE CONCEPTIONS >E APPLI$ TO LIFE ?R\< MAN'S [N EF=TS 9 PROPORTION AS ! RATIONAL UND]/&+ ( SOCIALITY DEVELOPS4 ,WE HAVE ALSO SE5 H[ ,BACON & HIS CONTEMPOR>Y1 ,HUGO ,GROTIUS1 QUITE DEF9ITELY D]IV$ ! MORAL PR9CIPLE FROM ! SOCIAL 9/9CT4 ,?US ! IDEA ( ! ,/OICS1 :O ASS]T$ ?AT ! MORAL ELEM5T 9 MAN IS SOME?+ 9H]5T 9 HIS NATURE1 WAS REVIV$ 9 ! NEW NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC PHILOSOPHY4 

,HOBBES1 H[EV]1 TOOK A DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSITE /&4 ,HIS VIEWS W]E UND\BT$LY 9FLU5C$ BY ! IDEAS ( HIS ,FR5* FRI5D1 ,GASS5DI4  
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,BUT HIS CONTEMPTU\S ATTITUDE T[>D MAN1 :OM HE CONSID]$ A WICK$ ANIMAL1 KN[+ NO RE/RA9T TO HIS PASSIONS1 WAS1 D\BTLESSLY1 =MULAT$ 9 ,5GL& DUR+ ! TURBUL5T YE>S ( ! ,REVOLUTION :I* BEGAN 9 #afci & :I* CULM9AT$ 9 ! OV]?R[ & EXECUTION ( ! K+ 9 #a#f#d#i4 ,ALREADY AT ?AT TIME ,HOBBES REG>D$ ! REVOLUTIONI/S ) HATR$1 & HE WAS =C$ TO FLEE TO ,FRANCE1 :]E HE WROTE HIS FIR/ WORK1 0,DE ,CIVE0 7,( ! ,/ATE74  
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,[+ TO ! COMPLETE ABS5CE AT ?AT TIME ( KN[L$GE AB\T ! LIFE ( ! PRIMITIVE SAVAGE1 ,HOBBES PICTUR$ TO HIMSELF ! LIFE ( PRIMITIVE MAN AS A /ATE ( 0W> ( ALL M51 AGA9/ ALL M50  
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 FROM :I* M5 EM]G$ ONLY AFT] !Y UNIT$ 9TO A SOCIETY & CONCLUD$ 
= ?AT PURPOSE A 0SOCIAL COV5ANT40  
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 ,!RE=E ,HOBBES BEG9S HIS WORK ON ! ,/ATE ) ! ASS]TION ?AT MAN IS NOT AT ALL ! 0SOCIAL ANIMAL10 BORN ) ! HABITS ( SOCIALITY1 AB\T :I* ,>I/OTLE SPOKE2 ON ! CONTR>Y1 M5 >E AS WOLVES TO ONE ANO!R --0HOMO HOM9I LUPUS40 

,IF M5 SEEK COMPANION%IP IT IS NOT BY VIRTUE ( 9BORN SOCIALITY1 BUT = ! SAKE ( ! B5EFITS !Y EXPECT FROM O!RS1 OR ?R\< FE> ( ONE ANO!R4 7,*APS4 ,I & #a#a74 

0,= IF BY NATURE ONE MAN %\LD LOVE ANO!R 7?AT IS7 AS MAN1 !RE C\LD NO REASON BE RETURN$ :Y EV]Y MAN %\LD NOT EQUALLY LOVE EV]Y MAN1 OR :Y HE %\LD RA!R FREQU5T ?OSE :OSE SOCIETY AF=DS HIM HONOR OR PR(IT40 .<,I,I1 #b4.> ,:5 M5 MEET 0= PLEASURE & RECREATION ( M9D1 EV]Y MAN IS WONT TO PLEASE HIMSELF MO/ ) ?OSE ?+S :I* /IR UP LAU<T]1 :5CE HE MAY BY COMP>ISON ( ANO!R MAN'S DEFECTS & 9FIRMITIES1 PASS ! MORE CURR5T 9 HIS [N OP9ION40 .<,I,I1 #b4.> 0,ALL SOCIETY !RE=E IS EI!R = GA9 OR = GLORY1 7I4E417 NOT SO MU* = LOVE ( \R FELL[S1 AS = LOVE ( \RSELVES40 ,& HE CONCLUDES ?IS P>AGRAPH ) ! FOLL[+ WORDS3 0,WE MU/ !RE=E RESOLVE ?AT ! ORIG9AL ( ALL GREAT1 & LA/+ SOCIETIES1 CONSI/$ NOT 9 ! MUTUAL GOOD WILL M5 HAD T[>DS EA* O!R1 BUT 9 ! MUTUAL FE> !Y HAD ( EA* O!R40 .<,I1 #b4.> 

,! 5TIRE E?ICAL SY/EM ( ,HOBBES IS BAS$ ON ?IS SUP]FICIAL REPRES5TATION ( HUMAN NATURE4 ,HE HELD !SE CONCEPTIONS AS FUNDAM5TAL1 & HE REAFFIRM$ !M 9 HIS LAT] NOTES TO ! TEXT1 ! NOTES BE+ APP>5TLY CALL$ =? BY V>I\S OBJECTIONS RAIS$ TO HIS DEF9ITIONS & CONCLUSIONS4  
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,GR\P SETTLEM5TS ( SOME ANIMALS & ( SAVAGES1 ACCORD+ TO ,HOBBES1 >E NOT YET A /ATE4 ,! V]Y M5TAL MAKE-UP ( MAN PREV5TS HIM FROM COMB9+ 9TO SOCIETIES4 ,IT IS DUE TO ?IS 9NATE B5T ?AT M5 >E 5EMIES TO ONE ANO!R1 & EV5 ! SOCIALITY MANIFE/$ BY MAN IS NOT HIS NATURAL QUALITY BUT HAS BE5 5GRAFT$ ON HIM BY HIS UPBR++4 ,BY NATURE EV]Y MAN CONSID]S HIMSELF ! EQUAL ( EV]Y O!R1 AS LONG AS HIS UPBR++ DOES NOT ]ADICATE 9 HIM ?IS IDEA1 & HE HOLDS HIMSELF JU/IFI$ 9 DO+ EVIL UNTO O!RS & 9 APPROPRIAT+ !IR PROP]TY4 ,H5CE ! /ATE ( CONT9U\S W> ( EA* AGA9/ EV]YONE4 ,MAN EM]GES FROM ?IS /ATE ONLY :5 HE BECOMES SUBJECT TO O!RS :O >E /RONG] OR MORE CUNN+1 OR :5 A GR\P ( M51 REALIZ+ ! DANG]S ( ! MUTUAL /RUGGLE1 5T]S 9TO AN AGREEM5T & F\NDS A SOCIETY4  
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,! UTT] FALSITY ( ,HOBBES'S CONCEPTION ( PRIMITIVE MAN HAS BECOME FULLY APP>5T1  
-- N[ ?AT WE HAVE /UDI$ ! LIFE ( ! PRIMITIVE SAVAGE AS WELL AS ! LIFE ( ! GREAT] NUMB] ( ANIMALS LIV+ ON ! /ILL SP>SELY POPULAT$ CONT95TS4 ,WE CAN N[ SEE CLE>LY ?AT SOCIALITY CON/ITUTES SO P[]FUL A WEAPON 9 ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! HO/ILE =CES ( NATURE & AGA9/ O!R ANIMALS1 ?AT IT WAS DEVELOP$ BY MANY H]D ANIMALS LONG BE=E ! APPE>ANCE ( MAN-LIKE CREATURES ON ! E>?4 ,!RE=E1 TO DEVELOP SOCIALITY1 MAN HAD NO NE$ ( EI!R ! 0SOCIAL COV5ANT0 OR ! 0,LEVIA?AN-/ATE40 

,IT IS CLE> ?AT ,HOBBES AGA9 US$ HIS CONCEPTION ( ! BASES ( HUMAN SOCIETY = ! D]IVATION ( ! 0LAWS ( NATURE10 ON :I* HE F\ND$ HIS IDEA ( A SOCIAL SY/EM4 ,& S9CE HE WAS AN ULTRA-CONS]VATIVE1 ) A MILD T+E ( POPUL> SYMPA?Y 7HE /OOD = ! MON>*Y & = ! ,PRET5D] AT ! TIME ( ,CROMWELL'S REPUBLIC71 HE ACCORD+LY REPRES5T$ AS ! BASIS ( ! /ATE ! FEUDAL ASPIRATIONS ( HIS P>TY1 ON ONE SIDE1 & A FEW G5]ALLY ACCEPTABLE1 COMMONPLACES ON ! O!R4 

,= ?OSE :O >E 9 ANY DEGREE ACQUA9T$ ) ! LIFE ( ANIMALS & ( SAVAGES1 ,HOBBES'S VIEWS >E OBVI\SLY ]RONE\S4 ,SU* IDEAS W]E POSSIBLE 9 ! MIDDLE ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 :5 SO LITTLE WAS KN[N ( ! LIFE ( ! SAVAGE PEOPLES1 BUT IT IS DIFFICULT TO UND]/& H[ SU* VIEWS HAVE SURVIV$ TO ! PRES5T TIME 9 ! FACE ( ! EXPLANATIONS & ! DISCOV]IES ( ! EI<TE5? & N9ETE5? C5TURIES4 ,IT MAY BE /ILL POSSIBLE TO ACC\NT = ,R\SSEAU'S ADH]5CE TO SIMIL> VIEWS ( ! ORIG9 ( HUMAN SOCIETY1 BUT IT IS UTT]LY 9COMPREH5SIBLE H[ ! SAME IDEAS CAME TO BE %>$ BY ! MODEM NATURALI/IC ,HUXLEY1 :OM ,I HAD TO REM9D1 :5 HE BEGAN TO DEVELOP IDEAS WOR?Y ( ,HOBBES1 ?AT ! APPE>ANCE ( SOCIETIES ON ! E>? PREC$$ ! APPE>ANCE ( MAN4 

,HOBBES'S ]ROR CAN BE EXPLA9$ ONLY BY ! FACT ?AT HE WROTE AT A TIME :5 IT WAS NECESS>Y TO C\NT]ACT ! CONCEPTION -- WIDESPREAD 9 ?OSE DAYS -- ( ! IDYLLIC 0PRIMITIVE /ATE0 ( MAN4 ,HIS CONCEPTION WAS CONNECT$ ) ! LEG5D ( ,P>ADISE & ( ! FALL ( MAN1 & IT WAS ADH]$ TO BY ! ,CA?OLIC ,*UR* AS WELL AS BY ! NEWLY E/ABLI%$ ,PROTE/ANT ,*UR*ES1 :I*1 EV5 MORE FIRMLY ?AN ! ,CA?OLICS1 CONSID]$ R$EMPTION A FUNDAM5TAL DOGMA4 

,UND] SU* CIRCUM/ANCES1 A WRIT] :O CATEGORICALLY D5I$ ! 0PRIMITIVE /ATE0 & :O D]IV$ ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( ! PRIMITIVE MAN-BEA/ FROM ! CONSID]ATION ?AT PEACEFUL COHABITATION IS MORE ADVANTAGE\S ?AN CONT9UAL W>F>E1 -- SU* A WRIT] WAS ASSUR$ ( SUCCESS4 ,EI!R ! 0SOCIAL COV5ANT0 OR SUBJUGATION BY A CONQU]OR :O LIMITS BY =CE ! UNBRIDL$ LIC5SE ( 9DIVIDUALS1 -- SU* WAS1 ACCORD+ TO ,HOBBES1 ! FIR/ /AGE 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY & ( LAW4 ,!N ,REASON PROCE$$ TO LIMIT ! NATURAL RI<TS ( ! 9DIVIDUALS 9 !IR [N 9T]E/1 & ?US W]E DEVELOP$ 9 TIME ALL ! 0MORAL0 VIRTUES3 COMPASSION1 HONE/Y1 GRATITUDE1 ETC4 

,MORAL CONCEPTIONS1 ACCORD+ TO ,HOBBES1 COME AB\T 9 MANY DIFF]5T WAYS1 DEP5D+ ON TIME & PLACE2 & !RE=E MORAL RULES CONTA9 NO?+ G5]AL1 NO?+ ABSOLUTE4  
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,MOREOV]1 !Y >E TO BE OBS]V$ ONLY 9 CASES :]E !RE IS RECIPROCITY1 & ,REASON %\LD BE ! SOLE GUIDE 9 ALL DECISIONS4 ,BUT IT IS UNREASONABLE TO OBS]VE MORAL RULES ) RESPECT TO ?OSE :O DO NOT RECIPROCATE4 ,9 G5]AL IT IS NET SAFE TO RELY UPON SOCIAL REASON = ! E/ABLI%M5T ( MORALITY4 ,?IS OBJECT CALLS = A GOV]N+ P[] :I* CREATES SOCIAL MORALITY UND] FE> ( PUNI%M5T1 & TO ?IS P[] ( AN 9DIVIDUAL OR ( A GR\P ( M5 EV]YONE %\LD R5D] UNCONDITION$ OB$I5CE4 ,9 ! ,/ATE1 AS 9 ,NATURE1 -- MI<T IS RI<T4 ,! NATURAL /ATE ( MAN IS W> ( ALL M5 AGA9/ ALL M54 ,! ,/ATE PROTECTS LIFE & PROP]TY ( ITS SUBJECTS AT ! PRICE ( !IR ABSOLUTE OB$I5CE4 ,! WILL ( ! ,/ATE IS ! SUPREME LAW4 ,! SUBMISSION TO ! P[] ( ! OMNIPOT5T 0,LEVIA?AN-,/ATE0 IS ! BASIS ( SOCIALITY4 ,?IS IS ! ONLY WAY TO ATTA9 ! PEACEFUL CO-HABITATION1 :I* \R MORAL LAWS & REGULATIONS AIM TO E/ABLI%4 ,AS REG>DS ! H]$IT>Y 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY -- IT IS ( NO IMPORTANCE1 = IT IS 9SUFFICI5TLY DEVELOP$ 9 PRIMITIVE MAN & CANNOT BECOME ! S\RCE ( MORAL PR9CIPLES4 ,REASON1 LIKEWISE1 IS ( NO CONSEQU5CE 9 DEVELOP+ ! RULES ( SOCIAL LIFE3 MAN HAS NO 9H]5T CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE2 & HUMAN REASON1 LIKE A TRUE OPPORTUNI/1 E/ABLI%ES RULES ( SOCIAL LIFE 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! REQUIREM5TS ( ! TIME4 ,HE :O IS VICTORI\S -- IS RI<T1 = HIS VICTORY PROVES ?AT HE =ESAW ! REQUIREM5TS ( HIS CONTEMPOR>IES4 ,?IS WAS ! WAY 9 :I* ,HOBBES 9T]PRET$ MORALITY2 & ?IS IS H[ IT IS REG>D$ BY ! VA/ MAJORITY ( ! RUL+ CLASSES QUITE UP TO ! PRES5T TIME4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 ! FACT TREAT ,HOBBES 9 HIS 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY DEF9ITELY R5\NC$ RELIGION & METAPHYSICS1 ATTRACT$ MANY FOLL[]S TO HIS SIDE4 ,AT ! TIME :5 ! /RUGGLE BETWE5 ! ,CA?OLIC ,*UR* & ! ,PROTE/ANTS WAS RAG+ 9 ,5GL& ) A F]OCITY BORD]+ ON FR5ZY1 & :5 ! LIB]ATION ( P]SONALITY & ( ?\<T HAD BECOME AN URG5T NECESSITY1 ! TEA*+ ?AT PUT ON A RATIONAL BASIS SO IMPORTANT A QUE/ION AS MORALITY WAS ESPECIALLY VALUABLE4 ,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 ! LIB]ATION ( E?ICS & PHILOSOPHY FROM RELIGION WAS A GREAT /EP =W>D1 & ,HOBBES'S WORKS EX]T$ A CONSID]ABLE 9FLU5CE 9 ?IS DIRECTION4 ,BESIDES1 ,HOBBES1 FOLL[+ ,EPICURUS1 MA9TA9$ ?AT AL?\< ! 9DIVIDUAL IS ALWAYS GUID$ BY P]SONAL 9T]E/S1 MAN NEV]!LESS COMES TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT HIS 9T]E/S LIE 9 ! DIRECTION ( ! GREATE/ POSSIBLE DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIALITY & ( PEACEFUL MUTUAL RELATIONS4 ,?US IT FOLL[$1 ?AT AL?\< MORAL CONCEPTIONS ORIG9ATE 9 P]SONAL EGOISM1 !Y NEV]!LESS BECOME ! BASIS = AN EXT5SION ( BETT] MUTUAL RELATIONS & ( SOCIALITY4 

,[+ TO ! CAUSES ALREADY NOT$1 ! TEA*+ ( ,HOBBES MET ) A CONSID]ABLE & LA/+ SUCCESS 9 ,5GL&4 ,BUT MANY W]E NOT SATISFI$ BY IT1 & SOON SEV]AL S]I\S OPPON5TS CAME \T AGA9/ IT2 AMONG !M ,JOHN ,MILTON1 ! FAM\S ,5GLI% POET ( ?AT TIME1 A /AUN* REPUBLICAN & ! ADVOCATE ( FRE$OM ( CONSCI5CE & ( ! PRESS1 & ,JAMES ,H>R+TON1 :O 9 #afef ISSU$ HIS ,UTOPIAN 0,OCEANEA0 :]E1 9 OPPOSITION TO ,HOBBES1 HE GLORIFI$ ! DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC4 ,BUT ! PR9CIPAL CRITICISM ( ,HOBBES'S E?ICAL TEA*+ CAME FROM A GR\P ( SCI5TI/S CONNECT$ ) ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY4 ,?IS GR\P WAS EQUALLY HO/ILE TO ,CROMWELL'S REPUBLICAN PURITANISM & TO ! NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC TR5D ( ,HOBBES'S TEA*+S4 ,H[EV]1 ?\< !SE OPPON5TS ( ,HOBBES DID NOT %>E ! N>R[ VIEWS !N PREVAIL+ AMONG ,5GLI% !OLOGIANS1 !IR PHILOSOPHY1 NEV]!LESS1 C\LD UND] NO CIRCUM/ANCES RECONCILE ITSELF EI!R ) RATIONALISM 9 G5]AL OR ) ,HOBBES'S VIEWS 9 P>TICUL>1 9 :I* !Y SAW A DIRECT M5ACE TO ALL RE/RA9+ MORAL =CE4 ,IT IS IMPOSSIBLE1 HELD ,CUDWOR?1 TO D]IVE \R FEEL+ ( ! OBLIGATORY NATURE ( SOME ( \R MORAL JUDGM5TS FROM CONSID]ATIONS ( P]SONAL GA94 ,& :AT IS MORE HE MA9TA9$1 MORALITY IS NOT A CREATION ( M53 ITS ROOTS LIE 9 ! V]Y NATURE ( ?+S1 :I* EV5 ! DIV9E WILL IS 9CAPABLE ( *ANG+3 MORAL PR9CIPLES >E AS ABSOLUTE AS MA!MATICAL TRU?S4 ,MAN DISCOV]S ! PROP]TIES ( A TRIANGLE1 BUT HE DOES NOT CREATE !M3 !Y >E 9H]5T 9 ! *ANGELESS PROP]TIES ( ?+S4 ,MORAL PR9CIPLES W\LD REMA9 TRUE EV5 IF ! PRES5T WORLD %\LD P]I%4 

,WE F9D1 ACCORD+LY1 9 !SE IDEAS ( ,CUDWOR?1 AN APPROA* TO A CONCEPTION ( ! EQUAL IMPORTANCE ( ALL M5 & ! EQUALITY ( RI<TS ( ALL M51 :I* BEG9S TO MANIFE/ ITSELF CLE>LY 9 MOD]N RATIONALI/IC E?ICS4 ,BUT ,CUDWOR? WAS PRIM>ILY A !OLOGIAN1 & = HIM PHILOSOPHY REMA9$ EMPTY ( CONT5T )\T ! 9SPIR+ P[] ( RELIGION & ( ! FE> 9CULCAT$ BY IT4 

,A MU* CLOS] APPROA* TO MOD]N E?ICAL T5D5CIES WAS EFFECT$ BY ANO!R REPRES5TATIVE ( ! ,CAMBRIDGE S*OOL1 ,RI*>D ,CUMB]L& 7#a#f#c#b-#a#g#a#h74 ,9 HIS WORK1 0,PHILOSOPHICAL ,TREATISE ON ! ,LAWS ( ,NATURE10  
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 PUBLI%$ 9 ,LAT9 9 #a#f#g#a1 HE /ATES HIS VIEWS 9 ! FOLL[+ WORDS3 0,! GOOD ( SOCIETY IS ! SUPREME MORAL LAW4 ,ALL ?AT LEADS TO IT IS MORAL40 

,MAN REA*ES ?IS CONCLUSION BECAUSE ALL ( NATURE IMPELS HIM 9 ?AT DIRECTION4 ,SOCIALITY IS A QUALITY 9SEP>ABLE FROM HUMAN NATURE -- AN 9EVITABLE CONSEQU5CE ( MAN'S ORGANIZATION & CONDITION4 ,AS TO ! VIEWS ( ,HOBBES1 :O ATTEMPT$ TO PROVE ! OPPOSITE1 !Y >E FALLACI\S1 BECAUSE SOCIALITY MU/ HAVE EXI/$ FROM ! V]Y FIR/ ORIG9S ( MAN4 

,IT IS TRUE ?AT ,CUMB]L& DID NOT HAVE AT HIS DISPOSAL ! PRO(S ( ?IS IDEA N[ 9 \R H&S1 S9CE EXT5D$ VOYAGES & ! LIFE ( EXPLOR]S AMONG SAVAGES HAVE GIV5 US AN UND]/&+ ( ! MODE ( LIFE AMONG PRIMITIVE PEOPLES4 ,CUMB]L&1 ACCORD+LY1 SUPPORT$ HIS DIV9ATION ONLY BY G5]AL REASON+S DRAWN FROM ! /RUCTURE ( ! WORLD & ( MAN1 & HIS RELATION TO O!R LIV+ BE+S 5D[$ ) REASON4 ,TO ?IS EXT5T1 HE WROTE1 7EVID5TLY AS A CONCESSION TO ! DEM&S ( HIS TIME7 IS ! MORAL ELEM5T A MANIFE/ATION ( ! ,DIV9E ,WILL2 BUT IT DOES NOT AT ALL FOLL[ ?AT IT IS >BITR>Y OR *ANGEABLE4 

,?US1 ,CUMB]L&'S SURMISES AS TO ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN FROM ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! S5SE ( SOCIALITY W]E CORRECT4 ,UN=TUNATELY1 ,CUMB]L& DID NOT TRACE ANY FUR!R ! DEVELOPM5T ( ?IS S5SE4 ,HE M]ELY PO9T$ \T ?AT ! FEEL+ ( G5]AL B5EVOL5CE :I* EVOLVES FROM ! S5SE ( SOCIALITY1 /R5G!N$ & DEVELOP$ BY REASON1 RESULTS 9 SO MU* GOOD = EV]Y RATIONAL BE+ ?AT MAN1 )\T ANY 9T]F]5CE ON ! P>T ( DIV9E AU?ORITY1 WILL CONSID] MORAL RULES OBLIGATORY = HIMSELF4 ,( C\RSE1 9 FOLL[+ ! URGE ( SOCIALITY1 MAN1 /RIVES AT ! SAME TIME = HIS P]SONAL 
HAPP9ESS3 BUT UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( SOCIALITY HIS V]Y /RIV+ = P]SONAL HAPP9ESS LEADS TO ! COMMON GOOD4 ,!RE=E1 OB$I5CE TO ! S5SE ( SOCIALITY BECOMES 9 ITSELF ! S\RCE ( JOY & SATISFACTION1 S9CE IT LEADS TO A HI<] AIM4 

,CUMB]L& /OPP$ AT ?IS PO9T4 ,HE DID NOT ATTEMPT TO EXPLA9 H[ & :Y1 />T+ FROM ! 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY1 MAN WAS ABLE TO DEVELOP HIS MORAL IDEALS TO !IR PRES5T LEVEL & BREAD?1 NEI!R DID HE CONSID] ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE1 LEAD+ TO EQUITY & ! FUR!R CONCLUSIONS BAS$ ON ?IS IDEA4 

,?IS WAS DONE ON ! ONE H& BY ,JOHN ,LOCKE & HIS FOLL[]S1 :O ATTEMPT$ TO BASE MORALITY ON UTILITY1 & ON ! O!R H& BY ,%AFTESBURY & HIS FOLL[]S1 :O SAW ! S\RCE ( MORALITY 9 ! 9H]5T 9/9CTS & FEEL+S4 ,BUT BE=E EXAM9+ !SE SY/EMS WE MU/ DWELL ON ! E?ICS ( ,SP9OZA1 :I* EX]CIS$ TREM5D\S 9FLU5CE ON ! FUR!R DEVELOPM5T ( E?ICAL TEA*+S4 

,SP9OZA'S E?ICS HAS A PO9T 9 COMMON ) ?AT ( ,HOBBES1 9 D5Y+ ! EXTRA-NATURAL ORIG9 ( MORALITY4 ,AT ! SAME TIME IT RADICALLY DIFF]S FROM IT 9 ITS FUNDAM5TAL CONCEPTIONS4 ,= ,SP9OZA1 ,GOD IS -- ,NATURE ITSELF4 0,BESIDES ,GOD !RE IS NO SUB/ANCE1 NOR CAN ANY HE CONCEIV$40  
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,CORPOREAL SUB/ANCE CANNOT BE DIVID$ FROM DIV9E SUB/ANCE1 = ,GOD IS ! EFFICI5T CAUSE ( ALL ?+S1 BUT ,HE ACTS FROM ! LAWS ( ,HIS [N NATURE ONLY4 ,IT IS WRONG TO IMAG9E ?AT ,HE CAN BR+ IT AB\T ?AT ?OSE ?+S ?AT >E 9 ,HIS P[] %\LD NOT BE4 ,IT W\LD BE EQUALLY WRONG TO ASS]T ?AT 9TELLECT ( ! HI<E/ ORD] & 0FRE$OM ( WILL0 BO? P]TA9 TO ! NATURE ( ,GOD4 7,I1#a#g47 ,9 ,NATURE !RE IS NO?+ CONT+5T1 BUT ALL ?+S >E DET]M9$ FROM ! NECESSITY ( ! DIV9E NATURE TO EXI/ & ACT 9 A C]TA9 MANN]4 7,I1 #b#i47 ,9 %ORT1 ?AT :I* M5 CALL ,GOD IS ,NATURE ITSELF1 MISUND]/OOD BY MAN4 ,! WILL IS ONLY A C]TA9 MODE ( ?\<T1 LIKE ! 9TELLECT1 & !RE=E NO VOLITION CAN EXI/ OR BE DET]M9$ TO ACTION UNLESS IT BE DET]M9$ BY ANO!R CAUSE1 & ?IS AGA9 BY ANO!R1 & SO ON AD 9F9ITUM4 7#a1 #c#b47 ,FROM ?IS IT FOLL[S ?AT 0?+S C\LD HAVE BE5 PRODUC$ BY ,GOD 9 NO O!R MANN] & 9 NO O!R ORD] ?AN ?AT 9 :I* !Y HAVE BE5 PRODUC$40 7#a1 #c#c47 ,! P[] :I* ! COMMON PEOPLE ASCRIBE TO ,GOD IS NOT ONLY A HUMAN P[] 7:I* %[S ?AT !Y LOOK UPON ,GOD AS MAN1 OR AS BE+ LIKE A MAN71 BUT IT ALSO 9VOLVES WEAKNESS4 7,I,I1 #c47 ,9 G5]AL1 ! CAUSES ?AT LEAD M5 TO ASCRIBE V>I\S EV5TS ( !IR LIFE TO SUPREME P[]1 >E V]Y WELL ANALYZ$ BY ,SP9OZA 9 ,P>T ,I1 PROP #c#f4 
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,SP9OZA WAS1 CONSEQU5TLY1 A FOLL[] ( ,DESC>TES1 
#aa  
:OSE VIEWS ON ,NATURE HE FUR!R DEVELOP$2 & 9 HIS D5IAL ( ! DIV9E ORIG9 ( MORALITY HE APPROA*$ ,HOBBES4 ,BUT ) HIS D>+ DEVELOPM5T ( HIS SCI5TIFIC VIEWS & ) HIS COMPLETE FRE$OM FROM ,*RI/IAN MY/ICISM1 ,SP9OZA UND]/OOD MAN & NATURE TOO WELL TO FOLL[ ,HOBBES 9 E?ICS4 ,& HE C]TA9LY C\LD NOT CONCEIVE MORALITY AS SOME?+ BAS$ ON CO]CION EX]T$ BY ! ,/ATE4 ,HE %[$1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 ?AT )\T ANY 9FLU5CE ( ! FEEL+ ( FE> (1 A ,SUPREME ,BE+ OR ( GOV]NM5T1 HUMAN REASON WILL FREELY & 9EVITABLY COME TO ! MORAL ATTITUDE T[>D O!RS1 & ?AT 9 DO+ ?IS MAN F9DS SUPREME HAPP9ESS1 BECAUSE SU* >E ! DEM&S ( HIS FREELY & LOGICALLY ?9K+ REASON4 

,SP9OZA ?US CREAT$ A TRULY E?ICAL TEA*+1 P]MEAT$ ) DEEP MORAL FEEL+4 ,SU* WAS ALSO HIS P]SONAL LIFE4 

,! M5TAL PROCESS BY WAY ( :I* ,SP9OZA >RIV$ AT HIS CONCLUSIONS MAY BE /AT$ AS FOLL[S3 0,! WILL & ! 9TELLECT >E ONE & ! SAME4 ,BO? >E BUT ! 9DIVIDUAL VOLITIONS & IDEAS4 ,FALSEHOOD CONSI/S 9 ! PRIVATION ( KN[L$GE :I* IS 9VOLV$ BY 9ADEQUATE KN[L$GE ( ?+S OR BY 9ADEQUATE & CONFUS$ IDEAS0 7,I,I1 #c#e72 WRONG ACTS SPR+ FROM ! SAME S\RCE4 ,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 0,9 EV]Y HUMAN M9D SOME IDEAS >E ADEQUATE & O!RS >E MUTILAT$ & CONFUS$40 ,9 ! FIR/ CASE IDEA IS FOLL[$ BY ACTION1 :ILE 9 ! SECOND CASE \R M9D SUFF]S4 ,MOREOV]1 0! M9D IS SUBJECT TO PASSIONS 9 PROPORTION TO ! NUMB] ( 9ADEQUATE IDEAS :I* IT HAS407,I,I,I1 #a47 

,ACCORD+ TO ,SP9OZA 0! M9D & ! BODY >E ONE & ! SAME ?+1 CONCEIV$ AT ONE TIME UND] ! ATTRIBUTE ( ?\<T1 & AT ANO!R UND] ?AT ( EXT5SION40 7,I,I,I1 #b47 ,SP9OZA PROVES ?IS PROPOSITION AT L5G?1 REFUT+ ! CURR5T VIEW :I* ASS]TS ?AT 0?IS OR ?AT ACTION ( ! BODY SPR+S FROM ! M9D :I* HAS COMM& OV] ! BODY40 ,:5 M5 SAY ?IS1 !Y SIMPLY CONFESS ?AT !Y >E IGNORANT ( ! REAL CAUSE ( !IR ACTIONS4 7,I,I,I1 #b47 ,DECISIONS ( ! M9D 0>ISE 9 ! M9D BY ! SAME NECESSITY AS ! IDEAS ( ?+S ACTUALLY EXI/+40 7,I,I,I1 #b47 ,MOREOV]1 0IF ANY?+ 9CREASES & HELPS \R BODY'S P[] ( ACTION1 ! IDEA ( ?AT ?+ 9CREASES & HELPS \R M9D'S P[] ( ?\<T40 7,I,I,I1 ,I,I47 ,JOY1 M]RIM5T1 *E]FULNESS LEAD \R M9D TO 
GREAT] P]FECTION1 :ILE SORR[ HAS ! OPPOSITE EFFECT4 7,I,I,I1 ,I,I47 ,9 %ORT1 BODY & M9D >E 9SEP>ABLE FROM EA* O!R4 

0,LOVE IS NO?+ BUT JOY ACCOMPANI$ ) ! IDEA ( AN EXT]NAL CAUSE1 & HATR$ IS NO?+ BUT SORR[ ) ! ACCOMPANY+ IDEA ( AN EXT]NAL CAUSE4 7,I,I,I1 #a#c47 ,?IS EXPLA9S TO US ! NATURE ( HOPE1 FE>1 CONFID5CE1 DESPAIR1 GLADNESS 70JOY >IS+ FROM ! IMAGE ( A PA/ ?+ :OSE ISSUES WE HAVE D\BT$07 & REMORSE 70! SORR[ :I* IS OPPOS$ TO GLADNESS074 7,I,I,I1 #a#h47 

,FROM !SE DEF9ITIONS ,SP9OZA D]IV$ ALL ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( MORALITY4 ,?US1 = EXAMPLE1 0WE 5DEAVOR TO AFFIRM EV]Y?+1 BO? CONC]N+ \RSELVES & CONC]N+ ! BELOV$ OBJECT1 :I* WE IMAG9E WILL AFFECT US OR ! OBJECT ) JOY1 & WE 5DEAVOR TO D5Y ! CONTR>Y ?+S4  
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 ,& S9CE ! 0M9D'S DESIRE OR P[] ( ?\<T IS EQUAL TO & SIMULTANE\S ) ! BODY'S DESIRE & P[] ( ACTION1 WE 5DEAVOR TO BR+ 9TO EXI/5CE EV]Y?+ :I* WE IMAG9E CONDUCES TO JOY10 -- \RS1 AS WELL AS ! JOY ( ?OSE WE LOVE4 ,FROM !SE FUNDAM5TAL PROPOSITIONS ,SP9OZA D]IVES ! HI<E/ TYPE ( MORALITY4 

,!RE IS NO?+ 9 NATURE1 WROTE ,SP9OZA1 ?AT IS OBLIGATORY3 !RE IS ONLY ! NECESS>Y4 0,KN[L$GE ( GOOD OR EVIL IS NO?+ BUT AN AFFECT ( JOY OR SORR[ 9 SO F> AS WE >E CONSCI\S ( IT40 0,WE CALL A ?+ GOOD OR EVIL AS IT HELPS OR H9D]S ! PRES]VATION ( \R BE+1 & AS IT 9CREASES OR DIM9I%ES1 HELPS OR RE/RA9S1 \R P[] ( ACTION4 7,I,V1 #h47 ,BUT 0NO AFFECT CAN BE RE/RA9$ BY ! TRUE KN[L$GE ( GOOD & EVIL 9 SO F> AS IT IS TRUE1 BUT ONLY 9 SO F> AS IT IS CONSID]$ AN AFFECT10 I4E41 :5 IT BECOMES A DESIRE ( ACTION4 ,9 ! LATT] CASE 0IT WILL RE/RA9 ANY O!R AFFECT1 PROVID$ ?AT ! LATT] BE ! WEAK] ( ! TWO40 7,I,V1 #a#d47 

,IT CAN BE EASILY IMAG9$ :AT HATR$ ,SP9OZA PROVOK$ 9 ! !OLOGICAL CAMP BY !SE ASS]TIONS4 ,SP9OZA D5I$ ! !OIOGI/S' IDEA ( ANT9OMY1 BY VIRTUE ( :I* ,GOD IS ! BE>] ( ! ET]NAL TRU?1 :]EAS ! WORLD CREAT$ BY ,HIM IS ITS NEGATION4  
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,SP9OZA BUILT HIS E?ICS ON ! EUDEMONI/IC BASIS1 I4 E41 ON MAN'S /RIV+ = HAPP9ESS4 ,MAN1 HE TAU<T1 LIKE ALL O!R CREATURES1 /RIVES = GREATE/ HAPP9ESS1 & FROM ?IS /RIV+ HIS REASON D]IVES MORAL RULES ( LIFE3 9 DO+ ?IS1 H[EV]1 MAN IS NOT FREE1 = HE CAN DO ONLY ?AT :I* IS ! NECESS>Y \TCOME ( HIS NATURE4 

,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ,SP9OZA WAS ABOVE ALL AIM+ TO FREE \R MORALITY FROM ! TYRANNY ( ! FEEL+S 9CALCULAT$ BY RELIGION1 & WI%$ TO PROVE ?AT \R PASSIONS & DESIRES 7AFFECTS7 DO NOT DEP5D ON \R GOOD OR EVIL 9T5TIONS4 ,HE AIM$ TO REPRES5T ! MORAL LIFE ( MAN AS BE+ COMPLETELY GOV]N$ BY HIS REASON1 ! P[] ( :I* 9CREASES ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( KN[L$GE4 ,SP9OZA DEVOTES TO ?IS SUBJECT MANY PAGES 9 ! F\R? P>T ( HIS 0,E?ICS10 :]E HE SPEAKS 0,( HUMAN BONDAGE40 ,! 5TIRE FIF? P>T TREATS 0( ! P[] ( ! 9TELLECT1 OR ( HUMAN LIB]TY40 ,9 ALL ?IS CAPITAL TREATISE ,SP9OZA 9 EV]Y WAY URGES MAN TO ACTION1 PROV+ ?AT WE ATTA9 ! FULL GRATIFICATION ( \R 0EGO0 ONLY :5 WE ACTIVELY1 & NOT PASSIVELY REACT TO \R SURR\ND+S4 ,UN=TUNATELY1 HE FAIL$ TO CONSID] ! FACT ?AT ! ABILITY TO DECIDE :AT IS JU/ & :AT IS UNJU/ IS ONE ( ! EXPRESSIONS ( ! FUNDAM5TAL ANODE ( \R ?9K+1 )\T :I* ?9K+ IS IMPOSSIBLE4 

,SP9OZA'S E?ICS IS ?OR\<LY SCI5TIFIC4 ,IT KN[S NO METAPHYSICAL SUBTLETIES1 NOR REVELATIONS FROM ABOVE4 ,ITS CONCLUSIONS >E D]IV$ FROM ! KN[L$GE ( MAN & ( NATURE 9 G5]AL4 ,BUT :AT DOES IT SEE 9 NATURE8 ,:AT DOES NATURE TEA* \R REASON1 TO :I* DECISION 9 MORAL QUE/IONS BELONGS8 ,9 :AT DIRECTION DOES IT LEAD US8 ,IT TEA*ES1 WROTE ,SP9OZA1 NOT TO BE CONT5T ) COMMIS]ATION1 NOT TO LOOK FROM AF> AT ! JOYS & ! SORR[S ( M51 BUT TO BE ACTIVE4 ,BUT 9 :AT DIRECTION %\LD ?IS ACTIVITY MANIFE/ ITSELF8 ,?IS QUE/ION1 UN=TUNATELY1 ,SP9OZA LEFT UNANSW]$4 ,HE WROTE DUR+ ! SECOND HALF ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 & HIS 0,E?ICS0 FIR/ APPE>$ 9 A PO/HUM\S $ITION 9 #a#f#g#f4 ,AT ?AT TIME TWO REVOLUTIONS HAD ALREADY TAK5 PLACE3 ! ,RE=MATION1 & ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION4 ,BO? !SE REVOLUTIONS W5T FUR!R ?AN A M]E /RUGGLE AGA9/ !OLOGY & ! ,*UR*4 ,!Y BO? HAD A DEEPLY SOCIAL *>ACT]1 & HUMAN EQUALITY WAS ! PR9CIPAL WAT*WORD ( !SE POPUL> MOVEM5TS4 ,BUT !SE DEEPLY SIGNIFICANT PH5OM5A F\ND NO RESPONSE 9 ,SP9OZA4 

0,SP9OZA10 AS ,JODL V]Y JU/LY REM>KS1 0HAD LOOK$ DEEP] ?AN ANYONE ELSE 9TO E?ICS4 ,! MORAL1 AS HE SEES IT1 IS AT ONE & ! SAME TIME ! DIV9E & ! HUMAN1 EGOISM & SELF-SACRIFICE1 REASON & AFFECT 7I4 E41 DESIRE71 FRE$OM & NECESSITY4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 ADDS ,JODL1 9 PURPOSELY BUILD+ HIS E?ICS ON EGOISM1 ,SP9OZA COMPLETELY IGNOR$ ! SOCIAL PROP5SITIES ( MAN4 ,( C\RSE1 HE RECOGNIZ$ ! DESIRES PRODUC$ BY SOCIAL LIFE & ! FACT ?AT !Y >E B\ND TO OV]COME PURELY EGOI/IC DESIRES1 BUT SOCIAL UNION APPE>$ TO HIM AS SOME?+ ( SECOND>Y IMPORTANCE1 & HE PUT ! SELF-SUFFICI5CY ( A P]SONALITY P]FECT 9 ITSELF1 ABOVE ! IDEA ( WORK 9 COMMON & ( 
SOCIALITY4  
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,POSSIBLY1 ?IS DEFECT MAY BE EXPLA9$ BY ! FACT ?AT 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 :5 MASSACRES 9 ! NAME ( ! 0TRUE FAI?0 W]E RAG+1 ! MO/ URG5T AIM ( E?ICS WAS TO SEP>ATE MORALITY FROM ANY ADMIXTURE ( ,*RI/IAN VIRTUES1 & HAV+ DONE ?IS1 ,SP9OZA1 IT MAY BE1 HESITAT$ TO BR+ UPON HIMSELF /ILL HEAVI] ?UND] ( REPRO( BY A DEF5SE ( SOCIAL JU/ICE1 I4 E41 BY A DEF5SE ( ! COMMUNI/IC IDEAS ADVANC$ AT ?AT TIME BY 
! NEW RELIGI\S MOVEM5TS4 ,IT WAS1 ABOVE ALL1 NECESS>Y TO REE/ABLI% ! RI<TS ( P]SONAL1 9DEP5D5T1 AUTONOM\S REASON4 ,!RE=E1 9 BAS+ MORALITY ON ! PR9CIPLE ( GREATE/ HAPP9ESS1 :I* IT AF=DS )\T ANY REW>D 9 ! =M ( 0MULTIPLY+ ( H]DS0 OR 0BEATITUDE 9 HEAV510 IT WAS NECESS>Y TO BREAK COMPLETELY ) !OLOGICAL E?ICS1 )\T FALL+ 9TO 0UTILIT>IANISM0 OR 9TO ! E?ICS ( ,HOBBES & HIS FOLL[]S4 ,:ATEV] ! CASE MAY BE1 ! OMISSION 9 ,SP9OZA'S E?ICS PO9T$ \T BY ,JODL1 WAS AN ESS5TIAL OMISSION4 

,! 9DUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY ( ,FRANCIS ,BACON1 ! BOLD G5]ALIZATIONS ( ,DESC>TES1 :O AIM$ TO REVEAL ! NATURAL LIFE ( ! 5TIRE ,UNIV]SE1 ,SP9OZA'S E?ICS1 :I* EXPLA9$ ! MORAL ELEM5T 9 MAN )\T 9VOK+ ANY MY/]I\S =CES1 & ,GROTIUS' ATTEMPT TO EXPLA9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIALITY1 AGA9 )\T ANY 9T]F]5CE ON ! P>T ( A SUP]NATURAL LAWGIV]1 -- ALL !SE TEA*+S PREP>$ ! GR\ND = A NEW PHILOSOPHY1 & IT ACTUALLY F\ND ITS PROM95T REPRES5TATIVE 9 ! ,5GLI% ?9K] ,LOCKE4 

,LOCKE DID NOT WRITE A SPECIAL TREATISE ON MORALITY4 ,BUT 9 HIS WORK1 0,AN ,ESSAY ,CONC]N+ ,HUMAN ,UND]/&+10  
 #ae 
HE SO DEEPLY ANALYZ$ ! F\NDATIONS ( \R KN[L$GE1 ?AT HIS ANALYSIS BECAME = A :OLE G5]ATION ! BASIS ( A NEW PHILOSOPHY4 ,9 DISCUSS+ 9 ANO!R BOOK 
#af 
! PRACTICAL APPLICATION ( HIS RESE>* TO POLITICS & TO LIFE 9 G5]AL1 HE VOIC$ SO MANY WEI<TY ?\<TS ON ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ?AT HIS VIEWS LEFT !IR /AMP ON EV]Y?+ ?AT WAS WRITT5 ON MORALITY DUR+ ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,! V]Y FACT ?AT ,LOCKE WAS NOT A F\ND] ( A NEW !ORY ) /RICTLY DEF9$ VIEWS1 P>TLY ACC\NTS = HIS 9FLU5CE4 ,9 GIV+ HIS 9T]PRETATION ( HUMAN ?\<T1 ( ! SO-CALL$ FRE$OM ( WILL1 & ( MORALITY 9 G5]AL1 HE ASSUM$ A V]Y TOL]ANT ATTITUDE T[>D O!R TEA*+S1 TRY+ TO %[ 9 EA* ONE ( !M ! ELEM5T ( TRU?1 EV5 IF IT WAS 9CORRECTLY EXPRESS$4 

,LOCKE1 LIKE ,SP9OZA1 WAS PRIM>ILY A FOLL[] ( ,DESC>TES 9 HIS 9T]PRETATION ( \R KN[L$GE1 I4E41 ( \R ?9K+ PROCESSES & ( ! WAYS BY :I* MAN >RIVES AT HIS CONCLUSIONS4 ,LIKE ,DESC>TES1 HE REJECT$ METAPHYSICS & /OOD ON A /RICTLY SCI5TIFIC BASIS4 ,BUT ,LOCKE DISAGREES ) ,DESC>TES ON ! SUBJECT ( TILE EXI/5CE 9 MAN ( 9NATE IDEAS1 9 :I* ,DESC>TES & O!R PR$ECESSORS ( ,LOCKE SAW ! S\RCE ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN4 ,LOCKE ASS]T$ ?AT !RE >E NO 9NATE IDEAS EI!R 9 MORALITY OR 9 REASON 9 G5]AL4 0,:]E IS ?AT PRACTICAL TRU?10 HE ASK$1 0?AT IS UNIV]SALLY RECEIV$ )\T D\BT OR QUE/IONS AS IT MU/ BE IF 9NATE8 ,JU/ICE1 & KEEP+ 
( CONTRACTS1 IS ?AT :I* MO/ M5 SEEM TO AGREE 94 ,?IS IS A PR9CIPLE :I* IS ?\<T TO EXT5D ITSELF TO ! D5S ( ?IEVES1 & ! CONF$]ACIES ( ! GREATE/ VILLA9S4444,I GRANT ?AT \TLAWS !MSELVES DO ?IS ONE AMONG ANO!R2 BUT IT IS )\T RECEIV+ !SE AS ! 9NATE LAWS ( NATURE4 ,!Y PRACTICE !M AS RULES ( CONV5I5CE )9 !IR [N COMMUNITIES4444JU/ICE & TRU? >E ! COMMON TIES ( SOCIETY2 & !RE=E EV5 \TLAWS & ROBB]S MU/ KEEP FAI? & RULES ( EQUITY AMONG !MSELVES1 OR ELSE !Y CANNOT HOLD TOGE!R4 ,BUT WILL ANYONE SAY1 ?AT ?OSE ?AT LIVE BY FRAUD OR RAP9E HAVE 9NATE PR9CIPLES ( TRU? & JU/ICE :I* !Y ALL[ & ASS5T TO80  
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,& TO ?OSE :O W\LD PO9T \T ! USUAL DIV]G5CE BETWE5 ?\<TS & ACTIONS 9 M51 ,LOCKE ANSW]S1 NOT QUITE SATISFACTORILY1 ?AT ! ACTIONS ( M5 >E ! BE/ 9T]PRET]S ( !IR ?\<TS4 ,& S9CE ! PR9CIPLES ( JU/ICE & MORALITY >E D5I$ BY MANY1 &1 ?\< RECOGNIZ$ BY O!RS1 >E NOT APPLI$ TO LIFE1 0IT IS V]Y /RANGE & UNREASONABLE TO SUPPOSE 9NATE PRACTICAL PR9CIPLES1 ?AT T]M9ATE ONLY 9 CONTEMPLATION40 7,IBID4 #c47 

,A MOD]N READ]1 FAMILI> ) ! !ORY ( EVOLUTION1 WILL PROBABLY NOTICE ?AT ,LOCKE'S REASON+ IS SUP]FICIAL4 ,( C\RSE HE WAS JU/IFI$ 9 D5Y+ ! EXI/5CE 9 MAN ( 9H]5T IDEAS OR CONCLUSIONS1 9CLUD+ ! MORAL1 & HE WAS JU/IFI$ 9 SAY+ ?AT 9 MORALITY AS WELL AS 9 EV]Y?+ ELSE MAN >RIVES AT HIS CONCLUSIONS ?R\< EXP]I5CE4 ,BUT IF HE HAD KN[N ! LAWS ( H]$ITY1 AS WE KN[ !M N[1 OR EV5 IF HE HAD SIMPLY GIV5 ?\<T TO ! MATT]1 HE W\LD H>DLY HAVE D5I$ ?AT A SOCIAL CREATURE LIKE MAN1 OR LIKE O!R H]D ANIMALS1 C\LD & AS B\ND TO EVOLVE ?R\< H]$ITY NOT ONLY A T5D5CY TO H]D-LIFE BUT ALSO TO EQUITY & JU/ICE4  
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,NEV]!LESS1 9 HIS TIME1 I4E41 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 ,LOCKE'S CRUSADE AGA9/ ! 09NATE0 MORAL CONCEPTIONS WAS AN IMPORTANT /EP =W>D1 BECAUSE ?IS NEGATION FRE$ PHILOSOPHY FROM SUBJECTION TO ! TEA*+S ( ! ,*UR* AB\T ! FALL ( MAN & ! LO/ ,P>ADISE4 

,AFT] ?IS 9TRODUCTION1 :I* ,LOCKE NE$$ TO PROVE ?AT MORAL CONCEPTIONS CANNOT HE REG>D$ AS 9SPIR$ FROM ABOVE1 HE PASS$ TO ! PR9CIPAL SUBJECT ( HIS TREATISE3 TO ! PRO( ( ! ORIG9 ( \R IDEAS & CONCLUSIONS FROM OBS]VATION-FROM EXP]I5CE4 ,& 9 ?IS FIELD HIS RESE>* WAS SO EXHAU/IVE ?AT IT WAS LAT] ACCEPT$ BY ALL ! PR9CIPAL ?9K]S ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 & UP TO \R [N TIME IT IS /ILL ADH]$ TO BY ! 
POSITIVI/S4 ,LOCKE WAS V]Y DEF9ITELY PROV+ ?AT ALL \R IDEAS 7CONCEPTIONS1 ?\<TS7 ORIG9ATE EI!R DIRECTLY FROM \R S5SATIONS1 RECEIV$ ?R\< \R S5SES1 OR FROM ! P]CEPTION ( \R S5SATIONS4 ,ALL MAT]IAL = ! ?9K+ PROCESS IS SUPPLI$ BY EXP]I5CE1 & M9D CONTA9S NO?+ ?AT WAS NOT PREVI\SLY EXP]I5C$ BY S5SATIONS4 

0,?IS GREAT S\RCE ( MO/ ( ! IDEAS WE HAVE1 DEP5D+ :OLLY UPON \R S5SES1 & D]IV$ BY !M TO ! UND]/&+1 ,I CALL S5SATION10 WROTE ,LOCKE 7,BOOK ,I,I1 *4 #a1 #c74 ,BUT1 ( C\RSE1 HE DID NOT D5Y ?AT !RE >E C]TA9 WAYS ( ?9K+1 9H]5T TO \R REASON & ?AT P]MIT IT TO DISCOV] TRU?S4 ,SU* >E1 = EXAMPLE1 ! ID5TITY & ! DIFF]5CE ( TWO ?+S1 DISC]N$ BY REASON1 !IR EQUALITY OR 9EQUALITY2 !IR ADJAC5CY 9 TIME & SPACE1 OR !IR REMOT5ESS FROM EA* O!R2 SU* IS ALSO ! IDEA ( CAUSE & EFFECT4 

,!RE >E1 ACCORD+ TO ,LOCKE1 TWO PR9CIPAL DIVISIONS 9 \T SIMPLE IDEAS :I* WE D]IVE FROM S5SATIONS1 & FROM \R P]CEPTIONS ( S5SATIONS4 ,SOME >E CONNECT$ ) PLEASURE1 O!RS ) PA91 SOME ) JOY1 O!RS ) SORR[1 & !RE IS H>DLY A S5SATION OR A P]CEPTION ( S5SATION :I* DOES NOT BELONG TO ! ONE OR ! O!R DIVISION' 7,BOOK ,I,I1 *4 ,X,X1 #a47 0,?+S1 !N1 >E GOOD OR EVIL ONLY 9 REF]5CE TO PLEASURE OR PA94 ,?AT WE CALL GOOD1 :I* IS APT TO CAUSE OR 9CREASE PLEASURE1 OR DIM9I% PA9 9 US40 7@&#a#f#g2 #b47 ,! S5SATIONS PRODUCE 9 US ! CORRESPOND+ DESIRES & PASSIONS1 ! NATURE ( :I* WE LE>N BY OBS]V+ !M4 ,9 G5]AL1 MAN SEEKS ?AT :I* GIVES HIM PLEASURE1 & AVOIDS ALL ?AT LEADS TO SUFF]+4 7@&#a#f#g2 #c47 ,FUR!RMORE1 ,LOCKE PO9T$ \T ?AT PLEASURE & PA9 MAY BE NOT ONLY PHYSICAL BUT ALSO M5TAL1 & ?US HE LAID ! F\NDATION ( ! TEA*+ :I* 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY WAS BRILLIANTLY DEVELOP$ BY ,JOHN ,/U>T ,MILL1 UND] ! NAME ( ,UTILIT>IANISM4 

,MOREOV]1 9 OBS]V+ ! ALT]ATIONS 9 \R SIMPLE IDEAS1 7UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( BROAD5+ EXP]I5CE71 WE >RIVE AT ! CONCEPTION ( \R P[]1 I4E41 \R ABILITY TO ACT 9 ONE WAY OR ANO!R2 & FROM !SE OBS]VATIONS SPR+S ! CONCEPTION ( ! 0FREE WILL40  
#ai 
 7,BOOK ,I,I1 *4 ,X,X,I1 #a-#b47 0,WE F9D 9 \RSELVES10 SAYS ,LOCKE1 0A P[] TO BEG9 OR =BE>1 CONT9UE OR 5D SEV]AL ACTIONS ( \R M9DS1 & MOTIONS ( \R BODIES1 B>ELY BY A ?\<T OR PREF]5CE ( ! M9D ORD]+1 OR1 AS IT W]E1 COMM&+ ! DO+ OR NOT DO+ SU* OR SU* A P>TICUL> ACTION10 7@&#a#f#g2 #e47 ,FROM ! CONSID]ATION ( ! EXT5T ( ! P[] ( ! M9D OV] ! ACTIONS ( MAN1 >ISES ! IDEA ( FREE WILL4 7@&#a#f#g2 #g47 ,BUT1 9 FACT1 ! QUE/ION 0,IS \R WILL FREE80 IS 9CORRECTLY =MULAT$4 ,IT W\LD BE MORE PROP] TO ASK 0IS MAN FREE 9 HIS ACTIONS80 ,& ! ANSW] TO ?IS QUE/ION W\LD BE ?AT MAN CAN1 ( C\RSE1 ACT AS HE WILLS4 ,BUT IS HE FREE TO WILL8 7@&#a#f#g2 #b#b47 ,TO ?IS QUE/ION1 ( C\RSE1 ,LOCKE GIVES A NEGATIVE ANSW]1 BECAUSE MAN'S WILL IS DET]M9$ BY A :OLE S]IES ( PREC$+ 9FLU5CES4 

,FUR!R1 9 DISCUSS+ H[ ! M9D DET]M9ES ! WILL1 ,LOCKE PO9T$ \T ?AT ! ANTICIPATION ( SUFF]+1 OR EV5 ( M]E UNEAS9ESS1 9FLU5CES \R WILL MORE ?AN ! ANTICIPATION ( ! GREATE/ JOYS 9 ! LIFE TO COME4 ,9 G5]AL1 ,LOCKE SO ?OR\<LY DISCUSS$ ! RELATIONS ( \R M9D TO \R ACTIONS ?AT 9 ?IS FIELD HE MAY BE CONSID]$ ! 
PROG5ITOR ( ALL SUBSEQU5T PHILOSOPHY4 

,H[EV]1 IT MU/ BE NOT$ ?AT AL?\< ,LOCKE'S 9FLU5CE WAS FELT MA9LY 9 ! SKEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 ITS 9FLU5CE IS APP>5T TOO 9 ! CONCILIATORY ATTITUDE ( PHILOSOPHY TO RELIGION1 :I* LAT] F\ND EXPRESSION 9 ,KANT & 9 ,G]MAN PHILOSOPHY ( ! FIR/ HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 

,9 FREE+ MORAL PHILOSOPHY FROM ! YOKE ( ! ,*UR*1 ,LOCKE AT ! SAME TIME PUT MORALITY UND] ! PROTECTION ( ! ?REE TYPES ( LAW3 ! DIV9E LAW1 ! CIVIL LAW1 & ! LAW ( OP9ION OR REPUTATION4 7,BOOK ,I,I1 *4 ,X,X,V,I,I,I1 @&#a#f#g2 #g47 ,?US HE DID NOT SEV] CONNECTION ) ! ,*UR* MORALITY1 BAS$ ON ! PROMISE ( BLISS 9 ! LIFE TO COME4 ,HE ONLY DIM9I%$ ! IMPORTANCE ( ?IS PROMISE4 

0 ,9 CONCLUSION1 9 ! LA/ P>T ( ! SAME ESSAY ,LOCKE DEVOT$ A FEW *APT]S TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! IDEA :I* OCCURS FREQU5TLY 9 WRIT+S ON E?ICS1 NAMELY1 -- ?AT MORAL TRU?S1 :5 !Y >E FRE$ FROM COMPLICATIONS & >E R$UC$ TO FUNDAM5TAL CONCEPTIONS1 CAN BE PROV$ 9 PRECISELY ! SAME MANN] AS MA!MATICAL TRU?S4 0,MORAL KN[L$GE IS AS CAPABLE ( REAL C]TA9TY AS MA!MATICS10 WROTE ,LOCKE1 0\R MORAL IDEAS1 AS WELL AS MA!MATICAL1 BE+ >*ETYPES !MSELVES1 & SO ADEQUATE & COMPLETE IDEAS1 ALL ! AGREEM5T OR DISAGREEM5T :I* WE %ALL F9D 9 !M WILL PRODUCE REAL KN[L$GE1 AS WELL AS 9 MA!MATICAL FIGURES40 7,BOOK ,I,V1 *4 IV1 @&#a#f#g2 #g47 ,ALL ?IS P>T1 & ESPECIALLY ! SECTION1 0,MORALITY CAPABLE ( DEMON/RATION10 7*4 ,I,I,I1 @&#a#f#g2 #a#h7 >E EXTREMELY 9T]E/+4 ,!Y %[ CLE>LY ?AT ,LOCKE APPROA*$ V]Y CLOSELY ! RECOGNITION ( JU/ICE AS ! BASIS ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 ,BUT :5 HE ATTEMPT$ TO DEF9E JU/ICE1 HE QUITE NE$LESSLY LIMIT$ ?IS CONCEPTION1 R$UC+ IT TO ! CONCEPTION ( PROP]TY3 0,:]E !RE IS NO PROP]TY !RE IS NO 9JU/ICE1 IS A PROPOSITION AS C]TA9 AS ANY DEMON/RATION 9 ,EUCLID40 7,BOOK ,I,V1 *4 ,I,I,I1 @&#a#f#g2 #a#h47 ,& ?US HE DEPRIV$ ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE & EQUITY ( ?AT PRIME IMPORTANCE1 :I*1 AS WE %ALL SEE 9 A LAT] P>T ( ?IS WORK1 IT HAS 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORAL IDEAS4 

,LOCKE'S PHILOSOPHY EX]T$ A F>-REA*+ 9FLU5CE UPON ! SUBSEQU5T DEVELOPM5T ( PHILOSOPHY4 ,WRITT5 9 SIMPLE LANGUAGE1 )\T ! B>B>IC T]M9OLOGY ( ! ,G]MAN PHILOSOPH]S1 IT DID NOT 5VELOP ITS FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES 9 ! CL\D ( METAPHYSICAL PHRASEOLOGY :I* AT TIMES PREV5TS ! WRIT] HIMSELF FROM =M+ A CLE> IDEA ( :AT HE AIMS TO EXPRESS4 ,LOCKE CLE>LY /AT$ ! FUNDAM5TALS ( ! NATURALI/IC1 SCI5TIFIC 9T]PRETATION ( ! ,UNIV]SE 9 ! IMPORTANT FIELD ( MORALITY4 ,!RE=E1 ALL SUBSEQU5T PHILOSOPHY1 FROM ,KANTIAN METAPHYSICS TO ,5GLI% 0UTILIT>IANISM10 TO ! 0POSITIVISM0 ( ,AUGU/E ,COMTE1 & EV5 UP TO MODEM 0MAT]IALISM0 -- CONSCI\SLY OR UNCONSCI\SLY H>KS BACK TO ,LOCKE & ,DESC>TES4 ,?IS WILL BE SE5 LAT]1 :5 WE COME TO CONSID] ! PHILOSOPHY ( ! ,5CYCLOPA$I/S1 & !N ! PHILOSOPHY ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,& N[ LET US EXAM9E :AT WAS ! CONTRIBUTION ( ! ,5GLI% FOLL[]S ( ,LOCKE4 

,AMONG ?OSE :O WROTE ON ! RESEMBLANCE ( ! MORAL RULES TO ! MA!MATICAL1 9 ! S5SE ?AT BO? MAY BE ACCURATELY D]IV$ FROM A FEW FUNDAM5TAL PREMISES1 WAS ,SAMUEL ,CL>KE1 A PUPIL ( ,DESC>TES & ,NEWTON4 ,9 HIS 0,DISC\RSE ,CONC]N+ ! ,UN*ANGEABLE ,OBLIGATIONS ( ,NATURAL ,RELIGION0  
#b 
HE ASCRIBES TO ?AT IDEA V]Y GREAT IMPORTANCE1 SO MU* MORE ?AT HE VIGOR\SLY ASS]T$ ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ! MORAL PR9CIPLES FROM ! WILL ( ! ,SUPREME ,BE+1 & ALSO ?AT MAN 
ASSUMES MORALITY AS OBLIGATORY REG>DLESS ( ALL CONSID]ATIONS AS TO ! CONSEQU5CES ( IMMORAL ACTS4 ,IT MI<T BE EXPECT$1 !RE=E1 ?AT ,CL>KE W\LD ELABORATE ,BACON'S IDEA ( ! H]$IT>Y NATURE ( ! MORAL 9/9CTS & W\LD %[ H[ !Y DEVELOP4 ,RECOGNIZ+ ! EXI/5CE SIDE BY SIDE ) !M ( ! ANTI-SOCIAL 9/9CTS1 FREQU5TLY ATTRACTIVE TO MAN1 ,CL>KE MI<T HAVE CONSID]$ ! ROLE PLAY$ BY REASON 9 *OOS+ BETWE5 ! TWO1 & HE MI<T HAVE %[N ! GRADUALLY ACCUMULAT+ 9FLU5CE ( ! SOCIAL 9/9CTS4 ,HE FAIL$ TO DO ?IS1 H[EV]4 ,! TIME WAS NOT YET RIPE = ! !ORY ( EVOLUTION1 & AL?\< IT WAS ! LA/ ?+ TO BE EXPECT$ FROM AN ADV]S>Y ( ,LOCKE1 ,CL>KE1 LIKE ,LOCKE1 TURN$ TO DIV9E REVELATION4 ,MOREOV]1 ,CL>KE1 LIKE ,LOCKE & HIS FOLL[]S1 ! UTILIT>IANS1 RESORT$ TO ! CONSID]ATIONS ( UTILITY1 :]EBY HE /ILL FUR!R WEAK5$ ?AT P>T ( HIS TEA*+ 9 :I* HE D]IVES MORAL1 CONCEPTIONS FROM H]$IT>Y 9/9CTS4 ,AS A RESULT1 HIS 9FLU5CE ON E?ICAL PHILOSOPHY WAS MU* WEAK] ?AN IT MI<T HAVE BE5 IF HE HAD LIMIT$ HIMSELF TO ! ?OR\< ELABORATION ( ! FIR/ P>T ( HIS DOCTR9E4 

,MU* MORE COMPLETE WAS ! MORAL PHILOSOPHY ( ,%AFTESBURY4 ,( ALL ?OSE :O WROTE 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY AFT] ,BACON1 ,%AFTESBURY CAME CLOS] ?AN ANY O!R TO ! IDEA ( ! GREAT F\ND] ( 9DUCTIVE ?9K+4 ,%AFTESBURY EXPRESS$ HIMSELF ON ! SUBJECT ( ! ORIG9 ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS 9 A MU* MORE D>+ & DEF9ITE =M ?AN HIS PR$ECESSORS1 AL?\< HE WAS1 ( C\RSE1 COMPELL$ TO COV] HIS FUNDAM5TAL ?\<TS BY CONCESSIONS TO RELIGI\S TEA*+S1 = IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE AT ?AT TIME TO MAKE HEADWAY )\T CONCESSIONS4 

,%AFTESBURY FIR/ ( ALL 5DEAVOR$ TO PROVE ?AT ! MORAL S5SE IS NOT A D]IVATIVE S5SE1 BUT IS 9H]5T 9 HUMAN NATURE4 ,IT IS BY NO MEANS ! \TCOME ( \R EVALUATION ( ! USEFUL OR H>MFUL CONSEQU5CES ( \R ACTIONS2 & 0?IS PRIM>Y & SPONTANE\S *>ACT] ( \R MORAL S5SE PROVES ?AT MORALITY IS BAS$ -- ON EMOTIONS & PROP5SITIES ! S\RCE ( :I* LIES 9 ! NATURE ( MAN1 & :I* HE CAN JUDGE ONLY SECOND>ILY1 I4 E41 AFT] !Y MANIFE/ !MSELVES4 ,9 JUDG+ ! MANIFE/ATIONS ( HIS FEEL+S & 9/9CTS MAN CALLS !M MORAL OR IMMORAL40 

,?US ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! BASES ( MORALITY CALLS = REASON2 = UND]/&+ ( :AT IS RI<T & :AT IS WRONG1 9 ORD] TO 5ABLE US TO R5D] CORRECT JUDGM5TS1 SO ?AT 0NO?+ HORRID OR UNNATURAL1 NO?+ UNEXEMPL>Y1 NO?+ DE/RUCTIVE ( ?AT NATURAL AFFECTION BY :I* ! SPECIES OR SOCIETY IS UPHELD1 MAY ON ANY ACC\NT1 OR ?R\< ANY PR9CIPLE OR NOTION ( HONOR OR RELIGION1 BE AT ANY TIME AFFECT$ OR PROSECUT$ AS A GOOD & PROP] OBJECT ( E/EEM 40  
#ba 

,%AFTESBURY ASCRIB$ NO IMPORTANCE TO RELIGION 9 ! /R5G!N+ ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 ,A MAN :O TURN$ MORAL UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( RELIGION1 HE WROTE1 POSSESSES 0NO MORE ( RECTITUDE1 PIETY1 & SANCTITY1 ?AN !RE IS MEEKNESS OR G5TL5ESS 9 A TIG] /RONGLY *A9$40  
#bb 
,9 G5]AL1 ,%AFTESBURY WAS QUITE \TSPOK5 DISCUSSION ( RELIGION & A!ISM4 

,%AFTESBURY EXPLA9$ ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS EXCLUSIVELY BY ! 9BORN SOCIAL 9/9CT1 CONTROLL$ BY REASON4 ,FROM !M DEVELOP$ ! CONCEPTIONS ( 0,EQUITY & ,RI<T10 & !IR DEVELOPM5T WAS 9FLU5C$ BY ! FOLL[+ CONSID]ATION3 0,TO DES]VE ! NAME ( GOOD OR VIRTU\S1 A CREATURE MU/ HAVE ALL HIS 9CL9ATIONS & AFFECTIONS1 HIS DISPOSITIONS ( M9D & TEMP]1 SUITABLE & AGREE+ ) ! GOOD ( HIS K9D1 OR ( ?AT SY/EM 9 :I* HE IS 9CLUD$1 & ( :I* HE CON/ITUTES A P>T40  
#bc 

,MOREOV]1 ,%AFTESBURY PROV$ ?AT ! SOCIAL 9T]E/S & ! 9T]E/S ( ! 9DIVIDUAL NOT ONLY CO9CIDE1 BUT >E ACTUALLY 9-SEP>ABLE4 ,LOVE ( LIFE & DESIRE ( LIFE1 :5 C>RI$ TO ! EXTREME1 >E NOT AT ALL 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! 9DIVIDUAL2 !Y BECOME A H9DRANCE TO HIS HAPP9ESS4  
#bd 
,WE ALSO F9D 9 ,%AFTESBURY ! BEG9N+S ( ! UTILIT>IANI/ EVALUATION ( PLEASURES1 LAT] DEVELOP$ BY ,JOHN ,/U>T ,MILL & O!R UTILIT>IANS1 9 ! PASSAGE :]E HE SPEAKS ( ! PREF]ABILITY ( ! M5TAL PLEASURES TO ! S5SUAL4  
#be 
 ,& 9 HIS DISC\RSE1 0,! ,MORALI/S10 PUBLI%$ = ! FIR/ TIME 9 #a#g#i1 :]E HE DEF5D$ HIS !ORIES EXP\ND$ 9 0,AN ,9QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ,VIRTUE OR ,M]IT10 HE RIDICUL$ 0! /ATE ( NATURE0 9 :I*1 ACCORD+ TO ,HOBBES'S SURMISE1 ALL M5 W]E 5EMIES ( ONE ANO!R4 
#bf 

,IT IS REM>KABLE ?AT ,%AFTESBURY1 9 REFUT+ ,HOBBES'S ASS]TION ?AT 0MAN IS A 
WOLF TO MAN10 WAS ! FIR/ TO PO9T \T ! EXI/5CE ( MUTUAL AID AMONG ANIMALS4 0,! LE>N$10 WROTE ,%AFTESBURY1 0LOVE TO TALK ( ?IS IMAG9>Y /ATE ( ,NATURE0444BUT 0TO SAY 9 DISP>AGEM5T ( MAN 0?AT HE IS TO MAN A WOLF0 APPE>S SOME:AT ABSURD1 :5 ONE CONSID]S ?AT WOLVES >E TO WOLVES V]Y K9D & LOV+ CREATURES4 ,! SEXES /RICTLY JO9 9 ! C>E & NURTURE ( ! Y\NG1 & ?IS UNION IS CONT9U$ /ILL BETWE5 !M4 ,!Y H[L TO ONE ANO!R TO BR+ COMPANY1 :E!R TO HUNT1 OR 9VADE !IR PREY1 OR ASSEMBLE ON ! DISCOV]Y ( A GOOD C>CASS4 ,EV5 ! SW9I% K9DS WANT NOT COMMON AFFECTION1 & RUN 9 H]DS TO ! ASSI/ANCE ( !IR DI/RESS$ FELL[S40 
#bg 

,?US ! WORDS UTT]$ BY ,BACON1 ,HUGO ,GROTIUS1 & ,SP9OZA 70MUTUAM JUV5TUM10 I4 
E41 MUTUAL AID7 W]E APP>5TLY NOT LO/1 & ?R\< ,%AFTESBURY !Y BECAME 9CORPORAT$ 9TO ! SY/EM ( ,E?ICS4 ,& N[1 -- FROM S]I\S OBS]VATIONS ( \R BE/ ZOOLOGI/S1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! SP>SELY POPULAT$ P>TS ( ,AM]ICA1 & ALSO FROM S]I\S /UDIES ( ! LIFE ( PRIMITIVE TRIBES1 CONDUCT$ 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 -- WE KN[ H[ RI<T ,%AFTESBURY WAS4 ,UN=TUNATELY1 TO ?IS DAY !RE >E MANY DESK 0NATURALI/S0 & 0E?NOLOGI/S10 :O KEEP ON REPEAT+ ! PREPO/]\S ASS]TION ( ,HOBBES4 

,%AFTESBURY'S VIEWS W]E SO D>+ = HIS TIME1 & 9 MANY PO9TS !Y APPROA*$ SO CLOSELY ! CONCLUSIONS ( MOD]N ?9K]S1 ?AT A FEW MORE WORDS MU/ BE SAID AB\T HIS TEA*+4 ,%AFTESBURY DIVID$ HUMAN T5D5CIES 9TO SOCIAL1 EGOI/ICAL1 & ?OSE ?AT >E1 ESS5TIALLY1 NOT 09H]5T01 ,SU*1 HE WROTE1 >E HATR$1 MALICE1 PASSIONS4 ,MORALITY IS NO?+ BUT ! PROP] RELATION BETWE5 ! SOCIAL & ! EGOI/IC T5D5CIES 70AFFECTIONS074 ,9 G5]AL1 ,%AFTESBURY 9SI/$ ON ! 9DEP5D5CE ( MORALITY FROM RELIGION1 & FROM SPECULATIVE MOTIVES1 = ITS PRIM>Y S\RCE LIES NOT 9 REASON+ AB\T \R ACTIONS1 BUT 9 ! V]Y NATURE ( MAN1 9 ! SYMPA?IES :I* HE DEVELOP$ 9 ! C\RSE ( ! AGES4 ,MOREOV]1 MORALITY IS 9DEP5D5T ALSO ) REG>D TO ITS PURPOSES1 = MAN IS GUID$ NOT BY ! O/5SIBLE UTILITY ( ?IS OR ?AT WAY ( ACT+1 BUT BY ! FEEL+ ( 9N] H>MONY )9 HIMSELF1 I4E41 BY ! FEEL+ ( SATISFACTION OR DISSATISFACTION AFT] ! ACT4 

,?US ,%AFTESBURY 7AS WAS ALREADY PO9T$ \T BY ,WUNDT7 BOLDLY PROCLAIM$ ! 9DEP5D5T ORIG9 ( ! MORAL S5SE4 ,& HE ALSO UND]/OOD H[ A MORAL CODE WAS 9EVITABLY DEVELOP$ FROM ?IS PRIM>Y S\RCE4 ,MOREOV]1 HE CATEGORICALLY D5I$ ! ORIG9 ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS FROM ! UTILIT>IAN CONSID]ATIONS ( ! USEFULNESS OR H>MFULNESS ( A GIV5 WAY ( ACT+4 ,ALL ! MORAL RULES ( RELIGIONS & LAWS >E ! D]IVATIVE1 SECOND>Y =MS1 ! PRIM>Y BASIS ( :I* IS CON/ITUT$ BY ! H]$IT>Y MORAL 9/9CTS4 

,9 ?IS PO9T ! NATURALI/IC MORAL PHILOSOPHY ( ,%AFTESBURY COMPLETELY DIV]GES FROM ! NATURALI/IC PHILOSOPHY ( ! ,FR5* ?9K]S ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 9CLUD+ ! ,5CYCLOPA$I/S1 :O PREF]R$ TO ADH]E 9 MORAL QUE/IONS TO ! VIEWPO9T ( ,EPICURUS & HIS FOLL[]S4 ,IT IS 9T]E/+ TO NOTE ?AT ?IS DIV]G5CE WAS ALREADY NOTICEABLE 9 ! F\ND]S ( ! NEW PHILOSOPHICAL MOVEM5T 9 ,5GL& & 9 ,FRANCE1 I4E41 9 ,BACON1 :O AT ONCE TOOK ! SCI5TIFIC1 NATURALI/IC /&PO9T1 & 9 ,DESC>TES1 :O HAD NOT YET QUITE CLE>LY DEF9$ HIS POSITION4 

,AT ANY RATE1 ,%AFTESBURY'S PO9T ( VIEW WAS ASSUM$ ALSO BY ,D>W9 79 HIS SECOND FUNDAM5TAL WORK1 0,! ,DESC5T ( ,MAN074 ,& ! SAME PO9T ( VIEW MU/ 9EVITABLY BE ADOPT$ BY EV]Y PSY*OLOGI/ :O IS FREE FROM PRECONCEIV$ NOTIONS4 ,WE SEE 9 ,%AFTESBURY1 TOO1 A PR$ECESSOR ( ,GUYAU1 9 ! IDEAS :I* ! LATT] DEVELOP$ 9 HIS BOOK1 0,MORALITY ,)\T ,OBLIGATION OR ,SANCTION40 ,! SAME CONCLUSIONS >E REA*$ BY MOD]N ,NATURAL ,SCI5CE2 SO ?AT AFT] HAV+ /UDI$ MUTUAL AID AMONG ANIMALS & PRIMITIVE SAVAGES1 ,I WAS ABLE TO SAY ?AT IT W\LD BE EASI] = MAN TO REV]T TO WALK+ ON ALL F\RS1 ?AN TO R5\NCE HIS MORAL 9/9CTS1 = !SE 9/9CTS HAD BE5 DEVELOP+ 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD LONG BE=E ! APPE>ANCE ( MAN ON ! E>?4  
#bh 

,HUT*ESON1 A PUPIL ( ,%AFTESBURY1 MORE EMPHATICALLY ?AN ANY ( HIS CONTEMPOR>IES1 CAME \T 9 FAVOR ( ! 9H]5T MORAL FEEL+4 ,%AFTESBURY DID NOT EXPLA9 SUFFICI5TLY :Y DIS9T]E/$ /RIV+ = ! GOOD ( O!RS TAKES ! UPP] H& ( ! MANIFE/ATIONS ( P]SONAL EGOISM1 -- & BY ?IS OMISSION HE LEFT ! ROAD OP5 = RELIGION4 ,HUT*ESON1 AL?\< HE WAS MU* MORE BELIEV+ & MU* MORE RESPECTFUL T[>D RELIGION ?AN ,%AFTESBURY1 DEMON/RAT$ MORE EMPHATICALLY ?AN ANY O!R ?9K] ( HIS TIME ! 9DEP5D5T NATURE ( \R MORAL JUDGM5TS4 

,9 HIS WORKS1 0,PHILOSOPHIAE MORALIS 9/ITUTIO COMP5DI>IA0  
#bi 
 & 0,SY/EM ( MORAL PHILOSOPHY10 ,HUT*ESON ATTEMPT$ TO PROVE ?AT WE >E NOT AT ALL GUID$ BY CONSID]ATIONS ( ! UTILITY ( ! B5EVOL5T ACTS & ( ! H>MFULNESS ( ! NON-B5EVOL5T1 BUT ?AT WE FEEL M5TAL SATISFACTION AFT] AN ACT DIRECT$ T[>D ! GOOD ( O!RS & ?AT WE CALL SU* AN ACT MORAL0 BE=E 9DULG+ 9 ANY SPECULATIONS AS TO ! UTILITY OR ! H>MFULNESS ( \R ACT4 ,WE FEEL M5TAL DISSATISFACTION AS ! RESULT ( NON-B5EVOL5T ACTS1 JU/ AS WE >E PLEAS$ BY H>MONY 9 ! PROPORTIONS ( A BUILD+ OR 9 MUSIC1 & >E DISPLEAS$ BY ABS5CE ( H>MONY 9 >*ITECTURE OR 9 MUSIC4 ,REASON1 P] SE1 W\LD NOT BE ABLE TO URGE US TO AN ACT LEAD+ TO ! COMMON GOOD1 IF WE HAD NO NATURAL B5T TO ACT 9 ?AT MANN]4 ,!RE=E ,HUT*ESON ASCRIBES TO REASON A FAIRLY MODE/1 P]HAPS TOO MODE/ A PLACE4 ,REASON1 HE HELD1 ONLY PUTS 9 ORD] \R S5SATIONS & IMPRESSIONS1 & IT PLAYS ONLY AN $UCATIVE P>T3 IT 5ABLES US TO EXP]I5CE ?OSE HI<E/ DELI<TS :I* >E ( GREATE/ IMPORTANCE = \R HAPP9ESS4 ,?R\< REASON1 WE KN[ ! ,UNIV]SAL ORD] & ! RUL+ ,SPIRIT1 BUT FROM REASON ALSO RESULT ?OSE DIV]SITIES 9 ! 9T]PRETATION ( MORAL & IMMORAL :I* LEAD PEOPLES 9 DIFF]5T /AGES ( DEVELOPM5T TO E/ABLI% MO/ V>I$ MORAL1 & SOMETIMES MO/ IMMORAL RULES & CU/OMS4 ,%AMEFUL DE$S COMMITT$ AT V>I\S TIMES1 ORIG9AT$ 9 ]RONE\S M5TAL JUDGM5TS1 :ILE MORAL S5SE1 LEFT TO ITSELF1 WAS 9CAPABLE ( SUPPLY+ A MORAL DECISION 9 A DIFFICULT CASE4 .<,BOOK ,I1 *4 ,V1 @&#a#f#g2 #g4.> 

,H[EV]1 IT W\LD BE MORE CORRECT TO SAY1 WE MAY REM>K1 ?AT ! MORAL FEEL+ WAS ALWAYS AGA9/ !SE DISGRACEFUL DE$S1 & ?AT AT TIMES SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS REBELL$ AGA9/ !M1 BUT DID NOT HAVE ON !IR SIDE ! NECESS>Y P[] TO /AMP !M \T4 ,IT %\LD BE ALSO REMEMB]$ TO :AT EXT5T RELIGIONS >E TO BE BLAM$ = MANY MORAL DISGRACES4 ,D5Y+ ! RI<TS ( REASON 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY1 RELIGIONS CON/ANTLY URG$ UPON M5 OBSEQUI\SNESS T[>D ! RUL]S1 & HATR$ ( ?OSE FOLL[+ O!R RELIGIONS1 CULM9AT+ 9 ! BRUTALITIES ( ! ,9QUISITION & ! ANNIHILATION ( 5TIRE CITIES DUE TO RELIGI\S DISPUTES4 

,IT IS TRUE ,HUT*ESON SAW ! PR9CIPAL VALUE ( RELIGION 9 ! 9F9ITELY HI< QUALITIES :I* WE ASCRIBE TO ,GOD1 -- HE SAW1 9 FACT1 ?AT BY CREAT+ SOCIAL WOR%IP IT GRATIFI$ ! SOCIAL NE$S ( MAN4 ,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT RELIGION1 LIKE ANY O!R SOCIAL 9/ITUTION1 AIDS ! CREATION ( AN IDEAL4 ,BUT AS V>I\S WRIT]S ON MORALITY HAVE PO9T$ \T1 ! PR9CIPAL P>T 9 SOCIAL MORALITY IS PLAY$ NOT SO MU* BY IDEALS1 AS BY ! DAILY HABITS ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,?US ! ,*RI/IAN & ! ,BUDDHI/IC SA9TS UNQUE/IONABLY S]VE AS MODELS & TO A C]TA9 EXT5T AS /IMULI TO MORAL LIFE1 BUT WE MU/ NOT =GET ?AT ! MAJORITY ( PEOPLE HAVE A /&+ EXCUSE = NOT IMITAT+ !M 9 !IR LIVES3 0,WELL1 WE >E NOT SA9TS40 ,AS REG>DS ! SOCIAL 9FLU5CE ( RELIGION1 O!R SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS & ! DAILY R\T9E ( LIFE PROVE TO BE MU* /RONG] ?AN ! TEA*+S ( RELIGION4 ,! COMMUNI/IC MODE ( LIFE ( MANY PRIMITIVE PEOPLES MA9TA9S 9 !M ! FEEL+ & ! HABITS ( SOLID>ITY MU* BETT] ?AN DOES ! ,*RI/IAN RELIGION4 ,9 ! C\RSE ( MY CONV]SATIONS ) ! 0SAVAGES0 DUR+ MY TRAVELS 9 ,SIB]IA & ,MAN*URIA1 IT US$ TO BE V]Y DIFFICULT = ME TO EXPLA9 H[ IT WAS ?AT 9 \R ,*RI/IAN SOCIETIES PEOPLE FREQU5TLY DIE FROM HUNG]1 :ILE SIDE BY SIDE ) !M O!R PEOPLE >E LIV+ 9 AFFLU5CE4 ,TO A ,TUNGUS1 AN ,ALEUT1 & TO MANY O!RS1 SU* A SITUATION IS UTT]LY 9COMPREH5SIBLE3 !Y >E HEA!N1 BUT !Y >E M5 ( A TRIBAL MODE ( LIFE4 

,HUT*ESON'S *IEF M]IT WAS 9 HIS 5DEAVOR TO EXPLA9 :Y DIS9T]E/$ PROP5SITIES MAY1 & DO1 GET ! UPP] H& ( ! N>R[LY P]SONAL ASPIRATIONS4 ,HE EXPLA9S ?IS FACT BY ! PRES5CE 9 US ( ! FEEL+ ( 9N] APPROVAL1 :I* ALWAYS MAKES ITS APPE>ANCE :5 ! SOCIAL FEEL+ ATTA9S PREPOND]ANCE OV] ! SELF-DIRECT$ ASPIRATIONS4 ,HE ?US FRE$ E?ICS FROM ! NECESSITY ( GIV+ PREEM95CE EI!R TO RELIGION1 OR TO CONSID]ATIONS ( ! UTILITY TO ! 9DIVIDUAL ( A GIV5 ACT4 ,HIS TEA*+1 H[EV]1 HAD A SUB/ANTIAL DEFECT3 LIKE HIS PR$ECESSORS HE MADE NO DI/9CTION BETWE5 ?AT :I* MORALITY HOLDS OBLIGATORY1 & ?AT :I* IT CONSID]S M]ELY DESIRABLE1 SO ?AT AS A RESULT HE FAIL$ TO NOTICE ?AT 9 ALL MORAL TEA*+S & CONCEPTIONS ! OBLIGATORY ELEM5T IS BAS$ ON ! RECOGNITION ( EQUITY BY FEEL+ & BY REASON4 

,?IS DEFECT1 H[EV]1 AS WE %ALL SEE LAT]1 IS COMMON ALSO TO ! MAJORITY ( 
MOD]N ?9K]S4 

,I %ALL NOT CONSID] 9 DETAIL ! TEA*+ ( ! ,G]MAN CONTEMPOR>Y ( ,%AFTESBURY & ,HUT*ESON -- ,GOTTFRI$ ,WILHELM ,LEIBNITZ1 -- ?\< !RE IS A GREAT DEAL ( 9/RUCTIVE MATT] 9 HIS CRITIQUE ( BO? ,SP9OZA & ,LOCKE1 & 9 HIS ATTEMPT TO COMB9E !OLOGY ) PHILOSOPHY & TO RECONCILE ! CURR5TS ( ?\<T ?AT F\ND EXPRESSION 9 ,CA?OLICISM & 9 V>I\S ,PROTE/ANT TEA*+S1 AS WELL AS 9 ,SCOT* & ,5GLI% E?ICS4 ,AS IS KN[N1 ,LEIBNITZ1 SIMULTANE\SLY ) ,NEWTON1 9TRODUC$ 9TO MA!MATICS A NEW & A V]Y FRUITFUL ME?OD ( ! 9VE/IGATION ( PH5OM5A ?R\< ! /UDY ( 9F9ITESIMAL *ANGES4 ,HE ALSO PROPOS$ A !ORY ( ! /RUCTURE ( MATT] SIMIL> TO ! MOD]N ATOMIC !ORY4 ,BUT NEI!R HIS ALL-EMBRAC+ 9TELLECT1 NOR HIS BRILLIANT EXPOSITION HELP$ HIM TO RECONCILE PHILOSOPHICAL PAN!ISM ) ! ,*RI/IAN FAI?1 OR TO RECONCILE E?ICS BAS$ ON ! /UDY ( ! FUNDAM5TAL PROP]TIES ( HUMAN NATURE1 ) ! ,*RI/IAN E?ICS BAS$ ON FAI? 9 A LIFE AFT] DEA?4 

,BUT ?\< ,LEIBNITZ FAIL$ 9 HIS ATTEMPT1 HE NEV]!LESS AID$ ! DEVELOPM5T ( E?ICS BY PO9T+ \T ! IMPORTANCE ( ! 9/9CT 9H]5T 9 ALL M5 -- SOCIALLY -- = ! GR[? ( ! FUNDAM5TAL MORAL CONCEPTIONS 9 MAN4 ,HE %[$1 TOO1 ! SIGNIFICANCE ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( WILL  9 BUILD+ ! IDEALS1 & ALSO ! MORAL *>ACT] ( ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,NOT 5\< ATT5TION HAD BE5 PAID TO !SE FACTORS4 

,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ,LEIBNITZ1 9 HIS M5TAL MAKE-UP & HIS PHILOSOPHY1 C\LD NOT P>T ) ! !OLOGICAL ,*RI/IAN E?ICS OR ) ! ?\<T ?AT FAI? 9 LIFE-AFT]-DEA? /R5G!NS ! MORAL P[]S ( MAN4 ,BUT AT TIMES HE SO CLOSELY APPROA*$ ! A!ISM ( ,BAYLE & ,%AFTESBURY ?AT HE UND\BT$LY /R5G!N$ ! 9FLU5CE ( !IR DOCTR9ES4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 HIS V]Y VACILLATION BETWE5 ! RELIGI\S & ! NON-RELIGI\S MORALITY 9EVITABLY L$ TO ! ?\<T ?AT !RE IS1 9 ! V]Y ESS5CE ( MORALITY1 SOME?+ BESIDES ! 9/9CTS1 ! PASSIONS1 & ! FEEL+S2 ?AT 9 ITS JUDGM5TS ( ! MORAL0 & IMMORAL0 PH5OM5A1 \R REASON IS GUID$ NOT ONLY BY ! CONSID]ATIONS ( P]SONAL OR SOCIAL UTILITY1 AS WAS ASS]T$ BY ! S*OOL ( ! 9TELLECTUALI/S -- ! FOLL[]S ( ,EPICURUS2 ?AT !RE IS 9 \R REASON SOME?+ MORE G5]AL1 MORE G5]ALLY RECOGNIZ$4 ,LEIBNITZ HIMSELF DID NOT REA* ! CONCLUSION ?AT ! SUPREME PR9CIPLE 9VOLV$ 9 REASON IS ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE1 BUT HE PREP>$ ! WAY = IT4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 HE SO BEAUTIFULLY EXPRESS$ ! NE$ ( A L(TY MODE ( ?\<T & ( ACTS FULL ( :AT IS CALL$ SELF-SACRIFICE2 HE PICTUR$ SO WELL ! ROLE ( ! IDEAL 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY1 ?AT HE PREP>$ !REBY ! GR\ND = AN IMPORTANT MOD]N DIFF]5TIATION 9 \R MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 ,HE L$ TO ! SEP>ATION ( ?AT :I* MU/ S]VE AS ! 9DISPUTABLE BASIS ( ALL ( SOCIAL LIFE1 I4E41 JU/ICE1 FROM ?AT :I* MAN FREQU5TLY GIVES TO O!RS 9 EXCESS ( ORD9>Y JU/ICE1 NAMELY1 -- READ9ESS = SELF-SACRIFICE4  
#c 

,FOOTNOTES 

#a,GASS5DI'S MORAL TEA*+S WILL BE DISCUSS$ 9 ! NEXT *APT]4  

#b,AS IS KN[N1 ! ,5GLI% REVOLUTION BEGAN 9 #a#f#c#i4 ,HOBBES'S FIR/ WORK1 ,DE ,CIVE .<,ELEM5TA PHILOSOPHICA DE CIVE.>1 APPE>$ FIR/ 9 ,P>IS 9 ! ,LAT9 LANGUAGE 9 #a#f#d#h2 JU/ FIVE YE>S LAT] IT APPE>$ 9 ,5GL& 9 ! ,5GLI% LANGUAGE4 ,HOBBES'S SECOND WORK1 ,LEVIA?AN1 APPE>$ 9 ,5GLI% 9 #a#f#e#b1 ?REE YE>S AFT] ! EXECUTION ( ! K+4 .<,! ,5GLI% TRANSLATION ( ,DE ,CIVE1  
-- ,PHILOSOPHICAL ,RUDIM5TS CONC]N+ ,GOV]NM5T & ,SOCIETY -- WAS PUBLI%$ 9 ,LONDON1 9 #a#f#e#a2 H5CE1 ?REE YE>S AFT] ! ORIG9AL ,LAT94.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#c.<,PHILOSOPHICAL ,RUDIM5TS1 ETC4 7,LONDON #a#f#e#a71 *AP ,I1 @&#a#f#g2 #a#e1 --) MOD]NIZ$ SPELL+4.> --,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#d.<,IDEM1 *AP4 ,I,I1 *IEFLY @&#a#f#g2 #a#a4.> 

#e,?US 9 ! NOTE TO ! P>AGRAPH CIT$ ABOVE ,HOBBES WROTE3 0,IT IS TRUE 9DE$ ?AT TO ,M5444SOLITUDE IS AN 5EMY2 = 9FANTS HAVE NE$ ( O!RS TO HELP !M TO LIVE1 & ?OSE ( RIP] YE>S TO HELP !M TO LIVE WELL1 :]EE=E ,I D5Y NOT ?AT M5 7NATURE COMPELL+7 DESIRE TO COME TOGE!R4 ,BUT CIVIL SOCIETIES >E NOT M]E MEET+S1 BUT BONDS TO ! MAK+ :]E( FAI? & COMPACTS >E NECESS>Y40 ,IF AN OBJECTION IS RAIS$ ?AT IF M5 W]E SU* AS ,HOBBES DESCRIBES !M1 !Y W\LD AVOID EA* O!R1 -- TO ?IS ,HOBBES REPLIES ?AT SU* IS REALLY ! CASE1 = 0!Y :O GO TO SLEEP %UT !IR DOORS1 ?OSE :O TRAVEL C>RY !IR SWORDS ) !M10 ETC4 
#f0,! CAUSE ( MUTUAL FE> CONSI/S P>TLY 9 ! NATURAL EQUALITY ( M51 P>TLY 9 !IR MUTUAL WILL ( HURT+40 ,& S9CE IT IS AN EASY MATT] 0EV5 = ! WEAKE/ MAN TO KILL ! /RONGE/0 & S9CE 0!Y >E EQUAL :O CAN DO EQUAL ?+S ONE AGA9/ ! O!R104440ALL M5 !RE=E AMONG !MSELVES >E BY NATURE EQUAL2 ! 9EQUALITY WE N[ DISC]N1 HA? IT SPR+ FROM ! ,CIVIL ,LAW40 7#a1 #c7 ,UNTIL !N 0BY RI<T ( NATURE0 EV]YONE IS HIMSELF ! SUPREME JUDGE ( ! MEANS ?AT HE IS TO EMPLOY = HIS SELF-PRES]VATION4 7#a1 #h1 #i47 0,BY RI<T ( NATURE ALL M5 HAVE EQUAL RI<TS TO ALL ?+S40 7#a1 #a47 ,BUT S9CE ?IS CONDITION W\LD LEAD TO CON/ANT W>F>E1 M5 5T]$ 9TO A SOCIAL COV5ANT E/ABLI%+ PEACE1 & 0BY RI<T ( NATURE0 ALL >E B\ND TO OBS]VE ?IS COV5ANT4 

#g,MORAL PHILOSOPHY1 ACCORD+ TO ,HOBBES1 IS NO?+ BUT ! SCI5CE ( :AT IS GOOD & :AT IS EVIL1 9 ! MUTUAL RELATIONS ( M5 & 9 HUMAN SOCIETY4 0,GOOD & ,EVIL >E NAMES GIV5 TO ?+S TO SIGNIFY ! 9CL9ATION1 OR AV]SION ( !M BY :OM !Y W]E GIV54 ,BUT ! 9CL9ATIONS ( M5 >E 
DIV]SE1 ACCORD+ TO !IR DIV]SE CON/ITUTIONS1 CU/OMS1 OP9IONS02 ACCORD+LY1 M5 DIFF] ALSO 9 !IR 9T]PRETATION ( GOOD & EVIL4 .<7,PHILOSOPHICAL ,RUDIM5TS1 #a#a#a1 #c#a74 ,PAGE #e#e4 ,LONDON1 #a#f#e#a.>4 -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#h,DE LEGIBUS NATURAE DISQUISITIO PHILOSOPHICA1 ,LONDON1 #a#f#g#b4 

#i_/,E?ICS1 P>T #a1 PROPOSITION #a#e4 ,W4 ,HALE ,:ITE'S TRANSLATION1 F\R? $ITION1 ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#a4 ,= BREVITY1 9 FUR!R REF]5CES ! P>T WILL BE 9DICAT$ BY ,ROMAN FIGURES & ! PROPOSITION BY ,>ABIC1 ?US3 7,I1 #a#e74 

#a .<,KROPOTK9 REF]S H]E TO ! ,APP5DIX TO ,P>T #a1 :I* FOLL[S ,PROPOSITION #c#f4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#a#a,DESC>TES'S TEA*+S WILL BE DISCUSS$ 9 ! NEXT *APT]4 

#ab ,SP9OZA US$ ! WORD 0?+0 BO? = 9ANIMATE OBJECTS & = LIV+ BE+S4 

#a#c,! ASS]TION ?AT MAN IS NOT FREE & CAN DO ONLY :AT IS ! \TCOME ( HIS NATURE1 9 CONNECTION ) ! SIMIL> ASS]TION AB\T ,GOD1 IS F\ND 9 SEV]AL PASSAGES ( ,SP9OZA'S ,E?ICS4 ,?US1 9 ! PREFACE TO ! ,F\R? ,P>T1 0,( ,HUMAN ,BONDAGE1 OR ,( ! ,/R5G? ( ! ,AFFECTS10 HE WROTE3 ?AT ET]NAL & 9F9ITE ,BE+ :OM WE CALL ,GOD OR ,NATURE ACTS BY ! SAME NECESSITY BY :I* ,HE EXI/S40 

#a#d,FRI$RI* ,JODL1 ,GES*I*TE D] ,E?IK ALS PHILOSOPHIS*] ,WISS5S*AFT1 ,/UTTG>T & ,B]L91 #a#i#a#b4 

#a#e,AN ,ESSAY ,CONC]N+ ,HUMAN ,UND]/&+ APPE>$ 9 #a#f#i1 TWO YE>S AFT] ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! CON/ITUTIONAL 
MON>*Y 9 ,5GL&4 .<,ALL QUOTATIONS >E FROM ,LOCKE'S ,PHILOSOPHICAL ,WORKS1 
#b VOLS41 ,BOHN'S ,/&>D ,LIBR>Y1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#e#d4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#a#f,TWO ,TREATISES ( ,GOV]NM5T1 #a#f#h#i4 ,AN ,EPI/LE ON ,TOL]ANCE1 #a#f#i4 ,! ,REASONABL5ESS ( ,*RI/IANITY1 ETC4 .<#a#f#i#g4.> 

#ag ,AN ,ESSAY ,CONC]N+ ,HUMAN ,UND]/&+1 ,BOOK ,I1 *4 III1 #b4 .<,ALL FUR!R REF]5CES >E TO ! SAME ESSAY4 ,BOOKS ,I-,I,I >E 9 VOL4 #a1 & BOOKS ,I,I,I-,I,V 9 VOL4 #aa ( ! ,BOHN $ITION4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  
#a#h,LOCKE WROTE3 ,BUT %\LD ?AT MO/ UN%AK5 RULE ( MORALITY & F\NDATION ( ALL SOCIAL VIRTUE 0?AT ONE %\LD DO AS HE W\LD BE DONE UNTO10 BE PROPOS$ TO ONE :O NEV] HE>D ( IT BE=E1 MI<T HE NOT )\T ANY ABSURDITY ASK A REASON :Y80 7,BK4 ,I1 *1 III1 @&#a#f#g2 #d47 ,TO ?IS A ,*RI/IAN W\LD REPLY3 ,BECAUSE ,GOD1 :O HAS ! P[] ( ET]NAL LIFE & DEA?1 REQUIRES IT ( US40 ,BUT IF A ,HOBBESI/ IS ASK$ :Y1 HE WILL ANSW]3 ,BECAUSE ! PUBLIC REQUIRES IT1 & ! 0,LEVIA?AN0 WILL PUNI% Y\ IF Y\ DO NOT0' 7@&#a#f#g2 #e7 0,VIRTUE 7IS7 G5]ALLY APPROV$1 NOT BECAUSE 9NATE1 BUT BECAUSE PR(ITABLE0 7#a#f#g2 #f71 ,! GREAT PR9CIPLE ( MORALITY1 TO DO AS ONE W\LD BE DONE TO1 IS MORE RECOMM5D$ ?AN PRACTIC$40 7#a#f#g2 #g47 ,LOCKE1 !RE=E1 COMPLETELY FOLL[$ ,HOBBES ON ?IS PO9T1 FAIL+ TO NOTICE ?AT HABITS >E 9H]IT$ & EVOLVE 9TO 9/9CTS1 & ?AT ! 9/9CTS1 I4E41 ?AT :I* WAS !N KN[N AS APPETITES10 >E TO A GREAT EXT5T H]$IT>Y4 ,9 HIS /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! DOCTR9E ( 9NATE IDEAS1 HE FAIL$ TO NOTICE H]$ITY1 ?\< ITS SIGNIFICANCE WAS ALREADY UND]/OOD BY ,BACON1 & P>TLY BY ,SP9OZA4 

#ai .<,LOCKE USES ! T]M 0LIB]TY0 = ! MOD]N CONCEPTION ( 0FREE WILL40.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#b .<,LONDON1 #a#g#h.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#ba ,*>ACT]I/ICS ( ,M51 ,MANN]S1 ,OP9IONS1 ,TIMES1 ETC41 BY ,AN?ONY4 ,E>L ( ,%AFTESBURY1 #b VOLS41 ,GRANT ,RI*>DS1 ,LONDON1 #a#i4 .<,! PASSAGE QUOT$ IS FROM ,VOL4 #a1 ,TREATISE ,I,V1 ,AN ,9QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ,VIRTUE OR ,M]IT1 ,BOOK ,I1 ,P>T ,I,I1 ,SECTION ,I,I,I1 P4 #b#e#e4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#b#b,IBID41 ,BOOK ,I1 ,P>T ,I,I,I1 ,SECTION ,I,I,I1 P4 #b#f#g2 SEE ALSO ,BOOK ,I,I1 ,P>T ,I,I1 ,SECTION #a4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#b#c,IBID41 ,BOOK ,I,I1 ,P>T ,I1 ,SECTION ,I1 P4 #b#h4 

#b#d,IBID41 ,BOOK ,I,I1 ,P>T ,I,I1 ,SECTION ,I,I P4 #c#a#h4  
#b#e,IBID41 ,CONCLUSION1 P4 #c#c#g4 .<,SEE ALSO ,BOOK ,I,I1 ,P>T ,I,I1 ,SECTION ,I1 P4 #b#i#f4.> 
#bf ,! ,MORALI/S3 ,A ,PHILOSOPHICAL ,RHAPSODY1 BE+ A RECITAL ( C]TA9 ,CONV]SATIONS ON ,NATURAL & ,MORAL ,SUBJECTS4 .<,9 ,VOL4 ,I,I ( ! ,*>ACT]I/ICS.>3 

,?AT IT WAS !IR NATURAL /ATE TO LIVE ?US SEP>ATELY CAN NEV] )\T ABSURDITY BE ALL[$4 ,= SOON] MAY Y\ DIVE/ ! CREATURE ( ANY O!R FEEL+ OR AFFECTION ?AN ?AT T[>DS SOCIETY & HIS LIK5ESSES40 7,P>T ,I,I4 ,SECTION ,I,V1 P4 #h47 ,FUR!R ON HE SAYS1 ,IF1 ON ! O!R H&1 !IR CON/ITUTION BE AS \RS4444IF !Y HAVE MEMORY1 & S5SES1 & AFFECTIONS4440TIS EVID5T !Y CAN NO MORE BY !IR GOODWILL AB/A9 FROM SOCIETY ?AN !Y CAN POSSIBLY PRES]VE !MSELVES )\T IT40 7,P>T ,I,I1 ,SECTION ,I,V1 P4 #hb 7 ,MOREOV]1 ,%AFTESBURY PO9T$ TO ! WEAKNESS ( HUMAN *ILDR51 & !IR NE$ = PROTECTION & BETT] FOOD4 ,MU/ NOT ?IS .<! HUMAN FAMILY1 H\SEHOLD.> HAVE GR[N SOON 9TO A TRIBE8 & ?IS TRIBE 9TO A NATION8 ,OR ?\< IT REMA9$ A TRIBE ONLY1 WAS NOT ?IS /ILL A SOCIETY = MUTUAL DEF5SE & COMMON 9T]E/80 ,SOCIETY1 !RE=E1 MU/ BE A NATURAL /ATE TO MAN1 & \T ( SOCIETY & COMMUNITY HE NEV] DID1 NOR EV] CAN SUBSI/40 7,P>T ,I,I1 ,SECTION ,I,V1 P4 #h#c47 ,?IS ?\<T1 AS WE %ALL SEE1 WAS LAT] REIT]AT$ BY ,HUME4  
#b#g,IBID41 PP4 #h#c-#h#d4 
#b#h.<,SEE ,APP5DIX1 PAGE #c#c#i1 BEL[4.> --,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#b#i.<,GLASG[1 #a#g#d#b2 ,ROTT]DAM1 #a#g#d#e4 ,! ,SY/EM ( ,MORAL ,PHILOSOPHY1 APPE>$ 9 ,LONDON1 #a#g#e#e2 #b VOLS4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#c 
,! PR9CIPAL ,PHILOSOPHICAL WORKS ( ,LEIBNITZ >E3 ,ESSAIS DE !ODICEE SUR LA BONTE DE ,DIEU1 LA LIB]TI DE L'HOMME1 ET L'ORIG9E DU MAL1 #a#g#a2 ,N\-VEAUX ESSAIS ,SUR #a'5T5DEM5T HUMA9 7A REFUTATION ( ,LOCKE1 WRITT5 9 #a#g#d1 APPE>$ ONLY 9 #a#g#f72 ,SY/EME N\VEA1 DE #aA NATURE ET DE LA COMMUNICATION DES SUB/ANCES4 .<,! FIR/ WORK APPE>$ 9 ,AM/]DAM2 ! SECOND1 9 ,AM/]DAM & ,LEIPZIG1 #agf & #a#g#f#e1 7,5GLI% TRANSLATION BY ,A4 ,G4 ,LANGLEY1 ,N4 ,Y41 #a#h#i#f2 & SEE ,JOHN ,DEWEY'S CRITICAL EXPOSITION ( ! WORK 9 ,G4 ,S4 ,MORRIS1 ,G]MAN ,PHILOS4 ,CLASSICS1 ,*ICAGO1 #a#h#h#b72 ! ,SY/EME N\VEAU IS DAT$ #a#f#i#e1 --SEE ,LEIBNITZ1 7,EUVRES PHILOSOPHIQUES1 ,$4 ,JANET1 #a#h#f#f1 VOL4 #b1 PP4 #ebf FF4.> --,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aibc 3 ,*APT] #g -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#e1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #g -- ,ADD$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/