,/UDY #d 
,! ,PR9CIPLE ( ,AU?ORITY 

#aheaahea 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PI]RE-,JOSEPH ,PR\DHON 

,TEXT 3 

,F\R? ,/UDY4 ,! ,PR9CIPLE ( ,AU?ORITY4 

,I BEG ?AT ! READ] WILL P>DON ME1 IF 9 ! C\RSE ( ?IS /UDY AN EXPRESSION %\LD ESCAPE ME :I* MI<T BETRAY ANY FEEL+ ( SELF-E/EEM4 ,I HAVE ! D\BLE-REGRET1 9 ?IS GREAT QUE/ION ( AU?ORITY1 ( BE+1 ON ! ONE H&1 AS YET ALONE 9 ASS]T+ ! ,REVOLUTION CATEGORICALLY2 ON ! O!R1 9 HAV+ P]V]SE IDEAS ATTRIBUT$ TO ME1 :I* ,I1 MORE ?AN ANYBODY1 ABHOR4 ,IT IS NOT MY FAULT IF1 9 SUPPORT+ SO L(TY A !SIS1 ,I SEEM TO PLEAD MY [N P]SONAL CAUSE4 AT LEA/ ,I %ALL DO SO1 EV5 IF ,I MAY NOT DEF5D MYSELF ) SOME VIVACITY1 ?AT ! 9TELLIG5CE ( ! READ] MAY LOSE NO?+4 ,MOREOV] \R M9D IS SO CON/RUCT$ ?AT IT SEES ! LI<T NEV] BETT] ?AN :5 IT SPR+S FROM ! CLA% ( OPPOS+ IDEAS4 ,MAN1 SAYS1 ,HOBBES1 IS A FI<T+ ANIMAL4 ,IT WAS ,GOD HIMSELF :O1 :5 PLAC+ US 9 ?IS WORLD1 GAVE US ?IS PRECEPT3 ,9CREASE1 MULTIPLY1 LABOR & FI<T4 

,SOME TWELVE YE>S AGO1 WELL ,I MAY RECALL IT1 :ILE BUSY+ MYSELF ) RESE>*ES 9TO ! F\NDATIONS ( SOCIETY1 HAV+ 9 VIEW NOT AT ALL POLITICAL EV5TUALITIES1 IMPOSSIBLE !N TO HAVE =ESE51 BUT SOLELY = ! GREAT] GLORY ( PHILOSOPHY1 ,I WAS ! FIR/ TO CA/ 9TO ! WORLD A D5IAL :I* HAS S9CE OBTA9$ GREAT R5[N1 ! D5IAL ( ,GOV]NM5T & ( ,PROP]TY4 ,O!RS BE=E MYSELF1 TO SEEM ORIG9AL1 HUMOR\S1 OR SEEK+ A P>ADOX1 HAD D5I$ ?OSE TWO PR9CIPLES2 NOT ONE HAD MADE ?IS D5IAL ! SUBJECT ( A S]I\S1 E>NE/ CRITICISM4 ,ONE ( \R MO/ GOOD-NATUR$ J\RNALI/S1 ,M4 ,PELLETAN1 UND]TAK+ MY DEF5SE ONE DAY1 MOTU PROPRIO1 MADE ?IS S+UL> /ATEM5T TO HIS READ]S1 ?AT1 9 ATTACK+ SOMETIMES PROP]TY1 SOMETIMES P[]1 SOMETIMES SOME?+ ELSE1 ,I WAS FIR+ A GUN 9TO ! AIR1 TO ATTRACT T[>D MYSELF ! ATT5TION ( EMPTY-HEADS4 ,M4 ,PELLETAN WAS TOO GOOD 9DE$1 & ,I CANNOT BE TOO MU* OBLIG$ TO HIM = HIS K9DNESS3 HE MU/ HAVE TAK5 ME = A LIT]>Y P]SON4 

,IT IS TIME ?AT ! PUBLIC %\LD KN[ ?AT1 9 PHILOSOPHY1 9 POLITICS1 9 !OLOGY1 9 HI/ORY1 NEGATION IS ! PRELIM9>Y REQUIREM5T TO AFFIRMATION4 ,ALL PROGRESS BEG9S BY ABOLI%+ SOME?+2 EV]Y RE=M RE/S UPON D5UNCIATION ( SOME ABUSE2 EA* NEW IDEA IS BAS$ UPON ! PROV$ 9SUFFICI5CY ( ! OLD IDEA4 ,?US ,*RI/IANITY1 9 D5Y+ ! PLURALITY ( ! GODS1 9 BECOM+ A!I/IC1 FROM ! PAGAN PO9T ( VIEW1 ASS]T$ ! UNITY ( ,GOD1 & FROM ?IS UNITY D$UC$ ITS :OLE !OLOGY4 ,?US ,LU!R1 9 D5Y+ ! AU?ORITY ( ! ,*UR*1 ASS]T$ ! AU?ORITY ( REASON1 & LAID ! FIR/ /ONE ( MOD]N PHILOSOPHY4 ,?US \R FA!RS1 ! REVOLUTION>IES ( '#h#i1 9 D5Y+ ! SUFFICI5CY ( FEUDAL RULE1 ASS]T$1 )\T UND]/&+ IT1 ! NECESSITY ( SOME DIFF]5T SY/EM1 :I* IT IS ! MISSION ( \R AGE TO EXPLA94 ,?US1 F9ALLY1 ,I MYSELF1 HAV+ DEMON/RAT$ AFRE%1 UND] ! EYES ( MY READ]S1 ! ILLEGITIMACY & P[]LESSNESS ( GOV]NM5T AS A PR9CIPLE ( ORD]1 WILL CAUSE TO >ISE FROM ?IS NEGATION A PRODUCTIVE1 AFFIRMATIVE IDEA1 :I* MU/ LEAD TO A NEW =M ( CIVILIZATION4 

,! BETT] TO EXPLA9 MY POSITION 9 ?IS EXAM9ATION1 ,I WILL MAKE ANO!R COMP>ISON4 

,IT IS ) IDEAS AS ) MA*9ES4 ,NO ONE KN[S ! 9V5TOR ( ! FIR/ TOOLS1 ! HOE1 ! RAKE1 ! AX1 ! WAGON1 ! PL[4 ,!SE >E F\ND AMONG ALL ! NATIONS ( ! GLOBE FROM ! E>LIE/ ANTIQUITY4 ,BUT ?IS SPONTANEITY IS NOT F\ND ) P]FECT$ 9/RUM5TS1 ! LOCOMOTIVE1 ! DAGU]REOTYPE1 ! >T ( BALLOON+1 ! ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH4 ,! F+] ( ,GOD1 IF ,I MAY V5TURE TO SAY SO1 IS NO LONG] !RE3 ! NAMES ( ! 9V5TORS1 ! DATES ( !IR FIR/ EXP]IM5TS1 >E KN[N3 ! AID ( SCI5CE1 TOGE!R ) PROLONG$ PRACTICAL SKILL1 HAS BE5 REQUIR$4 

,?US >E BORN & ?US DEVELOP ! IDEAS :I* S]VE TO GUIDE ! HUMAN RACE4 ,! E>LIE/ >E FURNI%$ BY SPONTANE\S1 IMM$IATE 9TUITION1 9 :I* PRIORITY CANNOT BE CLAIM$ BY ANYBODY4 ,BUT ! DAY COMES :5 !SE GIFTS ( COMMON S5SE NO LONG] SUFFICE = COLLECTIVE LIFE3 IT IS !N ?AT REASON1 :I* ALONE CAN %[ ?IS 9SUFFICI5CY1 CAN ALONE SUPPLY ?AT :I* IS LACK+4 ,ALL NATIONS HAVE PRODUC$ & ORGANIZ$ BY !MSELVES1 )\T ! AID ( TEA*]S1 ! IDEAS ( AU?ORITY1 ( PROP]TY1 ( GOV]NM5T1 ( JU/ICE1 ( WOR%IP4 ,N[ ?AT !SE IDEAS >E GR[+ WEAK]1 ?AT A ME?ODICAL ANALYSIS1 AN (FICIAL 9QUIRY1 IF ,I MAY SAY SO1 HAS E/ABLI%$ !IR 9SUFFICI5CY1 AT ! B> ( REASON & ( SOCIETY1 ! QUE/ION IS = US TO DISCOV]1 ?R\< SCI5CE1 :AT SUB/ITUTE WE CAN F9D = IDEAS :I*1 ACCORD+ TO ! V]DICT ( SCI5CE1 >E CONDEMN$ AS FALSE & 9JURI\S4 

,:OEV] !N OP5LY1 9 ! FACE ( ! PEOPLE1 BY A SORT ( EXTRA-JUDICIAL ACT1 HAS BE5 ! FIR/ TO PROP\ND A VIEW DIRECT$ AGA9/ GOV]NM5T & E/ABLI%$ PROP]TY1 IS B\ND TO EXPLA9 FUR!R HIS IDEAS = A NEW SOCIAL ORGANIZATION4 ,I WILL ATTEMPT ! SOLUTION1 AS ,I ATTEMPT$ BE=E ! CRITICISM ( IT3 ,I MEAN ?AT AFT] HAV+ GIV5 TO MY CONTEMPOR>IES CONSCI\SNESS ( !IR [N DEFICI5CIES1 ,I WILL TRY TO EXPLA9 TO !M ! SECRET ( !IR [N ASPIRATIONS4 ,GOD =BID ?AT ,I %\LD SET MYSELF UP AS PROPHET1 OR ?AT ,I %\LD PRET5D TO HAVE EV] 9V5T$ AN IDEA6 ,I SEE1 ,I OBS]VE1 ,I WRITE4 ,I MAY SAY1 ) ! ,PSALMI/3 ,I HAVE BELIEV$ BECAUSE ,I HAVE SPOK54 

,:Y IS IT ?AT ) ! SIMPLE/ QUE/ION SOME AMBIGUITY MU/ M+LE8 

,PRIORITY 9 PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPTIONS IS NOT LESS AN OBJECT ( EMULATION ?AN PRIORITY 9 9DU/RIAL 9V5TIONS1 ) L(TY M9DS :I* KN[ !IR VALUE & SEEK ! GLORY ( !IR DISCOV]Y1 AL?\< !Y CAN BE NEI!R SOLD NOR PAT5T$4 ,9 ! DOMA9 ( PURE ?\<T1 AS WELL AS 9 ?AT ( ME*ANICAL IMPROVEM5T APPLI$ TO ! >TS1 !RE >E RIVALRIES1 IMITATIONS1 ,I HAD ALMO/ SAID C\NT]FEITS1 W]E IT NOT ?AT ,I FE>1 BY ! USE ( SO /RONG A T]M1 TO ASP]SE AN HONORABLE AMBITION1 :I* ATTE/S ! SUP]IORITY ( ! PRES5T G5]ATION4 ,! IDEA ( ,AN>*Y HAD ?IS =TUNE4 ,! D5IAL ( GOV]NM5T HAV+ BE5 R5EW$ S9CE ! REVOLUTION ( ,FEBRU>Y ) NEW >DOR & SOME SUCCESS1 C]TA9 M5 ( NOTE 9 ! DEMOCRATIC & SOCIALI/IC P>TY1 :OM ! IDEA ( ,AN>*Y FILL$ ) DISQUIETUDE1 ?\<T ?AT !Y MI<T APPROPRIATE ! >GUM5TS DIRECT$ AGA9/ GOV]NM5T1 NAD UPON !SE >GUM5TS1 :I* W]E ESS5TIALLY NEGATIVE1 MI<T RE/ORE ! V]Y PR9CIPLE :I* WAS AT /AKE1 UND] A NEW NAME1 & ) A FEW MODIFICATIONS4 ,)\T 9T5D+ IT1 )\T SUSPECT+ IT1 !SE HONORABLE CITIZ5S TOOK ! POSITION ( C\NT]-REVOLUTION>IES1 S9CE A C\NT]FEIT1 = AFT] ALL ?IS WORD EXPRESSES MY IDEA BETT] ?AN ANY O!R1 A C\NT]FEIT1 9 POLITICAL & SOCIAL AFFAIRS1 IS REALLY C\NT]-REVOLUTION4 ,I %ALL PROVE IT IMM$IATELY4 ,?AT IS :AT !SE RE/ORATIONS ( AU?ORITY REALLY >E1 ?AT HAVE BE5 UND]TAK5 REC5TLY 9 COMPETITION ) AN>*Y1 & ?AT HAVE OCCUPI$ PUBLIC ATT5TION UND] ! NAMES ( ,DIRECT ,LEGISLATION1 ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T1 ( :I* ! AU?ORS OR $ITORS >E1 9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 ,MESSRS4 ,RITT+HAUS5 & ,CONSID]ANT1 & AFT]W>DS1 ,M4 ,L$RU ,ROLL94 

,ACCORD+ TO ,MESSRS4 ,CONSID]ANT & ,RITT+HAUS51 ! FIR/ IDEA ( DIRECT GOV]NM5T CAME FROM ,G]MANY2 AS = ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL91 HE ONLY CLAIMS IT1 & ) RES]VATIONS1 = \R FIR/ REVOLUTION2 ?IS IDEA BE+ F\ND AT L5G? 9 ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 & 9 ! ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT4 

,IT MU/ BE UND]/OOD1 ?AT IF ,I 9T]V5E 9 MY TURN 9 ! DISCUSSION1 IT IS NOT TO CLAIM A PRIORITY :I* ,I REJECT ) ALL MY P[] 9 ! T]MS 9 :I* ! QUE/ION HAS BE5 PUT4 ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T & ,DIRECT ,LEGISLATION SEEM TO ME ! TWO BIGGE/ BLUND]S 9 ! ANNALS ( POLITICS & ( PHILOSOPHY4 ,H[ IS IT ?AT ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS51 :O UND]/&S ,G]MAN PHILOSOPHY TO ! BOTTOM2 H[ IS IT ?AT ,M4 ,CONSID]ANT1 :O T5 OR FIFTE5 YE>S AGO WROTE A PAMPHLET1 UND] ! TITLE1 ,BREAK+-UP ( ,POLITICS 9 ,FRANCE2 H[ IS IT ?AT ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL91 :O1 :5 HE SUBSCRIB$ TO ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 MADE SU* G5]\S & FUTILE EF=TS TO MAKE DIRECT GOV]NM5T PRACTICABLE1 & TO R$UCE IT )9 ! B\NDS ( COMMON S5SE2 H[ IS IT1 ,I ASK1 ?AT !SE G5TLEM5 HAVE NOT UND]/OOD ?AT ! V]Y >GUM5TS :I* !Y USE AGA9/ 9DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 HAVE NO =CE ?AT DOES NOT APPLY EQUALLY AGA9/ DIRECT GOV]NM5T2 ?AT !IR CRITICISM IS ADMISSIBLE ONLY :5 MADE ABSOLUTE2 & ?AT1 9 /OPP+ HALF-WAY1 !Y HAVE FALL5 9TO ! MO/ PITIFUL 9CONSEQU5CE8 ,ABOVE ALL1 H[ IS IT ?AT !Y HAVE NOT SE5 ?AT !IR PRET5D$ DIRECT GOV]NM5T IS NO?+ BUT ! R$UCTION TO ABSURDITY ( ! GOV]NM5TAL IDEA2 TO ! EXT5T ?AT1 IF ?R\< ! PROGRESS ( IDEAS & ! COMPLEXITY ( 9T]E/S1 SOCIETY IS =C$ TO ABJURE EV]Y K9D ( GOV]NM5T1 IT WILL BE JU/ BECAUSE DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 ! ONLY =M ( GOV]NM5T ?AT SEEMS TO BE RATIONAL1 LIB]AL1 EQUAL1 IS NEV]!LESS IMPOSSIBLE8 

,MEAN:ILE COMES ALONG ,M4 DE ,GIR>D91 ASPIR+1 NO D\BT1 TO HAVE A %>E 9 ! 9V5TION1 OR AT LEA/1 9 ! COMPLETION1 :O PROPOS$ ?IS =MULA3 ,ABOLITION ( ,AU?ORITY ?R\< ! ,SIMPLIFICATION ( ,GOV]NM5T4 ,:AT WAS ,M4 DE ,GIR>D9 DO+ ) ?IS FOOLI% BUS9ESS8 ,SU* A M9D1 SO RES\RCEFUL1 CAN NEV] BE RE/RA9$6 ,Y\ >E TOO QUICK1 ,M4 DE ,GIR>D91 TO ACCOMPLI% ANY?+4 ,AU?ORITY IS TO ,GOV]NM5T :AT ! ?\<T IS TO ! WORD1 ! IDEA TO ! FACT1 ! S\L TO ! BODY4 ,AU?ORITY IS GOV]NM5T 9 PR9CIPLE1 AS GOV]NM5T IS AU?ORITY 9 PRACTICE4 ,TO ABOLI% EI!R1 IF IT IS A REAL ABOLITION1 IS TO ABOLI% BO?4 ,BY ! SAME TOK51 TO PRES]VE ONE OR ! O!R1 IF ! PRES]VATION IS EFFECTIVE1 IS TO KEEP BO?4 

,MOREOV]1 ,M4 DE ,GIR>D9'S SIMPLIFICATION HAS LONG BE5 KN[N TO ! PUBLIC4 ,IT IS A COMB9ATION ( P]SONAGES BORR[$ FROM :AT M]*ANTS CALL !IR ,J\RNAL4 ,!RE >E ?REE CL]KS3 ! FIR/ NAM$ ,DEBTS1 ! SECOND NAM$ ,ASSETS1 ! ?IRD NAM$ ,BALANCE4 ,NO?+ IS LACK+ BUT ! ,*IEF1 :O ORD]S !M AB\T & DIRECTS !M4 ,AMONG ! ?\S&S ( IDEAS :I* ,M4 DE ,GIR>D9'S BRA9 ?R[S (F EV]Y DAY1 )\T ANY ( !M TAK+ ROOT1 NO D\BT HE WILL NOT FAIL TO F9D ONE TO FULFILL ?IS 9DISP5SABLE FUNCTION ( HIS GOV]NM5T4 

,JU/ICE MU/ BE DONE TO ! PUBLIC4 ,:AT ! PUBLIC HAS SE5 MO/ CLE>LY IS ?AT AMONG ALL !SE F9E GOV]NM5TAL 9V5TIONS1 ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T1 ,SIMPLIFI$ ,GOV]NM5T1 ,DIRECT ,LEGISLATION1 ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 ! ,GOV]NM5T1 :ATEV] IT MAY BE1 IS V]Y SICK1 & T5D+ MORE & MORE T[>D ,AN>*Y4 ,MY READ]S MAY GIVE ?IS WORD ANY MEAN+ !Y *OOSE4 ,LET ,MESSRS4 ,CONSID]ANT & ,RITT5HAUS5 PURSUE !IR RESE>*ES2 LET ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL9 DIG DEEP] 9TO ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c2 LET ,M4 DE ,GIR>D9 HAVE MORE CONFID5CE 9 HIS 9SPIRATIONS1 & WE %ALL >RIVE =?) AT PURE NEGATION4 ,?AT ACCOMPLI%$1 IT WILL ONLY REMA91 BY OPPOS+ ! NEGATION TO ITSELF1 AS ! ,G]MANS SAY1 TO DISCOV] ! AFFIRMATION4 ,ONW>D1 9NOVATORS6 LESS HA/E & MORE BOLDNESS6 ,FOLL[ ! LI<T :I* HAS APPE>$ TO Y\ FROM AF>2 Y\ >E AT ! B\ND>Y BETWE5 ! OLD WORLD & ! NEW4 

,9 ,M>* & ,APRIL1 #a#h#e1 ! ,REVOLUTION PUT ! FOLL[+ QUE/ION TO ! VOTE3 ,MON>*Y OR ,REPUBLIC8 ,! VOT]S DECL>$ !MSELVES = ! ,REPUBLIC3 ! ,REVOLUTION WON ! VICTORY4 

,I TAKE UPON MYSELF TODAY TO %[ ?AT ! DILEMMA ( #ahe HAD NO O!R MEAN+ ?AN ?IS3 ,GOV]NM5T OR ,NO-GOV]NM5T8 ,IF Y\ CAN REFUTE ?IS DILEMMA1 REACTION>IES1 !N Y\ WILL HAVE /RUCK ! HE>T ( ! ,REVOLUTION4 

,AS = ,DIRECT ,LEGISLATION1 ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T1 & ,SIMPLIFI$ ,GOV]NM5T1 ,I ?9K ?AT !IR AU?ORS WILL DO WELL TO H& 9 !IR RESIGNATIONS1 AS SOON AS POSSIBLE1 IF !Y HAVE ! SLI<TE/ REG>D = !IR /&+ AS REVOLUTION>IES1 OR = ! E/EEM ( LIB]AL ?9K]S4 

,I %ALL BE BRIEF4 ,I KN[ ?AT VOLUMES W\LD BE NE$$ TO EXPLA9 SO GRAVE A QUE/ION1 ) DUE =M & 9CLUD+ ALL USEFUL IMPLICATIONS4 ,BUT ! M9D ( ! PEOPLE IS QUICK 9 \R TIME3 !Y UND]/& EV]Y?+1 GUESS EV]Y?+1 KN[ EV]Y?+4 ,!IR DAILY EXP]I5CE1 !IR 9TUITIVE SPONTANEITY1 TAKE ! PLACE ( DIALECTIC & ]UDITION3 !Y CAN GRASP 9 A FEW PAGES1 :AT1 NOT MORE ?AN F\R YE>S AGO1 W\LD HAVE DEM&$ A FOLIO FROM ! PR(ESSIONAL PUBLICI/S4 

,I4 ,TRADITIONAL ,D5IAL ( ,GOV]NM5T4 

,EM]G5CE ( ! ,IDEA :I* ,SUCCE$S IT4 

,! =M UND] :I* M5 FIR/ CONCEIV$ ( ,ORD] 9 ,SOCIETY IS ! PATRI>*AL OR HI]>*ICAL2 ?AT IS TO SAY1 9 PR9CIPLE1 ,AU?ORITY2 9 ACTION1 ,GOV]NM5T4 ,JU/ICE1 :I* AFT]W>DS WAS DIVID$ 9TO DI/RIBUTIVE & COMMUTATIVE JU/ICE1 APPE>$ AT FIR/ UND] ! =M] HEAD+ ONLY3 A ,SUP]IOR GRANT+ TO ,9F]IORS :AT IS COM+ TO EA* ONE4 

,! GOV]NM5TAL IDEA SPRANG FROM FAMILY CU/OMS & DOME/IC EXP]I5CE3 NO PROTE/ >OSE !N3 ,GOV]NM5T SEEM$ AS NATURAL TO ,SOCIETY AS ! SUBORD9ATION ( *ILDR5 TO !IR FA!R4 ,?AT IS :Y ,M4 DE ,BONALD WAS ABLE TO SAY1 & RI<TLY1 ?AT ! FAMILY IS ! EMBRYO ( ! ,/ATE1 ( :I* IT REPRODUCES ! ESS5TIAL CLASSES3 ! K+ 9 ! FA!R1 ! M9I/] 9 ! MO!R1 ! SUBJECT 9 ! *ILD4 ,?AT IS ALSO ! REASON ?AT ALL ! FRAT]NITY SOCIALI/S1 :O TAKE ! FAMILY AS ! RUDIM5TS ( ,SOCIETY1 >RIVE AT A DICTATOR%IP1 :I* IS ! MO/ EXAGG]AT$ =M ( GOV]NM5T4 ,! ADM9I/RATION ( ,M4 ,CABET 9 HIS E/ATE ( ,NAUVOO IS A GOOD EXAMPLE4 ,H[ MU* LONG] WILL IT TAKE US TO UND]/& ?IS CONNECTION ( IDEAS8 

,! PRIMITIVE CONCEPTION ( ORD] ?R\< ,GOV]NM5T IS F\ND AMONG ALL PEOPLES2 & IF1 FROM ! V]Y BEG9N+1 ! EF=TS ?AT W]E MADE TO ORGANIZE1 MODIFY & LIMIT ! ACTION ( ,P[]1 TO DEVOTE IT TO G5]AL NE$S & TO SPECIAL CIRCUM/ANCES1 %[ ?AT ! D5IAL ( GOV]NM5T WAS IMPLI$ 9 ITS AFFIRMATION1 IT IS C]TA9 ?AT NO RIVAL HYPO!SIS >OSE2 ! SPIRIT ALWAYS REMA9$ ! SAME4 ,AS ! NATIONS EM]G$ FROM A /ATE ( SAVAG]Y & B>B>ISM1 !Y >E OBS]V$ TO HAVE IMM$IATELY 5T]$ UPON ! GOV]NM5TAL PA?1 & TO TRAV]SE A CIRCLE ( 9/ITUTIONS :I* >E ALWAYS ! SAME1 & :I* HI/ORIANS & PUBLICI/S >RANGE 9 CLASSES SUCCE$+ ONE ANO!R1 ,MON>*Y1 ,>I/OCRACY1 ,DEMOCRACY4 

,BUT !RE IS SOME?+ MORE S]I\S4 

,! PREJUDICE 9 FAVOR ( GOV]NM5T HAV+ SUNK 9TO \R DEEPE/ CONSCI\SNESS1 /AMP+ EV5 REASON 9 ITS MOLD1 EV]Y O!R CONCEPTION HAS BE5 = A LONG TIME R5D]$ IMPOSSIBLE1 & ! BOLDE/ ?9K]S C\LD BUT SAY ?AT ,GOV]NM5T WAS NO D\BT A SC\RGE1 A *A/ISEM5T = HUMANITY2 BUT ?AT IT WAS A NECESS>Y EVIL6 

,?AT IS :Y1 UP TO \R [N DAYS1 ! MO/ EMANCIPAT+ REVOLUTIONS & ALL ! ]UPTIONS ( LIB]TY HAVE ALWAYS 5D$ 9 A REIT]ATION ( FAI? 9 & SUBMISSION TO P[]2 :Y ALL REVOLUTIONS HAVE S]V$ ONLY TO REE/ABLI% TYRANNY3 ,I MAKE NO EXCEPTION ( ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 ANY MORE ?AN ?AT ( #a#h#d#h1 ! TWO MO/ ADVANC$ EXPRESSIONS NEV]!LESS ( ,FR5* DEMOCRACY4 

,:AT HAS MA9TA9$ ?IS M5TAL PR$ISPOSITION & MADE ITS FASC9ATION 9V9CIBLE = SO LONG A TIME1 IS ?AT1 ?R\< ! SUPPOS$ ANALOGY BETWE5 ,SOCIETY & ! FAMILY1 ! ,GOV]NM5T HAS ALWAYS PRES5T$ ITSELF TO ! M9D AS ! NATURAL ORGAN ( JU/ICE1 ! PROTECTOR ( ! WEAK1 ! PRES]V] ( ! PEACE4 ,BY ! ATTRIBUTION TO IT ( PROVID5T C>E & ( FULL GU>ANTEE1 ! ,GOV]NM5T TOOK ROOT 9 ! HE>TS1 AS WELL AS 9 ! M9DS ( M52 IT =M$ A P>T ( ! UNIV]SAL S\L1 IT WAS ! FAI?1 ! 9TIMATE1 9V9CIBLE SUP]/ITION ( ! CITIZ5S6 ,IF ?IS CONFID5CE WEAK5$1 !Y SAID ( ,GOV]NM5T1 AS !Y SAID ( ,RELIGION & ,PROP]TY1 IT IS NOT ! 9/ITUTION :I* IS BAD1 BUT ! ABUSE ( IT2 IT IS NOT ! K+ :O IS WICK$ BUT HIS M9I/]S2 ,AH1 IF ! K+ KNEW6 

,?US TO ! HI]>*ICAL & ABSOLUTI/ VIEW ( A GOV]N+ AU?ORITY1 IS ADD$ AN IDEAL :I* APPEALS TO ! S\L1 & CONSPIRES 9CESSANTLY AGA9/ ! DESIRE = EQUALITY & 9DEP5D5CE4 ,! PEOPLE AT EA* REVOLUTION ?9K TO RE=M ! FAULTS ( !IR GOV]NM5T ACCORD+ TO ! 9SPIRATION ( !IR HE>TS2 BUT !Y >E DECEIV$ BY !IR [N IDEAS4 ,:ILE !Y ?9K ?AT !Y WILL SECURE ,P[] 9 !IR [N 9T]E/1 !Y REALLY HAVE IT ALWAYS AGA9/ !M3 9 PLACE ( A PROTECTOR1 !Y GIVET !MSELVES A TYRANT4 

,EXP]I5CE1 9 FACT1 %[S ?AT EV]Y:]E & ALWAYS ! ,GOV]NM5T1 H[EV] MU* IT MAY HAVE BE5 = ! PEOPLE AT ITS ORIG91 HAS PLAC$ ITSELF ON ! SIDE ( ! RI*E/ & MO/ $UCAT$ CLASS AGA9/ ! MORE NUM]\S & POOR] CLASS2 IT HAS LITTLE BY LITTLE BECOME N>R[ & EXCLUSIVE2 &1 9/EAD ( MA9TA9+ LIB]TY & EQUALITY AMONG ALL1 IT WORKS P]SI/5TLY TO DE/ROY !M1 BY VIRTUE ( ITS NATURAL 9CL9ATION T[>DS PRIVILEGE4 

,WE HAVE %[N 9 A PREVI\S /UDY H[ S9CE #a#g#h#i1 ! REVOLUTION HAV+ F\ND$ NO?+1 SOCIETY1 AS ,M4 ,COLL>D EXPRESS$ IT1 HAV+ BE5 R$UC$ TO DU/1 ! DI/RIBUTION ( WEAL? LEFT TO *ANCE1 ! ,GOV]NM5T1 :OSE TASK IT IS TO PROTECT PROP]TY AS WELL AS P]SON1 F\ND ITSELF 9 FACT E/ABLI%$ = ! RI* AGA9/ ! POOR4 :O DOES NOT SEE N[ ?AT ?IS ANOMALY1 :I* !N IT WAS ?\<T PROP] TO EMBODY 9 ! POLITICAL CON/ITUTION ( \R C\NTRY1 IS COMMON TO ALL GOV]NM5TS8 ,AT NO EPO* IS PROP]TY F\ND TO DEP5D ON LABOR EXCLUSIVELY2 AT NO EPO* HAS WORK BE5 GU>ANTE$ BY ! EQUILIBRIUM ( ECONOMIC =CES3 9 ?IS MATT]1 ! CIVILIZATION ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY IS NOT ANY MORE ADVANC$ ?AN ?AT ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,AU?ORITY1 9 DEF5D+ RI<TS1 H[EV] E/ABLI%$1 HAS ALWAYS BE5 = RI*ES AGA9/ MIS=TUNE3 ! HI/ORY ( GOV]NM5TS IS ! M>TYROLOGY ( ! PROLET>IAT4 

,MO/ ( ALL 9 A DEMOCRACY1 :I* IS ! LA/ PHASE ( GOV]NM5TAL EVOLUTION1 IT IS NECESS>Y TO /UDY ?IS 9EVITABLE DES]TION BY ,P[] ( ! CAUSE ( ! PEOPLE4 

,:AT DO ! PEOPLE DO :5 !Y PROCLAIM !IR [N SOV]EIGNTY1 ?AT IS1 ! AU?ORITY ( !IR [N VOTES1 AFT] !Y >E TIR$ ( !IR >I/OCRATS1 & 9DIGNANT AT ! CORRUPTION ( ! PR9CES8 

,!Y SAY TO !MSELVES3 

,BE=E EV]Y?+ ELSE1 ORD] IS NECESS>Y TO SOCIETY4 

,! GU>DIAN ( ?IS ORD]1 :I* %\LD MEAN LIB]TY & EQUALITY = US1 IS ! ,GOV]NM5T4 

,!RE=E LET US TAKE ! ,GOV]NM5T 9TO \R [N H&S4 ,LET ! ,CON/ITUTION & ! LAWS BECOME ! EXPRESSION ( \R [N WILL2 LET ! (FICE HOLD]S & MAGI/RATES1 :O >E \R S]VANTS ELECT$ BY US1 & ALWAYS SUBJECT TO RECALL1 NEV] BE P]MITT$ TO DO ANY?+ BUT :AT ! GOOD PLEASURE ( ! PEOPLE HAS DET]M9$ UPON4 ,!N WE %ALL BE SURE1 IF \R WAT*FULNESS NEV] RELAXES1 ?AT ! ,GOV]NM5T WILL BE DEVOT$ TO \R 9T]E/S1 ?AT IT WILL NO LONG] BE ! TOOL ( ! RI*1 NOR ! PREY ( ! AMBITI\S POLITICIANS2 ?AT AFFAIRS WILL BE CONDUCT$ AS WE WI% & TO \R ADVANTAGE4 

,?US REASONS ! MULTITUDE1 AT EA* EPO* ( OPPRESSION4 ,SIMPLE REASON+1 LOGIC ?AT CANNOT BE MORE /RAI<T=W>D1 & :I* NEV] FAILS 9 ITS EFFECT4 ,EV5 IF ! MULTITUDE W5T SO F> AS TO SAY1 ) ,MESSRS4 ,CONSID]ANT & ,RITT+HAUS53 ,\R DEPUTIES >E \R 5EMIES2 LET US GOV]N \RSELVES & WE %ALL BE FREE2--!RE W\LD BE NO *ANGE 9 ! >GUM5T4 ,! PR9CIPLE1 ?AT IS TO SAY1 ,GOV]NM5T1 REMA9+ ! SAME1 !RE W\LD /ILL BE ! SAME CONCLUSION4 

,= SEV]AL ?\S& YE>S ?IS !ORY HAS DIV]T$ ! OPPRESS$ CLASSES & ! ORATORS :O DEF5D !M4 ,DIRECT GOV]NM5T DATES NEI!R FROM ,FRANK=T1 NOR FROM ! ,CONV5TION1 NOR FROM ,R\SSEAU2 IT IS AS OLD AS 9DIRECT3 IT DATES FROM ! F\NDATION ( SOCIETIES4 

,NO MORE H]$IT>Y ROYALTY1 

,NO MORE PRESID5CY1 

,NO MORE REPRES5TATION1 

,NO MORE DELEGATION1 

,NO MORE ALI5ATION ( P[]1 

,DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 

,! ,PEOPLE6 9 ! P]MAN5T EX]CISE ( !IR SOV]EIGNTY4 

,:AT IS !RE AT ! 5D ( ?IS REFRA9 :I* CAN BE TAK5 AS A NEW & REVOLUTION>Y PROPOSITION1 & :I* HAS NOT BE5 KN[N & PRACTIC$ LONG BE=E \R TIME BY ,A!NIANS1 ,BOEOTIANS1 ,LAC$EMONIANS1 ,ROMANS1 @&C48 ,IS IT NOT ALWAYS ! SAME VICI\S CIRCLE1 ALWAYS ! SAME DROP TO ABSURDITY1 :I*1 AFT] HAV+ SUCK$ DRY & ELIM9AT$ SUCCESSIVELY ABSOLUTE MON>*IES1 >I/OCRATIC OR REPRES5TATIVE MON>*IES1 & DEMOCRACIES1 COMES TO ! TURN+ PO9T ( DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 ONLY TO BEG9 AGA9 ) A DICTATOR%IP = LIFE & H]$IT>Y ROYALTY8 ,DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 AMONG ALL NATIONS1 HAS BE5 AN EPO* ( R5EW$ LIFE = DE/ROY$ >I/OCRACIES & BROK5-D[N ?RONES3 IT C\LD NOT MA9TA9 ITSELF MAONG PEOPLES :I*1 LIKE ,A!NS & ,SP>TA1 HAD ! ADVANTAGE ( A V]Y SMALL POPULATION & ! S]VICE ( SLAVES4 ,IT W\LD BE = US ! PRELUDE TO ,CAES>ISM1 DESPITE \R PO/ (FICE1 \R RAILROADS1 \R TELEGRAPHS1 DESPITE ! SIMPLIFICATION ( LAWS1 ! RECALL ( (FICIALS1 ! IMP]ATIVE M&ATE4 ,IT W\LD HURL US SO MU* ! MORE QUICKLY T[>D IMP]IAL TYRANNY1 9 ?AT \R L[] CLASSES >E NO LONG] WILL+ TO BE WAGE-WORK]S1 \R PROPRIETORS W\LD NOT SUFF] !MSELVES TO BE EXPROPRIAT$1 & ! P>TISANS ( DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 DO+ EV]Y?+ ?R\< POLITICS1 SEEM TO HAVE NO NOTION ( ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION4 ,ONE /EP MORE ON ?IS ROAD1 & ! ]A ( ,CAES>S WILL HAVE DAWN$3 TO AN UNWORKABLE DEMOCRACY WILL SUCCE$1 )\T ANY /EP ( TRANSITION1 ! EMPIRE1 ) OR )\T ,NAPOLEON4 

,WE MU/ GET \T ( ?IS VICI\S CIRCLE4 ,! POLITICAL IDEA1 ! ANCI5T NOTION ( DI/RIBUTIVE JU/ICE1 MU/ BE CONTRADICT$ ?R\< & ?R\<2 & ?AT ( COMMUTATIVE JU/ICE MU/ BE REA*$1 :I*1 9 ! LOGIC ( HI/ORY AS WELL AS ( LAW1 SUCCE$S IT4 ,BL9D M5 BY *OICE1 SEEK+ 9 ! CL\DS = :AT IS UND] Y\R NOSE1 READ AGA9 Y\R AU?ORS1 LOOK AB\T Y\1 ANALYZE Y\R [N =MULAS1 & Y\ WILL F9D ! SOLUTION1 :I* HAS DRAGG$ FROM IMMEMORIAL TIME ?R\< ! C5TURIES1 & :I* NEI!R Y\ NOR ANY ONE ( Y\R SATELLITES HAVE DEIGN$ TO NOTICE4 

,ALL IDEAS >E CO-ET]NAL 9 ! M9D3 !Y SEEM TO BE SUCCESSIVE ONLY 9 HI/ORY1 9 :I* !Y COME 9 !IR TURN TO ASSUME DIRECTION ( AFFAIRS & TO OCCUPY ! FIR/ RANK4 ,! OP]ATION BY :I* ONE IDEA IS DRIV5 FROM P[] IS CALL$ 9 LOGIC1 NEGATION2 ?AT BY :I* ANO!R IS E/ABLI%$ IS CALL$ AFFIRMATION4 

,EV]Y REVOLUTION>Y NEGATION !RE=E IMPLIES A SUBSEQU5T AFFIRMATION3 ?IS PR9CIPLE1 :I* ! PRACTICE 9 REVOLUTIONS PROVES1 IS AB\T TO RECEIVE A WOND]FUL CONFIRMATION4 

,! FIR/ AU!NTIC NEGATION ( ! IDEA ( AU?ORITY :I* HAS BE5 MADE IS ?AT ( ,LU!R4 ,?IS NEGATION1 NEV]!LESS1 DID NOT GO BEYOND ! SPH]E ( RELIGION3 ,LU!R1 LIKE ,LEIBNITZ1 ,KANT1 ,HEGEL1 WAS A ?OR\<LY GOV]NM5TAL M9D4 ,?IS NEGATION WAS CALL$ FREE CRITICISM4 

,:AT DOES FREE CRITICISM D5Y8 ,! AU?ORITY ( ! ,*UR*4 

,:AT IS REASON8 ,AN AGREEM5T BETWE5 9TUITION & EXP]I5CE4 

,! AU?ORITY ( REASON2 ?AT IS ! ET]NAL1 POSITIVE IDEA1 SUB/ITUT$ BY ! ,RE=MATION = ! AU?ORITY ( FAI?4 ,AS PHILOSOPHY =M]LY SPRANG FROM REVELATION1 REVELATION H]EAFT] WILL BE SUBORD9AT$ TO PHILOSOPHY4 ,!IR P>TS >E *ANG$3 ! GOV]NM5T ( SOCIETY IS NOT :AT .<IT.> WAS3 MORALITY IS *ANG$3 DE/9Y ITSELF SEEMS TO BE MODIFI$4 ,WE CAN ALREADY 9 \R TIME CAT* A GLIMPSE ( ALL ?AT ?IS R5EWAL ( REIGN CONTA9$1 9 :I* ! WORDS ( MAN TOOK ! PLACE ( ! VOICE ( ,GOD4 

,A LIKE MOVEM5T IS AB\T TO TAKE PLACE 9 ! SPH]E ( POLITICAL IDEAS4 

,FOLL[+ ,LU!R1 ! PR9CIPLE ( FREE CRITICISM WAS C>RI$1 NOTABLY BY ,JURIEU1 FROM ! SPIRITUAL TO ! TEMPORAL4 ,TO ! SOV]EIGNTY ( DIV9E RI<T1 ! ADV]S>Y ( ,BOSSUET OPPOS$ ! SOV]EIGNTY ( ! PEOPLE1 :I* HE EXPRESS$ ) 9F9ITELY MORE PRECISION1 =CE & PR(\NDNESS BY ! WORDS ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT OR ,PACT1 ( :I* ! CONTRADICTION IS MANIFE/ TO SU* WORDS AS P[]1 AU?ORITY1 GOV]NM5T1 IMP]IUM1 88884 

,:AT REALLY IS ! ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT8 ,AN AGREEM5T ( ! CITIZ5 ) ! GOV]NM5T8 ,NO1 ?AT W\LD MEAN BUT ! CONT9UATION ( ! SAME IDEA4 ,! SOCIAL CONTRACT IS AN AGREEM5T ( MAN ) MAN2 AN AGREEM5T FROM :I* MU/ RESULT :AT WE CALL SOCIETY4 ,9 ?IS1 ! NOTION ( COMMUTATIVE JU/ICE1 FIR/ BR\<T =W>D BY ! PRIMITIVE FACT ( EX*ANGE1 & DEF9$ BY ! ,ROMAN LAW1 IS SUB/ITUT$ = ?AT ( DI/RIBUTIVE JU/ICE1 DISMISS$ )\T APPEAL BY REPUBLICAN CRITICISM4 ,TRANSLATE !SE WORDS1 CONTRACT1 COMMUTATIVE JU/ICE1 :I* >E ! LANGUAGE ( ! LAW1 9TO ! LANGUAGE ( BUS9ESS1 & Y\ HAVE ,COMM]CE1 ?AT IS TO SAY1 9 ITS HI<E/ SIGNIFICANCE1 ! ACT BY :I* MAN & MAN DECL>E !MSELVES ESS5TIALLY PRODUC]S1 & ABDICATE ALL PRET5SION TO GOV]N EA* O!R4 

,COMMUTATIVE JU/ICE1 ! REIGN ( CONTRACT1 ! 9DU/RIAL OR ECONOMIC SY/EM1 SU* >E ! DIFF]5T SYNONYMS = ! IDEA :I* BY ITS ACCESSION MU/ DO AWAY ) ! OLD SY/EMS ( DI/RIBUTIVE JU/ICE1 ! REIGN ( LAW1 OR 9 MORE CONCRETE T]MS1 FEUDAL1 GOV]NM5TAL1 OR MILIT>Y RULE4 ,! FUTURE HOPE ( HUMANITY LIES 9 ?IS SUB/ITUTION4 

,BUT BE=E ?IS REVOLUTION ( DOCTR9E CAN BE =MULAT$1 BE=E IT CAN BE COMPREH5D$1 BE=E IT CAN TAKE POSSESSION ( ! PEOPLES :O ALONE CAN PUT IT 9TO PRACTICE1 :AT FRUITLESS DEBATES6 :AT WE>Y 9ACTIVITY ( IDEAS6 :AT A TIME = AGITATORS & SOPHI/S6 ,FROM ! CONTROV]SY ( ,JURIEU ) ,BOSSUET1 TO ! PUBLICATION ( ,R\SSEAU'S ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT ALMO/ A C5TURY ELAPS$2 & :5 ! LATT] APPE>$1 IT WAS NOT TO ASS]T ! IDEA1 BUT TO /IFLE IT4 

,R\SSEAU1 :OSE AU?ORITY HAS RUL$ US = ALMO/ A C5TURY1 UND]/OOD NO?+ ( ! SOCIAL CONTRACT4 ,TO HIM1 MO/ ( ALL1 MU/ BE ASCRIB$ ! GREAT RELAPSE ( '#i#c1 EXPIAT$ ALREADY BY FIFTY-SEV5 YE>S ( FRUITLESS DISORD]1 & :I* C]TA9 M9DS MORE >D5T ?AN WISE WI% US /ILL TO REG>D AS A SACR$ TRADITION4 

,! IDEA ( CONTRACT EXCLUDES ?AT ( GOV]NM5T3 ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL91 :O IS A LAWY]1 & :OSE ATT5TION ,I CALL TO ?IS PO9T1 \<T TO KN[ IT4 ,:AT *>ACT]IZES ! CONTRACT IS AGREEM5T = EQUAL EX*ANGE2 & IT IS BY VIRTUE ( ?IS AGREEM5T ?AT LIB]TY & WELL BE+ 9CREASE2 :ILE BY ! E/ABLI%M5T ( AU?ORITY1 BO? ( !SE NECESS>ILY DIM9I%4 ,?IS WILL BE EVID5T IF WE REFLECT ?AT CONTRACT IS ! ACT :]EBY TWO OR SEV]AL 9DIVIDUALS AGREE TO ORGANIZE AMONG !MSELVES1 = A DEF9ITE PURPOSE & TIME1 ?AT 9DU/RIAL P[] :I* WE HAVE CALL$ EX*ANGE2 & 9 CONSEQU5CE HAVE OBLIGAT$ !MSELVES TO EA* O!R1 & RECIPROCALLY GU>ANTE$ A C]TA9 AM\NT ( S]VICES1 PRODUCTS1 ADVANTAGES1 DUTIES1 @&C41 :I* !Y >E 9 A POSITION TO OBTA9 & GIVE TO EA* O!R2 RECOGNIZ+ ?AT !Y >E O!RWISE P]FECTLY 9DEP5D5T1 :E!R = CONSUMPTION OR PRODUCTION4 

,BETWE5 CONTRACT+ P>TIES !RE IS NECESS>ILY = EA* ONE A REAL P]SONAL 9T]E/2 IT IMPLIES ?AT A MAN B>GA9S ) ! AIM ( SECUR+ HIS LIB]TY & HIS REV5UE AT ! SAME TIME1 )\T ANY POSSIBLE LOSS4 ,BETWE5 GOV]N+ & GOV]N$1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 NO MATT] H[ ! SY/EM ( REPRES5TATION OR ( DELEGATION ( ! GOV]NM5TAL FUNCTION IS >RANG$1 !RE IS NECESS>ILY ALI5ATION ( A P>T ( ! LIB]TY & ( ! MEANS ( ! CITIZ52 9 RETURN = :AT ADVANTAGE WE HAVE EXPLA9$ ABOVE4 

,! CONTRACT !RE=E IS ESS5TIALLY RECIPROCAL3 IT IMPOSES NO OBLIGATION UPON ! P>TIES1 EXCEPT ?AT :I* RESULTS FROM !IR P]SONAL PROMISE ( RECIPROCAL DELIV]Y3 IT IS NOT SUBJECT TO ANY EXT]NAL AU?ORITY3 IT ALONE =MS ! LAW BETWE5 ! P>TIES3 IT AWAITS !IR 9ITIATIVE = ITS EXECUTION4 

,BUT IF SU* IS ! CONTRACT 9 ITS MO/ G5]AL ACCEPTATION1 & 9 DAILY PRACTICE2 :AT WILL BE ! ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT1 :I* IS RELI$ UPON TO B9D TOGE!R ALL ! MEMB]S ( A NATION 9TO ONE & ! SAME 9T]E/8 

,! ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT IS ! SUPREME ACT BY :I* EA* CITIZ5 PL$GES TO ! ASSOCIATION HIS LOVE1 HIS 9TELLIG5CE1 HIS WORK1 HIS S]VICES1 HIS GOODS1 9 RETURN = ! AFFECTION1 IDEAS1 LABOR1 PRODUCTS1 S]VICES & GOODS ( HIS FELL[S2 ! MEASURE ( ! RI<T ( EA* BE+ DET]M9$ BY ! IMPORTANCE ( HIS CONTRIBUTIONS1 & ! RECOV]Y ?AT CAN BE DEM&$ 9 PROPORTION TO HIS DELIV]IES4 

,?US ! SOCIAL CONTRACT %\LD 9CLUDE ALL CITIZ5S1 ) !IR 9T]E/S & RELATIONS4 -- ,IF A S+LE MAN W]E EXCLUD$ FROM ! CONTRACT1 IF A S+LE ONE ( ! 9T]E/S UPON :I* ! MEMB]S ( ! NATION1 9TELLIG5T1 9DU/RI\S1 & S5SIBLE BE+S1 >E CALL$ UPON TO B>GA91 W]E OMITT$1 ! CONTRACT W\LD BE MORE OR LESS RELATIVE OR SPECIAL1 IT W\LD NOT BE SOCIAL4 

,! SOCIAL CONTRACT %\LD 9CREASE ! WELL-BE+ & LIB]TY ( EV]Y CITIZ54 -- ,IF ANY ONE-SID$ CONDITIONS %\LD SLIP 92 IF ONE P>T ( ! CITIZ5S %\LD F9D !MSELVES1 BY ! CONTRACT1 SUBORD9AT$ & EXPLOIT$ BY ! O!RS1 IT W\LD NO LONG] BE A CONTRACT2 IT W\LD BE A FRAUD1 AGA9/ :I* ANNULM5T MI<T AT ANY TIME BE 9VOK$ JU/LY4 

,! SOCIAL CONTRACT %\LD BE FREELY DISCUSS$1 9DIVIDUALLY ACCEPT$1 SIGN$ ) !IR [N H&S1 BY ALL ! P>TICIPANTS4 ,IF ! DISCUSSION ( IT W]E =BIDD51 CUT %ORT OR JUGGL$1 IF CONS5T W]E OBTA9$ BY FRAUD2 IF SIGNATURE W]E MADE 9 BLANK1 BY PROXY1 OR )\T READ+ ! DOCUM5T & ! PRELIM9>Y EXPLANATION2 OR EV5 IF1 LIKE ! MILIT>Y OA?1 CONS5T W]E A MATT] ( C\RSE & COMPULSORY2 ! SOCIAL CONTRACT W\LD !N BE NO MORE ?AN A CONSPIRACY AGA9/ ! LIB]TY & WELL-BE+ ( ! MO/ IGNORANT1 ! WEAKE/ & ! MO/ NUM]\S1 A SY/EMATIC SPOILATION1 AGA9/ :I* EV]Y MEANS ( RESI/ANCE1 & EV5 ( REPRISAL1 W\LD BE A RI<T & A DUTY4 

,WE MAY ADD ?AT ! SOCIAL CONTRACT ( :I* WE >E N[ SPEAK+ HAS NO?+ 9 COMMON ) ! CONTRACT ( ASSOCIATION BY :I*1 AS WE HAVE %[N 9 A PREVI\S /UDY1 ! CONTRACT+ P>TY GIVES UP A PORTION ( HIS LIB]TY1 & SUBMITS TO AN ANNOY+1 (T5 DANG]\S1 OBLIGATION1 9 ! MORE OR LESS WELL-F\ND$ HOPE ( A B5EFIT4 ,! SOCIAL CONTRACT IS ( ! NATURE ( A CONTRACT ( EX*ANGE3 NOT ONLY DOES IT LEAVE ! P>TY FREE1 IT ADDS TO HIS LIB]TY2 NOT ONLY DOES IT LEAVE HIM ALL HIS GOODS1 IT ADDS TO HIS PROP]TY2 IT PRESCRIBES NO LABOR2 IT BE>S ONLY UPON EX*ANGE3 ALL !SE BE+ PO9TS :I* >E NOT F\ND 9 ! CONTRACT ( ASSOCIATION1 :I* IS EV5 ANTAGONI/IC TO IT4 

,SU* %\LD BE ! SOCIAL CONTRACT1 ACCORD+ TO ! DEF9ITIONS ( ! LAW & UNIV]SAL PRACTICE4 ,IS IT NECESS>Y N[ TO SAY ?AT1 \T ( ! MULTITUDE ( RELATIONS :I* ! SOCIAL PACT IS CALL$ UPON TO DEF9E & REGULATE1 ,R\SSEAU SAW ONLY ! POLITICAL RELATIONS2 ?AT IS TO SAY1 HE SUPPRESS$ ! FUNDAM5TAL PO9TS ( ! CONTRACT1 & DWELT ONLY UPON ?OSE ?AT >E SECOND>Y8 ,IS IT NECESS>Y TO SAY ?AT ,R\SSEAU UND]/OOD & RESPECT$ NOT ONE ( !SE ESS5TIAL1 9DISP5SABLE CONDITIONS1--! ABSOLUTE LIB]TY ( ! P>TY1 HIS P]SONAL1 DIRECT P>T1 HIS SIGNATURE GIV5 ) FULL UND]/&+1 & ! %>E ( LIB]TY & PROSP]ITY :I* HE %\LD EXP]I5CE8 

,= HIM1 ! SOCIAL CONTRACT IS NEI!R AN ACT ( RECIPROCITY1 NOR AN ACT ( ASSOCIATION4 ,R\SSEAU TAKES C>E NOT TO 5T] 9TO SU* CONSID]ATIONS4 ,IT IS AN ACT ( APPO9TM5T ( >BIT]S1 *OS5 BY ! CITIZ5S1 )\T ANY PRELIM9>Y AGREEM5T1 = ALL CASES ( CONTE/1 QU>REL1 FRAUD OR VIOL5CE1 :I* CAN HAPP5 9 ! RELATIONS :I* !Y MAY SUBSEQU5TLY =M AMONG !MSELVES1 ! SAID >BIT]S BE+ CLO!D ) SUFFICI5T =CE TO PUT !IR DECISIONS 9TO EXECUTION1 & TO COLLECT !IR SAL>IES4 

,( A REAL1 TRUE CONTRACT1 ON :ATSOEV] SUBJECT1 !RE IS NO VE/IGE 9 ,R\SSEAU'S BOOK4 ,TO GIVE AN EXACT IDEA ( HIS !ORY1 ,I CANNOT DO BETT] ?AN COMP>E IT ) A COMM]CIAL AGREEM5T1 9 :I* ! NAMES ( ! P>TIES1 ! NATURE & VALUE ( ! GOODS1 PRODUCTS & S]VICES 9VOLV$1 ! CONDITIONS ( QUALITY1 DELIV]Y1 PRICE1 REIMBURSEM5T1 EV]Y?+ 9 FACT :I* CON/ITUTES ! MAT]IAL ( CONTRACTS1 IS OMITT$1 & NO?+ IS M5TION$ BUT P5ALTIES & JURISDICTIONS4 

,9DE$1 ,CITIZ5 ( ,G5EVA1 Y\ TALK WELL4 ,BUT BE=E HOLD+ =? AB\T ! SOV]EIGN & ! PR9CE1 AB\T ! POLICEMAN & ! JUDGE1 TELL ME FIR/ :AT IS MY %>E ( ! B>GA98 ,:AT8 ,Y\ EXPECT ME TO SIGN AN AGREEM5T 9 VIRTUE ( :I* ,I MAY BE PROSECUT$ = A ?\S& TRANSGRESSIONS1 BY MUNICIPAL1 RURAL1 RIV] & =E/ POLICE1 H&$ OV] TO TRIBUNALS1 JUDG$1 CONDEMN$ = DAMAGE1 *EAT+1 SW9DL+1 !FT1 BANKRUPTCY1 ROBB]Y1 DISOB$I5CE TO ! LAWS ( ! ,/ATE1 (F5SE TO PUBLIC MORALS1 VAGABONDAGE1--& 9 ?IS AGREEM5T ,I F9D NOT A WORD ( EI!R MY RI<TS OR MY OBLIGATIONS1 ,I F9D ONLY P5ALTIES6 

,BUT EV]Y P5ALTY NO D\BT PRESUPPOSES A DUTY1 & EV]Y DUTY CORRESPONDS TO A RI<T4 ,:]E !N 9 Y\R AGREEM5T >E MY RI<TS & DUTIES8 ,:AT HAVE ,I PROMIS$ TO MY FELL[ CITIZ5S8 ,:AT HAVE !Y PROMIS$ TO ME8 ,%[ IT TO ME1 = )\T ?AT1 Y\R P5ALTIES >E BUT EXCESSES ( P[]1 Y\R LAW-CONTROLL$ ,/ATE A FLAGRANT USURPATION1 Y\R POLICE1 Y\R JUDGM5T & Y\R EXECUTIONS SO MANY ABUSES4 ,Y\ :O HAVE SO WELL D5I$ PROP]TY1 :O HAVE IMPEA*$ SO ELOQU5TLY ! 9EQUALITY ( CONDITIONS AMONG M51 :AT DIGNITY1 :AT H]ITAGE1 HAVE Y\ = ME 9 Y\R REPUBLIC1 ?AT Y\ %\LD CLAIM ! RI<T TO JUDGE ME1 TO IMPRISON ME1 TO TAKE MY LIFE & HONOR8 ,P]FIDI\S DECLAIM]1 HAVE Y\ 9VEI<$ SO L\DLY AGA9/ EXPLOIT]S & TYRANTS1 ONLY TO DELIV] ME TO !M )\T DEF5SE8 

,R\SSEAU DEF9$ ! SOCIAL CONTRACT ?US3 

,TO F9D A =M ( ASSOCIATION :I* DEF5DS & PROTECTS1 ) ! :OLE P[] ( ! COMMUNITY1 ! P]SON & GOODS ( EA* ASSOCIATE2 & BY :I* EA* ONE1 UNIT+ HIMSELF TO ALL1 OBEYS ONLY HIMSELF & REMA9S AS FREE AS BE=E4 

,YES1 !SE >E 9DE$ ! CONDITIONS ( ! SOCIAL PACT1 AS F> AS CONC]NS ! PROTECTION & DEF5SE ( GOODS & P]SONS4 ,BUT AS = ! MODE ( ACQUISITION & TRANSMISSION1 AS TO LABOR1 EX*ANGE1 VALUE & PRICE ( PRODUCTS1 AS TO $UCATION1 AS TO ! MULTITUDE ( RELATIONS :I*1 :E!R HE WI%ES IT OR NOT1 PLACES MAN 9 P]PETUAL ASSOCIATION ) HIS FELL[S1 ,R\SSEAU SAYS NOT A WORD2 HIS !ORY IS P]FECTLY MEAN+LESS4 ,:O DOES NOT SEE ?AT )\T SOME DEF9ITION ( RI<TS & DUTIES1 ! SANCTION :I* FOLL[S IS ABSOLUTELY NULL2 :O DOES NOT SEE ?AT :]E !RE >E NO /IPULATIONS1 !RE CAN BE NO 9FRACTIONS1 NOR1 9 CONSEQU5CE1 ANY CRIM9ALS2 &1 TO CONCLUDE ) PHILOSOPHICAL RIGOR1 ?AT A SOCIETY :I* AFT] HAV+ PROVOK$ REVOLT1 PUNI%ES & KILLS BY VIRTUE ( SU* AU?ORITY1 ITSELF COMMITS ASSASS9ATION ) PREM$ITATION & BY TREA*]Y4 

,R\SSEAU IS SO F> FROM DESIR+ ?AT ANY M5TION %\LD BE MADE 9 ! SOCIAL CONTRACT ( ! PR9CIPLES & LAWS :I* RULE ! =TUNES ( NATIONS & ( 9DIVIDUALS1 ?AT1 9 HIS DEMAGOGUE'S PROGRAM1 AS WELL AS 9 HIS ,TREATISE ON ,$UCATION1 HE />TS ) ! FALSE1 ?IEVI%1 MURD]\S SUPPOSITION ?AT ONLY ! 9DIVIDUAL IS GOOD1 ?AT SOCIETY DEPRAVES HIM1 ?AT MAN !RE=E %\LD REFRA9 AS MU* AS POSSIBLE FROM ALL RELATIONS ) HIS FELL[S2 & ?AT ALL WE HAVE TO DO 9 ?IS WORLD BEL[1 :ILE REMA9+ 9 COMPLETE ISOLATION1 IS TO =M AMONG \RSELVES A MUTUAL 9SURANCE SOCIETY1 IS TO =M AMONG \RSELVES A MUTUAL 9SURANCE SOCIETY1 = ! PROTECTION ( \R P]SONS & PROP]TY2 ?AT ALL ! RE/1 ?AT IS TO SAY1 ECONOMIC MATT]S1 REALLY ! ONLY MATT]S ( IMPORTANCE1 %\LD BE LEFT TO ! *ANCE ( BIR? OR SPECULATION1 & SUBMITT$1 9 CASE ( LITIGATION1 TO ! >BITRATION ( ELECT$ (FIC]S1 :O %\LD DET]M9E ACCORD+ TO RULES LAID D[N BY !MSELVES1 OR BY ! LI<T ( NATURAL EQUITY4 ,9 A WORD1 ! SOCIAL CONTRACT1 ACCORD+ TO ,R\SSEAU1 IS NO?+ BUT ! (F5SIVE & DEF5SIVE ALLIANCE ( ?OSE :O POSSESS1 AGA9/ ?OSE :O DO NOT POSSESS2 & ! ONLY P>T PLAY$ BY ! CITIZ5 IS TO PAY ! POLICE1 = :I* HE IS ASSESS$ 9 PROPORTION TO HIS =TUNE1 & ! RISK TO :I* HE IS EXPOS$ FROM G5]AL PAUP]ISM4 

,IT IS ?IS CONTRACT ( HATR$1 ?IS MONUM5T ( 9CURABLE MISAN?ROPY1 ?IS COALITION ( ! B>ONS ( PROP]TY1 COMM]CE & 9DU/RY AGA9/ ! DIS9H]IT$ L[] CLASS1 ?IS OA? ( SOCIAL W> 9DE$1 :I* ,R\SSEAU CALLS ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT1 ) A PRESUMPTION :I* ,I %\LD CALL ?AT ( A SC\NDREL1 IF ,I BELIEV$ 9 ! G5IUS ( ! MAN4 

,BUT IF ! VIRTU\S & S5SITIVE ,JEAN-,JACQUES HAD TAK5 = HIS AIM ! P]PETUATION ( ! DISCORD AMONG M51 C\LD HE HAVE DONE BETT] ?AN TO (F] !M1 AS !IR CONTRACT ( UNION1 ?IS *>T] ( !IR ET]NAL ANTAGONISM8 ,WAT* HIM AT WORK3 Y\ WILL F9D 9 HIS !ORY ( GOV]NM5T ! SAME SPIRIT ?AT 9SPIR$ HIS !ORY ( $UCATION4 ,AS ! TUTOR1 SO ! /ATESMAN4 ,! P$AGOGUE PREA*ES ISOLATION1 ! PUBLICI/ S[S DISS5SION4 

,AFT] HAV+ LAID D[N AS A PR9CIPLE ?AT ! PEOPLE >E ! ONLY SOV]EIGN1 ?AT !Y CAN BE REPRES5T$ ONLY BY !MSELVES1 ?AT ! LAW %\LD BE ! EXPRESSION ( ! WILL ( ALL1 & O!R MAGNIFIC5T COMMONPLACES1 AFT] ! WAY ( DEMAGOGUES1 ,R\SSEAU QUIETLY AB&ONS & DISC>DS ?IS PR9CIPLE4 ,9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 HE SUB/ITUTES ! WILL ( ! MAJORITY = ! G5]AL1 COLLECTIVE1 9DIVISIBLE WILL2 !N1 UND] ! PRETEXT ?AT IT IS NOT POSSIBLE = A :OLE NATION TO BE OCCUPI$ FROM MORN+ TILL NI<T ) PUBLIC AFFAIRS1 HE GETS BACK1 BY ! WAY ( ELECTIONS1 TO ! NOM9ATION ( REPRES5TATIVES OR PROXIES1 :O %ALL DO ! LAW-MAK+ 9 ! NAME ( ! PEOPLE1 & :OSE DECREES %ALL HAVE ! =CE ( LAWS4 ,9/EAD ( A DIRECT1 P]SONAL TRANSACTION :]E HIS 9T]E/S >E 9VOLV$1 ! CITIZ5 HAS NO?+ LEFT BUT ! P[] ( *OOS+ HIS RUL]S BY A PLURALITY VOTE4 ,?AT DONE1 ,R\SSEAU RE/S EASY4 ,TYRANNY1 CLAIM+ DIV9E RI<T1 HAD BECOME ODI\S2 HE REORGANIZES IT & MAKES IT RESPECTABLE1 BY MAK+ IT PROCE$ FROM ! PEOPLE1 SO HE SAYS4 ,9/EAD ( A UNIV]SAL1 COMPLETE AGREEM5T1 :I* W\LD ASSURE ! RI<TS ( ALL1 PROVIDE = ! NE$S ( ALL1 & GU>D AGA9/ ALL DIFFICULTIES1 :I* ALL MU/ UND]/&1 CONS5T TO & SIGN1 HE GIVES US1 :AT8 ,?AT :I* TODAY WE CALL DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 A RECIPE BY :I*1 EV5 9 ! ABS5CE ( ALL ROYALTY1 >I/OCRACY1 PRIE/HOOD1 ! AB/RACT COLLECTIVITY ( ! PEOPLE CAN /ILL BE US$ = MA9TA9+ ! P>ASITISM ( ! M9ORITY & ! OPPRESSION ( ! GREAT] NUMB]4 ,IT IS1 9 A WORD1 ! LEGALIZATION ( SOCIAL *AOS BY A CLEV] FRAUD1 ! CONSECRATION ( POV]TY1 BAS$ ON ! SOV]EIGNTY ( ! PEOPLE4 ,MOREOV] !RE IS NOT A WORD AB\T LABOR1 NOR PROP]TY1 NOR 9DU/RIAL =CES1 NOR ! 9DU/RIAL =CES2 ALL ( :I* IT IS ! V]Y OBJECT ( A ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT TO ORGANIZE4 ,R\SSEAU DOES NOT KN[ :AT ECONOMICS MEANS4 ,HIS PROGRAM SPEAKS ( POLITICAL RI<TS ONLY2 IT DOES NOT M5TION ECONOMIC RI<TS4 

,IT IS ,R\SSEAU :O TEA*ES US ?AT ! PEOPLE1 A COLLECTIVE BE+1 HAS NO UNIT>Y EXI/5CE2 ?AT IT IS AN AB/RACT P]SONALITY1 A MORAL 9DIVIDUALITY1 9CAPABLE BY ITSELF ( ?9K+1 ACT+1 OR MOV+2 :I* MEANS ?AT G5]AL REASON IS NOT SUP]IOR TO 9DIVIDUAL REASON1 &1 9 CONSEQU5CE1 ?AT HE :O HAS ! MO/ DEVELOP$ 9DIVIDUAL REASON BE/ REPRES5TS G5]AL REASON4 ,A FALSE PROPOSITION1 :I* LEADS DIRECTLY TO DESPOTISM4 

,IT IS ,R\SSEAU :O TEA*ES US BY APHORISMS ! :OLE ( ?IS LIB]TY-DE/ROY+ !ORY1 MAK+ HIS D$UCTIONS FROM ?IS FIR/ ]ROR4 

,?AT POPUL> OR DIRECT GOV]NM5T RESULTS ESS5TIALLY FROM ! YIELD+ UP ( LIB]TY ?AT EA* ONE MU/ MAKE = ! ADVANTAGE ( ALL4 

,?AT ! SEP>ATION ( P[]S IS ! FIR/ CONDITION ( GOV]NM5T4 

,?AT 9 A WELL-ORD]$ ,REPUBLIC NO ASSOCIATION OR SPECIAL MEET+ ( CITIZ5S CAN BE P]MITT$1 BECAUSE IT W\LD BE A ,/ATE )9 A ,/ATE1 A GOV]NM5T )9 A GOV]NM5T4 

,?AT A SOV]EIGN IS ONE ?+1 A PR9CE IS ANO!R4 

,?AT ! FIR/ BY NO MEANS EXCLUDES ! SECOND2 SO ?AT ! MO/ DIRECT GOV]NM5T MAY WELL EXI/ ) A H]$IT>Y MON>*Y1 AS WAS SE5 UND] ,L\IS ,PHILIPPE1 & AS SOME PEOPLE W\LD LIKE TO SEE AGA94 

,?AT AS ! SOV]EIGN1 ?AT IS TO SAY1 ! ,PEOPLE1 IS A FICTITI\S BE+1 AN IDEAL P]SON1 A M]E CONCEPTION ( ! M9D1 IT HAS1 AS ITS NATURAL & VISIBLE REPRES5TATIVE1 ! PR9CE1 :O IS ! MORE VALUABLE BECAUSE HE IS ONE4 

,?AT ! ,GOV]NM5T IS NOT )9 A SOCIETY1 BUT \TSIDE ( IT4 

,?AT ACCORD+ TO ALL !SE CONSID]ATIONS1 :I* >E L9K$ TOGE!R 9 ,R\SSEAU LIKE ! !OREMS ( GEOMETRY1 A REAL DEMOCRACY HAS NEV] EXI/$1 & NEV] WILL EXI/1 SEE+ ?AT 9 A DEMOCRACY IT IS ! GREAT] NUMB] ?AT %\LD LAY D[N ! LAW & EX]CISE ! P[]1 :ILE IT IS CONTR>Y TO ! ORD] ( NATURE ?AT ! GREAT] NUMB] %\LD GOV]N & ! LESS BE GOV]N$4 

,?AT DIRECT GOV]NM5T IS IMPRACTICABLE1 ABOVE ALL 9 A C\NTRY LIKE ,FRANCE1 BECAUSE1 BE=E EV]Y?+ ELSE1 IT W\LD BE NECESS>Y TO EQUALIZE =TUNES1 & EQUALITY ( =TUNES IS IMPOSSIBLE4 

,?AT BESIDES1 ON ACC\NT ( ! IMPOSSIBILITY ( MA9TA9+ EQUAL CONDITIONS1 DIRECT GOV]NM5T IS ( ALL ! MO/ UN/ABLE1 ! MO/ P]IL\S1 ! MO/ FRUITFUL ( CATA/ROPHES & CIVIL W>S4 

,?AT AS ! ANCI5T DEMOCRACIES C\LD NOT MA9TA9 !MSELVES1 DESPITE ! P[]FUL AID ( SLAV]Y1 IT W\LD BE VA9 TO ATTEMPT TO E/ABLI% ?IS =M ( GOV]NM5T AMONG \RSELVES4 

,?AT DEMOCRACY IS MADE = GODS1 NOT = M54 

,AFT] HAV+ TRIFL$ ) HIS READ]S ?US = A LONG TIME1 AFT] HAV+ DRAWN UP ! ,CODE ( ,CAPITALI/ & ,M]CANTILE ,TYRANNY1 UND] ! DECEPTIVE TITLE ( ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT1 ! ,G5EVESE *>LATAN D$UCES ! NECESSITY ( A L[] CLASS1 ( ! SUBORD9ATION ( LABOR1 ( A DICTATOR%IP & ( ! ,9QUISITION4 

,IT APPE>S TO BE ! ADVANTAGE ( LIT]>Y PEOPLE ?AT /YLE %\LD TAKE ! PLACE ( REASON & MORALITY4 

,NEV] MAN UNIT$ TO SU* AN EXT5T 9TELLECTUAL PRIDE1 >IDITY ( S\L1 L[NESS ( TA/ES1 DEPRAVITY ( HABITS1 +RATITUDE ( HE>T2 NEV] DID ! W>M? ( ELOQU5CE1 ! PRET5SE ( S5SITIV5ESS1 ! EFFRONT]Y ( P>ADOX1 >\SE TO SU* 9FATUATION4 ,S9CE ! TIME ( ,R\SSEAU1 & FOLL[+ HIS EXAMPLE1 !RE HAS BE5 F\ND$ AMONG US A S5TIM5TAL & PHILAN?ROPIC S*OOL1 ,I %\LD SAY1 9DU/RY1 :I* IS ABLE TO GA!R 9 ! HONOR DUE TO *>ITY & DEVOTION1 :ILE REALLY PRACTIC+ ! MO/ COMPLETE SELFI%NESS4 ,DI/RU/ ?IS PHILOSOPHY1 ?IS POLITICS1 ?IS SOCIALISM ( ,R\SSEAU4 ,HIS PHILOSOPHY IS ALL PHRASES & COV]S ONLY EMPT9ESS1 HIS POLITICS IS FULL ( DOM9ATION2 AS = HIS IDEAS AB\T SOCIETY1 !Y SC>CELY CONCEAL !IR PR(\ND HYPOCRISY4 ,!Y :O READ ,R\SSEAU & ADMIRE HIM1 >E SIMPLY DUPES1 & ,I P>DON !M3 AS = ?OSE :O FOLL[ & COPY HIM1 ,I W>N !M TO LOOK TO !IR [N REPUTATION4 ,! TIME IS NOT F> AWAY :5 A QUOTATION FROM ,R\SSEAU WILL SUFFICE TO CA/ SUSPICION UPON A WRIT]4 

,LET ME SAY1 9 CONCLUSION1 ?AT1 TO ! %AME ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY & ( \R [N1 ! ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT ( ,R\SSEAU1 A MA/]PIECE ( ORATORICAL JUGGL]Y1 HAS BE5 ADMIR$1 PRAIS$ TO ! SKIES1 REG>D$ AS ! RECORD ( PUBLIC LIB]TIES2 ?AT ,CON/ITU5TS1 ,GIRDON9S1 ,JACOB9S1 ,CORDELI]S1 HAVE ALL TAK5 IT = AN ORACLE2 ?AT IT S]V$ = ! TEXT ( ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 :I* WAS DECL>$ ABSURD BY ITS [N AU?ORS2 & ?AT IT IS /ILL BY ?IS BOOK ?AT ! MO/ ZEAL\S RE=M]S ( POLITICAL & SOCIAL SCI5CE >E 9SPIR$4 ,! CORPSE ( ! AU?OR1 :I* ! PEOPLE WILL DRAG TO ,MONTFAUCON1 ON ! DAY :5 !Y %ALL HAVE LE>N$ ! MEAN+ ( !SE WORDS3 ,LIB]TY1 ,JU/ICE1 ,MORALITY1 ,REASON1 LIES GLORI\S & V5]AT$ 9 ! CATACOMBS ( ! ,PAN!ON1 :]E NEV] ONE WILL 5T] ( !SE HONE/ LABOR]S :O N\RI% ) !IR BLOOD !IR POOR FAMILIES2 :ILE ! PR(\ND G5IUSES SET UP = !IR ADORATION S5D1 9 LUBRICI\S FR5ZY1 !IR BA/>DS TO ! ALM%\SE4 

,EA* AB]RATION ( ! PUBLIC CONSCI5CE C>RIES ITS PUNI%M5T ) IT4 ,! VOGUE ( ,R\SSEAU HAS CO/ ,FRANCE MORE GOLD1 MORE BLOOD1 MORE %AME1 ?AN ! HATEFUL REIGN ( ! ?REE FAM\S C\RTESANS1 ,COTILLON ,I1 ,COTILLON ,I,I1 ,COTILLON ,I,I,I1 7,*ATEAUR\X1 ,POMPAD\R1 ,DUB>RY7 EV] CAUS$ H] TO SACRIFICE4 ,\R C\NTRY1 :I* NEV] SUFF]S BUT FROM ! 9FLU5CE ( =EIGN]S1 [ES TO ,R\SSEAU ! BLOODY /RUGGLES & FAILURES ( '#i#c4 

,?US1 :ILE ! REVOLUTION>Y TRADITION ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY GAVE US ! IDEA ( ! ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT AS AN ANTI!SIS TO ?AT ( ,GOV]NM5T1 AN IDEA :I* ! ,GALLIC G5IUS1 SO JUDICIAL 9 ITS *>ACT]1 HAD NOT FAIL$ TO P5ETRATE2 ! TRICKS ( A RHETORICIAN SUFFIC$ TO DIV]T US FROM ! TRUE ROAD1 & TO CAUSE DELAY 9 ! 9T]PRETATION ( IT4 ,! NEGATION ( GOV]NM5T1 :I* IS AT ! F\NDATION ( ! ,UTOPIA ( ,MORELLY1 :I* CA/S A GLEAM1 SOON EXT+UI%$1 OV] ! S9I/] MANIFE/ATIONS ( ! ,5RAGES & ,HEB]TI/S1 & :I* W\LD HAVE EM]G$ FROM ! DOCTR9ES ( ,BABOEUF1 IF ,BABOEUF HAD KN[N H[ TO REASON & D$UCE HIS [N PR9CIPLES3--?IS GREAT & DECISIVE NEGATION REMA9$ NOT UND]/OOD1 ALL ?R\< ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 

,BUT AN IDEA CANNOT P]I%4 ,IT IS BORN AGA91 ALWAYS FROM ITS CONTRADICTORY4 ,LET ,R\SSEAU TRIUMPH3 HIS GLORY ( A MOM5T WILL BE BUT ! MORE DETE/$4 ,:ILE WAIT+ = ! !ORETICAL & PRACTICAL D$UCTION ( ! ,CONTRACTUAL ,IDEA1 COMPLETE TRIAL ( ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY WILL S]VE = ! $UCATION ( ,HUMANITY4 ,FROM ! FULLNESS ( ?IS POLITICAL EVOLUTION1 WE F9ALLY >ISE ! OPPOSITE HYPO!SIS3 ,GOV]NM5T1 EXHAU/+ ITSELF1 WILL GIVE BIR? TO ,SOCIALISM AS ITS HI/ORIC SEQUEL4 

,IT WAS ,SA9T ,SIMON :O FIR/ TOOK UP ! ?READ AGA91 9 TIMID LANGUAGE1 & ) A /ILL DIM CONSCI\SNESS4 

,! HUMAN RACE1 HE WROTE 9 ! YE> #a#h#a#h1 HAS BE5 CALL$ UPON TO LIVE AT FIR/ UND] GOV]NM5TAL & FEUDAL RULE4 ,IT IS DE/9$ TO PASS FROM ! GOV]NM5TAL OR MILIT>Y RULE TO ADM9I/RATIVE OR 9DU/RIAL RULE1 AFT] IT HAS MADE SUFFICI5T PROGRESS 9 ! PHYSICAL SCI5CES & 9DU/RY4 

,F9ALLY1 IT HAS BE5 SUBJECT$ ?R\< ITS ORGANIZATION TO 5DURE A LONG & VIOL5T CRISIS 9 ITS PASSAGE FROM A MILIT>Y TO A PACIFIC SY/EM4 

,! PRES5T P]IOD IS ONE ( TRANSITION4 

,! TRANSITIONAL CRISIS BEGAN BY ! PREA*+ ( ,LU!R2 S9CE ?AT TIME ! T5D5CY ( ?\<T HAS BE5 FUNDAM5TALLY CRITICAL & REVOLUTION>Y4 

,SA9T ,SIMON !N CITES 9 SUPPORT ( HIS IDEAS1 AS HAV+ HAD A MORE OR LESS VAGUE APPREH5SION ( ?IS GREAT METAMORPHOSIS1 AMONG /ATESM51 ,SULLY1 ,COLB]T1 ,TURGOT1 ,NECK]1 EV5 ,VILLELE2 AMONG PHILOSOPH]S1 ,BACON1 ,MONTESQUIEU1 ,CONDORCET1 ,A4 ,COMTE1 ,B4 ,CON/ANT1 ,C\S91 ,A4 DE ,LABORDE1 ,FIEVEE1 ,DUNOY]1 @&C4 

,ALL ,SA9T ,SIMON IS 9 !SE FEW L9ES1 WRITT5 9 ! /YLE ( ! PROPHETS2 BUT TOO H>D ( ASSIMILATION = ! AGE :5 !Y W]E WRITT51 & TOO COND5S$ 9 MEAN+ = ! Y\?FUL SPIRITS :O FIR/ ATTA*$ !MSELVES TO ! NOBLE 9NOVATOR4 ,NOTE WELL1 ?AT !RE9 IS F\ND NEI!R COMMUNITY ( GOODS NOR ( WOM51 NOR PURIFICATION ( ! FLE%1 NOR &ROGYNY1 NOR A ,SUPREME ,FA!R1 NOR ,CIRCULUS1 NOR ,TRIAD4 ,NO?+ ( ALL ?AT HAS BE5 DISSEM9AT$ BY HIS DISCIPLES REALLY BELONGS TO ! MA/]2 ON ! CONTR>Y1 ! DISCIPLES HAVE QUITE MISUND]/OOD ! MEAN+ ( ,SA9T ,SIMON4 

,:AT DID ,SA9T ,SIMON MEAN8 

,FROM ! MOM5T :51 ON ! ONE H&1 PHILOSOPHY SUCCE$S TO FAI?1 & REPLACES ! ANCI5T CONCEPTION ( GOV]NM5T BY ?AT ( CONTRACT2 OR1 ON ! O!R1 :5 AFT] A ,REVOLUTION :I* HAS ABOLI%$ FEUDALISM1 SOCIETY REQUIRES ! DEVELOPM5T & H>MONIZATION ( ITS ECONOMIC P[]S2 FROM ?IS MOM5T IT BECOMES 9EVITABLE ?AT GOV]NM5T1 ALREADY D5I$ 9 !ORY1 %\LD FALL TO PIECES 9 PRACTICE4 ,& :5 ,SA9T ,SIMON1 TO DESIGNATE ?IS NEW ORD] ( ?+S1 CON=MS TO ! OLD /YLE & USES ! WORD GOV]NM5T1 JO9$ ) ! EPI!T ADM9I/RATIVE OR 9DU/RIAL1 IT IS EVID5T ?AT ?IS WORD1 FROM HIS P51 ACQUIRES A METAPHORICAL1 OR RA!R ANALOGICAL1 MEAN+1 :I* C\LD NOT BUT MISLEAD ! UN9ITIAT$4 ,H[ IS IT POSSIBLE TO MISUND]/& ! ?\<T ( ,SA9T ,SIMON1 9 READ+ ! /ILL MORE EXPLICIT PASSAGE :I* ,I H]E CITE3 

,IF WE OBS]VE ! C\RSE :I* IS FOLL[$ 9 ! $UCATION ( 9DIVIDUALS1 WE NOTICE ?AT 9 ! PRIM>Y S*OOLS GOV]NM5T HAS ! MO/ IMPORTANCE2 & 9 S*OOLS ( A HI<] GRADE1 ! GOV]NM5T ( ! *ILDR5 CONT9UALLY DIM9I%ES 9 9T5SITY1 :ILE 9/RUCTION PLAYS A MORE IMPORTANT P>T4 ,IT HAS BE5 ! SAME 9 ! $UCATION ( SOCIETY4 ,MILIT>Y ACTIVITY1 ?AT IS TO SAY1 FEUDAL OR GOV]NM5TAL1 HAD TO BE /RONGE/ AT ! ORIG9 ( SOCIETY2 IT ALWAYS HAD TO DIM9I%1 :ILE ADM9I/RATIVE ACTIVITY HAD TO ACQUIRE GREAT] IMPORTANCE2 & ! ADM9I/RATIVE P[] MU/ 5D BY 5TIRELY OV]%AD[+ MILIT>Y P[]4 

,TO !SE EXTRACTS FROM ,SA9T ,SIMON MU/ BE ADD$ HIS FAM\S ,P>ABLE1 :I* 9 #ahai FELL LIKE AN AX UPON ! (FICIAL WORLD2 & = :I* ! AU?OR WAS TRI$ 9 ! ,C\RT ( ,ASSIZES1 ON ! #b? ( ,FEBRU>Y1 #a#h#b1 & ACQUITT$4 ,! L5G? ( ?IS WORK1 :I* IS MOREOV] WELL KN[N1 =BIDS US FROM QUOT+ IT H]E4 

,SA9T ,SIMON'S NEGATION ( GOV]NM5T1 AS IS EASILY SE51 IS NOT D$UC$ FROM ! IDEA ( CONTRACT1 :I* = EI<TY YE>S ,R\SSEAU & HIS VOT>IES HAD CORRUPT$ & DI%ONOR$4 ,IT FL[S \T ( A DIFF]5T K9D ( 9SI<T1 5TIRELY EXP]IM5TAL & A PO/]IORI1 SU* AS IS SUIT$ TO AN OBS]V] ( FACTS4 ,! 5D ( GOV]NM5TS1 :I* ! PROVID5TIALLY 9SPIR$ !ORY ( CONTRACT HAD1 S9CE ! TIME ( ,JURIEU1 =E%AD[$ 9 ! FUTURE ( SOCIETY1 ,SA9T ,SIMON E/ABLI%ES FROM ! LAW ( ! EVOLUTION ( HUMANITY1 APPE>+ AT HIS /RONGE/ 9 ! HEAT ( DISCUSSION4 ,?US ! !ORY ( ! ,LAW & ! PHILOSOPHY ( HI/ORY1 LIKE TWO SURVEYOR'S POLES PLANT$ ON 9 FRONT ( ! O!R1 DIRECT ! M9D T[>D & UNKN[N REVOLUTION2 ONE /EP MORE & WE %ALL REA* ! ISSUE4 

,ALL ROADS LEAD TO ,ROME1 SAYS ! PROV]B4 ,ALL 9VE/IGATIONS ALSO CONDUCT TO ! TRU?4 

,I ?9K ?AT ,I HAVE OV]-ABUNDANTLY E/ABLI%$ ?AT ! EI<TE5? C5TURY W\LD HAVE REA*$ ! NEGATION ( GOV]NM5T BY ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! IDEA ( CONTRACT1 ?AT IS TO SAY1 BY ! JUDICIAL ROAD1 IF IT HAD NOT BE5 TURN$ FROM ! PA? BY ! CLASSIC1 RETROSPECTIVE & DECLAMATORY REPUBLICANISM ( ,R\SSEAU4 

,?IS NEGATION ( GOV]NM5T ,SA9T ,SIMON D$UC$ FROM OBS]VATION ( HI/ORY1 & ( ! PROGRESS ( HUMANITY4 

,9 MY TURN ,I HAVE COMPLET$ ! ANALYSIS ( ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS1 & ( ! !ORY ( CR$IT & EX*ANGE1 IF ,I MAY SPEAK ( MYSELF AT ?IS TIME1 :5 ,I ALONE REPRES5T ! REVOLUTION>Y PO9T ( VIEW4 ,TO E/ABLI% ?IS DISCOV]Y1 ,I HAVE NO NE$1 ,I FANCY1 TO M5TION ! DIFF]5T WORKS & >TICLES 9 :I* IT IS RECORD$3 !Y HAVE OBTA9$ 5\< NOTORIETY 9 ! PA/ ?REE YE>S4 

,?US ! ,IDEA1 ! 9CORRUPTIBLE SE$1 PASSES ALONG ! AGES1 ILLUM9AT+ FROM TIME TO TIME A MAN ( WILL+ M9D1 TO ! DAY :5 AN 9TELLECT ?AT NO?+ CAN 9TIMIDATE RECEIVES IT1 BROODS UPON IT1 !N HURLS IT LIKE A METEOR AMONG ! A/ONI%$ CR[DS4 

,! IDEA ( CONTRACT1 9 OPPOSITION TO ?AT ( GOV]NM5T1 :I* WAS ! \TCOME ( ! ,RE=MATION1 PASS$ ?R\< ! SEV5TE5? & EI<TE5? C5TURIES1 )\T BE+ NOTIC$ BY A S+LE PUBLICI/1 NOR OBS]V$ BY A S+LE REVOLUTION>Y4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ALL ?AT WAS MO/ ILLU/RI\S 9 ! ,*UR*1 9 PHILOSOPHY1 9 POLITICS1 CONSPIR$ TO OPPOSE IT4 ,R\SSEAU1 ,SIEYES1 ,ROBESPI]RE1 ,M4 ,GUIZOT1 ALL ?AT S*OOL ( P>LIAM5T>IANS1 BORE ! BANN] ( ! OPPOSITION4 ,AT LA/ ONE MAN1 P]CEIV+ ! DISREG>D ( ! LEAD+ PR9CIPLE1 BR\<T AGA9 TO ! LI<T ! NEW & FRUITFUL IDEA3 UN=TUNATELY ! PRACTICAL SIDE ( HIS DOCTR9ES DECEIV$ HIS [N DISCIPLES3 !Y C\LD NOT SEE ?AT ! PRODUC] IS ! NEGATION ( ! RUL]1 ?AT ORGANIZATION IS 9COMPATIBLE ) AU?ORITY2 & ?US = ?IRTY YE>S ! PR9CIPLE WAS LO/ TO SI<T4 ,F9ALLY1 IT TOOK HOLD ( PUBLIC OP9ION1 ?R\< ! L\DNESS ( PROTE/2 BUT !N1 ,O VANAS HOM9UM M5TES1 O PECTORA COECA6 OPPOSITION BR+S AB\T REVOLUTION6 ,! IDEA ( ,AN>*Y HAD H>DLY BE5 IMPLANT$ 9 ! M9D ( ! PEOPLE :5 IT F\ND SO-CALL$ G>D5]S :O WAT]$ IT ) !IR CALUMNIES1 F]TILIZ$ IT ) !IR MISREPRES5TATIONS1 W>M$ IT 9 ! HO?\SE ( !IR HATR$1 SUPPORT$ IT BY !IR /UPID OPPOSITION4 ,TODAY1 ?ANKS TO !M1 IT HAS BORNE ! ANTI-GOV]NM5TAL IDEA1 ! IDEA ( ,LABOR1 ! IDEA ( ,CONTRACT1 :I* IS GR[+1 M\NT+1 SEIZ+ ) ITS T5DRILS ! WORK+M5'S SOCIETIES1 & SOON1 LIKE ! GRA9 ( MU/>D SE$ ( ! ,GOSPEL1 IT WILL =M A GREAT TREE1 ) BRAN*ES :I* COV] ! E>?4 

,! SOV]EIGNTY ( ,REASON HAV+ BE5 SUB/ITUT$ = ?AT ( ,REVELATION1 

,! NOTION ( ,CONTRACT SUCCE$+ ?AT ( ,GOV]NM5T1 

,HI/ORIC EVOLUTION LEAD+ ,HUMANITY 9EVITABLY TO A NEW SY/EM1 

,ECONOMIC CRITICISM HAV+ %[N ?AT POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS MU/ BE LO/ 9 9DU/RIAL ORGANIZATION1 

,WE MAY CONCLUDE )\T FE> ?AT ! REVOLUTION>Y =MULA CANNOT BE ,DIRECT ,LEGISLATION1 NOR ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T1 NOR ,SIMPLIFI$ ,GOV]NM5T1 ?AT IT IS ,NO ,GOV]NM5T4 

,NEI!R MON>*Y1 NOR >I/OCRACY1 NOR EV5 DEMOCRACY ITSELF1 9 SO F> AS IT MAY IMPLY ANY GOV]NM5T AT ALL1 EV5 ?\< ACT+ 9 ! NAME ( ! PEOPLE1 & CALL+ ITSELF ! PEOPLE4 ,NO AU?ORITY1 NO GOV]NM5T1 NOT EV5 POPUL>1 ?AT IS ! ,REVOLUTION4 

,DIRECT LEGISLATION1 DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 SIMPLIFI$ GOV]NM5T1 >E ANCI5T LIES1 :I* !Y TRY 9 VA9 TO REJUV5ATE4 ,DIRECT OR 9DIRECT1 SIMPLE OR COMPLEX1 GOV]N+ ! PEOPLE WILL ALWAYS BE SW9DL+ ! PEOPLE4 ,IT IS ALWAYS MAN GIV+ ORD]S TO MAN1 ! FICTION :I* MAKES AN 5D TO LIB]TY2 BRUTE =CE :I* CUTS QUE/IONS %ORT1 9 ! PLACE ( JU/ICE1 :I* ALONE CAN ANSW] !M2 OB/9ATE AMBITION1 :I* MAKES A /EPP+ /ONE ( DEVOTION & CR$ULITY4 

,NO1 ! OLD S]P5T %ALL NOT PREVAIL3 IT HAS /RANGL$ ITSELF BY 9VOLV+ ITSELF 9 ?IS QUE/ION ( DIRECT GOV]NM5T4 ,N[ ?AT WE GRASP1 AS A CLE> ANTI!SIS1 ! POLITICAL IDEA & ! ECONOMIC IDEA1 ,PRODUCTION & ,GOV]NM5T2 N[ ?AT WE CAN D$UCE !M RECIPROCALLY ONE FROM ! O!R1 TE/ !M & COMP>E !M1 ! OPPOSITION ( ,NEO-,JACOB9ISM IS NO LONG] TO BE FE>$4 

,!Y :O >E /ILL FASC9AT$ BY ! S*ISM ( ,ROBESPI]RE WILL TOMORR[ BE ! OR?ODOX ( ! ,REVOLUTION4 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #a#f4 ,I HAVE TAK5 ! LIB]TY TO *ANGE TWO WORDS 9 ?IS PASSAGE1 AS A LIT]AL R5D]+ W\LD MAKE NONS5SE ( IT4 ,!RE MU/ BE SOME ]ROR 9 ! TEXT4 ,TRANS4 8 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #a#g4 ,OH1 DIM M9DS6 ,OH1 DULL HE>TS ( M56 8 

,$ITOR'S NOTE #a4 ,ROB9SON'S ORIG9AL ,5GLI% TRANSLATION READS3 ,! SOV]EIGNTY ( ,REASON HAV+ BE5 SUB/ITUT$ = ?AT ( ,REVOLUTION1 A TYPOGRAPHICAL ]ROR HAS BE5 WIDELY REPR9T$4 ,! ]ROR DRAMATICALLY *ANGES ! MEAN+ ( ! /ATEM5T1 ACCID5TALLY SUBV]T+ ,PR\DHON'S 5TIRE ANALYSIS ( ! NATURE ( ,REVOLUTION4 ,! ORIG9AL ,FR5* READS3 ,LA S\V]A9ETE DE LA ,RAISON AYANT ETE SUB/ITUEE A CELLE DE LA ,REVELATION2 444 --,C,J 8 

,I,I4 ,G5]AL ,CRITICISM ( ! ,IDEA ( ,AU?ORITY4 

,I HAVE DEMON/RAT$ TWO ?+S 9 ! FIR/ P>T ( ?IS /UDY3 

,?AT ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY & GOV]NM5T HAS ITS S\RCE 9 ! DOM9AT+ ATTITUDE ( ! FAMILY4 

,?AT IT HAS BE5 US$ BY ! UNANIM\S CONS5T ( ALL PEOPLES1 AS A CONDITION ( SOCIAL ORD]4 

,?AT AT A C]TA9 P]IOD ( HI/ORY ?IS PR9CIPLE BEGAN TO BE D5I$ SPONTANE\SLY1 & TO BE REPLAC$ BY ANO!R IDEA1 :I* UNTIL !N HAD SEEM$ SUBORD9ATE1 ! IDEA ( ,CONTRACT1 :I* IMPLIES A QUITE DIFF]5T SOCIAL ORD]4 

,9 ?IS SECOND P>T1 ,I %ALL RECALL BRIEFLY ! CAUSES1 OR RA!R ! GR\NDS1 AS MU* ( FACT AS ( RI<T1 :I* L$ SOCIETY TO D5Y ,P[]1 & :I* EXHIBIT ! REASON = ITS CONDEMNATION4 ,! CRITICISM :I* Y\ RAE AB\T TO READ IS NOT M9E1 IT IS ?AT ( ! PEOPLE !MSELVES1 A CRITICISM 5T]$ UPON (T51 & ALWAYS FROM A DIFF]5T PO9T ( VIEW2 BUT ! CONCLUSION IS ALWAYS ! SAME AT ! 5D ( EA* EXP]IM5T1 & PROMISES 9 \R DAYS TO BECOME OP]ATIVE4 ,IT IS NOT MY ?\<T :I* ,I GIVE3 IT IS ! ?\<T ( ! C5TURIES1 ! ?\<T ( ! HUMAN RACE4 ,I BUT REPORT IT4 

#a4 ,!SIS4 -- ,ABSOLUTE ,AU?ORITY4 

,EV]Y IDEA IS E/ABLI%$ OR REFUT$ BY A S]IES ( T]MS :I* >E1 AS IT W]E1 ITS ORGANISM2 ( :I* ! LA/ T]M DEMON/RATES 9FALLIBLY ITS TRU? OR ]ROR4 ,IF ! DEVELOPM5T 9/EAD ( BE+ M]ELY 9 ! M9D & 9 !ORY IS C>RI$ \T AT ! SAME TIME 9 FACTS & 9/ITUTIONS1 IT CON/ITUTES HI/ORY4 ,?IS IS ! CASE ) ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY OR GOV]NM5T4 

,! FIR/ =M UND] :I* ! PR9CIPLE IS MANIFE/$ IS ?AT ( ABSOLUTE P[]4 ,?IS IS ! PURE/1 ! MO/ RATIONAL1 ! MO/ EFFICI5T1 ! MO/ /RAI<T=W>D1 & TAK5 ALTOGE!R1 ! LEA/ IMMORAL & ! LEA/ DISAGREEABLE =M ( GOV]NM5T4 

,BUT ABSOLUTE P[]1 9 ITS SIMPLE/ EXPRESSION1 IS ODI\S TO REASON & TO LIB]TY3 ! FEEL+ ( ! PEOPLE IS ALWAYS >\S$ AGA9/ IT3 FOLL[+ FEEL+1 REVOLT MAKES ITS PROTE/ HE>D4 ,!N ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY IS =C$ TO RETIRE3 IT RETIRES /EP BY /EP1 BY A S]IES ( CONCESSIONS1 EA* ONE MORE 9SUFFICI5T ?AN ! O!R1 ( :I* ! LA/1 PURE DEMOCRACY1 OR DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 5DS 9 ! IMPOSSIBLE & ! ABSURD4 ,! FIR/ T]M ( ! S]IES !N BE+ ,ABSOLUTISM1 ! LA/ FATEFUL T]M IS ,AN>*Y1 9 EV]Y S5SE4 

,WE >E AB\T TO PASS 9 REVIEW1 ONE AFT] ! O!R1 ! PR9CIPAL T]MS ( ?IS GREAT EVOLUTION4 

,HUMANITY ASKS ITS MA/]S3 ,:5CE !SE PRET5SIONS ( Y\RS TO REIGN OV] ME & GOV]N ME8 

,!Y ANSW]3 ,BECAUSE SOCIETY CANNOT DISP5SE ) ORD]3 BECAUSE 9 A SOCIETY IT IS NECESS>Y !RE %\LD BE SOME :O OBEY & LABOR1 :ILE O!RS GIVE ORD]S & DIRECTIONS3 BECAUSE1 9DIVIDUAL FACULTIES BE+ UNEQUAL1 9T]E/S OPPOSITE1 PASSIONS ANTAGONI/IC1 ! ADVANTAGE ( ONE OPPOS$ TO ! G5]AL ADVANTAGE1 SOME AU?ORITY IS NE$$ :I* %ALL ASSIGN ! B\ND>IES ( RI<TS & DUTIES1 SOME >BIT] :O WILL CUT %ORT CONFLICTS1 SOME PUBLIC =CE :I* WILL PUT 9TO EXECUTION ! JUDGM5TS ( ! SOV]EIGN4 ,! P[] ( ! ,/ATE IS JU/ ?IS DISCRETION>Y AU?ORITY1 ?IS >BIT] :O R5D]S TO EA* :AT IS HIS1 ?IS =CE WIH* ASSURES ?AT ! PEACE %ALL BE RESPECT$4 ,GOV]NM5T1 9 A WORD1 IS ! PR9CIPLE & GU>ANTEE ( SOCIAL ORD]3 ?AT IS :AT BO? NATURE & COMMON S5SE TELL US4 

,?IS EXPLANATION HAS BE5 REPEAT$ S9CE ! ORIG9 ( SOCIETIES4 ,IT IS ! SAME AT ALL EPO*S1 & 9 ! M\? ( ALL P[]S4 ,Y\ WILL F9D ! ID5TICAL1 9V>IABLY1 9 ! BOOKS ( ,MAL?USIAN ECONOMI/S1 9 ,OPPOSITION NEWSPAP]S1 & 9 ! PR(ESSIONS ( FAI? ( ,REPUBLICANS4 ,!RE IS NO DIFF]5CE AMONG !M1 EXCEPT 9 ! PROPORTION ( ! CONCESSIONS TO LIB]TY ?AT !Y PROPOSE TO MAKE1 9 D]OGATION ( ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY3--ILLUSORY CONCESSIONS1 :I* ADD TO ! =MS ( GOV]NM5T CALL$ MOD]ATE1 CON/ITUTIONAL1 DEMOCRATIC1 @&C41 A FLAVOR+ ( HYPOCRISY1 ( :I* ! TA/E R5D]S !M ONLY ! MORE CONTEMPTIBLE4 

,?US ,GOV]NM5T1 9 ITS UNMODIFI$ NATURE1 PRES5TS ITSELF AS ! ABSOLUTE1 NECESS>Y1 S9E QUA NON CONDITION ( ORD]4 ,= ?AT REASON IT ALWAYS ASPIRES T[>D ABSOLUTISM1 UND] ALL DISGUISES2 9 FACT1 ACCORD+ TO ! PR9CIPLE1 ! /RONG] ! ,GOV]NM5T1 ! NE>] ORD] APPROA*ES P]FECTION4 ,!SE TWO NOTIONS !N1 GOV]NM5T & ORD]1 >E 9 ! RELATION TO EA* O!R ( CAUSE ( EFFECT3 ! CAUSE IS ,GOV]NM5T1 ! EFFECT IS ,ORD]4 ,IT IS ?US ?AT PRIMITIVE SOCIETIES HAVE REASON$4 ,WE HAVE ALREADY REM>K$ UPON ?IS SUBJECT1 ?AT1 FROM :AT SU* SOCIETIES C\LD CONCEIVE ( HUMAN DE/9Y1 IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE ?AT !Y %\LD HAVE REASON$ O!RWISE4 

,BUT ?IS REASON+ IS NONE ! LESS FALSE1 & ! CONCLUSION IS QUITE 9ADMISSIBLE1 BECAUSE1 ACCORD+ TO ! LOGICAL CLASSIFICATION ( IDEAS1 ! RELATION ( GOV]NM5T TO ORD] IS NOT ?AT ( CAUSE TO EFFECT1 AS /ATESM5 PRET5D1 IT IS ?AT ( A P>TICUL> TO A G5]AL4 ,ORD] IS ! G5US3 ,GOV]NM5T IS ! SPECIES4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 !RE >E MANY WAYS ( CONCEIV+ ORD]2 BUT :O HAS PROV$ TO US ?AT ORD] 9 A SOCIETY IS :AT ITS MA/]S *OOSE TO CALL IT8 

,ON ! ONE H& IS ALLEG$ ! NATURAL 9EQUALITY ( FACULTIES1 :5CE IS D$UC$ ?AT ( CONDITIONS2 ON ! O!R1 ! IMPOSSIBILITY ( UNIT+ ! DIV]G5CE ( 9T]E/S & ( H>MONIZ+ OP9IONS4 

,BUT 9 ?IS ANTAGONISM !RE IS AT MO/ BUT A PROBLEM TO BE SOLV$1 IT %\LD NOT BE A PRETEXT = TYRANNY4 ,9EQUALITY ( FACULTIES6 DIV]G5CE ( 9T]E/S6 ,WELL1 SOV]EIGNS1 ) Y\R CR[NS1 ROBES & FASCES1 ?AT IS PRECISELY :AT IS MEANT BY ! SOCIAL QUE/ION2 & Y\ ?9K TO SOLVE IT ) CLUB & BAYONET6 ,SA9T ,SIMON WAS QUITE RI<T 9 REG>D+ ! WORDS GOV]NM5T & MILIT>Y AS SYNONYMS4 ,GOV]NM5T CAUSE ORD] 9 SOCIETY8 ,IT IS LIKE ,ALEX&] UNTY+ ! ,GORDIAN KNOT ) HIS SWORD6 

,:O !N1 %EPH]DS ( ! PUBLIC1 AU?ORIZES Y\ TO ?9K ?AT ! PROBLEM ( OPPOSITION ( 9T]E/S & 9EQUALITY ( FACULTIES CANNOT BE SOLV$2 ?AT ! DI/9CTION ( CLASSES NECESS>ILY SPR+S FROM IT2 & ?AT1 9 ORD] TO MA9TA9 ?IS NATURAL & PROVID5TIAL DI/9CTION1 =CE IS NECESS>Y & LEGITIMATE8 ,I AFFIRM1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 & ALL !Y :OM ! WORLD CALLS ,UTOPIANS1 BECAUSE !Y OPPOSE Y\R TYRANNY1 AFFIRM1 ) ME1 ?AT ! SOLUTION CAN BE F\ND4 ,SOME BELIEVE ?AT !Y HAVE F\ND IT 9 ! COMMUNITY1 O!RS 9 ASSOCIATION1 YET O!RS 9 ! 9DU/RIAL S]IES4 ,= MY P>T1 ,I SAY ?AT IT IS F\ND 9 ! ORGANIZATION ( ECONOMIC =CES1 UND] ! SUPREME LAW ( ,CONTRACT4 ,:O CAN ASSURE Y\ ?AT NONE ( !SE HYPO!SES IS TRUE8 

,! ADVANCE ( LABOR & ( IDEAS SETS ?IS LIB]AL !ORY1 ?R\< MY LIPS1 AGA9/ Y\R GOV]NM5TAL !ORY1 :I* HAS NO BASIS BUT Y\R IGNORANCE1 NO PR9CIPLE BUT A SOPHISM1 NO ME?OD BUT =CE1 NO OBJECT BUT ! ROBB]Y ( HUMANITY4 

,TO F9D A =M ( TRANSACTION :I*1 9 DRAW+ TOGE!R ! DIV]G5CE ( 9T]E/S1 9 ID5TIFY+ 9DIVIDUAL ADVANTAGE1 9 EFFAC+ ! 9EQUALITY ( NATURE BY ?AT ( $UCATION1 SOLVES ALL POLITICAL & ECONOMICAL CONTRADICTIONS2 UND] :I* EA* 9DIVIDUAL WILL BE BO? PRODUC] & CONSUM] AS SYNONYM\S1 BO? CITIZ5 & PR9CE1 RUL] & RUL$2 UND] :I* HIS LIB]TY /EADILY 9CREASES1 ) NO NE$ ( GIV+ UP ANY P>T ( IT2 UND] :I* HIS MAT]IAL PROSP]ITY GR[S 9DEF9ITELY1 )\T HIS EXP]I5C+ ANY LOSS ?R\< ! ACT EI!R ( SOCIETY OR ( HIS FELL[ CITIZ5S1 EI!R 9 HIS PROP]TY1 OR 9 HIS WORK1 OR 9 HIS RECOMP5SE1 OR 9 HIS RELATIONS ( 9T]E/1 ( OP9ION1 OR ( ATTA*M5T AMONG HIS FELL[S4 

,:AT1 DO !SE CONDITIONS SEEM TO Y\ IMPOSSIBLE TO SATISFY8 ,DOES IT SEEM TO Y\ IMPOSSIBLE TO IMAG9E ANY?+ MORE 9EXTRICABLE ?AN ! SOCIAL CONTRACT1 :5 Y\ ?9K ( ! FRI<TFUL NUMB] ( RELATIONS ?AT IT MU/ REGULATE--SOME?+ LIKE SQU>+ ! CIRCLE1 OR F9D+ P]PETUAL MOTION8 ,?AT IS ! REASON :Y1 WE>I$ ( ! /RUGGLE1 Y\ FALL BACK UPON ABSOLUTISM & =CE4 

,CONSID]1 MOREOV]1 ?AT IF ! SOCIAL CONTRACT CAN BE SOLV$ BETWE5 TWO PRODUC]S1--& :O D\BTS T]MS8--IT CAN AS WELL BE SOLV$ AMONG MILLIONS1 AS IT RELATES ALWAYS TO A SIMIL> 5GAGEM5T2 & ?AT ?AT ! NUMB] ( SIGNATURES ADDS NO?+ TO IT1 :ILE MAK+ IT MORE & MORE EFFECTIVE4 ,Y\R PLEA ( 9ABILITY !N DOES NOT EXI/1 IT IS RIDICUL\S1 & Y\ >E LEFT )\T EXCUSE4 

,H[EV] ?AT MAY BE1 LI/51 M5 ( P[]1 TO ! WORDS ( ! ,PRODUC]1 ! PROLET>IAN1 ! SLAVE1 ( HIM :OM Y\ EXPECT TO =CE TO WORK = Y\3 ,I DEM& NEI!R ! GOODS NOR ! MONEY ( ANYBODY2 & ,I AM NOT DISPOS$ TO ALL[ ! FRUIT ( MY LABOR TO BECOME ! PREY ( ANO!R4 ,I1 ALSO1 WANT ORD]1 AS MU* AS !Y :O >E CONT9UALLY UPSETT+ IT BY !IR ALLEG$ GOV]NM5T2 BUT ,I WANT IT AS ! RESULT ( MY FREE *OICE1 A CONDITION = MY LABOR1 A LAW ( MY REASON4 ,I WILL NOT SUBMIT TO IT COM+ FROM ! WILL ( ANO!R1 & IMPOS+ SACRIFICE & S]VITUDE UPON ME AS PRELIM9>Y CONDITIONS4 

#b4 ,LAWS4 

,:AT ) ! IMPATI5CE ( ! PEOPLE1 & ! IMM95CE ( REVOLT1 ! ,GOV]NM5T MU/ YIELD4 ,IT HAS PROMIS$ 9/ITUTIONS & LAWS2 IT HAS DECL>$ ?AT ITS MO/ F]V5T DESIRE WAS ?AT EA* ONE %\LD 5JOY ! FRUIT ( HIS LABOR UND] HIS [N V9E & FIG TREE4 ,?IS WAS A NECESSITY ( ITS POSITION4 ,FROM ! TIME ?AT ! ,GOV]NM5T PRES5T$ ITSELF AS ! JUDGE ( :AT WAS RI<T1 AS ! SOV]EIGN >BIT] ( DE/9IES1 IT C\LD NOT PRET5D TO DRIVE M5 AT ITS [N GOOD PLEASURE4 ,K+1 ,PRESID5T1 ,DIRECTORY1 ,COMMITTEE1 ,POPUL> ,ASSEMBLY1 IT MATT]S NOT3 P[] MU/ HAVE RULES ( CONDUCT3 H[ CAN IT E/ABLI% DISCIPL9E AMONG ITS SUBJECTS )\T !M8 ,H[ CAN CITIZ5S CON=M TO ORD]S1 IF !Y >E NOT NOTIFI$ ( :AT ! ORD]S >E2 OR IF ! ORD]S >E REVOK$ :5 SC>CELY ANN\NC$2 IF !Y *ANGE FROM DAY TO DAY1 FROM H\R TO H\R8 

,SO ! ,GOV]NM5T MU/ MAKE LAWS2 ?AT IS TO SAY1 PLACE LIMITS = ITSELF2 = :ATEV] IS A RULE = ! CITIZ5 IS A LIMIT = ! RUL]4 ,IT MU/ MAKE AS MANY LAWS AS IT F9DS 9T]E/S2 &1 AS 9T]E/S >E 9NUM]ABLE1 RELATIONS >IS+ FROM ONE ANO!R MULTIPLY TO 9F9ITY1 & ANTAGONISM IS 5DLESS1 LAW-MAK+ MU/ GO ON )\T /OPP+4 ,LAWS1 DECREES1 $ICTS1 ORD9ANCES1 RESOLUTIONS1 WILL FALL LIKE HAIL UPON ! UN=TUNATE PEOPLE4 ,AFT] A TIME ! POLITICAL GR\ND WILL BE COV]$ ) A LAY] ( PAP]1 :I* ! GEOLOGI/S WILL PUT D[N AMONG ! VICISSITUDES ( ! E>? AS ! PAPYRACE\S =MATION4 ,! ,CONV5TION 9 ?REE YE>S ONE MON? & F\R DAYS PASS$ ELEV5 ?\S& SIX HUNDR$ LAWS & DECREES3 ! ,CON/ITU5T & ,LEGISLATIVE ,ASSEMBLIES PASS$ AS MANY3 ! ,EMPIRE & ! ,GOV]NM5TS ?AT FOLL[$ CONT9U$ ! WORK4 AT PRES5T1 ! ,BULLET9 ( ,LAWS CONTA9S1 IT IS SAID1 MORE ?AN FIFTY ?\S&3 IF \R REPRES5TATIVES DO !IR DUTY1 ?IS 5ORM\S FIGURE WILL SOON BE D\BL$4 ,DO Y\ SUPPOSE ?AT ! PEOPLE1 OR EV5 ! ,GOV]NM5T ITSELF1 CAN KEEP !IR REASON 9 ?IS LABYR9?8 

,C]TA9LY WE >E ALREADY F> FROM ! PRIMITIVE 9/ITUTION4 ,IT IS SAID ?AT ! ,GOV]NM5T FILLS ! P>T ( FA!R 9 ,SOCIETY2 BUT :AT FA!R EV] MADE AN AGREEM5T ) HIS FAMILY1 OR GRANT$ A *>T] TO HIS *ILDR51 OR >RANG$ A BALANCE ( P[] BETWE5 HIMSELF & !IR MO!R8 ,! HEAD ( A FAMILY IS 9SPIR$ BY HIS HE>T 9 HIS GOV]NM5T3 HE DOES NOT ROB HIS CIHLDR52 HE SUPPORTS !M BY HIS LABOR3 GUID$ BY HIS LOVE1 HE ?9KS ONLY ( !IR 9T]E/S & CIRCUM/ANCES3 HIS WILL IS !IR LAW1 & ALL1 MO!R & *ILDR51 HAVE CONFID5CE 9 IT4 ,! LITTLE ,/ATE W\LD BE DOOM$ IF PAT]NAL ACTION 5C\NT]$ ! LEA/ OPPOSITION1 IF IT W]E LIMIT$ 9 ITS PR]OGATIVES OR DET]M9$ 9 ADVANCE 9 ITS EFFECTS4 ,:AT6 CAN IT BE TRUE ?AT ,GOV]NM5T IS NOT A FA!R TO ! PEOPLE1 S9CE IT SUBMITS TO REGULATIONS1 COMPROMISES ) ITS SUBJECTS1 & MAKES ITSELF ! SLAVE ( A RULE1 :I*1 :E!R DIV9E OR POPUL>1 IS NOT ITS [N8 

,IF ?IS IS SO1 ,I DO NOT SEE :Y ,I MYSELF %\LD SUBMIT TO ?IS LAW4 ,:O GU>ANTEES TO ME ITS JU/ICE1 ITS S9C]ITY8 ,:5CE COMES IT8 ,:O MADE IT8 ,R\SSEAU TEA*ES 9 UNMI/AKABLE T]MS1 ?AT 9 A GOV]NM5T REALLY DEMOCRATIC & FREE ! CITIZ51 9 OBEY+ ! LAW1 OBEYS ONLY HIS [N WILL4 ,BUT ! LAW HAS BE5 MADE )\T MY P>TICIPATION1 DESPITE MY ABSOLUTE DISAPPROVAL1 DESPITE ! 9JURY :I* IT 9FLICTS UPON ME4 ,! ,/ATE DOES NOT B>GA9 ) ME3 IT GIVES ME NO?+ 9 EX*ANGE3 IT SIMPLY PRACTICES EXTORTION UPON ME4 ,:]E !N IS ! BOND ( CONSCI5CE1 REASON1 PASSION OR 9T]E/ :I* B9DS ME8 

,BUT :AT DO ,I SAY8 ,LAWS = ONE :O ?9KS = HIMSELF1 & :O \<T TO ANSW] ONLY = HIS [N ACTIONS2 LAWS = ONE :O WANTS TO BE FREE1 & FEELS HIMSELF WOR?Y ( LIB]TY8 ,I AM READY TO B>GA91 BUT ,I WANT NO LAWS4 ,I RECOGNIZE NONE ( !M3 ,I PROTE/ AGA9/ EV]Y ORD] :I* IT MAY PLEASE SOME P[]1 FROM PRET5D$ NECESSITY1 TO IMPOSE UPON MY FREE WILL4 ,LAWS6 ,WE KN[ :AT !Y >E1 & :AT !Y >E WOR?6 ,SPID] WEBS = ! RI* & P[]FUL1 /EEL *A9S = ! WEAK & POOR1 FI%+ NETS 9 ! H&S ( ! ,GOV]NM5T4 

,Y\ SAY ?AT Y\ WILL MAKE BUT FEW LAWS2 ?AT Y\ WILL MAKE !M SIMPLE & GOOD4 ,?AT IS 9DE$ AN ADMISSION4 ,! ,GOV]NM5T IS 9DE$ CULPABLE1 IF IT AV[S ?US ITS FAULTS4 ,NO D\BT ! ,GOV]NM5T WILL HAVE 5GRAV$ ON ! FRONT ( ! LEGISLATIVE HALL1 = ! 9/RUCTION ( ! LEGISLATOR & ! $IFICATION ( ! PEOPLE1 ?IS ,LAT9 V]SE1 :I* A PRIE/ ( ,B\LOGNE HAD WRITT5 OV] ! DOOR TO HIS CELL>1 AS A W>N+ TO HIS ,BAC*IC ZEAL3 

,PA/OR1 NE NOCEANT1 BIBE PAUCA S$ OPTIMA V9A4 

,FEW LAWS6 ,EXCELL5T LAWS6 ,IT IS IMPOSSIBLE4 ,MU/ NOT ! ,GOV]NM5T REGULATE ALL 9T]E/S1 & JUDGE ALL DISPUTES2 & >E NOT 9T]E/S1 BY ! NATURE ( SOCIETY1 9NUM]ABLE2 >E NOT RELATIONS 9F9ITELY V>IABLE & *ANGEABLE8 ,H[ !N IS IT POSSIBLE TO MAKE FEW LAWS8 ,H[ CAN !Y BE SIMPLE8 ,H[ CAN ! BE/ LAW BE ANY?+ BUT DETE/ABLE8 

,Y\ TALK ( SIMPLIFICATION4 ,BUT IF Y\ CAN SIMPLIFY 9 ONE PO9T1 Y\ CAN SIMPLIFY 9 ALL4 ,9/EAD ( A MILLION LAWS1 A S+LE LAW WILL SUFFICE4 ,:AT %ALL ?IS LAW BE8 ,DO NOT TO O!RS :AT Y\ W\LD NOT !Y %\LD DO TO Y\3 DO TO O!RS AS Y\ W\LD !Y %\LD DO TO Y\4 ,?AT IS ! LAW & ! PROPHETS4 

,BUT IT IS EVID5T ?AT ?IS IS NOT A LAW2 IT IS ! ELEM5T>Y =MULA ( JU/ICE1 ! RULE ( ALL TRANSACTIONS4 ,LEGISLATIVE SIMPLIFICATION !N LEADS US TO ! IDEA ( CONTRACT1 & CONSEQU5TLY TO ! D5IAL ( AU?ORITY4 ,9 FACT1 IF !RE IS BUT A S+LE LAW1 IF IT SOLVES ALL ! CONTRADICTIONS ( SOCIETY1 IF IT IS ADMITT$ & ACCEPT$BY EV]YBODY1 IT IS SUFFICI5T = ! SOCIAL CONTRACT4 ,9 PROMULGAT+ IT Y\ ANN\NCE ! 5D ( GOV]NM5T4 ,:AT PREV5TS Y\ !N FROM MAK+ ?IS SIMPLIFICATION AT ONCE8 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #a#h4 ,PA/OR1 = Y\R HEAL?1 DR9K BUT LITTLE W9E1 BUT ( ! BE/4 8 

#c4 ,! ,CON/ITUTIONAL ,MON>*Y4 

,BE=E '#h#i1 ! ,GOV]NM5T 9 ,FRANCE WAS :AT IT IS /ILL 9 ,AU/RIA1 9 ,PRUSSIA1 9 ,RUSSIA1 & 9 SEV]AL O!R C\NTRIES ( ,EUROPE1 AN UNCONTROLL$ ,P[]1 ) C]TA9 9/ITUTIONS ?AT HAD ! =CE ( LAW = ALL4 ,IT WAS1 AS ,MONTESQUIEU SAID1 A QUALIFI$ MON>*Y4 ,?IS ,GOV]NM5T DISAPPE>$1 TOGE!R ) ! FEUDAL & ECCLESIA/ICAL PRIVILEGES :I* IT HAD CONS5T$ TO DEF5D1 9ADVIS$LY1 AL?\< QUITE CONSCI5TI\SLY4 ,IT WAS REPLAC$1 AFT] VIOL5T %OCKS1 & MANY OSCILLATIONS1 BY ! SO-CALL$ REPRES5TATIVE ,GOV]NM5T1 OR ,CON/ITUTIONAL ,MON>*Y4 ,IT W\LD BE TOO MU* TO SAY ?AT ! LIB]TY & PROSP]ITY ( ! PEOPLE !REUPON 9CREAS$1 EXCEPT = ! RELIEF FROM ! FEUDAL RI<TS :I* W]E ABOLI%$1 & ! SALE ( NATIONAL PROP]TY :I* WAS SEIZ$4 ,NEV]!LESS IT IS C]TA9 & IT MU/ BE ADMITT$ ?AT ?IS NEW RETREAT ( ! GOV]NM5TAL PR9CIPLE CAUS$ ! REVOLUTION>Y D5IAL ( GOV]NM5T TO ADVANCE BY JU/ SO MU*4 ,?AT IS ! REAL1 DECISIVE REASON ?AT MAKES1 = US :O CONSID] ONLY ! RI<T1 ! CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*Y PREF]ABLE TO ! QUALIFI$ MON>*Y2 9 ! SAME WAY ?AT REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY1 OR ! RULE ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 SEEMS TO US PREF]ABLE TO CON/ITUTIONALISM1 & DIRECT GOV]NM5T PREF]ABLE TO REPRES5TATION4 

,BUT IT MAY ALREADY BE =ESE5 ?AT :5 WE >RIVE AT ?IS LA/ T]M1 DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 CONFUSION WILL BE AT ITS HEI<T2 & !RE WILL BE NO?+ = IT BUT ONE ( !SE TWO ?+S1 EI!R TO CONT9UE ! DEVELOPM5T ( GOV]NM5T1 OR TO PROCE$ TO ! ABOLITION ( IT4 

,LET US RESUME \R CRITICISM4 

,SOV]EIGNTY1 SAY ! ,CON/ITUTIONALI/S1 IS 9 ! ,PEOPLE4 ,GOV]NM5T EMANATES FROM !M4 ,!RE=E LET ! MO/ 5LI<T5$ P>T ( ! ,NATION BE CALL$ UPON TO ELECT CITIZ5S :O >E ! MO/ NOTABLE1 ?R\< !IR =TUNE1 !IR WISDOM1 !IR TAL5TS OR !IR VIRTUES1 :O >E ! MO/ DIRECTLY 9T]E/$ 9 ! JU/ICE ( ! LAWS & ! GOOD ADM9I/RATION ( ! ,/ATE1 & :O >E ! MO/ CAPABLE ( TAK+ !IR P>T !RE94 ,LET !SE M51 P]IODICALLY ASSEMBL$ & REGUL>LY CONSULT$1 5T] 9TO ! C\NCILS ( ! PR9CE1 & P>TICIPATE 9 ! EX]CISE ( HIS AU?ORITY4 ,WE %ALL !N HAVE DONE ALL ?AT IT IS POSSIBLE TO EXPECT FROM ! IMP]FECTION ( \R NATURE1 = ! LIB]TY & PROSP]ITY ( M54 ,!N ! ,GOV]NM5T WILL PRES5T NO DANG]1 AS IT WILL ALWAYS BE 9 CONTACT ) ! ,PEOPLE4 

,SURELY !SE >E GREAT WORDS1 BUT WORDS ?AT W\LD 9DICATE SOME NOTABLE SW9DLE1 IF1 S9CE '#h#i1 & ?ANKS *IEFLY TO ,R\SSEAU1 WE HAD NOT LE>N$ TO BELIEVE 9 ! GOOD FAI? ( ALL :O M+LE ) PUBLIC AFFAIRS4 

,WE MU/ FIR/ UND]/& ! CON/ITUTIONAL SY/EM1 ! 9T]PRETATION ( ! NEW DOGMA1 ! SOV]EIGNTY ( ! ,PEOPLE4 ,SOME O!R TIME WE %ALL SEEK TO COMPREH5D :AT ?IS SOV]EIGNTY IS4 

,UNTIL ! ,RE=MATION1 ,GOV]NM5T HAD BE5 REG>D$ AS ( DIV9E RI<T3 ,OMNIS POTE/AS A ,DEO4 ,AFT] ,LU!R1 IT BEGAN TO BE CONSID]$ A HUMAN 9/ITUTION3 ,R\SSEAU1 :O WAS ONE ( ! FIR/ TO GRASP ?IS VIEW1 D$UC$ HIS !ORY FROM IT4 ,GOV]NM5T HAD BE5 FROM ON HI<3 HE MADE IT COME FROM BEL[1 ?R\< ! MA*9]Y ( ! SUFFRAGE1 MORE OR LESS UNIV]SAL4 ,HE TOOK NO C>E TO UND]/& ?AT IF ! ,GOV]NM5T 9 HIS TIME HAD BECOME CORRUPT & WEAK1 IT WAS BECAUSE ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY APPLI$ TO NATIONS IS FALSE & MIS*IEV\S2 ?AT1 9 CONSEQU5CE1 IT WAS NOT ! =M NOR ! ORIG9 ( ,P[] ?AT IT WAS NECESS>Y T O*ANGE1 BUT RA!R TO D5Y ITS APPLICATION4 

,R\SSEAU DID NOT SEE ?AT AU?ORITY1 ( :I* ! PROP] SPH]E IS ! FAMILY1 IS A MY/ICAL PR9CIPLE1 ANT]IOR & SUP]IOR TO ! WILL ( ! P>TIES 9T]E/$1 ( ! FA!R & MO!R1 AS WELL AS ( ! *ILDR52 ?AT :AT IS TRUE ( AU?ORITY 9 ! FAMILY W\LD BE EQUALLY TRUE ( AU?ORITY 9 ,SOCIETY1 IF ,SOCIETY CONTA9$ 9 ITSELF ! PR9CIPLE & REASON ( ANY AU?ORITY :ATSOEV]2 ?AT1 ONCE ! !ORY ( A SOCIAL AU?ORITY IS ADMITT$1 IT CANNOT 9 ANY CASE DEP5D UPON AN AGREEM5T2 ?AT IT IS CONTRADICTORY ?AT !Y :O MU/ OBEY AU?ORITY %\LD BEG9 BY DECREE+ IT4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ?AT IF ,GOV]NM5T \<T TO EXI/1 IT EXI/S BY ! NECESSITY ( ?+S2 ?AT1 AS 9 ! FAMILY1 IT IS P>T ( ! DIV9E OR NATURAL ORD]1 :I* = US IS ! SAME ?+2 ?AT IT IS NOT PROP] = ANYBODY TO DISCUSS IT1 OR TO PASS JUDGM5T UPON IT2 ?AT !RE=E1 F> FROM P[] SUBMITT+ ITSELF TO ! CONTROL ( REPRES5TATIVES1 TO ! JURISDICTION ( POPUL> ASSEMBLIES1 IT BELONGS TO GOV]NM5T ALONE TO PRES]VE1 DEVELOP1 R5EW1 & P]PETUATE ITSELF1 BY 9VIOLABLE ME?OD1 :I* NO ONE HAS ! RI<T TO T\*1 & :I* LEAVES TO ITS SUBJECTS ONLY P]MISSION TO (F] !IR V]Y HUMBLE OP9IONS1 9=MATION & CONDOL5CE1 TO 5LI<T5 ! JU/ICE ( ! PR9CE4 

,!RE >E NOT TWO K9DS ( GOV]NM5T1 JU/ AS !RE >E NOT TWO K9DS ( RELIGION4 ,GOV]NM5T IS BY DIV9E RI<T1 OR IT IS NO?+1 JU/ AS RELIGION IS FROM HEAV5 OR IT IS NO?+4 ,DEMOCRATIC ,GOV]NM5T & ,NATURAL ,RELIGION >E TWO CONTRADICTIONS1 UNLESS Y\ PREF] TO SEE 9 !M TWO MY/IFICATIONS4 ,! ,PEOPLE HAVE NO MORE VOICE 9 ! ,/ATE ?AN !Y HAVE 9 ! ,*UR*3 !IR P>T IS TO BELIEVE & OBEY4 

,MOREOV]1 AS PR9CIPLES CANNOT BE MI/AK51 AS ONLY M5 HAVE ! RI<T TO BE ILLOGICAL1 ,GOV]NM5T1 AS WELL ?AT ( ,R\SSEAU AS ?AT ( ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#h#i1 & ALL ?AT HAVE FOLL[$ IT1 IS ALWAYS1 DESPITE ! =M ( ELECTIONS1 ONLY A ,GOV]NM5T BY DIV9E RI<T1 A MY/ICAL & SUP]NATURAL AU?ORITY1 :I* IMPOSES ITSELF UPON LIB]TY & CONSCI5CE1 :ILE ASSUM+ ! AIR ( ASK+ !IR SUPPORT4 

,FOLL[ ?IS S]IES3 

,9 ! FAMILY1 9 :I* AU?ORITY IS CLOSELY B\ND UP ) HUMAN FEEL+S1 AU?ORITY IMPOSES ITSELF BY G5]ATION4 

,AMONG SAVAGE OR B>B>\S PEOPLES1 IT IMPOSES ITSELF BY ! PATRI>*ATE1 :I* IS 9CLUD$ 9 ! PREVI\S CATEGORY1 OR BY =CE4 

,AMONG SAC]DOTAL PEOPLES1 IT IMPOSES ITSELF BY FAI?4 

,9 >I/OCRACIES1 IT IMPOSES ITSELF BY PRIMOG5ITURE1 OR CA/E4 

,9 ,R\SSEAU'S SY/EM1 IT IMPOSES ITSELF BY LOT1 OR BY NUMB]4 

,G5]ATION1 =CE1 FAI?1 PRIMOG5ITURE1 LOT1 NUMB]1 ALL ?+S EQUALLY UN9TELLIGIBLE & IMP5ETRABLE1 UPON :I* ONE MU/ NOT REASON1 ONLY SUBMIT2 SU* >E1 ,I WILL NOT SAY ! PR9CIPLES1--,AU?ORITY1 LIKE ,LIB]TY1 RECOGNIZES ONLY ITSELF AS A PR9CIPLE1--BUT ! DIFF]5T MODES ?R\< :I* IS ACCOMPLI%$1 9 HUMAN SOCIETIES1 ! 9VE/ITURE ( ,P[]4 ,= A PRIMITIVE1 SUP]IOR1 ANT]IOR1 UNDEBATEABLE PR9CIPLE1 POPUL> 9/9CT HAS ALWAYS S\<T AN EXPRESSION :I* %\LD BE EQUALLY PRIMITIVE1 SUP]IOR1 ANT]IOR & UNDEBATEABLE4 ,AS F> AS CONC]NS ! PRODUCTION ( ,P[]1 =CE1 FAI?1 H]$ITY1 OR NUMB]1 >E ! V>IABLE =MS :I* CLO! ?IS ORDEAL2 !Y >E ! JUDGM5TS ( ,GOD4 

,DOES NUMB] (F] TO Y\R M9D SOME?+ MORE RATIONAL1 MORE AU!NTIC1 MORE MORAL1 ?AN FAI? OR =CE8 ,DOES ! BALLOT SEEM TO Y\ MORE TRU/WOR?Y ?AN TRADITION OR H]$ITY8 ,R\SSEAU DECLAIMS AGA9/ ! RI<T ( ! /RONGE/1 AS IF =CE1 RA!R ?AN NUMB]1 CON/ITUT$ USURPATION4 ,BUT :AT IS NUMB]8 ,:AT DOES IT PROVE8 ,:AT IS IT WOR?8 ,:AT RELATION IS !RE BETWE5 ! OP9ION ( ! VOT]S1 MORE OR LESS S9C]E & UNANIM\S1 & ?AT :I* RULES ALL OP9ION1 ALL VOT+1--TRU? & RI<T8 

,:AT6 ! QUE/ION IS AS TO ALL ?AT IS DE>E/ TO ME1 MY LIB]TY1 MY LABOR1 FOOD = MY WIFE & *ILDR52 & :5 ,I AM EXPECT+ TO MAKE AN AGREEM5T ) Y\1 Y\ S5D ! :OLE BUS9ESS TO AN ASSEMBLY1 SELECT$ BY ! ACCID5T ( DRAW+ LOTS6 ,:5 ,I PRES5T MYSELF TO MAKE A CONTRACT1 Y\ TELL ME ?AT IT IS NECESS>Y TO ELECT >BIT]S1 :O1 )\T KN[+ ME1 )\T UND]/&+ ME1 WILL PRON\NCE MY ACQUITTAL OR CONDEMNATION6 ,:AT RELATION IS !RE1 ,I ASK1 BETWE5 ?IS ASSEMBLY & ME8 :AT GU>ANTEE CAN IT (F] ME8 :Y %\LD ,I MAKE ?IS 5ORM\S1 IRREP>ABLE1 SACRIFICE TO ITS AU?ORITY1 TO ACCEPT :ATEV] IT MAY BE PLEAS$ TO RESOLVE1 AS ! EXPRESSION ( MY WILL1 AS ! JU/ MEASURE ( MY RI<TS8 ,& :5 ?IS ASSEMBLY1 AFT] DEBATES ( :I* ,I UND]/& NO?+1 PROCE$S TO IMPOSE ITS DECISION UPON ME AS LAW1 AT ! PO9T ( ! BAYONET1 ,I ASK1 IF IT IS TRUE ?AT ,I AM A SOV]EIGN1 :AT BECOMES ( MY DIGNITY8 IF ,I AM TO CONSID] MYSELF AS P>TY TO A CONTRACT1 :]E IS ! CONTRACT8 

,!Y PRET5D ?AT ! REPRES5TATIVES WILL BE ! MO/ CAPABLE1 ! MO/ HONE/1 ! MO/ 9DEP5D5T M5 ( ! C\NTRY1 SELECT$ AS SU* BY CITIZ5S *OS5 AS MO/ 9T]E/$ 9 ORD]1 9 LIB]TY1 9 ! PROSP]ITY ( ! LABOR]S1 & 9 PROGRESS4 ,A PLAN WISELY CONCEIV$1 :I* ANSW]S = ! GOOD 9T5TIONS ( ! C&IDATES6 

,BUT :Y DO ! HONORABLE B\RGEOIS :O COMPOSE ! MIDDLE CLASS UND]/& MY TRUE 9T]E/S BETT] ?AN ,I MYSELF8 ,! QUE/ION IS AS TO MY LABOR1 & ! EX*ANGE ( MY LABOR1 ! ?+ :I*1 NEXT TO LOVE1 LEA/ BE>S AU?ORITY1 AS ! POET SAYS3 

,NON B5E CONV5IUNT1 NEC 9 UNA S$E MORANTUR 

,MAJE/AS ET AMOR6 444 

,& Y\ >E GO+ TO DISPOSE ( MY LABOR1 MY LOVE1 BY PROXY1 )\T MY CONS5T6 ,:O CAN ASSURE ME ?AT Y\R PROXIES WILL NOT USE !IR PRIVILEGE TO MAKE ! ,P[] ?AT IT GIVES !M AN 9/RUM5T = PLUND]8 ,:O WILL GU>ANTEE ME ?AT ! SMALLNESS ( !IR NUMB] WILL NOT DELIV] !M TO CORRUPTION1 H&S1 FEET & CONSCI5CES B\ND8 ,& IF !Y WILL NOT P]MIT !MSELVES TO BE CORRUPT$1 IF !Y FAIL TO MAKE AU?ORITY LI/5 TO REASON1 :O CAN ASSURE ME ?AT AU?ORITY WILL SUBMIT8 

,FROM #ahae TO #a#h#c1 ! C\NTRY1 AS LEGALLY CON/ITUT$1 WAS CONT9UALLY AT W> ) AU?ORITY3 ! /RUGGLE 5D$ 9 A REVOLUTION4 ,FROM #ahc TO #a#h#d#h1 ! ELECTORAL CLASS1 DULY /R5G!N$ AFT] ! UN=TUNATE EXP]IM5T ( ! ,RE/ORATION1 WAS EXPOS$ TO ! S$UCTIONS ( ,P[]2 ! MAJORITY HAD ALREADY BE5 CORRUPT$ :5 ! #b#d? ( ,FEBRU>Y BUR/3 ! BETRAYAL 5D$ ONCE MORE 9 A REVOLUTION4 ,PRO( HAS BE5 MADE3 IT WILL NOT BE TRI$ AGA94 ,N[ !N1 P>TISANS ( REPRES5TATIVE RULE1 Y\ WILL DO US A REAL S]VICE IF Y\ CAN PRES]VE = US =C$ M>RIAGES1 M9I/]IAL CORRUPTION1 POPUL> 9SURRECTIONS3 ,A SPIRITU =NICATIONIS1 AB 9CURSU ET DAEMONIO M]IDIANO4 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #a#i4 ,ALL P[] IS FROM ,GOD4 8 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #b4 ,AU?ORITY & LOVE DO NOT FIT WELL TOGE!R1 NOR /AY LONG TOGE!R4 8 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #b#a4 ,FROM ! SPIRIT ( =NICATION3 FROM ! ATTACK ( ! NOONDAY FI5D4 8 

#d4 ,UNIV]SAL ,SUFFRAGE4 

,! SOLUTION IS F\ND1 CRY ! C\RAGE\S4 ,LET ALL ! CITIZ5S TAKE P>T 9 ! VOT+3 !RE WILL BE NO P[] ?AT CAN RESI/ !M1 NO S$UCTION ?AT CAN CORRUPT !M4 ,?AT IS :AT ! F\ND]S ( ! ,REPUBLIC ?\<T1 ! DAY AFT] ! #b#d? ( ,FEBRU>Y4 

,SOME ADD$3 ,LET ! M&ATE BE IMP]ATIVE1 ! REPRES5TATIVE ALWAYS SUBJECT TO RECALL1 & ! 9TEGRITY ( ! LAW WILL BE GU>ANTE$1 ! FIDELITY ( ! LEGISLATOR ASSUR$4 

,WE PROCE$ TO TAKE A H& 9 ! DISCUSSION4 

,I HAVE NO BELIEF AT ALL1 & ) GOOD REASON1 9 ?IS DIV9ATORY 9/9CT ( ! MULTITUDE1 :I* 5ABLES IT TO DISC]N AT A GLANCE ! M]IT & WOR? ( ! C&IDATES4 ,EXAMPLES AB\ND ( P]SONS ELECT$ BY ACCLAMATION1 :O1 ON ! V]Y PLAT=M ON :I* !Y PRES5T$ !MSELVES 9 VIEW ( ! PEOPLE1 W]E ALREADY PREP>+ ! NET = !IR BETRAYAL4 ,H>DLY C\LD ! PEOPLE AT ELECTION PICK \T ONE HONE/ MAN FROM A DOZ5 SCAMPS4 

,BUT1 ONCE MORE1 :AT DO ALL !SE ELECTIONS MATT] TO ME8 ,:AT NE$ HAVE ,I ( PROXIES1 ANY MORE ?AN ( REPRES5TATIVES8 ,&1 S9CE IT IS NECESS>Y ?AT ,I SPECIFY :AT ,I WANT1 CAN ,I NOT EXPLA9 IT )\T ! AID ( ANYBODY8 ,WILL IT CO/ ME ANY MORE8 ,AM ,I NOT MORE SURE ( MYSELF ?AN ( MY ATTORNEY8 

,IT IS SAID ?AT IT IS NECESS>Y TO DO SOME?+2 ?AT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE ?AT ,I %\LD ATT5D TO SO MANY DIFF]5T 9T]E/S2 ?AT AFT] ALL1 A C\NCIL ( >BITRATORS1 :OSE MEMB]S HAVE BE5 APPO9T$ BY ! VOTES ( ALL ! PEOPLE1 PROMISES AN APPROXIMATION TO TRU? & RI<T1 F> SUP]IOR TO ! JU/ICE ( AN IRRESPONSIBLE MON>*1 REPRES5T$ BY 9SOL5T M9I/]S1 & BY MAGI/RATES :OSE IRREMOVEABILITY PLACES !M AS MU* \T ( MY REA* AS ! PR9CE HIMSELF4 

,9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 ,I DO NOT SEE ! NECESSITY ( DO+ ANY?+ AT SU* A PRICE3 ,I DO NOT SEE MOREOV] ?AT ANY?+ IS ACCOMPLI%$4 ,NEI!R ELECTION NOR VOT+1 EV5 IF UNANIM\S1 SOLVES ANY?+4 ,DUR+ ! SIXTY YE>S ?AT WE HAVE US$ ALL SORTS ( ME?ODS ( ELECT+1 :AT HAVE WE ACCOMPLI%$8 ,:AT HAVE WE EV5 \TL9$8 ,:AT LI<T HAVE ! PEOPLE OBTA9$ FROM !IR ASSEMBLIES8 ,:AT GU>ANTIES HAVE !Y OBTA9$8 ,DOES IT ADD A C5T TO !IR 9COME ?AT !Y HAVE TO REPEAT !IR COMM&S T5 TIMES A YE>1 & TO REELECT EV]Y MON? !IR MUNICIPAL (FIC]S & JUDGES8 ,>E !Y ANY MORE SURE :5 !Y GO TO B$ AT NI<T1 ?AT !Y WILL HAVE SOME?+ TO EAT1 SOME?+ :]E) TO FE$ !IR *ILDR51 ON ! MORR[8 ,CAN !Y EV5 BE SURE ?AT !Y WILL NOT BE >RE/$ & DRAGG$ TO PRISON8 

,I UND]/& ?AT ONE MAY SUBMIT TO AN >BITR>Y DECISION UPON QUE/IONS ?AT >E NOT SUSCEPTIBLE ( A REGUL> SOLUTION1 = UNIMPORTANT 9T]E/S1 = ORD9>Y AFFAIRS4 ,SU* TRANSACTIONS HAVE ?IS MORAL1 ?IS CONSOLATION1 ?AT !Y PROVE ! EXI/5CE 9 ! S\L ( SOME?+ SUP]IOR EV5 TO JU/ICE1 ! FRAT]NAL S5TIM5T4 ,BUT UPON PR9CIPLES1 ON ! ESS5CE ( RI<TS1 ON ! DIRECTION TO IMPRESS UPON SOCIETY1 ON ! ORGANIZATION ( 9DU/RIAL =CES1 UPON MY LABOR1 MY SUBSI/5CE1 MY LIFE1 UPON ?IS V]Y HYPO!SIS ( ,GOV]NM5T ?AT WE >E DISCUSS+1 ,I REJECT ALL PRESUMPTIVE AU?ORITY1 ALL 9DIRECT SOLUTIONS2 ,I RECOGNIZE NO />-*AMB]2 ,I DESIRE TO NEGOTIATE DIRECTLY 9DIVIDUALLY1 = MYSELF2 UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE IS 9 MY EYES NO?+ BUT A LOTT]Y4 

,ONE ! #b#e? ( ,FEBRU>Y1 #a#h#d#h1 A H&FUL ( ,DEMOCRATS1 AFT] HAV+ DRIV5 \T ! MON>*Y1 PROCLAIM$ ! ,REPUBLIC AT ,P>IS4 ,!Y TOOK C\NSEL ) !MSELVES ONLY = ?IS /EP3 !Y DID NOT WAIT UNTIL ! PEOPLE HAD PRON\NC$ UPON IT1 9 !IR PRIM>Y MEET+S4 ,! SUPPORT ( ! CITIZ5S WAS BOLDLY PRESUM$ BY !M4 ,I BELIEVE UPON MY S\L & CONSCI5CE1 ?AT !Y DID WELL3 ,I BELIEVE ?AT !Y ACT$ 9 ! FULLNESS ( !IR RI<T1 AL?\< !Y W]E TO ! RE/ ( ! PEOPLE AS #a TO #a14 ,&1 BECAUSE ,I WAS CONV9C$ ( ! JU/ICE ( !IR WORK1 ,I DID NOT HESITATE TO ASSOCIATE MYSELF !RE)3 ! ,REPUBLIC1 9 MY OP9ION1 BE+ BUT ! CANCELLATION ( A LEASE BETWE5 ! ,PEOPLE & ! ,GOV]NM5T4 ,ADV]SUS HO/EM AET]NA AUCTORITAS E/O SAYS ! ,LAW ( ! ,TWELVE ,TABLES4 ,AGA9/ ,P[] ! RI<T TO RECLAIM CANNOT LAPSE2 USURPATION IS MEAN+LESS4 

,NEV]!LESS1 FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( ! SOV]EIGNTY ( NUMB]S1 ( ! IMP]ATIVE M&ATE1 & ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 :I* >E MORE OR LESS ACCEPT$ BY US1 !SE CITIZ5S COMMITT$ AN ACT ( USURPATION1 A CRIM9AL ATTACK AGA9/ PUBLIC FAI? & ! LAW ( NATIONS4 ,BY :AT RI<T DID !Y )\T A M&ATE1 !Y1 :OM ! ,PEOPLE HAD NOT ELECT$1 !Y :O W]E ONLY AN IMP]CEPTIBLE M9ORITY 9 ! MASS ( CITIZ5S2 BY :AT RI<T1 ,I ASK1 DID !Y RU% UPON ! ,TUIL]IES LIKE A B& ( PIRATES1 ABOLI% ! ,MON>*Y & PROCLAIM ! ,REPUBLIC8 

,! ,REPUBLIC IS ABOVE UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE6 WE SAID 9 ! ELECTIONS ( #a#h#e2 & ?IS WAS REPEAT$ AFT]W>DS FROM ! TRIBUNE1 AMID ACCLAMATIONS1 BY A MAN NOT SUSPECT$ ( AN>*ICAL OP9IONS1 ,G5]AL ,CAVAIGNAC4 ,IF ?IS IS TRUE ! MORALITY ( ! REVOLUTION ( ,FEBRU>Y IS V9DICAT$2 BUT :AT CAN WE SAY ( ?OSE :O1 :ILE PROCLAIM+ ! ,REPUBLIC1 SAW 9 IT NO?+ BUT ! EX]CISE ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A NEW =M ( GOV]NM5T8 ,! GOV]NM5TAL PR9CIPLE ADMITT$1 IT WAS = ! ,PEOPLE TO PRON\NCE UPON ! =M2 & :O CAN SAY ?AT ! ,PEOPLE W\LD HAVE VOT$ 9 FAVOR ( ! ,REPUBLIC1 IF !Y HAD BE5 APPEAL$ TO8 

,ON ! #a? ( ,DECEMB]1 #a#h#d#h1 ! ,PEOPLE W]E CONSULT$ UPON ! *OICE ( !IR FIR/ MAGI/RATE1 & !Y NAM$ ,L\IS ,BONAP>TE1 BY A MAJORITY ( FIVE & A HALF MILLIONS1 \T ( SEV5 & A HALF MILLION VOT]S4 ,9 *OOS+ ?IS C&IDATE1 ! ,PEOPLE1 9 !IR TURN1 TOOK C\NSEL ONLY ) !IR [N 9CL9ATIONS3 !Y TOOK NO ACC\NT ( ! PR$ICTIONS & OP9IONS ( ,REPUBLICANS4 ,= MY P>T1 ,I DISAPPROV$ ?IS ELECTION = ! SAME REASONS ?AT L$ ME TO SUPPORT ! PROCLAMATION ( ! ,REPUBLIC4 ,&1 BECAUSE ,I DISAPPROV$ ( IT1 ,I HAVE S9CE OPPOS$1 AS F> AS 9 ME LAY1 ! GOV]NM5T ( ! ,PEOPLE'S ,*OICE4 

,NEV]!LESS FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 ( ! IMP]ATIVE M&ATE1 & ( ! SOV]EIGNTY ( NUMB]S1 ,I \<T TO BELIEVE1 ?AT ,L\IS ,BONAP>TE EXPRESSES ! IDEAS1 ! NE$S & ! T5D5CIES ( ! NATION3 ,I \<T TO ACCEPT HIS POLICY AS ! POLICY ( ! ,PEOPLE4 ,EV5 IF IT W]E OPPOS$ TO ! ,CON/ITUTION1 ! M]E FACT ?AT ! ,CON/ITUTION DID NOT EMANATE DIRECTLY FROM ! ,PEOPLE1 :ILE ! ,PRESID5T WAS ! P]SONIFICATION ( ! MAJORITY ( VOTES1 HIS POLICY %\LD BE HELD AS APPROV$1 9SPIR$ & 5C\RAG$ BY ! SOV]EIGN ,PEOPLE4 ,!Y :O W5T TO ! ,CONS]VATORY ON ! #a#c? ( ,JUNE1 #a#h#d#h1 W]E BUT FACTION>IES4 ,:O GAVE !M ! RI<T TO SUPPOSE ?AT ! ,PEOPLE1 AT ! 5D ( SIX MON?S1 W\LD DISC>D !IR ,PRESID5T8 ,L\IS ,BONAP>TE PRES5T$ HIMSELF UND] ! AUSPICES ( HIS UNCLE2 EV]YBODY KN[S :AT ?AT MEANS4 

,DO Y\ /ILL TALK AB\T ! ,PEOPLE8 ,I MEAN ! ,PEOPLE AS IT %[ ITSELF 9 MASS MEET+S1 AT ! BALLOT BOX2 ! ,PEOPLE1 :I* !Y DID NOT D>E TO CONSULT AB\T ! ,REPUBLIC 9 ,FEBRU>Y2 ! ,PEOPLE1 :I* ON ! #a#f? ( ,APRIL & 9 ! DAYS ( ,JUNE1 DECL>$ ITSELF BY AN IMM5SE MAJORITY AGA9/ ,SOCIALISM2 ! ,PEOPLE1 :I* ELECT$ ,L\IS ,BONAP>TE1 BECAUSE IT ADOR$ ,NAPOLEON ,BONAP>TE2 ! ,PEOPLE1 :I* ELECT$ ! ,CON/ITU5T ,ASSEMBLY1 & AFT]W>DS ! ,LEGISLATIVE ,ASSEMBLY2 ! ,PEOPLE1 :I* DID NOT RISE ON ! #a#c? ( ,JUNE2 ! ,PEOPLE1 :I* DID NOT PROTE/ ON ! #c#a/ ( ,MAY2 ! ,PEOPLE :I* SIGN$ PETITIONS = REVISION & PETITIONS AGA9/ REVISION4 ,IS ?IS ! ,PEOPLE :I* WILL BE 5LI<T5$ FROM ABOVE1 ITS REPRES5TATIVES1 9SPIR$ BY ITS WISDOM1 BE R5D]$ !REBY 9FALLIBLE1 :5 IT COMES TO PICK+ \T ! MO/ VIRTU\S & MO/ CAPABLE1 & ( DECID+ UPON ! ORGANIZATION ( ,LABOR1 ( ,CR$IT1 ( ,PROP]TY & ( ,P[] ITSELF8 

,NEI!R ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS51 :O DISCOV]$ ! PR9CIPLE ( ,DIRECT ,LEGISLATION 9 ,G]MANY1 NOR ,M4 ,CONSID]ANT1 :O ASK$ P>DON ( ,GOD & MAN = HAV+ SO LONG REJECT$ ?IS SUBLIME IDEA1 NOR ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL91 :O REF]S !M BO? TO ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c & TO ,JEAN ,JACQUES ,R\SSEAU1 NOR ,M4 ,L\IS ,BLANC1 :O1 PLAC+ HIMSELF BETWE5 ,ROBESPI]RE & ,M4 ,GUIZOT1 SUMMONS ALL ?REE BACK TO PURE ,JACOB9ISM1 NOR ,M4 ,GIR>D91 :O1 HAV+ NO MORE CONFID5CE 9 DIRECT LEGISLATION ?AN 9 UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE OR REPRES5TATIVE MON>*Y1 BELIEVES IT TO BE MORE EXP$ITI\S1 MORE USEFUL1 MORE EASILY ACCOMPLI%$1 TO SIMPLIFY ! ,GOV]NM5T2--NOT ONE ( !SE M51 ! MO/ ADVANC$ ( ! AGE1 KN[S :AT IS NECESS>Y TO BE DONE 9 ORD] TO BR+ AB\T SECURITY ( LABOR1 JU/ICE 9 PROP]TY1 HONE/Y 9 COMM]CE1 MORALITY 9 COMPETITION1 PRODUCTIV5ESS 9 CR$IT1 EQUALITY 9 TAXATION1 @&C42 OR1 IF ANY ( !M KN[S1 HE D>ES NOT TELL4 

,YET T5 MILLION CITIZ5S1 :O HAVE NOT /UDIES1 ANALYZ$1 REF]R$ TO !IR CAUSES1 COMP>$ 9 !IR AFF9ITIES1 ! PR9CIPLES ( SOCIAL ORGANIZATION1 AS HAVE !SE PR(ESSIONAL ?9K]S2 T5 MILLION1 FEEBLY M9D$1 :O HAVE SWORN BY ALL ! IDOLS1 HAVE APPLAUD$ ALL PROGRAMS1 HAVE BE5 ! DUPES ( ALL POLITICAL S*EMES1--!SE T5 MILLIONS1 DRAW+ UP !IR PLAT=MS1 & NAM+ !IR PROXIES = ! PURPOSE1 WILL 9FALLIBLY SOLVE ! PROBLEM ( ! ,REVOLUTION6 ,AH1 SIRS1 Y\ DO NOT REALLY ?9K SO1 Y\ DO NOT REALLY HOPE SO4 ,:AT Y\ DO BELIEVE1 :AT Y\ >E ALMO/ SURE ( IS ?AT Y\ WILL ALL BE ELECT$ BY SOME PORTION ( ! PEOPLE1 AS M5 ( WELL-KN[N ABILITY1 ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL9 AS ,PRESID5T ( ! ,REPUBLIC1 ,M4 ,L\IS ,BLANC AS ,M9I/] ( ,PROGRESS1 ,M4 DE ,GIR>D9 AS ,M9I/] ( ,F9ANCE1 ,M4 ,CONSID]ANT AS ,M9I/] ( ,F9ANCE1 ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS5 AS ,M9I/] ( ,JU/ICE & ,PUBLIC ,9/RUCTION2 AFT] :I* ! PROBLEM ( ! ,REVOLUTION MAY SOLVE ITSELF AS IT WILL4 ,5\<1 LET US BE FRANK1 UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 ! IMP]ATIVE M&ATE1 ! RESPONSIBILITY ( REPRES5TATIVES1 9 FACT1 ! :OLE ELECTIVE SY/EM1 IS BUT *ILD'S PLAY2 ,I WILL NOT TRU/ !M ) MY LABOR1 MY PEACE ( M9D1 MY =TUNE2 ,I WILL NOT RISK A HAIR ( MY HEAD TO DEF5D !M4 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #b#b4 ,AGA9/ ! 5EMY ! RI<T ( DEF5SE IS 9ALI5ABLE4 8 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #b#c4 ,L\IS ,EGALITE1 ,DUKE ( ,ORLEANS4 

#e4 ,DIRECT ,LEGISLATION4 

,DIRECT LEGISLATION6 ,WILLY-NILLY1 WE HAVE GOT TO TAKE IT UP4 ,ROBESPI]RE1 QUOT$ BY ,L\IS ,BLANC1 CRIES 9 VA93 ,DO Y\ NOT SEE ?AT ?IS PROJECT 7! APPEAL TO ! PEOPLE7 T5DS ONLY TO DE/ROY ! ,CONV5TION ITSELF2 ?AT ! PRIM>Y ASSEMBLIES1 ONCE CONV5$1 W\LD BE =C$ BY POLITICAL 9TRIGUE & AGITATION TO DELIB]ATE UPON ALL ! PROPOSITIONS :I* MI<T S]VE !IR P]FIDI\S PURPOSES2 ?AT !Y W\LD QUE/ION EV5 ! PROCLAMATION ( ! ,REPUBLIC8 444 ,I CAN SEE 9 Y\R SY/EM NO?+ BUT A PROJECT TO DE/ROY ! WORK ( ! ,PEOPLE1 & TO RALLY ! 5EMIES ?AT HAVE BE5 OV]COME BY IT4 ,IF Y\ HAVE SU* A SCRUPUL\S REG>D = ITS SOV]EIGN WILL1 LE>N TO RESPECT IT2 FULFILL ! DUTIES :I* IT HAS CONFID$ TO Y\4 ,IT IS TRIFL+ ) ! MAJE/Y ( A SOV]EIGN TO REF] TO HIM BUS9ESS :I* HE HAS ORD]$ Y\ TO ATT5D TO4 ,IF ! ,PEOPLE HAD ! TIME TO ASSEMBLE TO JUDGE 9 TRIALS1 & TO DECIDE QUE/IONS ( ,/ATE1 !Y W\LD NOT HAVE 5TRU/$ TO Y\ ! C>E ( !IR 9T]E/S4 ,! ONLY WAY ( %[+ Y\R FIDELITY IS BY MAK+ JU/ LAWS1 NOT BY >\S+ CIVIL W>4 

,ROBESPI]RE DOES NOT CONV9CE ME AT ALL4 ,I P]CEIVE HIS DESPOTISM TOO PLA9LY4 ,IF ! PRIM>Y ASSEMBLIES1 SAYS HE1 W]E SUMMON$ TO JUDGE QUE/IONS ( ,/ATE1 ! ,CONV5TION W\LD BE DE/ROY$4 ,TRUE1 CLE>LY4 ,IF ! ,PEOPLE BECOME ! LEGISLATORS1 :AT NE$ = REPRES5TATIVES8 ,IF ! ,PEOPLE !MSELVES GOV]N1 :AT NE$ = M9I/]S8 ,IF WE GIVE !M ! CONTROL1 :AT BECOMES ( \R AU?ORITY8 444 ,ROBESPI]RE WAS ONE ( ?OSE :O BY PREA*+ RESPECT = ! ,CONV5TION1 )DREW ! PEOPLE FROM ! HABIT ( TAK+ P>T 9 PUBLIC AFFAIRS1 & PAV$ ! WAY = ! REACTION ( ,!RMIDOR4 ,TO MAKE HIMSELF HEAD ( ?IS REACTION1 HE HAD ONLY TO GUILLOT9E HIS COMPETITORS1 9/EAD ( FOOLI%LY ALL[+ HIMSELF TO BE GUILLOT9$ BY !M4 ,!N1 :ILE AWAIT+ ! 9V9CIBLE ,EMP]OR1 HE MI<T HAVE TAK5 HIS PLACE AS ONE ( A ,TRIUMVIRATE OR ,DIRECTORY4 ,!RE W\LD HAVE BE5 NO DIFF]5CE 9 ! FATE ( ! ,REPUBLIC2 !RE W\LD HAVE BE5 ONLY ONE MORE RECANTATION4 

,F9ALLY HE SAYS1 ! PEOPLE HAVE NOT TIME6 444 ,POSSIBLY4 ,BUT ?AT IS NO REASON :Y ,I %\LD TRU/ TO ,ROBESPI]RE4 ,I WI% TO DO MY [N B>GA9+1 ,I REPEAT1 &1 IF !RE MU/ BE LEGISLATION1 TO BE MY [N LEGISLATOR4 ,LET US BEG9 !N BY DISC>D+ ?IS 9TOL]ANT SOV]EIGNTY ( ! ,>RAS LAWY]2 !N1 :5 WE HAVE DULY BURI$ HIS !ORY1 WE COME TO ?AT ( ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS54 

,& :AT IS ?AT8 

,?AT WE %\LD B>GA9 ) EA* O!R1 9 PROPORTION TO \R NE$S1 DIRECTLY & )\T 9T]M$DL+8 ,NOT AT ALL4 ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS5 IS NOT AN 5EMY ( P[] TO ?AT EXT5T4 ,HE ONLY WI%ES 9/EAD ( US+ UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE = ! ELECTION ( LEGISLATORS1 TO USE IT = ! DIRECT 5ACTM5T ( UNI=M & IMP]SONAL LAWS4 ,SO IT REMA9S /ILL A CONTE/1 A MY/IFICATION4 

,I WILL NOT REPEAT1 9 RELATION TO ! APPLICATION ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE TO LEGISLATION1 ! OBJECTIONS ?AT HAVE ALWAYS BE5 MADE TO DELIB]ATIVE ASSEMBLIES2 = EXAMPLE1 ?AT1 AS A S+LE VOTE MAY MAKE A MAJORITY1 BY A S+LE VOTE ! LAW MAY BE PASS$4 ,IF ?IS VOTE GOES ONE WAY1 ! LEGISLATOR SAYS3 ,YES2 IF IT GOES ! O!R WAY1 HE SAYS3 ,NO4 ,?IS P>LIAM5T>Y ABSURDITY :I* IS ! MA9SPR+ ( ! POLITICAL MA*9E1 C>RI$ 9TO ! FIELD ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 W\LD UND\BT$LY BR+ T]RIBLE CONFLICTS1 ALON ) MON/R\S SC&ALS4 ,! ,PEOPLE1 AS A LEGISLATOR1 W\LD SOON BECOME DISCR$IT$1 & ODI\S TO ITSELF4 ,I LEAVE SU* OBJECTIONS TO PETTY CRITICS1 & 9SI/ ONLY UPON ! FUNDAM5TAL ]ROR1 & ! UNAVOIDABLE DECEPTION ATT5D+ ?IS SO-CALL$ DIRECT LEGISLATION4 

,:AT ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS5 IS 9 SE>* (1 AL?\< HE MAY NOT ALWAYS SAY SO1 IS ! G5]AL1 COLLECTIVE1 SYN!TIC1 9DIVISIBLE ,?\<T2 9 A WORD1 ! ,?\<T ( ! ,PEOPLE1 CONSID]$1 NOT AS A MULTITUDE1 NOR1 ON ! O!R H&1 AS A CREATURE ( ! IMAG9ATION1 BUT AS A SUP]IOR LIV+ BE+4 ,! !ORY ( ,R\SSEAU HIMSELF L$ TO ?IS VIEW4 ,:AT DID HE 9T5D2 :AT DO HIS DISCIPLES 9T5D1 BY ?IS TALK ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE & ( ! LAW ( ! MAJORITY8 ,!Y 9T5D TO APPROXIMATE1 AS F> AS POSSIBLE1 ! G5]AL1 9/9CTIVE FEEL+1 REG>D+ ! OP9ION ( ! GREAT] NUMB] AS AN ADEQUATE EXPRESSION ( ?AT FEEL+4 ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS5 SUPPOSES ?AT A VOTE UPON A LAW BY ALL ! PEOPLE WILL GIVE A CLOS] APPROXIMATION ?AN ! M]E VOTE ( A MAJORITY ( REPRES5TATIVES3 ALL ! ORIG9ALITY1 ALL ! MORALITY ( HIS !ORY LIES 9 ?IS HYPO!SIS4 

,BUT ?IS SUPPOSITION NECESS>ILY IMPLIES ANO!R1 TO WIT1 ?AT !RE IS 9 ! COLLECTIVITY ( ! ,PEOPLE SOME SPECIAL K9D ( ?\<T1 CAPABLE ( REPRES5T+ AT ONCE COLLECTIVE & 9DIVIDUAL 9T]E/S2 :I* CAN BE REA*$1 ) MORE OR LESS EXACTITUDE1 BY SOME SORT ( BALLOT+ PROCESS2 CONSEQU5TLY ?AT ! ,PEOPLE IS NOT ONLY A CREATURE ( ! M9D1 A P]SONIFICATION ( ?\<T1 AS ,R\SSEAU SAID1 BUT A TRUE P]SONALITY1 :I* HAS ITS [N REALITY1 ITS [N 9DIVIDUALITY1 ITS [N ESS5CE1 ITS [N LIFE1 ITS [N REASON+ P[]4 ,IF IT W]E NOT SO2 IF IT W]E NOT TRUE ?AT ! VOTE1 OR UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 W]E REG>D$ BY !IR P>TISANS AS GIV+ AN APPROXIMATE OP9ION SUP]IOR TO TRU?1 ON :AT1 ,I ASK1 W\LD RE/ ! OBLIGATION ( ! M9ORITY TO SUBMIT TO ! MAJORITY8 ,! IDEA ( ! REALITY & P]SONALITY ( ! ,COLLECTIVE ,BE+1 AN IDEA :I* ,R\SSEAU'S !ORY NEGATIVES FROM ! BEG9N+1 9 ! MO/ EXPRESS MANN]1 IS !N AT ! F\NDATIONS ( ?IS !ORY2 ALL ! MORE MU/ IT BE ( ?OSE :OSE AIM IS TO CAUSE ! ,PEOPLE TO TAKE P>T 9 ! MAK+ ( ! LAW MORE COMPLETELY & IMM$IATELY4 

,= ! PRES5T1 ,I %ALL NOT DWELL ON ! REALITY & P]SONALITY ( ! ,COLLECTIVE ,BE+1 AN IDEA :I* HAS NOT OCCURR$1 9 ITS FULLNESS1 TO ANY PHILOSOPH]1 UNTIL ! PRES5T DAY2 & :I* W\LD REQUIRE A BOOK AS BIG AS ?IS ONE TO EXPLA94 ,I CONF9E MYSELF TO OBSREV+ ?AT ?IS IDEA1 :I* ONLY EXPRESSES CONCRETELY ! SOV]EIGNTY ( ! HUMAN RACE1 ID5TICAL ) ! SOV]EIGNTY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 IS ! SECRET1 AL?\< UNADMITT$1 PR9CIPLE ( ALL SY/EMS ?AT CONSULT ! ,PEOPLE4 

,RETURN+ TO ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS51 ,I SAY TO HIM3 ,H[ CAN Y\ BELIEVE ?AT AN EXPRESSION ( OP9ION AT ONCE P>TICUL> & G5]AL1 COLLECTIVE & 9DIVIDUAL1 9 A WORD1 SYN!TIC1 CAN BE OBTA9$ BY BALLOT+1 :I* IS ! (FICIAL EXPRESSION ( DIV]SITY8 ,A HUNDR$ ?\S& VOICES S++ 9 UNISON W\LD H>DLY GIVE Y\ ! VAGUE FEEL+ ( ! ,POPUL> ,BE+4 ,BUT A HUNDR$ ?\S& VOICES ?AT W]E CONSULT$ 9DIVIDUALLY1 EA* ONE ANSW]+ ACCORD+ TO HIS [N OP9ION1--A HUNDR$ ?\S& VOICES S++ SEP>ATELY1 9 DIFF]5T KEYS1 C\LD ONLY GIVE A FRI<TFUL UPRO>2 & ! GREAT] ! NUMB] ( ! VOICES1 ! GREAT] ! CONFUSION4 ,ALL Y\ HAVE TO DO !N1 9 ORD] TO APPROXIMATE ! COLLECTIVE OP9ION1 :I* IS ! ESS5CE ( ! ,PEOPLE1 IS1 AFT] HAV+ GA!R$ ! REAL OP9IONS ( EV]Y CITIZ51 TO =M AN AB/RACT ( ALL !IR OP9IONS1 TO COMP>E !IR MOTIVES1 & !N R$UCE !M1 BY A MORE OR LESS EXACT 9DUCTION1 TO =M ! SYN!SIS1 :I* IS ! G5]AL OP9ION1 SUP]IOR TO 9DIVIDUAL OP9IONS1 :I* ALONE CAN BE ATTRIBUT$ TO ! PEOPLE4 ,BUT H[ LONG W\LD BE NE$$ = SU* AN OP]ATION8 ,:O W\LD UND]TAKE TO EXECUTE IT8 ,:O W\LD ANSW] = ! FIDELITY ( ! WORK1 & = ! C]TA9TY ( ! RESULT8 ,:AT LOGICIAN W\LD UND]TAKE TO DRAW FROM ?IS BALLOT BOX1 :I* CONTA9S ONLY DEAD A%ES1 ! LIV+ & LIFE-GIV+ G]M1 ! ,POPUL> ,IDEA8 

,EVID5TLY1 SU* A PROBLEM IS 9EXTRICABLE1 9SOLUBLE4 ,MOREOV]1 ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS51 AFT] BR++ =W>D ! F9E/ MAXIMS UPON ! 9ALI5ABLE RI<T ( ! PEOPLE TO LEGISLATE !IR [N LAWS1 5DS1 LIKE ALL POLITICAL OP]ATIONS1 BY JUGGL+ ! QUE/ION4 ,! PEOPLE >E NOT TO PROPOSE ! QUE/IONS3 ! GOV]NM5T IS TO DO ?AT4 ,ONLY TO QUE/IONS PROPOS$ BY ! GOV]NM5T1 ! PEOPLE MAY ANSW] ,YES OR ,NO1 LIKE A *ILD 9 ! CATE*ISM4 ,! PEOPLE WILL NOT EV5 HAVE A *ANCE TO MAKE AM5DM5TS4 

,?US IT MU/ BE 9 ?IS SY/EM ( DISCORDANT LEGISLATION IF ANY?+ IS TO BE OBTA9$ FROM ! MULTITUDE4 ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS5 RECOGNIZES ?IS FRANKLY4 ,HE ADMITS ?AT IF ! PEOPLE1 ASSEMBL$ 9 MEET+1 HAD ! P[] ( AM5D+ QUE/IONS1 OR1 :AT IS /ILL MORE IMPORTANT1 ( PROPOS+ !M1 DIRECT LEGISLATION W\LD BE ONLY A ,UTOPIA4 ,TO MAKE ?IS K9D ( LEGISLATION PRACTICABLE1 IT IS NECESS>Y ?AT ! SOV]EIGN %\LD HAVE TO DECIDE ON BUT ONE ALT]NATIVE1 :I* !RE=E %\LD EMBRACE 9 ONE ( ITS T]MS1 ALL ! TRU?1 NO?+ BUT ! TRU?2 9 ! O!R1 ALL ]ROR1 NO?+ BUT ]ROR4 ,IF ONE OR ! O!R ( ! TWO T]MS CONTA9$ MORE OR LESS ?AN TRU?1 MORE OR LESS ?AN ]ROR1 ! SOV]EIGN1 DECEIV$ BY HIS M9I/]'S QUE/ION1 W\LD 9EVITABLY ANSW] FOOLI%LY4 

,BUT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE 9 UNIV]SAL QUE/IONS1 EMBRAC+ ! 9T]E/S ( A :OLE PEOPLE1 EV] TO >RIVE AT A RIGOR\S DILEMMA1 :I* MEANS ?AT1 NO MATT] H[ ! QUE/ION IS PUT TO ! PEOPLE1 !Y >E ALMO/ SURE TO VOTE WRONGLY4 

,LET ME GIVE SOME EXAMPLES4 

,SUPPOSE ?AT ! QUE/ION IS3 ,%ALL ! GOV]NM5T BE DIRECT OR 9DIRECT8 

,AFT] ! SUCCESS :I* ! IDEAS ( ,MESSRS4 ,RITT+HAUS5 & ,CONSID]ANT WILL HAVE OBTA9$ 9 ! DEMOCRACY1 IT MAY BE PRESUM$1 ALMO/ ) C]TA9TY1 ?AT ! ANSW]1 BY AN IMM5SE MAJORITY1 WILL BE DIRECT4 ,BUT :E!R ! GOV]NM5T BE DIRECT OR 9DIRECT1 IT REMA9S AT ! BOTTOM1 ! SAME2 ONE IS AS BAD AS ! O!R4 ,IF ! PEOPLE ANSW]1 9DIRECT1 !Y ABDICATE2 IF !Y ANSW]1 DIRECT1 !Y /RANGLE !MSELVES4 ,:AT DO Y\ SAY ( ?IS RESULT8 

,ANO!R QUE/ION4 

,%ALL !RE BE TWO P[]S 9 ! GOV]NM5T1 OR %ALL !RE BE ONLY ONE8 ,9 CLE>] T]MS1 ,%ALL A ,PRESID5T BE ELECT$8 

,9 ! PRES5T /ATE ( M9D1 NO ONE D\BTS ?AT ! ANSW]1 9SPIR$ BY REPUBLICANISM ?AT DEEMS ITSELF ADVANC$1 W\LD BE NEGATIVE4 ,BUT1 AS EV]YBODY KN[S :O IS 5GAG$ 9 GOV]NM5TAL ORGANIZATION1 9 ?US CONC5TRAT+ ALL P[] 9 A S+LE ASSEMBLY1 ! PEOPLE W\LD BE FALL+ \T ( ! FRY+ PAN 9TO ! FIRE4 ,! QUE/ION NEV]!LESS SEEM$ SO SIMPLE4 

,%ALL TAXATION BE PROPORTIONAL OR PROGRESSIVE8 

,AT SOME O!R P]IOD1 ! PROPORTIONAL W\LD APPE> TO BE ! NATURE ?+3 TODAY1 ! PREF]5CE HAS *ANG$1 & IT W\LD BE A HUNDR$ TO ONE ?AT ! PEOPLE W\LD *OOSE ! PROGRESSIVE TAX4 ,9 EI!R CASE1 ! SOV]EIGN PEOPLE W\LD COMMIT AN 9JU/ICE4 ,IF ! TAX IS PROPORTIONAL1 LABOR IS SACRIFIC$2 IF PROGRESSIVE1 TAL5T4 ,9 EI!R CASE1 PUBLIC 9T]E/ IS 9JUR$1 & 9DIVIDUAL 9T]E/ SUFF]S4 ,ECONOMIC SCI5CE1 SUP]IOR TO ALL BALLOTS1 TEA*ES ?IS4 ,YET ! QUE/ION SEEM$ ONE ( ! MO/ ELEM5T>Y4 

,I MI<T MULTIPLY EXAMPLES TO 9F9ITY2 ,I PREF] TO CITE TWO GIV5 BY ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS51 :O NATURALLY ?\<T !M SUFFICI5TLY EXPLICIT & CONV9C+4 

,%ALL !RE BE A RAILROAD FROM ,LYONS TO ,AVIGNON8 

,! PEOPLE SURELY WILL NOT SAY1 NO2 S9CE !IR GREATE/ DESIRE IS TO PLACE ,FRANCE ON A P> ) ,BELGIUM & ,5GL&1 BY %ORT5+ DI/ANCES & BY FO/]+ ! TRANSPORTATION ( M5 & GOODS AS F> AS POSSIBLE4 ,!Y WILL !N VOTE1 YES1 AS ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS5 =ESAW4 ,?IS YES MAY 9VOLVE A S]I\S MI/AKE2 9 ANY CASE1 LOCAL RI<TS >E 9FR+$4 

,!RE IS BETWE5 ,*ALONS & ,AVIGNON A NAVIGABLE R\TE :I* (F]S TRANSPORTATION #g P]C5T BEL[ RAILROAD RATES4 ,?IS *>GE CAN BE FUR!R L[]$1 ,I HAPP5 TO KN[1 TO #i P]C5T BEL[4 ,9/EAD ( BUILD+ A RAILROAD1 AT A CO/ ( #d MILLION DOLL>S1 :Y NOT USE ?IS WAT] R\TE1 CO/+ ALMO/ NO?+8 444 ,BUT IT IS NOT ?US UND]/OOD AT ! ,LEGISLATIVE ,*AMB]1 :]E !RE IS NO COMMISSION]2 & AS ! PEOPLE ( ,FRANCE1 ) ! EXCEPTION ( ?OSE :O LIVE ALONG ! ,RHONE & ! ,SAONE1 KN[ NO MORE ?AN !IR REPRES5TATIVES1 :AT GOES ON UPON ! TWO RIV]S1 !Y WILL DECIDE1 IT IS EASY TO =ESEE1 NOT ACCORD+ TO !IR [N OP9ION1 BUT ACCORD+ TO ! WI%ES ( !IR DEPUTIES4 ,EI<TY-TWO DEP>TM5TS WILL S5T5CE TO RU9 ! F\R O!RS4 ,SU* IS DIRECT LEGISLATION4 

,:O %ALL BUILD ! RAILROAD1 ! ,/ATE OR A /OCK COMPANY8 

,9 #a#h#d#i1 COMPANIES W]E 9 FAVOR4 ,! PEOPLE SUBSCRIB$ TO !IR SAV+S2 ,M4 ,>AGO1 A TRUE REPUBLICAN1 VOT$ = !M4 ,!Y DID NOT KN[ !N :AT COMPANIES W]E4 ,! ,/ATE IS ! *OICE N[ADAYS3 ! PEOPLE1 ALWAYS WELL 9/RUCT$1 W\LD UND\BT$LY GIVE IT ! PREF]5CE4 ,:I*EV] C\RSE ! SOV]EIGN LEGISLATOR TAKES1 HE IS ! PUPPET ( ! AMBITI\S ( ONE K9D OR ANO!R4 ,) A COMPANY1 L[ PRICE IS SACRIFIC$2 COMM]CE IS UND] TOLL2 ) ! ,/ATE1 LABOR IS NO LONG] FREE4 ,IT IS ! SY/EM ( ,MEHEMET-,ALI APPLI$ TO TRANSPORTATION4 ,:AT DIFF]5CE TO ! ,C\NTRY1 :E!R ! RAILROADS FATT5 C]TA9 CONTRACTORS1 OR FURNI% S9ECURES = ! FRI5DS ( ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS58 ,:AT IS REALLY NE$$ W\LD BE TO MAKE ( ! RAILROADS A NEW K9D ( PROP]TY1 TO P]FECT ! LAW ( #aha RELAT+ TO M9ES1 & MAKE IT APPLICABLE TO RAILROADS1 GRANT+ ! PRIVILEGE ( RUNN+ !M1 UND] FIX$ CONDITIONS1 TO RESPONSIBLE COMPANIES1 NOT ( CAPITALI/S1 BUT ( WORKM54 ,BUT DIRECT LEGISLATION WILL NEV] GO SO F> AS TO EMANCIPATE A MAN3 ITS =MULA IS G5]AL2 IT 5SLAVES EV]YBODY4 

,H[ %ALL ! ,/ATE BUILD ! RAILROAD8 ,%ALL IT RAISE ! MONEY NE$$ BY TAXATION8 ,%ALL IT BORR[ FROM ! BANK]S AT #h OR #a P]C5T1 OR %ALL IT ISSUE CIRCULAT+ NOTES1 SECUR$ BY ! RAILROAD ITSELF8 

,ANSW]3 ,LET IT ISSUE CIRCULAT+ NOTES4 

,I ASK P>DON ( ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS52 ! SOLUTION :I* HE GIVES H]E 9 ! NAME ( ! PEOPLE1 IS NOT WOR? AS MU* AS IT W\LD SEEM4 ,IT MAY V]Y WELL HAPP51 & 9DE$ IS V]Y LIKELY1 ?AT ! CIRCULAT+ NOTES WILL LOSE #e1 #a1 #ae & MORE P]C5T DISC\NT2 SO ?AT HIS ME?OD MAY PROVE MORE BURD5SOME = ! PEOPLE ?AN EI!R TAXATION OR LOANS4 ,AGA91 :AT DIFF]5CE DOES IT MAKE TO ! PEOPLE1 :E!R !Y PAY USURI\S 9T]E/ TO ! BANK]S1 OR PR(ITS TO GOV]NM5T AG5TS1 :O COME 9 ON ! GR\ND FLOOR8 

,%ALL ! ,/ATE FURNI% GRATUIT\S TRANSPORTATION1 OR %ALL IT D]IVE A REV5UE FROM ! RAILROAD8 

,IF ! PEOPLE DEM& GRATUIT\S TRANSPORTATION1 !Y DECEIVE !MSELVES1 = ALL S]VICES MU/ BE PAID =4 ,IF ! PEOPLE DECIDE ?AT ! ,/ATE %ALL D]IVE A REV5UE1 !Y NEGLECT !IR [N 9T]E/S1 S9CE PUBLIC S]VICE %\LD BE )\T PR(ITS4 ,! QUE/ION IS NOT PROP]LY PHRAS$4 ,IT %\LD BE3 ,%ALL ! *>GE = TRANSPORTATION BE EQUAL TO ! CO/ OR NOT8 ,BUT AS ! CO/ CONT9UALLY V>IES1 & AS SPECIAL 9VE/IGATION & LEGISLATION W\LD BE NECESS>Y 9 ORD] TO FOLL[ IT1 IT IS CLE> ?AT ON ?IS PO9T1 AS ON ! RE/1 ! PEOPLE'S ANSW] W\LD BE NOT A LAW BUT A BLUND]4 

,IS IT CLE> ?AT DIRECT LEGISLATION CAN BE NO?+ BUT CONT9UAL TRICK]Y8 ,( A HUNDR$ QUE/IONS PROPOS$ TO ! ,PEOPLE BY ! ,GOV]NM5T1 N9ETY-N9E WILL BE 9 LIKE CASE ) ! =EGO+2 & ! REASON IS1 ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS51 AS A LOGICIAN1 CANNOT IGNORE IT1 ?AT ! QUE/IONS PROPOS$ TO ! PEOPLE WILL USUALLY BE SPECIAL QUE/IONS1 :ILE UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE CAN GIVE ONLY G5]AL REPLIES4 ,! R\T9E LEGISLATOR1 =C$ TO YIELD TO ! DILEMMA1 IS UNABLE TO MODIFY HIS =MULA1 ACCORD+ TO ! REQUIREM5TS ( PLACE1 TIME & CIRCUM/ANCES2 ! ANSW]1 CALCULAT$ BE=EH& FROM ! FANCIES ( ! PUBLIC1 WILL BE KN[N 9 ADVANCE1 &1 :ATEV] IT MAY BE1 WILL ALWAYS BE A MI/AKE4 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #b#d4 #b#g? ( ,JULY1 #a#g#i#d1 BY :I* ,ROBESPI]RE HIMSELF WAS OV]?R[N4 8 

#f4 ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T OR ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 ,R$UCTION TO ,ABSURDITY ( ! ,GOV]NM5TAL ,IDEA4 

,! POSITION :I* ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL9 HAS TAK5 9 ?IS CONTROV]SY IS REM>KABLE4 ,IF ,I UND]/& HIS ?\<T1 HE WANT$1 FIR/1 TO RE/ORE ! ORIG9AL IDEA ( DIRECT GOV]NM5T ( ! AU?ORS ( ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 & 9 ! SECOND PLACE1 TO %[1 AT ! SAME TIME1 ?AT ?IS ,CON/ITUTION1 :I* WAS ! CULM9ATION ( DEMOCRATIC PROCESS1 REA*ES1 IF IT DOES NOT PASS1 ! LIMITS ( POSSIBILITY2 F9ALLY1 TO DI/RACT ATT5TION FROM ! EMPTY CURIOSITIES ( UTOPIAS1 & TO FIX IT AGA9 UPON ! AU!NTIC L9E ( ! ,REVOLUTION4 

,IT CO/S ME NO?+ TO RECOGNIZE ?AT 9 ?IS ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL9 HAS %[N HIMSELF MORE LIB]AL ?AN ,M4 ,L\IS ,BLANC1 :O IS AN 9FLEXIBLE FOLL[] ( ,ROBESPI]RE'S GOV]NM5TALISM2 & MORE 9TELLIG5T 9 POLITICAL MATT]S ?AN ,MESSRS4 ,CONSID]ANT & ,RITT+HAUS51 :OSE !ORY1 5TR5*$ 9 ! IMPOSSIBLE1 HAS NOT EV5 ! M]IT ( FRANK & IRREPROA*ABLE LOGIC4 

,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL91 P]SONIFY+ ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 SEEMS TO BE A LIV+ PROBLEM1 :I* SAYS TO ! ,PEOPLE3 ,Y\ MAY NOT /OP %ORT ( IT1 BUT Y\ MU/ NOT GO BEYOND IT4 ,& IT MU/ BE ADMITT$1 ?IS E/IMATE ( ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c IS CORRECT4 

,BUT ,I CONCLUDE ?AT ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 COMPIL$ BY ! MO/ LIB]AL SPIRITS ( ! ,CONV5TION1 IS A MONUM5T RAIS$ BY \R FA!RS AS A WITNESS AGA9/ POLITICAL RULE2 ?AT WE %\LD SEE 9 IT A LESSON1 NOT A PROGRAM1 & TAKE IT = A PO9T ( DEP>TURE1 NOT AS AN AIM TO BE REA*$4 ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL9 IS A MAN ( PROGRESS2 HE CANNOT REFUSE TO ADMIT A CONCLUSION :I* TAKES ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c AS ! LATE/ EXPRESSION ( GOV]NM5TAL PRACTICE2 & FROM ?IS AS A />T+ PO9T1 RISES 9TO A HI<] SPH]E1 & COMPLETELY *ANGES ! REVOLUTION>Y FIELD4 

,FROM ?IS PO9T ( VIEW ,I %ALL TRY TO %[ UNMI/AKABLE1 BY A F9AL PRO(1 ! ABSOLUTE 9COMPATIBILITY ( ,P[] ) ,LIB]TY1 SUMM+ UP1 9 A S+LE PROPOSITION1 ALL MY REM>KS UPON ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 & UPON ! COMM5TS ON IT REC5TLY ADD$ BY ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL94 

,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL9 HAS P]CEIV$ V]Y CLE>LY ?AT ) ! 5ORM\S RE/RICTION PLAC$ UPON ! POPUL> PR]OGATIVE1 BY RES]V+ TO ! ,GOV]NM5T ! RI<T ( PROPOS+ QUE/IONS :I* ! PEOPLE MAY ONLY ANSW]1 DIRECT LEGISLATION IS BUT A PU]ILE & IMMORAL MY/IFICATION4 ,REF]R+ AGA9 TO ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 HE SAID1 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! GOOD S5SE ( AGES3 ,! ,PEOPLE %\LD PASS UPON ONLY ! MO/ G5]AL QUE/IONS3 MATT]S ( DETAIL %\LD BE LEFT TO ! M9I/]S & ! ,ASSEMBLY4 

,! DI/9CTION1 SAID HE HAS BE5 JU/LY MADE BETWE5 ,LAWS & ,DECREES3 ! L9E ( DEM>CATION IS EASY TO PRES]VE1 :ATEV] MAY BE SAID TO ! CONTR>Y4 

,NO D\BT 9 PRACTICE1 & :5 FUNDAM5TAL PO9TS ( PUBLIC RI<T >E 9 QUE/ION1 ! PEOPLE CAN ALWAYS DECIDE2 & IT WAS ?US UND]/OOD BY ! AU?ORS ( ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c4 ,BUT 9 !ORY1 :]E PRECISE DI/9CTIONS >E WANT$1 IT IS QUITE O!RWISE2 9 SU* MATT]S ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c SEEMS TO CONSECRATE A USURPATION4 ,=1 AS ,L\IS ,BLANC OBS]VES1 :5 Y\R #c#g1 T[N%IPS CAN VOTE UPON ! LAW1 BY :AT RI<T DO Y\ TAKE FROM !M ! P[] TO DET]M9E :AT IS A LAW4 ,BY :AT RI<T DO Y\ IMPOSE ON !M DECREES :I* !Y W\LD NOT RECOGNIZE AS SU*1 :I* MI<T V]Y WELL ALL[ ! OLD TYRANNY TO CONT9UE TO EXI/ UND] ANO!R NAME8 

,! ,PACIFIC ,DEMOCRACY1 ! ORGAN ( ,M4 ,CONSID]ANT1 IS EV5 MORE EXPLICIT4 ,5\< PRIMORDIAL PR9CIPLES >E F\ND =MULAT$ 9 ALL CON/ITUTIONS1 9 ALL ! FUNDAM5TAL LAWS ( ,EUROPE4 ,!Y >E FIX$1 AS A :OLE1 BY ! LAWS1 BUT !Y >E UPSET1 RU9$ 9 DETAIL BY :AT Y\ CALL DECREES4 ,TO 9TRODUCE Y\R SY/EM IS TO HAVE LIB]TY ( ! PRESS PROCLAIM$ BY ! PEOPLE1 9 ORD] TO HAVE IT DE/ROY$ BY P>LIAM5T>Y DECREES UPON ! SALE ( NEWSPAP]S1 UPON /AMPS1 UPON PR9T]S' LIC5SES1 UPON ALL ! AP>ATUS ( REPRESSION ?AT IS =G$ 9 LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES4 ,IT IS TO HAVE UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE ACCLAIM$ BY ! ,PEOPLE1 9 ORD] !REUPON TO HAVE ! VILE MULTITUDE EXCLUD$ BY A M&ATORY DECREE3 IT IS TO HAVE ! RI<TS ( MAN PUBLI%$ BY ! ,PEOPLE1 9 ORD] %ORTLY AFT]W>DS TO HAVE A /ATE ( SIEGE E/ABLI%$ BY A DECISION ( ! ,*AMB]2 & ?AT TOO UND] A PRETEXT ( SAV+ ! C\NTRY & CIVILIZATION4 444 ,H[1 TOO1 WILL Y\ PREV5T A CONFLICT ( JURISDICTION BETWE5 Y\R TWO LEGISLATIVE P[]S1 A CONFLICT ( JURISDICTION :I* ! NATURAL ANTAGONISM ( Y\R REPRES5TATIVES 7& ! 9/9CT ( RESI/ANCE :I* IS NATURAL TO ! MASSES7 WILL NOT FAIL TO >\SE EV]Y MOM5T8 444 

,!SE CONSID]ATIONS HAVE !IR M]IT2 NEV]!LESS1 ) A ,CON/ITUTION LIKE ?AT ( '#i#c1 ,I DO NOT BELIEVE1 ,I REPEAT1 ?AT !Y >E WOR? MU* EXCEPT 9 !ORY4 ,H]E IS SOME?+ ?AT SEEMS TO ME TO BE> UPON ! FACTS MORE DIRECTLY4 

,! DI/9CTION BETWE5 LAWS & DECREES1 FOLL[$ BY ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c & BY ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL91 IS ESS5TIALLY ?AT BETWE5 ! ,LEGISLATIVE & ,EXECUTIVE ,P[]S1 AFT] ! RULE LAID D[N BY ,R\SSEAU4 

,! LAW BE+ BUT ! DECL>ATION ( ! G5]AL WILL1 IT IS CLE> ?AT ! ,PEOPLE CANNOT BE REPRES5T$ 9 ! LEGISLATIVE P[]1 BUT !Y CAN & %\LD BE REPRES5T$ 9 ! EXECUTIVE P[]1 :I* IS ONLY =CE APPLI$ TO ! LAW4 

,?R\< ?IS PR9CIPLE ( ,R\SSEAU'S1 UND] ! ,*>T]S ( #ahad & #a#h#c1 :ILE ! LEGISLATIVE P[] RESID$ 9 ! ,K+ & ! TWO ,*AMB]S1 ! EXECUTIVE P[] BELONG$ TO ! ,K+ ALONE1 :O ?US BECAME1 BY ,R\SSEAU'S RULE1 ! S+LE1 TRUE REPRES5TATIVE ( ! ,C\NTRY4 

,BUT BE=E MAK+ ANY DI/9CTION BETWE5 LAWS & DECREES1 & BE=E ASSIGN+ ! =M] TO ! ,PEOPLE1 ! LATT] TO ! ,GOV]NM5T1 IT IS NECESS>Y1 9 ! OP9ION ( ALL DEMOCRATIC M9DS1 TO PUT ! FOLL[+ PRELIM9>Y QUE/ION TO ! ,PEOPLE3 

,%ALL ! SEP>ATION ( P[]S BE A CONDITION ( ,GOV]NM5T8 

,?AT IS TO SAY3 

,%ALL ! ,PEOPLE BE REPRES5T$ 9 ! ,EXECUTIVE BRAN* ( ! ,GOV]NM5T1 SEE+ ?AT IT CANNOT BE REPRES5T$ 9 ! ,LEGISLATIVE BRAN*8 

,9 O!R T]MS3 

,%ALL !RE BE A ,PRESID5T OR NOT8 

,I DEFY ANYBODY 9 ! :OLE DEMOCRACY TO ANSW] AFFIRMATIVELY4 ,SO IF Y\ WANT NEI!R A ,PRESID5T1 NOR A ,CONSUL1 NOR ,TRIUMVIRS1 NOR ,DIRECTORS1 NOR A ,K+1 NOR1 DESPITE ! ORACLE ( ,R\SSEAU1 ANY ,REPRES5TATIVE = ! ,EXECUTIVE ,P[]1 ( :AT USE IS Y\R DI/9CTION BETWE5 LAWS & DECREES8 ! ,PEOPLE MU/ VOTE ON EV]Y?+1 LAWS & DECREES BO? 9CLUD$1 AS ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS5 WI%ES4 ,BUT ?IS IS :AT WE HAVE %[N IS IMPOSSIBLE4 ,DIRECT ,LEGISLATION IS BURI$4 ,WE NE$ NOT RETURN TO IT4 

,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL91 OR RA!R ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 ?\<T TO GET >\ND ! DIFFICULTY BY SAY+1 ) ,CONDORCET1 ?AT ! ,EXECUTIVE ,P[] %\LD BE *OS5 NOT BY ! ,PEOPLE1 :O >E 9CAPABLE ( *OOS+1 BUT BY ! ,ASSEMBLY4 

,I ASK P>DON ( ,CONDORCET4 ,:AT6 Y\ BEG9 BY SAY+ ?AT ! ,PEOPLE CAN & MU/ BE REPRES5T$ 9 ! ,EXECUTIVE BRAN*1 BUT :5 ! QUE/ION COMES ( SELECT+ ?IS ,REPRES5TATIVE ( ! ,PEOPLE1 9/EAD ( HAV+ HIM ELECT$ DIRECTLY BY ! CITIZ5S1 Y\ WANT TO HAVE HIM NAM$ BY !IR DEPUTIES8 ,?IS IS TAK+ AWAY FROM ! ,PEOPLE ! BE/ HALF ( ! ,GOV]NM5T2 = ! ,EXECUTIVE IS MORE ?AN HALF ! ,GOV]NM5T2 IT IS1 9DE$1 ! :OLE ,GOV]NM5T4 ,AFT] RELIEV+ ! ,PEOPLE ( ALL LEGISLATIVE DUTIES1 Y\ W\LD PLACE UPON !M ! RESPONSIBILITY = EV]Y ACT ( ,P[]1 PRET5D+ ?AT IT IS BUT ! APPLICATION ( !IR [N LAWS4 ,Y\ SEEM TO SAY TO ! ,PEOPLE1 ! ,SOV]EIGN1 ,LEGISLATOR1 & ,JUDGE3 ,TALK1 DECIDE1 LEGISLATE1 VOTE1 COMM&6 ,WE1 Y\R DEPUTIES1 *>GE \RSELVES ) ! 9T]PRETATION & AFT]W>DS ) ! EXECUTION ( Y\R ORD]S4 ,BUT :ATEV] WE DO1 Y\ >E RESPONSIBLE4 ,QUIDQUID DIX]IS1 >GUM5TABIMUR4 

,IF ,M4 ,L$RU-,ROLL9 MADE A MI/AKE1 IT WAS 9 CALL+ ?IS ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T1 AFT] ! EXAMPLE ( ,M4 ,CONSID]ANT4 

,9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 IF ! ,PEOPLE1 9/EAD ( ANSW]+ YES OR NO1 ON ALL AFFAIRS ( ,/ATE1 AS ,M4 ,RITT+HAUS5 WI%$1 CAN PRON\NCE UPON ! LAWS ONLY1 N9E-T5?S ( ALL QUE/IONS >E REMOV$ FROM !IR 9ITIATIVE1 UND] ! NAME ( DECREES4 

,9 ! SECOND PLACE1 ! :OLE ,EXECUTIVE P[] IS SNAT*$ FROM !M3 NOT ONLY MAY !Y NOT MAKE ANY APPO9TM5TS1 !Y MAY NOT EV5 ELECT !IR ,REPRES5TATIVE1 :O MAKES APPO9TM5TS = !M4 

,AS ! CLIMAX ( ?IS CONTRADICTION1 ! SAID ,REPRES5TATIVE IS ELECT$ BY ! ,PEOPLE'S DEPUTIES1 SO ?AT ! ,PEOPLE :O \<T NOT TO HAVE ANY REPRES5TATIVE1 NOR DELEGATE ANY P[]1 :OSE DIRECT SOV]EIGNTY1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 %\LD REMA9 9 P]MAN5T EX]CISE1 ! ,PEOPLE W\LD F9D ?AT !Y HAVE LESS AU?ORITY ?AN !IR DEPUTIES1 & BE =C$ TO RECOGNIZE1 AS !IR ,REPRES5TATIVE 9 ! EXECUTIVE P[]1 ONE OR MORE 9DIVIDUALS1 :OSE TITLE HAD BE5 DECRE$ BY !IR DEPUTIES 9 ! LEGISLATIVE BRAN*6 444 

,I SAY NO MORE1 BUT ,I ASK ALL HONE/ M51 :E!R ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 :I* PROMISES EV]Y?+ TO ! ,PEOPLE & GIVES !M NO?+1 /&+ AT ! EXTREME LIMIT ( ! RATIONAL & ! REAL1 DOES NOT SEEM TO !M A BEACON1 ]ECT$ BY \R FA!RS AT ! 5TRANCE ( A NEW WORLD1 RA!R ?AN A PLAN = ! FUTURE1 :]E( !Y CONFID$ ! EXECUTION TO !IR DESC5DANTS8 

,I DISMISS ! MORE ADVANC$ SY/EMS1 :I* CANNOT FAIL TO >ISE1 FOLL[+ ?OSE ( ,MESSRS4 ,RITT+HAUS5 & ,L$RU-,ROLL92 IT W\LD BE TOO T$I\S TO BEG9 A LIKE CRITICISM ON EA* ( !SE2 ,I PASS TO ! F9AL HYPO!SIS4 

,?IS IS ONE 9 :I* ! ,PEOPLE1 RETURN+ TO ABSOLUTE P[]1 & TAK+ !MSELVES1 AS A :OLE1 AS !IR [N ,DESPOT1 9 CONSEQU5CE DEAL ) !MSELVES3 9 :I* !RE=E !Y W\LD1 AS IS PROP]1 HOLD ALL PRIVILEGES1 UNITE 9 !IR [N P]SON ALL P[]S1 LEGISLATIVE1 EXECUTIVE1 JUDICIAL1 & O!RS1 IF !RE >E ANY O!RS2 9 :I* !Y W\LD MAKE ALL LAWS1 PRON\NCE ALL DECREES1 ORD9ANCES1 RESOLUTIONS1 S5T5CES1 JUDGM5TS1 S5D \T ALL ORD]S1 TAKE *>GE !MSELVES ( ALL !IR AG5TS & FUNCTION>IES1 FROM ! HI<E/ TO ! L[E/ ( ! HI]>*Y1 TRANSMIT TO !M !IR WILL1 DIRECTLY & )\T 9T]M$I>IES1 SUP]VISE & SECURE !IR EXECUTION1 LAY+ ON EA* HIS %>E ( RESPONSIBILITY1 !MSELVES AW>D ALL 5D[M5TS1 CIVIL LI/S1 P5SIONS1 REW>DS2 9 FACT1 W\LD 5JOY1 AS K+ 9 FACT & ( RI<T1 ALL ! HONORS & ADVANTAGES ( SOV]EIGNTY1 P[]1 MONEY1 PLEASURE1 LEISURE1 ETC4 

,I TRY AS MU* AS ,I CAN1 TO 9FUSE A LITTLE LOGIC 9TO ?IS SY/EM1 :I* IS \R LA/ HOPE1 & :I*1 9 CLE>NESS1 SIMPLICITY1 RIGOR ( PR9CIPLES1 SEV]ITY 9 !IR APPLICATION1 & = DEMOCRATIC & LIB]AL RADICALISM LEAVES F> BEH9D IT ! TIMID1 5TANGL$1 HALF-WAY PROJECTS ( ,H]AUT1 ,SE*ELLES1 ,CONSID]ANT1 ,RITT+HAUS51 ,L\IS ,BLANC1 ,ROBESPI]RE1 & !IR CONSORTS4 

,UN=TUNATELY1 ?IS SY/EM1 IRREPROA*ABLE1 ,I V5TURE TO SAY1 AS A :OLE & 9 DETAIL1 MEETS ) AN 9SURM\NTABLE DIFFICULTY 9 PRACTICE4 

,IT IS ?AT ,GOV]NM5T IMPLIES AS A CORRELATIVE SOMEBODY TO BE GOV]N$2 & IF ! :OLE ,PEOPLE1 CLAIM+ SOV]EIGNTY1 ASSUMES ,GOV]NM5T1 ONE SEEKS 9 VA9 :]E ! GOV]N$ WILL BE4 ,REMEMB]1 ! AIM ( GOV]NM5T IS NOT TO H>MONIZE ANTAGONI/IC 9T]E/S1 IT ADMITS ?AT IT IS QUITE 9COMPET5T TO DO ?IS2 BUT TO KEEP ORD] 9 SOCIETY1 DESPITE ! CONFLICT ( 9T]E/S4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! OBJECT ( GOV]NM5T IS TO SUPPLY ! DEFECTS ( ! ECONOMIC ORD] & ! LACK ( 9DU/RIAL H>MONY4 ,!RE=E IF ! PEOPLE1 9 ! 9T]E/ ( !IR LIB]TY & SOV]EIGNTY1 TAKE *>GE ( GOV]NM5T1 !Y CAN NO LONG] BUSY !MSELVES ) PRODUCTION1 S9CE BY ! NATURE ( ?+S PRODUCTION & GOV]NM5T >E 9COMPATIBLE FUNCTIONS1 & TO 5DEAVOR TO UNITE !M W\LD BE TO SPREAD DIVISION EV]Y:]E4 ,ONCE MORE !N1 :]E WILL ! PRODUC]S BE1 :]E ! GOV]N$1 :]E ! SUBJECTS1 :]E ! CRIM9ALS1 :]E ! CONDEMN$8 

,:5 WE W]E A MON>*Y1 ABSOLUTE OR MODIFI$1 ! ,GOV]NM5T BE+ ! ,K+1 ! CORRELATIVE WAS ! ,NATION4 -- ,WE DID NOT LIKE ?IS GOV]NM5T2 WE ACCUS$ IT1 NOT )\T REASON1 ( CORRUPTION & LIC5TI\SNESS4 

,:5 WE W]E A CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*Y1 ! ,GOV]NM5T BE+ COMPOS$ ( ! ,K+ & ! TWO ,*AMB]S1 BO? ( !M =M$ AFT] SOME FA%ION BY H]$ITY1 BY ! *OICE ( ! ,K+1 OR FROM A C]TA9 CLASS ( ! NATION1 ! CORRELATIVE WAS ALL ?AT TOOK NO P>T 9 ! OP]ATION ( ! GOV]NM5T2 !SE W]E1 9 DIFF]+ DEGREES1 AN IMM5SE MAJORITY ( ! NATION4 -- ,WE HAVE *ANG$ ALL ?AT1 NOT )\T REASON1 ! ,GOV]NM5T HAV+ BECOME A CANC] ON ! PEOPLE4 

,AT PRES5T WE >E A QUASI-DEMOCRATIC ,REPUBLIC3 ALL ! CITIZ5S >E P]MITT$1 EV]Y ?IRD OR F\R? YE>1 TO ELECT1 FIR/1 ! ,LEGISLATIVE ,P[]1 SECOND1 ! ,EXECUTIVE ,P[]4 ,! DURATION ( ?IS P>TICIPATION 9 ! ,GOV]NM5T = ! POPUL> COLLECTIVITY IS BRIEF2 =TY-EI<T H\RS AT ! MO/ = EA* ELECTION4 ,= ?IS REASON ! CORRELATIVE ( ! ,GOV]NM5T REMA9S NE>LY ! SAME AS BE=E1 ALMO/ ! :OLE ,C\NTRY4 ,! ,PRESID5T & ! ,REPRES5TATIVES1 ONCE ELECT$1 >E ! MA/]S2 ALL ! RE/ OBEY4 ,!Y >E SUBJECTS1 TO BE GOV]N$ & TO BE TAX$1 )\T SURCEASE4 

,:51 9 ?IS SAME SY/EM1 ! ,PRESID5T & ! ,REPRES5TATIVES W]E ELECT$ EV]Y YE>1 & SUBJECT TO RECALL AT ALL TIMES1 ! CORRELATION WAS FELT TO BE BUT LITTLE DIFF]5T4 ,SOME DAYS MORE = ! MASS1 SOME DAYS LESS = ! GOV]N+ M9ORITY3 ! ?+ WAS NOT WOR? TALK+ AB\T4 

,?AT SY/EM IS WORN \T3 !RE IS NO LONG] ANYBODY1 EI!R 9 ! ,GOV]NM5T OR AMONG ! PEOPLE1 ?AT WANTS IT4 

,9 DESPAIR ( !IR CASE1 !Y >E (F]+ O!R S*EMES1 UND] ! NAMES ( ,DIRECT ,LEGISLATION1 ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T1 ETC42 AS1 = 9/ANCE1 TO HAVE ! LEGISLATIVE WORK DONE BY ALL ! ,PEOPLE1 #a MILLION CITIZ5S1 OR AT LEA/ BY A P>T ( !M2 OR TO HAVE SOME ( ! AG5TS & FUNCTION>IES ( ! ,EXECUTIVE ,P[]1 :O >E N[ APPO9T$ BY ! ,PRESID5T1 SELECT$ BY !SE SAME #a MILLION M54 ,! T5D5CY ( !SE DIFF]5T SY/EMS IS TO GIVE ! ,GOV]NM5T AT LEA/ A HALF PLUS ONE ( ! CITIZ5S1 ! REV]SE ( :AT ,R\SSEAU TAU<T1 ?AT IT IS AGA9/ ! NATURAL ORD] ?AT ! SMALL] NUMB] %\LD BE GOV]N$ BY ! GREAT]4 

,WE HAVE JU/ PROV$ ?AT !SE S*EMES1 :I* >E DI/+UI%$ FROM EA* O!R ONLY BY MORE OR LESS 9CONSI/5CY1 5C\NT] 9SURM\NTABLE DIFFICULTIES 9 PRACTICE2 ?AT MOREOV] !Y >E ALL DISCR$IT$ 9 ADVANCE1 M>K$ BY TYRANNY & BRUTE =CE1 S9CE ! ,LAW ( ! ,PEOPLE1 OBTA9$ BY MEANS ( ! BALLOT1 IS NECESS>ILY ! LAW ( *ANCE2 & ! ,P[] ( ! ,PEOPLE1 BAS$ UPON NUMB]S1 IS NECESS>ILY ! P[] ( BRUTE =CE4 

,IT IS IMPOSSIBLE !N TO /OP 9 ?IS DESC5T4 ,WE MU/ COME TO ! LA/ HYPO!SIS1 ?AT :]E9 ! ,PEOPLE 5T]S 9TO ,GOV]NM5T 9 ! MASS1 & WIELDS ALL ! BRAN*ES ( ,P[]2 9 :I* !Y >E ALWAYS UNANIM\S1 & HAVE ABOVE !M NEI!R PRESID5T1 NOR REPRES5TATIVES1 NOR DEPUTIES1 NOR LAW-MADE C\NTRY1 NOR MAJORITY2 9 A WORD1 !Y >E1 9 !IR COLLECTIVITY1 ! SOLE LEGISLATOR & ! SOLE FUNCTION>Y4 

,BUT IF ! ,PEOPLE1 ?US ORGANIZ$ = ,P[]1 HAVE NO?+ ABOVE !M1 :AT1 ,I ASK1 HAVE !Y BEL[8 ,9 O!R WORDS1 :]E IS ! CORRELATIVE ( GOV]NM5T2 :]E >E ! LABOR]S1 ! ME*ANICS1 ! M]*ANTS1 ! SOLDI]S1 :]E >E ! WORK]S & ! CITIZ5S8 

,WILL Y\ ANSW] ?AT ! ,PEOPLE >E EV]Y?+ AT ONCE1 ?AT !Y PRODUCE & LEGISLATE AT ! SAME TIME1 ?AT ,LABOR & ,GOV]NM5T >E UNIT$ 9 !M8 ,IT IS IMPOSSIBLE1 BECAUSE1 AS1 ON ! ONE H&1 ! REASON = ! EXI/5CE ( GOV]NM5T IS ! DIV]G5CE ( 9T]E/S1 AS1 ON ! O!R1 NO SEP>ATION ( AU?ORITY NOR ( MAJORITY IS POSSIBLE1 ! ,PEOPLE ALONE AS A :OLE HAV+ ! P[] TO MAKE LAWS2 CONSEQU5TLY ! LEGISLATIVE DEBATE W\LD BE PROLONG$ ) ! NUMB] ( LEGISLATORS1 ! AFFAIRS ( ,/ATE GR[+ 9 DIRECT PROPORTION TO ! MULTITUDE ( /ATESM51 !RE IS NO LONG] TIME NOR LEISURE = CITIZ5S TO ATT5D TO !IR 9DU/RIAL OCCUPATIONS1 ALL !IR DAYTIME IS NOT TOO MU* TO DISPOSE ( ! BUS9ESS ( ,GOV]NM5T4 ,!RE IS NO MIDDLE C\RSE3 EI!R WORK OR RULE3 IT IS ! LAW ( ! ,PEOPLE AS ( ! ,PR9CE2 ASK ,R\SSEAU4 

,?US IT WAS ?AT AFFAIRS W]E CONDUCT$ AT ,A!NS1 :]E1 DUR+ SEV]AL C5TURIES1 ! :OLE ,PEOPLE W]E 9 ! PUBLIC PLACE ( GA!R+1 DISCUSS+ QUE/IONS FROM MORN+ TILL NI<T4 ,BUT ! TW5TY ?\S& CITIZ5S ( ,A!NS1 :O CON/ITUT$ ! SOV]EIGN P[]1 HAD F\R HUNDR$ ?\S& SLAVES WORK+ = !M2 :ILE ! ,FR5* ,PEOPLE HAVE NO ONE TO SLAVE = !M1 & A ?\S& TIMES AS MU* BUS9ESS TO TRANSACT AS ! ,A!NIANS HAD4 ,I REPEAT MY QUE/ION3 ,:5 ! ,PEOPLE HAVE BECOME BO? LEGISLATOR & RUL]1 UPON :AT WILL !Y LEGISLATE1 = :AT 9T]E/S1 TO :AT 5D8 ,& :ILE !Y >E GOV]N+1 :O WILL SUPPORT !M8 ,SUBLATA CAUSA1 TOLLITUR EFFECTUS1 SAYS ! ,S*OOL4 ,:5 ! MASS ( ! ,PEOPLE BECOMES ! ,/ATE1 ! ,/ATE NO LONG] HAS ANY REASON TO EXI/1 S9CE !RE IS NO LONG] ANY ,PEOPLE1 ! GOV]NM5TAL EQUATION R$UCES TO Z]O4 

,?US ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY1 C>RI$ FROM ! FAMILY TO ! NATION1 T5DS UNAVOIDABLY TO DO AWAY ) BO? ,GOV]NM5T & ! ,PEOPLE1 ?R\< ! SUCCESSIVE CONCESSIONS :I* IT IS COMPELL$ TO MAKE AGA9/ ITSELF1 CONCESSIONS ( DEF9ITE LAWS1 CONCESSIONS ( CON/ITUTIONAL *>T]S1 CONCESSIONS ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 CONCESSIONS ( DIRECT LEGISLATION1 ETC41 ETC4 ,& S9CE ! ELIM9ATION ( ,GOV]NM5T & ,PEOPLE IS IMPOSSIBLE1 AT LEA/ = ! LATT]1 ! MOVEM5T1 AFT] A %ORT P]IOD1 IS 9T]RUPT$ BY A CONFLICT2 !N BEG9S AGA9 BY A RE/ORATION4 ,SU* IS ! C\RSE :I* ,FRANCE HAS FOLL[$ S9CE #a#g#h#i1 :I* WILL CONT9UE = EV]1 IF ! PUBLIC COMMON S5SE DOES NOT 5D BY UND]/&+ ?AT A FALSE HYPO!SIS CAUSES ! SW+ BACK & =?4 ,! PUBLICI/S :O RECALL TO US ! TRADITION ( '#i#c CANNOT IGNORE ?AT1 = \R FA!RS1 DIRECT GOV]NM5T WAS BUT ! /EP TO DICTATOR%IP1 :I* ITSELF WAS ! 5TRANCE TO DESPOTISM4 

,:5 ! ,CONV5TION1 ( LAM5TABLE MEMORY1 HAD PASS$1 ON ! #b#d? ( ,JUNE1 #a#g#i#c1 ! FAM\S ACT BY :I* ! ,PEOPLE W]E SUMMON$ TO GOV]N !MSELVES DIRECTLY1 ! ,JACOB9S & ! ,M\NTA91 ALL-P[]FUL S9CE ! FALL ( ! ,GIROND9S1 UND]/OOD P]FECTLY :AT ! ,UTOPIA ( ,H]AUT-,SE*ELLES WAS WOR?3 !Y HAD A DECREE PASS$ BY !IR HUMBLE S]VANT1 ! ,CONV5TION1 ?AT DIRECT GOV]NM5T %\LD BE PO/PON$ UNTIL PEACE4 ,UNTIL PEACE1 AS Y\ KN[1 MEANT TW5TY-FIVE YE>S AT ! />T4 ,! ORGANIZ]S ( ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T WISELY ?\<T ?AT ! ,PEOPLE1 AS LEGISLATORS1 LABOR]S1 & SOLDI]S1 C\LD NOT FULFILL !SE NOBLE FUNCTIONS :ILE WORK+ ) ONE H& & FI<T+ ) ! O!R1 ?AT FIR/ ! C\NTRY MU/ BE SAV$1 & AFT]W>DS1 :5 ! ,PEOPLE HAD NO?+ TO FE>1 !Y C\LD 5T] UPON !IR SOV]EIGNTY4 

,?IS WAS ! REASON ?AT WAS GIV5 TO ! ,PEOPLE AT ! TIME ( ! PO/PONEM5T ( ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c4 

,?REE MON?S1 SIX MON?S1 A YE>1 PASS$1 & NEI!R ! ,M\NTA9 NOR ! ,PLA9 DEM&$ ?AT ?IS UNCON/ITUTIONAL PROVISION1 :I* ATTACK$ ! SOV]EIGNTY ( ! ,PEOPLE1 %\LD BE REPEAL$4 ,! ,COMMITTEE ( ,PUBLIC ,SAFETY WAS RECONCIL$ TO ! REVOLUTION>Y ,GOV]NM5T2 AS = ! ,PEOPLE1 !Y SEEM$ TO C>E LITTLE = ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T4 

,F9ALLY ,DANTON1 :O HAD SPOK5 UPON ! NECESSITY ( PUTT+ AN 5D TO ! DICTATION ( COMMITTEES1 WAS ! FIR/ TO BE DELIV]$ TO ! REVOLUTION>Y TRIBUNAL1 ACCUS$ ( MOD]ATION & S5T TO ! SCAFFOLD4 ,UNLUCKY MAN6 HE WAS P]HAPS ! FIR/1 ) ,DESM\L9S1 ,H]AUT-,SE*ELLES & ,LACROIX1 :O BELIEV$ 9 ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c1 OR :O AT LEA/ WANT$ TO TRY ! EXP]IM5T ( IT3 HE WAS GUILLOT9$4 ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T1 9 ! EYES ( ! EXP]I5C$1 WAS PURE QUACK]Y3 ,ROBESPI]RE WAS NOT WILL+ TO P]MIT ! DISCOV]Y ( ?IS PIECE ( TRICK]Y4 ,A FIRM DISCIPLE ( ,R\SSEAU HIMSELF1 HE HAD ALWAYS EXPRESS$ HIMSELF CLE>LY1 /RONGLY1 AS ,L\IS ,BLANC REC5TLY %[$1 9 FAVOR ( 9DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 :I* IS NO O!R ?AN ?AT ( #a#h#a#d1 OR ?AT ( #a#h#c1 REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T4 

,I AM NOT A REPUBLICAN1 SAID ,ROBESPI]RE 9 '#i#a1 AFT] ! TREASON ( ,V>5NES1 BUT ,I AM NOT A ROYALI/ EI!R4 ,HE MEANT TO SAY3 ,I AM NEI!R = DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 NOR AM ,I = ABSOLUTISM3 ,I AM = ! MIDDLE C\RSE4 ,9 FACT1 IT IS D\BTFUL :E!R !RE WAS 9 ?IS ASSEMBLY A S+LE REPUBLICAN1 EXCEPT SOME ,GIRONDI/S1 >TI/S1 SACRIFIC$ AFT] ! #c#a/ ( ,MAY1 & SOME ,M\NTA9I/S1 ( SIMPLE FAI?1 :OM ! ,CONV5TION IMMOLAT$ FOLL[+ ! DAYS ( ,PRAIRIAL4 ,! GREAT] P>T %>$ ! IDEAS ( ,ROBESPI]RE1 ) 9S5SIBLE V>IATIONS1 :I* W]E ! IDEAS ( '#i#a1 & S]V$ 9 ! ,CON/ITUTION ( ! ,DIRECTORY4 ,?AT WAS :AT APPE>$ ABOVE ALL AT ! #i? ( ,!RMIDOR4 

,NO HI/ORIAN ?AT ,I KN[ ( HAS GIV5 A SATISFACTORY EXPLANATION ( ?IS DAY1 :I* MADE AN APO/ATE FROM DEMOCRACY 9TO A M>TYR ( ! ,REVOLUTION4 ,NEV]!LESS ! AFFAIR IS PLA9 5\<4 

,ROBESPI]RE1 HAV+ RELIEV$ HIMSELF SUCCESSIVELY BY ! GUILLOT9E ( ! FACTIONS !N DEEM$ AN>*IC1 ! ,5RAGES1 ! ,HEB]TI/S1 ! ,DANTONI/S1 ( ALL ?OSE :OM HE SUSPECT$ ( TAK+ ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c 9 E>NE/1 ?\<T ?AT ! MOM5T HAD >RIV$ TO /RIKE A LA/ BL[1 & TO REE/ABLI% 9DIRECT GOV]NM5T UPON A NORMAL BASIS4 ,!SE W]E ?OSE VIEWS ( GOV]NM5TAL RE/ORATION1 TODAY CONDEMN$ BY EXP]I5CE1 BUT :I* 9 ! TIME ( ,ROBESPI]RE W]E /ILL E/EEM$ BY ! COALITION ( P[]S4 ,:AT .<HE.> DEM&$ !N FROM ! ,CONV5TION ON ! #i? ( ,!RMIDOR1 WAS1 AFT] PRELIM9>Y PURIFICATION1 ALWAYS BY ! GUILLOT9E1 ,COMMITTEES ( ,PUBLIC ,SAFETY & ( ,G5]AL ,SECURITY1 A GREAT] CONC5TRATION ( P[]1 A UNIFY+ T5D5CY 9 ! ,GOV]NM5T1 SOME?+1 9 FACT1 RESEMBL+ ! PRESID5CY ( ,L\IS-,BONAP>TE4 ,?AT IS PROV$ BY ! SEQUEL ( HIS SPEE*1 :I* IS RECOGNIZ$ BY HIS APOLOGI/S1 NOTABLY BY ,MESSRS4 ,BU*EZ & ,LEBAS1 & WAS LAT] MADE A P>T ( HI/ORY4 

,ROBESPI]RE KNEW P]FECTLY WELL ?AT HE WAS RESPOND+ TO ! SECRET DESIRES ( ! MAJORITY ( ! ,CONV5TION4 ,HE FELT ?AT HE WAS 9 ACCORDANCE ) !M UPON PR9CIPLES3 NO D\BT HE WAS NOT UNAW>E ?AT =EIGN DIPLOMACY BEGAN TO LOOK UPON HIM AS A /ATESMAN ) :OM IT MI<T COME TO AN UND]/&+4 ,HE C\LD NOT D\BT ?AT ! HONE/ M5 ( ! ,CONV5TION1 TO :OM HE HAD ALWAYS TRUCKL$1 W\LD BE DELI<T$ TO RE9/ATE CON/ITUTIONALISM1 ! OBJECT ( ALL !IR DESIRES1 & AT ! SAME TIME TO SEE !MSELVES RELIEV$ ( A C]TA9 NUMB] ( DEMOCRATS1 :OSE SANGU9>Y 5]GY T]RIFI$ !IR MIDDLE-C\RSE T5D5CIES4 ,! /ROKE WAS WELL PREP>$1 ! PLAN SKILLFULLY CONCEIV$1 ! OCCASION C\LD NOT HAVE BE5 MORE FAVORABLE4 ,:AT HAPP5$ IMM$IATELY AFT] ,!RMIDOR1 ! TRIALS ( ! REVOLUTION>IES1 ! ,CON/ITUTION ( ! YE> ,V41 ! POLICY ( ! ,DIRECTORY & ( ,BRUMAIRE1 W]E BUT A CONT9UATION ( ! APPLICATION ( ,ROBESPI]RE'S IDEAS4 ,! PLACE ( ! MAN %\LD HAVE BE5 ALONGSIDE ( ! ,SIEYES1 ! ,CAMBAC]ES1 & O!RS1 :O1 KN[+ P]FECTLY :AT TO HOLD UPON DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 WI%$ TO RETURN TO 9DIRECT AS SOON AS POSSIBLE1 ?AT ! REACTION WIH* !Y W]E AB\T TO BEG9 AGA9/ DEMOCRACY MI<T C>RY !M EV5 TO EMPIRE4 

,UN=TUNATELY = HIMSELF1 ,ROBESPI]RE HAD FEW FRI5DS 9 ! ,CONV5TION3 HIS PROJECT WAS NOT CLE>3 9 M5 :O SAW HIM NE> AT H&1 HIS G5IUS 9SPIR$ LITTLE CONFID5CE2 HE OPPOS$ !M TO VIOL5TLY2 & !N !RE WAS ! DANG] = HIM ?AT ! CON/ITUTIONAL1 MIDDLE-CLASS MAJORITY 9 ! ,CONV5TION1 TO :OM HE ADDRESS$ HIMSELF1 & :OM HE MADE !REBY MA/]S ( ! SITUATION1 MI<T SEIZE ! IDEA ?AT HE SUGGE/$1 & TURN IT AGA9/ ! AU?OR & HIS RIVALS AT ! SAME TIME4 

,?AT WAS PRECISELY :AT HAPP5$4 

,! LEAD]S ( ! MAJORITY1 :O HAD BE5 :E$L$ BY ,ROBESPI]RE1 ?\<T ?AT !Y MI<T KILL TWO BIRDS ) ONE /ONE2 AS 9 #ahdh ! HONE/ & MOD]ATE MAJORITY F\ND ITSELF 9 A POSITION TO TURN \T BO? ! ,NATIONAL & ,RE=M P>TIES4 ,AT ! DECISIVE MOM5T !Y AB&ON$ ! DICTATOR1 :O BECAME ! FIR/ VICTIM ( HIS [N REACTION4 ,AS ,ROBESPI]RE HAD /RUCK D[N ,DANTON2 AS HE 9T5D$ TO /RIKE D[N ,CAMBON1 ,BILLAUT1 ,V>5NES & O!RS2 SO ! MOD]ATES ( ! ,CONV5TION1 UPON :OM HE HAD C\NT$1 & :O 9 FACT DID NOT FAIL HIM 9 HIS EXPECTATIONS1 /RUCK HIM D[N 9 TURN2 ! O!RS CAME AFT]W>DS4 ,9DIRECT GOV]NM5T1 DELIV]$ FROM ITS FI]CE/ 5EMY1 ,DANTON1 & FROM ITS MO/ SURLY COMPETITOR1 ,ROBESPI]RE1 MI<T AGA9 APPE>4 

,SOME HAVE SAID ?AT ,ROBESPI]RE ASPIR$ TO ! DICTATOR%IP2 O!RS ?AT HE WI%$ TO REE/ABLI% ! MON>*Y4 ,!SE ACCUSATIONS REFUTE EA* O!R4 ,ROBESPI]RE1 :O DID NOT AB&ON HIS CONVICTIONS ANY MORE ?AN HE R5\NC$ HIS POPUL>ITY1 ASPIR$ TO BE ! *IEF ( ! EXECUTIVE P[] 9 A CON/ITUTIONAL GOV]NM5T4 ,HE W\LD HAVE ACCEPT$ A PLACE UND] ! ,DIRECTORY OR UND] ! ,CONSULATE3 HE W\LD HAVE BE5 ( ! OPPOSITION TO ! DYNA/Y AFT] #a#h#c3 WE %\LD HAVE SE5 HIM APPROV+ ! ,PROVISIONAL ,GOV]NM5T AFT] ,FEBRU>Y3 HIS HATR$ = A!I/S1 HIS 9/9CTIVE LOVE = PRIE/S1 W\LD HAVE CAUS$ HIM TO VOTE = ! EXP$ITION TO ,ROME4 

,LET ?OSE :O1 ) MORE HONE/Y ?AN PRUD5CE1 FOLL[+ ! FOOT/EPS ( ,DANTON1 REVIVE TODAY ! PROPOSITION = DIRECT GOV]NM5T2 :O1 AGA9 LIKE ,DANTON1 REM9D ! ,PEOPLE ( !IR IMP]SCRIPTIBLE RI<TS1 & CRY3 ,NO MORE DICTATORS6 ,NO MORE DOCTR9AIRES6 LET !M NOT =GET ?AT ! ,DICTATOR%IP IS AT ! 5D ( !IR !ORY1 & ?IS ,DOCTR9E1 ( :I* !Y >E SO MU* AFRAID1 IS ?AT ( ! JU/LY PUNI%$ TRAITOR ( ,!RMIDOR4 ,DIRECT ,GOV]NM5T IS NO?+ BUT ! LONG KN[N TRANSITION1 ?R\< :I* ! ,PEOPLE1 TIR$ ( POLITICAL S*EMES1 BR+ !MSELVES TO RE/ 9 ABSOLUTE GOV]NM5T1 :]E ! AMBITIONS ( ! REACTION>IES AWAIT !M4 ,HAS NOT ! ?\<T ( A DICTATOR%IP ALREADY1 AS ,I WRITE !SE L9ES1 BE5 CA/ AMONG ! PEOPLE1 & ACCEPT$ BY ! IMPATI5T & ! TIMID8 ,! V]Y SAME M5 :OM WE SEE COMBAT+ BO? DIRECT GOV]NM5T & *AOS AT ! SAME TIME1 SOMETIMES 9VOK+ ! REPUTATION ( ,ROBESPI]RE1 SOMETIMES HAT+ HIS NAME1 HAVE WE NOT SE5 !M ALL1 ! DAY AFT] ! REVOLUTION ( ,FEBRU>Y1 PUTT+ A /OP TO ! ASS]TION ( LIB]TY1 GIV+ A DIFF]5T \TLET TO ! ASPIRATIONS ( ! ,PEOPLE1 VOT+ = ! RECALL ( C&IDATES1 & ALWAYS1 EV]Y:]E1 PAY+ 9 TALK & SL&]1 :]E ! ,PEOPLE DEM&$ ACTS & IDEAS4 

,I HAVE MORE ?AN ONE FRI5D AMONG M5 :O FOLL[1 OR ?9K ?AT !Y FOLL[1 EV5 N[1 ! ,JACOB9 TRADITION3 IT IS = !M *IEFLY ?AT ,I WRITE !SE L9ES4 ,MAY ! RESEMBLANCE ( \R TIMES TO ?OSE AT LA/ DISCOV] TO !M1 :AT UNTIL N[ IT HAS BE5 DIFFICULT = !M TO SUSPECT1 ! TRUE SIGNIFICATION ( ! #i? ( ,!RMIDOR1 & ! REAL 9T5TION ( ,ROBESPI]RE4 

,JU/ AS 9 '#i#c1 !Y :O BOA/$ MO/ L\DLY ( ! TITLE ( REVOLUTION>IES DESIR$ ?AT QUE/IONS ( PROP]TY & SOCIAL ECONOMY %\LD NOT BE AGITAT$1 S5D+ TO ! SCAFFOLD ! ,AN>*I/S :O DEM&$ = ! PEOPLE GU>ANTIES ( WORK & LIV+ WAGES2 SO TO-DAY1 9 ! MID/ ( A REVOLUTION1 ! SUCCESSORS1 OP5 OR SECRET1 ( ,JACOB9ISM1 TAKE !IR /& SOLELY ON QUE/IONS ( POLITICS1 & AVOID EXPRESS+ !MSELVES ON ECONOMIC RE=MS2 OR1 IF !Y T\* UPON !M1 IT IS ONLY TO MURMUR SOME 9NOC5T P]CEPTS ( FRAT]NITY1 COM+ D[N TO US FROM ! LOVE-FEA/S ( ,J]USALEM4 ALL ! POPUL>ITY HUNT]S1 M\NTEBANKS ( ! ,REVOLUTION1 HAVE TAK5 = !IR ORACLE ,ROBESPI]RE1 ! ET]NAL D5\NC]1 ) AN EMPTY HEAD & A VIP]'S TONGUE1 :O1 :5 SUMMON$ TO =MULATE HIS PLANS1 TO DESCRIBE HIS WAYS & MEANS1 DID NO?+ BUT BEAT A RETREAT BE=E DIFFICULTIES1 :ILE ACCUS+ HIS OPPON5TS ( MAK+ ! DIFFICULTIES4 ,?IS C[>DLY RHETORICIAN1 :O 9 '#i1 = FE> ( EMBROIL+ HIMSELF ) ! ,C\RT1 DISAV[$ A PLEASANTRY ?AT FELL FROM HIS LEAPS & WAS REPORT$ BY ,DESM\L9S2 :O1 9 '#i#a1 OPPOS$ ! DECL>ATION ( ABDICATION BY ,L\IS ,X,V,I1 & F\ND FALT ) ! PETITION ( ! ,*AMP DE ,M>S2 :O1 9 '#i#b1 OPPOS$ ! DECL>ATION ( W>1 BECAUSE IT W\LD GIVE TOO MU* REPUTATION TO ! ,GIRONDI/S2 :O1 9 '#i#c1 ANTAGONIZ$ ! RIS+ 9 MASS2 :O1 9 '#i#d1 ALWAYS & EV]Y:]E1 ADVIS$ ! PEOPLE TO TAKE NO P>T 9 IT2 :O ALWAYS ?W>T$1 )\T UND]/&+ !M1 ! PLANS ( ,CAMBON1 ( ,C>NOT1 ( ALL ?OSE :OM HE DISDA9FULLY CALL$ EXP$ITION-PEOPLE2 ?IS 9DEFATIGABLE CALUMNIATOR ( ALL ! NOTABLE M5 :OM HE 5VI$ & PLAGI>IZ$1 FIFTY YE>S LAT] S]VES AS PATRON SA9T TO ALL ! DAZ$ REVOLUTION>IES1 HELP+ !IR CAUSE AS MU* AS A LAME L$-HORSE HELPS DRAW ! C>RIAGE4 ,TELL US1 = ONCE1 ALL Y\ DISCIPLES ( ! GREAT ,ROBESPI]RE1 :AT Y\ MEAN BY ! ,REVOLUTION8 ,:AT >E Y\R WAYS & MEANS8 

,ALAS6 ONE IS NEV] BETRAY$ BUT BY HIS FRI5DS4 ,9 #a#h#d#h1 & 9 #a#g#i#c1 ! ,REVOLUTION HAD = LEAD]S M5 :O REPRES5T$ IT4 ,\R REPUBLICANISM1 LIKE ! OLD ,JACOB9ISM1 IS N[ ONLY A B\RGEOIS FANCY1 )\T PR9CIPLE & )\T PLAN1 :I* WANTS & DOESN'T WANT1 :I* ALWAYS SCOLDS1 SUSPECTS1 & NONE ! LESS IS DUP$2 :I* SEES EV]Y:]E1 \TSIDE ITS SET1 NO?+ BUT FACTIONS & ,AN>*I/S2 :I*1 SE>*+ ! POLICE RECORDS1 CAN F9D ONLY ! REAL OR FANCI$ WEAKNESSES ( PATRIOTS2 :I* =BIDS ! WOR%IP ( ,*ATEL1 & HAS MASSES SUNG BY ! >*BI%OP ( ,P>IS2 :I*1 ON ALL QUE/IONS1 AVOIDS ! PROP] ANSW]1 = FE> ( COMPROMIS+ ITSELF1 RES]VES DECISION ON EV]Y?+1 SETTLES NO?+1 DI/RU/S PLA9 REASONS & CLE> POSITIONS4 ,ONCE AGA91 IS NOT ALL ?IS ,ROBESPI]RE1 ! TALK] )\T 9ITIATIVE2 :O F\ND 9 ,DANTON TOO MU* VIRILITY2 BLAM$ HIS G5]\S BOLDNESS1 BECAUSE HE HAD NONE HIMSELF2 HELD BACK FROM ! #a? ( ,AUGU/2 NEI!R APPROV$ NOR DISAPPROV$ ( ! MASSACRES ( ,SEPTEMB]2 VOT$ = ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#c & ITS PO/PONEM5T UNTIL PEACE2 CONDEMN$ ! ,FEA/ ( ,REASON1 & E/ABLI%$ ?AT ( ! ,SUPREME ,BE+2 PROSECUT$ ,C>RI] & SUPPORT$ ,F\QUI]-,T9VILLE2 GAVE ! IDEA ( PEACE TO ,CAMILLE ,DESM\L9S 9 ! MORN+1 & HAD HIM >RE/$ ?AT NI<T2 PROPOS$ ! ABOLITION ( ! DEA? P5ALTY1 & DREW UP ! LAW ( ,PRAIRIAL2 \TBID1 9 TURN1 ,SIEYES1 ,MIRABEAU1 ,B>NAVE1 ,PETION1 ,DANTON1 ,M>AT1 ,HEB]T1 & !N HAD GUILLOT9$ & PROSCRIB$1 ONE AFT] ! O!R1 ,HEB]T1 ,DANTON1 ,PETION1 ,B>NAVE1 ! FIR/ AS AN ,AN>*I/1 ! SECOND AS TOO L5I5T1 ! ?IRD AS A F$]ALI/1 ! F\R? AS A CON/ITUTIONALI/2 HELD 9 E/EEM ONLY ! GOV]NM5TAL B\RGEOIS & ! REFRACTORY CL]GY2 CA/ DISCR$IT UPON ! ,REVOLUTION1 SOMETIMES AB\T ! ECCLESIA/ICAL OA?1 SOMETIMES ON ! OCCASION ( ! ASSIGNATS2 SP>$ ONLY ?OSE TO :OM SIL5CE OR DEA? (F]$ A REFUGE1 & AT LA/ SUCCUMB$1 ON ! DAY :51 REMA9+ ALMO/ ALONE AMONG ! MIDDLE-C\RSE M51 HE 5DEAVOR$1 BY CONNIVANCE ) !M1 & = HIS [N PR(IT1 TO B9D 9 *A9S ! ,REVOLUTION4 ,AH6 ,I KN[ ?IS REPTILE TOO WELL2 ,I HAVE FELT TOO (T5 ! WAV+ HIS TAIL ?AT ,I %\LD SP>E 9 HIM ! SECRET VISE ( DEMOCRATS1 ! F]M5T ?AT CORRUPTS EV]Y REPUBLIC1 ,5VY4 ,IT WAS ,ROBESPI]RE :O1 9 '#i#d1 OP5+ ! DOOR TO ?OSE :O W]E CALL$ AFT] ! ,!RMIDORIANS1 LO/ ! ,REVOLUTION2 IT WAS UPON ! EXAMPLE & ?R\< ! AU?ORITY ( ,ROBESPI]RE ?AT ,SOCIALISM WAS PROSCRIB$ 9 #agig & #a#h#d#h2 IT IS ,ROBESPI]RE :O TODAY W\LD BR+ BACK A NEW ,BRUMAIRE1 IF HIS HYPOCRITICAL & DETE/ABLE 9FLU5EC HAD NOT BE5 F9ALLY ANNIHILAT$4 

,A REVOLUTION IS ALWAYS SPLIT BY P>TIES & SECTS1 :I* WORK TO P]V]T IT1 :ILE ITS NATURAL 5EMIES FI<T IT4 ,*RI/IANITY HAD FROM ! BEG9N+1 ITS H]ESIES1 & LAT] ITS GREAT S*ISM4 ,! ,RE=MATION HAD ITS DIVISIONS & SECTS2 ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 TO M5TION ! MO/ FAM\S NAMES1 ITS ,CON/ITUTIONALI/S1 ,JACOB9S & ,GIRONDI/S4 

,! ,REVOLUTION ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY HAS ALSO ITS ,UTOPIANS1 ITS ,S*OOLS1 ITS P>TIES1 ALL MORE OR LESS RETROGRADE REFLECTIONS ( REACTION>Y TYPES4 ,Y\ F9D AMONG REVOLUTION>IES1 AS WELL AS 9 ! RANKS ( REACTION1 FRI5DS ( ORD]1 :O DECL>E !MSELVES READY TO M>* AGA9/ AN>*Y1 :5 ! /ILLNESS ( DESPAIR REIGNS AMONG ! P]SECUT$ RADICALS2 Y\ F9D SAVIORS ( SOCIETY1 = :OM SOCIETY MEANS ALL ?AT ! ,REVOLUTION OPPOSES2 Y\ F9D MIDDLE-C\RSE M51 :OSE POLICY IS TO TAKE ! P>T ( ! ,REVOLUTION AS ONE TAKES ! P>T ( A CONFLAGRATION2 Y\ F9D RADICALS1 = :OM REVOLUTION>Y PHRASES TAKE ! PLACE ( IDEAS2 Y\ F9D T]RORI/S1 :O1 AS !Y CANNOT BE ,MIRABEAUS OR ,DANTONS1 >E WILL+ TO ACCEPT ! IMMORTALITY ( ,C>RI]S OR ,J\RDAN ,HEAD*OPP]S4 ,TO SOME ! ,CON/ITUTION ( #a#h#d#h2 TO O!RS1 DIRECT GOV]NM5T2 TO !SE ! ,DICTATOR%IP2 TO ?OSE ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,TRIBUNAL OR ! ,C\NCIL ( ,W>1 S]VE AS BANN] & BASS DRUM4 ,MOREOV] ALL !SE HAVE TAK5 !IR /& UPON ! GOV]NM5TAL IDEA4 ,P[] IS ! ONLY IDEA !Y CAN CONCEIVE1 :5 ,P[] IS BREAK+ D[N EV]Y:]E2 ! LA/ TRACE ?AT W>NS !M ( !IR FATE1 & EXHIBITS !M TO US AS ! PRECURSORS & VICTIMS ( ! LA/ EXT]M9ATOR1 ,ROBESPI]RE4 

,ON ! #a? ( ,AUGU/1 #a#g#i#b1 ,ROYALTY FELL B5EA? ! BULLETS ( ! SUBURBS2 :ILE ,ROBESPI]RE & HIS ,JACOB9S W]E /ILL AT ! ,CON/ITUTION ( '#i#a1 SOAK$ ) ! BLOOD ( ! SOLDI]S ( ,NANCY1 & ( ! PATRIOTS ( ! ,*AMPS DE ,M>S4 

,!Y KEPT FIR+ FROM ! HEI<TS ( !IR P>LIAM5T>Y CITADEL1 & DI/RU/$ ?OSE :O TALK$ ( DE/ROY+ BO? ,ROYALTY & ,CON/ITUTION4 ,!Y NEV] P>DON$ BOLD REVOLUTION>IES LIKE ,DANTON1 :O HAD DRAGG$ !M1 LIKE SKULK+ DOGS1 TO HUNT D[N CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*Y1 ( :I* !Y HOP$ TO BECOME 9 !IR TURN ! RUL]S & MA/]S4 ,! ,CON/ITUTION1 SAID ,ROBESPI]RE1 SUFFICES = ! ,REVOLUTION4 

,! HATR$ ( ?IS P>TY1 :I* HAS DRUNK ! BLOOD ( ! BE/ CITIZ5S1 PURSUES US /ILL4 ,I CAN RECONCILE MYSELF TO M51 BECAUSE1 LIKE !M1 ,I MAY MAKE A MI/AKE2 BUT TO P>TIES1 NEV]6 ,LET !M CONT9UE TO HATE US1 = ALAS6 IT .<IS.> NOT SO SOON ?AT ! ,REVOLUTION CAN BE RELEAS$ FROM ! BRIDLE4 ,WE WILL GLADLY SACRIFICE \R 9ITIATIVE TO ?OSE :O >E LESS ADVANC$1 PROVID$ ?AT BY !IR H&S ! ,REVOLUTION IS ACCOMPLI%$4 ,WE SAY TO ,ROBESPI]RE1 AS ,!MI/OCLES SAID TO ,EURYBIADES3 ,/RIKE1 HANG]-ON ( ,GOV]NM5T2 /RIKE1 SYCOPHANT ( ! ,REVOLUTION2 /RIKE1 DEG5]ATE FOLL[] ( ,LOYOLA1 HYPOCRITICAL WOR%IP] ( ! ,SUPREME ,BE+2 /RIKE1 BUT HE> ME4 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #b#e4 ,:ATEV] Y\ SAY1 WE WILL BR+ PRO(4 8 

,TRANSLATOR'S NOTE #b#f4 ,! CAUSE REMOV$1 ! EFFECT CEASES4 8 

,FROM 3 FAIR-USE4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #ahe 3 ,/UDY #d -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #c1 #bag 3 ,/UDY #d -- ,ADD$4 

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