,*APT] #a 
,MUTUAL ,AID ,AMONG ,ANIMALS 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,G>RETT ,ZIEGL]1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,MUTUAL ,AID3 ,A ,FACTOR ( ,EVOLUTION 

,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

#aib 

,*APT] #a3 ,M,U,T,U,A,L ,A,I,D ,A,M,O,N,G ,A,N,I,M,A,L,S 

,/RUGGLE = EXI/5CE4 -- ,MUTUAL ,AID -- A LAW ( ,NATURE & *IEF FACTOR ( PROGRESSIVE EVOLUTION4 -- ,9V]TEBRATES4 -- ,ANTS & ,BEES -- ,BIRDS3 ,HUNT+ & FI%+ ASSOCIATIONS4 -- ,SOCIABILITY4 -- ,MUTUAL PROTECTION AMONG SMALL BIRDS4 -- ,CRANES2 P>ROTS4 

,! CONCEPTION ( /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE AS A FACTOR ( EVOLUTION1 9TRODUC$ 9TO SCI5CE BY ,D>W9 & ,WALLACE1 HAS P]MITT$ US TO EMBRACE AN IMM5SELY WIDE RANGE ( PH5OM5A 9 ONE S+LE G5]ALIZATION1 :I* SOON BECAME ! V]Y BASIS ( \R PHILOSOPHICAL1 BIOLOGICAL1 & SOCIOLOGICAL SPECULATIONS4 ,AN IMM5SE V>IETY ( FACTS3 -- ADAPTATIONS ( FUNCTION & /RUCTURE ( ORGANIC BE+S TO !IR SURR\ND+S2 PHYSIOLOGICAL & ANATOMICAL EVOLUTION2 9TELLECTUAL PROGRESS1 & MORAL DEVELOPM5T ITSELF1 :I* WE =M]LY US$ TO EXPLA9 BY SO MANY DIFF]5T CAUSES1 W]E EMBODI$ BY ,D>W9 9 ONE G5]AL CONCEPTION4 ,WE UND]/OOD !M AS CONT9U$ 5DEAVORS -- AS A /RUGGLE AGA9/ ADV]SE CIRCUM/ANCES -- = SU* A DEVELOPM5T ( 9DIVIDUALS1 RACES1 SPECIES & SOCIETIES1 AS W\LD RESULT 9 ! GREATE/ POSSIBLE FULLNESS1 V>IETY1 & 9T5SITY ( LIFE4 ,IT MAY BE ?AT AT ! \TSET ,D>W9 HIMSELF WAS NOT FULLY AW>E ( ! G5]ALITY ( ! FACTOR :I* HE FIR/ 9VOK$ = EXPLA9+ ONE S]IES ONLY ( FACTS RELATIVE TO ! ACCUMULATION ( 9DIVIDUAL V>IATIONS 9 9CIPI5T SPECIES4 ,BUT HE =ESAW ?AT ! T]M :I* HE WAS 9TRODUC+ 9TO SCI5CE W\LD LOSE ITS PHILOSOPHICAL & ITS ONLY TRUE MEAN+ IF IT W]E TO BE US$ 9 ITS N>R[ S5SE ONLY -- ?AT ( A /RUGGLE BETWE5 SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS = ! %E] MEANS ( EXI/5CE4 ,& AT ! V]Y BEG9N+ ( HIS MEMORABLE WORK HE 9SI/$ UPON ! T]M BE+ TAK5 9 ITS 0L>GE & METAPHORICAL S5SE 9CLUD+ DEP5D5CE ( ONE BE+ ON ANO!R1 & 9CLUD+ 7:I* IS MORE IMPORTANT7 NOT ONLY ! LIFE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 BUT SUCCESS 9 LEAV+ PROG5Y40#a 

  ,:ILE HE HIMSELF WAS *IEFLY US+ ! T]M 9 ITS N>R[ S5SE = HIS [N SPECIAL PURPOSE1 HE W>N$ HIS FOLL[]S AGA9/ COMMITT+ ! ]ROR 7:I* HE SEEMS ONCE TO HAVE COMMITT$ HIMSELF7 ( OV]RAT+ ITS N>R[ MEAN+4 ,9 ,! ,DESC5T ( ,MAN HE GAVE SOME P[]FUL PAGES TO ILLU/RATE ITS PROP]1 WIDE S5SE4 ,HE PO9T$ \T H[1 9 NUMB]LESS ANIMAL SOCIETIES1 ! /RUGGLE BETWE5 SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS = ! MEANS ( EXI/5CE DISAPPE>S1 H[ /RUGGLE IS REPLAC$ BY COOP]ATION1 & H[ ?AT SUB/ITUTION RESULTS 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( 9TELLECTUAL & MORAL FACULTIES :I* SECURE TO ! SPECIES ! BE/ CONDITIONS = SURVIVAL4 ,HE 9TIMAT$ ?AT 9 SU* CASES ! FITTE/ >E NOT ! PHYSICALLY /RONGE/1 NOR ! CUNN+E/1 BUT ?OSE :O LE>N TO COMB9E SO AS MUTUALLY TO SUPPORT EA* O!R1 /RONG & WEAK ALIKE1 = ! WELF>E ( ! COMMUNITY4 0,?OSE COMMUNITIES10 HE WROTE1 0:I* 9CLUD$ ! GREATE/ NUMB] ( ! MO/ SYMPA!TIC MEMB]S W\LD FL\RI% BE/1 & RE> ! GREATE/ NUMB] ( (FSPR+0 7#bND $IT41 P4 #a#f#c74 ,! T]M1 :I* ORIG9AT$ FROM ! N>R[ ,MAL?USIAN CONCEPTION ( COMPETITION BETWE5 EA* & ALL1 ?US LO/ ITS N>R[NESS 9 ! M9D ( ONE :O KNEW ,NATURE4 

  ,UNHAPPILY1 !SE REM>KS1 :I* MI<T HAVE BECOME ! BASIS ( MO/ FRUITFUL RESE>*ES1 W]E OV]%AD[$ BY ! MASSES ( FACTS GA!R$ = ! PURPOSE ( ILLU/RAT+ ! CONSEQU5CES ( A REAL COMPETITION = LIFE4 ,BESIDES1 ,D>W9 NEV] ATTEMPT$ TO SUBMIT TO A CLOS] 9VE/IGATION ! RELATIVE IMPORTANCE ( ! TWO ASPECTS UND] :I* ! /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE APPE>S 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD1 & HE NEV] WROTE ! WORK HE PROPOS$ TO WRITE UPON ! NATURAL *ECKS TO OV]-MULTIPLICATION1 AL?\< ?AT WORK W\LD HAVE BE5 ! CRUCIAL TE/ = APPRECIAT+ ! REAL PURPORT ( 9DIVIDUAL /RUGGLE4 ,NAY1 ON ! V]Y PAGES JU/ M5TION$1 AMID DATA DISPROV+ ! N>R[ ,MAL?USIAN CONCEPTION ( /RUGGLE1 ! OLD ,MAL?USIAN LEAV5 REAPPE>$ -- NAMELY1 9 ,D>W9'S REM>KS AS TO ! ALLEG$ 9CONV5I5CES ( MA9TA9+ ! 0WEAK 9 M9D & BODY0 9 \R CIVILIZ$ SOCIETIES 7*4 V74 ,AS IF ?\S&S ( WEAK-BODI$ & 9FIRM POETS1 SCI5TI/S1 9V5TORS1 & RE=M]S1 TOGE!R ) O!R ?\S&S ( SO-CALL$ 0FOOLS0 & 0WEAK-M9D$ 5?USIA/S10 W]E NOT ! MO/ PRECI\S WEAPONS US$ BY HUMANITY 9 ITS /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE BY 9TELLECTUAL & MORAL >MS1 :I* ,D>W9 HIMSELF EMPHASIZ$ 9 ?OSE SAME *APT]S ( ,DESC5T ( ,MAN4 

  ,IT HAPP5$ ) ,D>W9'S !ORY AS IT ALWAYS HAPP5S ) !ORIES HAV+ ANY BE>+ UPON HUMAN RELATIONS4 ,9/EAD ( WID5+ IT ACCORD+ TO HIS [N H9TS1 HIS FOLL[]S N>R[$ IT /ILL MORE4 ,& :ILE ,H]B]T ,SP5C]1 />T+ ON 9DEP5D5T BUT CLOSELY ALLI$ L9ES1 ATTEMPT$ TO WID5 ! 9QUIRY 9TO ?AT GREAT QUE/ION1 0,:O >E ! FITTE/80 ESPECIALLY 9 ! APP5DIX TO ! ?IRD $ITION ( ! ,DATA ( ,E?ICS1 ! NUMB]LESS FOLL[]S ( ,D>W9 R$UC$ ! NOTION ( /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE TO ITS N>R[E/ LIMITS4 ,!Y CAME TO CONCEIVE ! ANIMAL WORLD AS A WORLD ( P]PETUAL /RUGGLE AMONG HALF-/>V$ 9DIVIDUALS1 ?IR/+ = ONE ANO!R'S BLOOD4 ,!Y MADE MOD]N LIT]ATURE RES\ND ) ! W>-CRY ( WOE TO ! VANQUI%$1 AS IF IT W]E ! LA/ WORD ( MOD]N BIOLOGY4 ,!Y RAIS$ ! 0PITILESS0 /RUGGLE = P]SONAL ADVANTAGES TO ! HEI<T ( A BIOLOGICAL PR9CIPLE :I* MAN MU/ SUBMIT TO AS WELL1 UND] ! M5ACE ( O!RWISE SUCCUMB+ 9 A WORLD BAS$ UPON MUTUAL EXT]M9ATION4 ,LEAV+ ASIDE ! ECONOMI/S :O KN[ ( NATURAL SCI5CE BUT A FEW WORDS BORR[$ FROM SECONDH& VULG>IZ]S1 WE MU/ RECOGNIZE ?AT EV5 ! MO/ AU?ORIZ$ EXPON5TS ( ,D>W9'S VIEWS DID !IR BE/ TO MA9TA9 ?OSE FALSE IDEAS4 ,9 FACT1 IF WE TAKE ,HUXLEY1 :O C]TA9LY IS CONSID]$ AS ONE ( ! ABLE/ EXPON5TS ( ! !ORY ( EVOLUTION1 W]E WE NOT TAU<T BY HIM1 9 A PAP] ON ! ',/RUGGLE = ,EXI/5CE & ITS ,BE>+ UPON ,MAN1' ?AT1 

0FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( ! MORALI/1 ! ANIMAL WORLD IS ON AB\T ! SAME LEVEL AS A GLADIATORS' %[4 ,! CREATURES >E FAIRLY WELL TREAT$1 & SET TO1 FI<T H]EBY ! /RONGE/1 ! SWIFTE/1 & ! CUNN+E/ LIVE TO FI<T ANO!R DAY4 ,! SPECTATOR HAS NO NE$ TO TURN HIS ?UMB D[N1 AS NO QU>T] IS GIV540  

,OR1 FUR!R D[N 9 ! SAME >TICLE1 DID HE NOT TELL US ?AT1 AS AMONG ANIMALS1 SO AMONG PRIMITIVE M51 

0! WEAKE/ & /UPIDE/ W5T TO ! WALL1 :ILE ! T\<E/ & %REWDE/1 ?OSE :O W]E BE/ FITT$ TO COPE ) !IR CIRCUM/ANCES1 BUT NOT ! BE/ 9 ANO!R WAY1 SURVIV$4 ,LIFE WAS A CONT9U\S FREE FI<T1 & BEYOND ! LIMIT$ & TEMPOR>Y RELATIONS ( ! FAMILY1 ! ,HOBBESIAN W> ( EA* AGA9/ ALL WAS ! NORMAL /ATE ( EXI/5CE40#b 

  ,9 H[ F> ?IS VIEW ( NATURE IS SUPPORT$ BY FACT1 WILL BE SE5 FROM ! EVID5CE :I* WILL BE H]E SUBMITT$ TO ! READ] AS REG>DS ! ANIMAL WORLD1 & AS REG>DS PRIMITIVE MAN4 ,BUT IT MAY BE REM>K$ AT ONCE ?AT ,HUXLEY'S VIEW ( NATURE HAD AS LITTLE CLAIM TO BE TAK5 AS A SCI5TIFIC D$UCTION AS ! OPPOSITE VIEW ( ,R\SSEAU1 :O SAW 9 NATURE BUT LOVE1 PEACE1 & H>MONY DE/ROY$ BY ! ACCESSION ( MAN4 ,9 FACT1 ! FIR/ WALK 9 ! =E/1 ! FIR/ OBS]VATION UPON ANY ANIMAL SOCIETY1 OR EV5 ! P]USAL ( ANY S]I\S WORK DEAL+ ) ANIMAL LIFE 7,D',ORBIGNY'S1 ,AUDUBON'S1 ,LE ,VAILLANT'S1 NO MATT] :I*71 CANNOT BUT SET ! NATURALI/ ?9K+ AB\T ! P>T TAK5 BY SOCIAL LIFE 9 ! LIFE ( ANIMALS1 & PREV5T HIM FROM SEE+ 9 ,NATURE NO?+ BUT A FIELD ( SLAU<T]1 JU/ AS ?IS W\LD PREV5T HIM FROM SEE+ 9 ,NATURE NO?+ BUT H>MONY & PEACE4 ,R\SSEAU HAD COMMITT$ ! ]ROR ( EXCLUD+ ! BEAK-&-CLAW FI<T FROM HIS ?\<TS2 & ,HUXLEY COMMITT$ ! OPPOSITE ]ROR2 BUT NEI!R ,R\SSEAU'S OPTIMISM NOR ,HUXLEY'S PESSIMISM CAN BE ACCEPT$ AS AN IMP>TIAL 9T]PRETATION ( NATURE4 

  ,AS SOON AS WE /UDY ANIMALS -- NOT 9 LABORATORIES & MUSEUMS ONLY1 BUT 9 ! =E/ & ! PRAIRIE1 9 ! /EPPE & ! M\NTA9S -- WE AT ONCE P]CEIVE ?AT ?\< !RE IS AN IMM5SE AM\NT ( W>F>E & EXT]M9ATION GO+ ON AMID V>I\S SPECIES1 & ESPECIALLY AMID V>I\S CLASSES ( ANIMALS1 !RE IS1 AT ! SAME TIME1 AS MU*1 OR P]HAPS EV5 MORE1 ( MUTUAL SUPPORT1 MUTUAL AID1 & MUTUAL DEF5SE AMID ANIMALS BELONG+ TO ! SAME SPECIES OR1 AT LEA/1 TO ! SAME SOCIETY4 ,SOCIABILITY IS AS MU* A LAW ( NATURE AS MUTUAL /RUGGLE4 ,( C\RSE IT W\LD BE EXTREMELY DIFFICULT TO E/IMATE1 H[EV] R\<LY1 ! RELATIVE NUM]ICAL IMPORTANCE ( BO? !SE S]IES ( FACTS4 ,BUT IF WE RESORT TO AN 9DIRECT TE/1 & ASK ,NATURE3 0,:O >E ! FITTE/3 ?OSE :O >E CONT9UALLY AT W> ) EA* O!R1 OR ?OSE :O SUPPORT ONE ANO!R80 WE AT ONCE SEE ?AT ?OSE ANIMALS :I* ACQUIRE HABITS ( MUTUAL AID >E UND\BT$LY ! FITTE/4 ,!Y HAVE MORE *ANCES TO SURVIVE1 & !Y ATTA91 9 !IR RESPECTIVE CLASSES1 ! HI<E/ DEVELOPM5T ( 9TELLIG5CE & BODILY ORGANIZATION4 ,IF ! NUMB]LESS FACTS :I* CAN BE BR\<T =W>D TO SUPPORT ?IS VIEW >E TAK5 9TO ACC\NT1 WE MAY SAFELY SAY ?AT MUTUAL AID IS AS MU* A LAW ( ANIMAL LIFE AS MUTUAL /RUGGLE1 BUT ?AT1 AS A FACTOR ( EVOLUTION1 IT MO/ PROBABLY HAS A F> GREAT] IMPORTANCE1 9ASMU* AS IT FAVORS ! DEVELOPM5T ( SU* HABITS & *>ACT]S AS 9SURE ! MA9T5ANCE & FUR!R DEVELOPM5T ( ! SPECIES1 TOGE!R ) ! GREATE/ AM\NT ( WELF>E & 5JOYM5T ( LIFE = ! 9DIVIDUAL1 ) ! LEA/ WA/E ( 5]GY4 

  ,( ! SCI5TIFIC FOLL[]S ( ,D>W91 ! FIR/1 AS F> AS ,I KN[1 :O UND]/OOD ! FULL PURPORT ( ,MUTUAL ,AID AS A LAW ( ,NATURE & ! *IEF FACTOR ( EVOLUTION1 WAS A WELL-KN[N ,RUSSIAN ZOOLOGI/1 ! LATE ,DEAN ( ! ,/4 ,PET]SBURG ,UNIV]SITY1 ,PR(ESSOR ,KESSL]4 ,HE DEVELOP$ HIS IDEAS 9 AN ADDRESS :I* HE DELIV]$ 9 ,JANU>Y #a#h#h1 A FEW MON?S BE=E HIS DEA?1 AT A ,CONGRESS ( ,RUSSIAN NATURALI/S2 BUT1 LIKE SO MANY GOOD ?+S PUBLI%$ 9 ! ,RUSSIAN TONGUE ONLY1 ?AT REM>KABLE ADDRESS REMA9S ALMO/ 5TIRELY UNKN[N4#c 

  0,AS A ZOOLOGI/ ( OLD /&+10 HE FELT B\ND TO PROTE/ AGA9/ ! ABUSE ( A T]M -- ! /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE -- BORR[$ FROM ZOOLOGY1 OR1 AT LEA/1 AGA9/ OV]RAT+ ITS IMPORTANCE4 ,ZOOLOGY1 HE SAID1 & ?OSE SCI5CES :I* DEAL ) MAN1 CONT9UALLY 9SI/ UPON :AT !Y CALL ! PITILESS LAW ( /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE4 ,BUT !Y =GET ! EXI/5CE ( ANO!R LAW :I* MAY BE DESCRIB$ AS ! LAW ( MUTUAL AID1 :I* LAW1 AT LEA/ = ! ANIMALS1 IS F> MORE ESS5TIAL ?AN ! =M]4 ,HE PO9T$ \T H[ ! NE$ ( LEAV+ PROG5Y NECESS>ILY BR+S ANIMALS TOGE!R1 &1 0! MORE ! 9DIVIDUALS KEEP TOGE!R1 ! MORE !Y MUTUALLY SUPPORT EA* O!R1 & ! MORE >E ! *ANCES ( ! SPECIES = SURVIV+1 AS WELL AS = MAK+ FUR!R PROGRESS 9 ITS 9TELLECTUAL DEVELOPM5T40 0,ALL CLASSES ( ANIMALS10 HE CONT9U$1 0& ESPECIALLY ! HI<] ONES1 PRACTICE MUTUAL AID10 & HE ILLU/RAT$ HIS IDEA BY EXAMPLES BORR[$ FROM ! LIFE ( ! BURY+ BEETLES & ! SOCIAL LIFE ( BIRDS & SOME MAMMALIA4 ,! EXAMPLES W]E FEW1 AS MI<T HAVE BE5 EXPECT$ 9 A %ORT OP5+ ADDRESS1 BUT ! *IEF PO9TS W]E CLE>LY /AT$2 &1 AFT] M5TION+ ?AT 9 ! EVOLUTION ( MANK9D MUTUAL AID PLAY$ A /ILL MORE PROM95T P>T1 ,PR(ESSOR ,KESSL] CONCLUD$ AS FOLL[S3 -- 

0,I OBVI\SLY DO NOT D5Y ! /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1 BUT ,I MA9TA9 ?AT ! PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPM5T ( ! ANIMAL K+DOM1 & ESPECIALLY ( MANK9D1 IS FAVOR$ MU* MORE BY MUTUAL SUPPORT ?AN BY MUTUAL /RUGGLE4444 ,ALL ORGANIC BE+S HAVE TWO ESS5TIAL NE$S3 ?AT ( NUTRITION1 & ?AT ( PROPAGAT+ ! SPECIES4 ,! =M] BR+S !M TO A /RUGGLE & TO MUTUAL EXT]M9ATION1 :ILE ! NE$S ( MA9TA9+ ! SPECIES BR+ !M TO APPROA* ONE ANO!R & TO SUPPORT ONE ANO!R4 ,BUT ,I AM 9CL9$ TO ?9K ?AT 9 ! EVOLUTION ( ! ORGANIC WORLD -- 9 ! PROGRESSIVE MODIFICATION ( ORGANIC BE+S -- MUTUAL SUPPORT AMONG 9DIVIDUALS PLAYS A MU* MORE IMPORTANT P>T ?AN !IR MUTUAL /RUGGLE40#d 

  ,! CORRECTNESS ( ! ABOVE VIEWS /RUCK MO/ ( ! ,RUSSIAN ZOOLOGI/S PRES5T1 & ,SYEV]TS(F1 :OSE WORK IS WELL KN[N TO ORNI?OLOGI/S & GEOGRAPH]S1 SUPPORT$ !M & ILLU/RAT$ !M BY A FEW MORE EXAMPLES4 ,HE M5TION$ SONE ( ! SPECIES ( FALCONS :I* HAVE 0AN ALMO/ IDEAL ORGANIZATION = ROBB]Y10 & NEV]!LESS >E 9 DECAY1 :ILE O!R SPECIES ( FALCONS1 :I* PRACTICE MUTUAL HELP1 DO ?RIVE4 0,TAKE1 ON ! O!R SIDE1 A SOCIABLE BIRD1 ! DUCK10 HE SAID2 0IT IS POORLY ORGANIZ$ ON ! :OLE1 BUT IT PRACTICES MUTUAL SUPPORT1 & IT ALMO/ 9VADES ! E>?1 AS MAY BE JUDG$ FROM ITS NUMB]LESS V>IETIES & SPECIES40 

  ,! READ9ESS ( ! ,RUSSIAN ZOOLOGI/S TO ACCEPT ,KESSL]'S VIEWS SEEMS QUITE NATURAL1 BECAUSE NE>LY ALL ( !M HAVE HAD OPPORTUNITIES ( /UDY+ ! ANIMAL WORLD 9 ! WIDE UN9HABIT$ REGIONS ( ,NOR!RN ,ASIA & ,EA/ ,RUSSIA2 & IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO /UDY LIKE REGIONS )\T BE+ BR\<T TO ! SAME IDEAS4 ,I RECOLLECT MYSELF ! IMPRESSION PRODUC$ UPON ME BY ! ANIMAL WORLD ( ,SIB]IA :5 ,I EXPLOR$ ! ,VITIM REGIONS 9 ! COMPANY ( SO ACCOMPLI%$ A ZOOLOGI/ AS MY FRI5D ,POLYAK(F WAS4 ,WE BO? W]E UND] ! FRE% IMPRESSION ( ! ,ORIG9 ( ,SPECIES1 BUT WE VA9LY LOOK$ = ! KE5 COMPETITION BETWE5 ANIMALS ( ! SAME SPECIES :I* ! READ+ ( ,D>W9'S WORK HAD PREP>$ US TO EXPECT1 EV5 AFT] TAK+ 9TO ACC\NT ! REM>KS ( ! ?IRD *APT] 7P4 #e#d74 ,WE SAW PL5TY ( ADAPTATIONS = /RUGGL+1 V]Y (T5 9 COMMON1 AGA9/ ! ADV]SE CIRCUM/ANCES ( CLIMATE1 OR AGA9/ V>I\S 5EMIES1 & ,POLYAK(F WROTE MANY A GOOD PAGE UPON ! MUTUAL DEP5D5CY ( C>NIVORES1 RUM9ANTS1 & ROD5TS 9 !IR GEOGRAPHICAL DI/RIBUTION2 WE WITNESS$ NUMB]S ( FACTS ( MUTUAL SUPPORT1 ESPECIALLY DUR+ ! MIGRATIONS ( BIRDS & RUM9ANTS2 BUT EV5 9 ! ,AMUR & ,USURI REGIONS1 :]E ANIMAL LIFE SW>MS 9 ABUNDANCE1 FACTS ( REAL COMPETITION & /RUGGLE BETWE5 HI<] ANIMALS ( ! SAME SPECIES CAME V]Y SELDOM UND] MY NOTICE1 ?\< ,I EAG]LY SE>*$ = !M4 ,! SAME IMPRESSION APPE>S 9 ! WORKS ( MO/ ,RUSSIAN ZOOLOGI/S1 & IT PROBABLY EXPLA9S :Y ,KESSL]'S IDEAS W]E SO WELCOM$ BY ! ,RUSSIAN ,D>W9I/S1 :IL/ LIKE IDEAS >E NOT 9 VOGUE AMID ! FOLL[]S ( ,D>W9 9 ,WE/]N ,EUROPE4 

  ,! FIR/ ?+ :I* /RIKES US AS SOON AS WE BEG9 /UDY+ ! /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE UND] BO? ITS ASPECTS -- DIRECT & METAPHORICAL -- IS ! ABUNDANCE ( FACTS ( MUTUAL AID1 NOT ONLY = RE>+ PROG5Y1 AS RECOGNIZ$ BY MO/ EVOLUTIONI/S1 BUT ALSO = ! SAFETY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 & = PROVID+ IT ) ! NECESS>Y FOOD4 ,) MANY L>GE DIVISIONS ( ! ANIMAL K+DOM MUTUAL AID IS ! RULE4 ,MUTUAL AID IS MET ) EV5 AMID ! L[E/ ANIMALS1 & WE MU/ BE PREP>$ TO LE>N SOME DAY1 FROM ! /UD5TS ( MICROSCOPICAL POND-LIFE1 FACTS ( UNCONSCI\S MUTUAL SUPPORT1 EV5 FROM ! LIFE ( MICRO-ORGANISMS4 ,( C\RSE1 \R KN[L$GE ( ! LIFE ( ! 9V]TEBRATES1 SAVE ! T]MITES1 ! ANTS1 & ! BEES1 IS EXTREMELY LIMIT$2 & YET1 EV5 AS REG>DS ! L[] ANIMALS1 WE MAY GLEAN A FEW FACTS ( WELL-ASC]TA9$ COOP]ATION4 ,! NUMB]LESS ASSOCIATIONS ( LOCU/S1 VANESSAE1 CIC9DELAE1 CICADAE1 & SO ON1 >E PRACTICALLY QUITE UNEXPLOR$2 BUT ! V]Y FACT ( !IR EXI/5CE 9DICATES ?AT !Y MU/ BE COMPOS$ ON AB\T ! SAME PR9CIPLES AS ! TEMPOR>Y ASSOCIATIONS ( ANTS OR BEES = PURPOSES ( MIGRATION4#e ,AS TO ! BEETLES1 WE HAVE QUITE WELL-OBS]V$ FACTS ( MUTUAL HELP AMID ! BURY+ BEETLES 7,NECROPHORUS74 ,!Y MU/ HAVE SOME DECAY+ ORGANIC MATT] TO LAY !IR EGGS 91 & ?US TO PROVIDE !IR L>VAEE ) FOOD2 BUT ?AT MATT] MU/ NOT DECAY V]Y RAPIDLY4 ,SO !Y >E WONT TO BURY 9 ! GR\ND ! CORPSES ( ALL K9DS ( SMALL ANIMALS :I* !Y OCCASIONALLY F9D 9 !IR RAMBLES4 ,AS A RULE1 !Y LIVE AN ISOLAT$ LIFE1 BUT :5 ONE ( !M HAS DISCOV]$ ! CORPSE ( A M\SE OR ( A BIRD1 :I* IT H>DLY C\LD MANAGE TO BURY ITSELF1 IT CALLS F\R1 SIX1 OR T5 O!R BEETLES TO P]=M ! OP]ATION ) UNIT$ EF=TS2 IF NECESS>Y1 !Y TRANSPORT ! CORPSE TO A SUITABLE S(T GR\ND2 & !Y BURY IT 9 A V]Y CONSID]ATE WAY1 )\T QU>REL+ AS TO :I* ( !M WILL 5JOY ! PRIVILEGE ( LAY+ ITS EGGS 9 ! BURI$ CORPSE4 ,& :5 ,GL$ITS* ATTA*$ A DEAD BIRD TO A CROSS MADE \T ( TWO /ICKS1 OR SUSP5D$ A TOAD TO A /ICK PLANT$ 9 ! SOIL1 ! LITTLE BEETLES W\LD 9 ! SAME FRI5DLY WAY COMB9E !IR 9TELLIG5CES TO OV]COME ! >TIFICE ( ,MAN4 ,! SAME COMB9ATION ( EF=TS HAS BE5 NOTIC$ AMONG ! DUNG-BEETLES4 

  ,EV5 AMONG ANIMALS /&+ AT A SOME:AT L[] /AGE ( ORGANIZATION WE MAY F9D LIKE EXAMPLES4 ,SOME L&-CRABS ( ! ,WE/ ,9DIES & ,NOR? ,AM]ICA COMB9E 9 L>GE SW>MS 9 ORD] TO TRAVEL TO ! SEA & TO DEPOSIT !RE9 !IR SPAWN2 & EA* SU* MIGRATION IMPLIES CONC]T1 COOP]ATION1 & MUTUAL SUPPORT4 ,AS TO ! BIG ,MOLUCCA CRAB 7,LIMULUS71 ,I WAS /RUCK 79 #a#h#h#b1 AT ! ,BRI<TON ,AQU>IUM7 ) ! EXT5T ( MUTUAL ASSI/ANCE :I* !SE CLUMSY ANIMALS >E CAPABLE ( BE/[+ UPON A COMRADE 9 CASE ( NE$4 ,ONE ( !M HAD FALL5 UPON ITS BACK 9 A CORN] ( ! TANK1 & ITS HEAVY SAUCEPAN-LIKE C>APACE PREV5T$ IT FROM RETURN+ TO ITS NATURAL POSITION1 ! MORE SO AS !RE WAS 9 ! CORN] AN IRON B> :I* R5D]$ ! TASK /ILL MORE DIFFICULT4 ,ITS COMRADES CAME TO ! RESCUE1 & = ONE H\R'S TIME ,I WAT*$ H[ !Y 5DEAVOR$ TO HELP !IR FELL[-PRISON]4 ,!Y CAME TWO AT ONCE1 PU%$ !IR FRI5D FROM B5EA?1 & AFT] /R5U\S EF=TS SUCCE$$ 9 LIFT+ IT UPRI<T2 BUT !N ! IRON B> W\LD PREV5T !M FROM A*IEV+ ! WORK ( RESCUE1 & ! CRAB W\LD AGA9 HEAVILY FALL UPON ITS BACK4 ,AFT] MANY ATTEMPTS1 ONE ( ! HELP]S W\LD GO 9 ! DEP? ( ! TANK & BR+ TWO O!R CRABS1 :I* W\LD BEG9 ) FRE% =CES ! SAME PU%+ & LIFT+ ( !IR HELPLESS COMRADE4 ,WE /AY$ 9 ! ,AQU>IUM = MORE ?AN TWO H\RS1 &1 :5 LEAV+1 WE AGA9 CAME TO CA/ A GLANCE UPON ! TANK3 ! WORK ( RESCUE /ILL CONT9U$6 ,S9CE ,I SAW ?AT1 ,I CANNOT REFUSE CR$IT TO ! OBS]VATION QUOT$ BY ,DR4 ,]ASMUS ,D>W9 -- NAMELY1 ?AT 0! COMMON CRAB DUR+ ! MOLT+ SEASON /ATIONS AS S5T9EL AN UNM\LT$ OR H>D-%ELL$ 9DIVIDUAL TO PREV5T M>9E 5EMIES FROM 9JUR+ MOLT$ 9DIVIDUALS 9 !IR UNPROTECT$ /ATE40#f 

  ,FACTS ILLU/RAT+ MUTUAL AID AMID ! T]MITES1 ! ANTS1 & ! BEES >E SO WELL KN[N TO ! G5]AL READ]1 ESPECIALLY ?R\< ! WORKS ( ,ROMANES1 ,L4 ,BU*N]1 & ,SIR ,JOHN ,LUBBOCK1 ?AT ,I MAY LIMIT MY REM>KS TO A V]Y FEW H9TS4#g ,IF WE TAKE AN ANTS' NE/1 WE NOT ONLY SEE ?AT EV]Y DESCRIPTION ( WORK-RE>+ ( PROG5Y1 =AG+1 BUILD+1 RE>+ ( APHIDES1 & SO ON -- IS P]=M$ ACCORD+ TO ! PR9CIPLES ( VOLUNT>Y MUTUAL AID2 WE MU/ ALSO RECOGNIZE1 ) ,=EL1 ?AT ! *IEF1 ! FUNDAM5TAL FEATURE ( ! LIFE ( MANY SPECIES ( ANTS IS ! FACT & ! OBLIGATION = EV]Y ANT ( %>+ ITS FOOD1 ALREADY SWALL[$ & P>TLY DIGE/$1 ) EV]Y MEMB] ( ! COMMUNITY :I* MAY APPLY = IT4 ,TWO ANTS BELONG+ TO TWO DIFF]5T SPECIES OR TO TWO HO/ILE NE/S1 :5 !Y OCCASIONALLY MEET TOGE!R1 WILL AVOID EA* O!R4 ,BUT TWO ANTS BELONG+ TO ! SAME NE/ OR TO ! SAME COLONY ( NE/S WILL APPROA* EA* O!R1 EX*ANGE A FEW MOVEM5TS ) ! ANT5NAE1 & 0IF ONE ( !M IS HUNGRY OR ?IR/Y1 & ESPECIALLY IF ! O!R HAS ITS CROP FULL444 IT IMM$IATELY ASKS = FOOD40 ,! 9DIVIDUAL ?US REQUE/$ NEV] REFUSES2 IT SETS AP>T ITS M&IBLES1 TAKES A PROP] POSITION1 & REGURGITATES A DROP ( TRANSP>5T FLUID :I* IS LICK$ UP BY ! HUNGRY ANT4 ,REGURGITAT+ FOOD = O!R ANTS IS SO PROM95T A FEATURE 9 ! LIFE ( ANTS 7AT LIB]TY71 & IT SO CON/ANTLY RECURS BO? = FE$+ HUNGRY COMRADES & = FE$+ L>VAE1 ?AT ,=EL CONSID]S ! DIGE/IVE TUBE ( ! ANTS AS CONSI/+ ( TWO DIFF]5T P>TS1 ONE ( :I*1 ! PO/]IOR1 IS = ! SPECIAL USE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 & ! O!R1 ! ANT]IOR P>T1 IS *IEFLY = ! USE ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,IF AN ANT :I* HAS ITS CROP FULL HAS BE5 SELFI% 5\< TO REFUSE FE$+ A COMRADE1 IT WILL BE TREAT$ AS AN 5EMY1 OR EV5 WORSE4 ,IF ! REFUSAL HAS BE5 MADE :ILE ITS K9SFOLK W]E FI<T+ ) SOME O!R SPECIES1 !Y WILL FALL BACK UPON ! GRE$Y 9DIVIDUAL ) GREAT] VEHEM5CE ?AN EV5 UPON ! 5EMIES !MSELVES4 ,& IF AN ANT HAS NOT REFUS$ TO FE$ ANO!R ANT BELONG+ TO AN 5EMY SPECIES1 IT WILL BE TREAT$ BY ! K9SFOLK ( ! LATT] AS A FRI5D4 ,ALL ?IS IS CONFIRM$ BY MO/ ACCURATE OBS]VATION & DECISIVE EXP]IM5TS4#h 

  ,9 ?AT IMM5SE DIVISION ( ! ANIMAL K+DOM :I* EMBODIES MORE ?AN ONE ?\S& SPECIES1 & IS SO NUM]\S ?AT ! ,BRAZILIANS PRET5D ?AT ,BRAZIL BELONGS TO ! ANTS1 NOT TO M51 COMPETITION AMID ! MEMB]S ( ! SAME NE/1 OR ! COLONY ( NE/S1 DOES NOT EXI/4 ,H[EV] T]RIBLE ! W>S BETWE5 DIFF]5T SPECIES1 & :ATEV] ! ATROCITIES COMMITT$ AT W>-TIME1 MUTUAL AID )9 ! COMMUNITY1 SELF-DEVOTION GR[N 9TO A HABIT1 & V]Y (T5 SELF-SACRIFICE = ! COMMON WELF>E1 >E ! RULE4 ,! ANTS & T]MITES HAVE R5\NC$ ! 0,HOBBESIAN W>10 & !Y >E ! BETT] = IT4 ,!IR WOND]FUL NE/S1 !IR BUILD+S1 SUP]IOR 9 RELATIVE SIZE TO ?OSE ( MAN2 !IR PAV$ ROADS & OV]GR\ND VAULT$ GALL]IES2 !IR SPACI\S HALLS & GRAN>IES2 !IR CORN-FIELDS1 H>VE/+ & 0MALT+0 ( GRA92#i !IR1 RATIONAL ME?ODS ( NURS+ !IR EGGS & L>VAE1 & ( BUILD+ SPECIAL NE/S = RE>+ ! APHIDES :OM ,L9NAEUS SO PICTURESQUELY DESCRIB$ AS 0! C[S ( ! ANTS02 &1 F9ALLY1 !IR C\RAGE1 PLUCK1 &1 SUP]IOR 9TELLIG5CE -- ALL !SE >E ! NATURAL \TCOME ( ! MUTUAL AID :I* !Y PRACTICE AT EV]Y /AGE ( !IR BUSY & LABORI\S LIVES4 ,?AT MODE ( LIFE ALSO NECESS>ILY RESULT$ 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( ANO!R ESS5TIAL FEATURE ( ! LIFE ( ANTS3 ! IMM5SE DEVELOPM5T ( 9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE :I*1 9 ITS TURN1 EVID5TLY L$ TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( ?AT HI< & V>I$ 9TELLIG5CE :I* CANNOT BUT /RIKE ! HUMAN OBS]V]4#a 

  ,IF WE KNEW NO O!R FACTS FROM ANIMAL LIFE ?AN :AT WE KN[ AB\T ! ANTS & ! T]MITES1 WE ALREADY MI<T SAFELY CONCLUDE ?AT MUTUAL AID 7:I* LEADS TO MUTUAL CONFID5CE1 ! FIR/ CONDITION = C\RAGE7 & 9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE 7! FIR/ CONDITION = 9TELLECTUAL PROGRESS7 >E TWO FACTORS 9F9ITELY MORE IMPORTANT ?AN MUTUAL /RUGGLE 9 ! EVOLUTION ( ! ANIMAL K+DOM4 ,9 FACT1 ! ANT ?RIVES )\T HAV+ ANY ( ! 0PROTECTIVE0 FEATURES :I* CANNOT BE DISP5S$ ) BY ANIMALS LIV+ AN ISOLAT$ LIFE4 ,ITS COLOR R5D]S IT CONSPICU\S TO ITS 5EMIES1 & ! L(TY NE/S ( MANY SPECIES >E CONSPICU\S 9 ! MEAD[S & =E/S4 ,IT IS NOT PROTECT$ BY A H>D C>APACE1 & ITS /++ APP>ATUS1 H[EV] DANG]\S :5 HUNDR$S ( /+S >E PLUNG$ 9TO ! FLE% ( AN ANIMAL1 IS NOT ( A GREAT VALUE = 9DIVIDUAL DEF5SE2 :ILE ! EGGS & L>VAE ( ! ANTS >E A DA9TY = A GREAT NUMB] ( ! 9HABITANTS ( ! =E/S4 ,& YET ! ANTS1 9 !IR ?\S&S1 >E NOT MU* DE/ROY$ BY ! BIRDS1 NOT EV5 BY ! ANT-EAT]S1 & !Y >E DREAD$ BY MO/ /RONG] 9SECTS4 ,:5 ,=EL EMPTI$ A BAGFUL ( ANTS 9 A MEAD[1 HE SAW ?AT 0! CRICKETS RAN AWAY1 AB&ON+ !IR HOLES TO BE SACK$ BY ! ANTS2 ! GRAS%OPP]S & ! CRICKETS FL$ 9 ALL DIRECTIONS2 ! SPID]S & ! BEETLES AB&ON$ !IR PREY 9 ORD] NOT TO BECOME PREY !MSELVES20 EV5 ! NE/S ( ! WASPS W]E TAK5 BY ! ANTS1 AFT] A BATTLE DUR+ :I* MANY ANTS P]I%$ = ! SAFETY ( ! COMMONWEAL?4 ,EV5 ! SWIFTE/ 9SECTS CANNOT ESCAPE1 & ,=EL (T5 SAW BUTT]FLIES1 GNATS1 FLIES1 & SO ON1 SURPRIS$ & KILL$ BY ! ANTS4 ,!IR =CE IS 9 MUTUAL SUPPORT & MUTUAL CONFID5CE4 ,& IF ! ANT -- AP>T FROM ! /ILL HI<] DEVELOP$ T]MITES -- /&S AT ! V]Y TOP ( ! :OLE CLASS ( 9SECTS = ITS 9TELLECTUAL CAPACITIES2 IF ITS C\RAGE IS ONLY EQUAL$ BY ! MO/ C\RAGE\S V]TEBRATES2 & IF ITS BRA9 -- TO USE ,D>W9'S WORDS -- 0IS ONE ( ! MO/ M>VEL\S ATOMS ( MATT] 9 ! WORLD1 P]HAPS MORE SO ?AN ! BRA9 ( MAN10 IS IT NOT DUE TO ! FACT ?AT MUTUAL AID HAS 5TIRELY TAK5 ! PLACE ( MUTUAL /RUGGLE 9 ! COMMUNITIES ( ANTS8 

  ,! SAME IS TRUE AS REG>DS ! BEES4 ,!SE SMALL 9SECTS1 :I* SO EASILY MI<T BECOME ! PREY ( SO MANY BIRDS1 & :OSE HONEY HAS SO MANY ADMIR]S 9 ALL CLASSES ( ANIMALS FROM ! BEETLE TO ! BE>1 ALSO HAVE NONE ( ! PROTECTIVE FEATURES D]IV$ FROM MIMICRY OR O!RWISE1 )\T :I* AN ISOLAT$LY LIV+ 9SECT H>DLY C\LD ESCAPE :OLESALE DE/RUCTION2 & YET1 [+ TO ! MUTUAL AID !Y PRACTICE1 !Y OBTA9 ! WIDE EXT5SION :I* WE KN[ & ! 9TELLIG5CE WE ADMIRE4 ,BY WORK+ 9 COMMON !Y MULTIPLY !IR 9DIVIDUAL =CES2 BY RESORT+ TO A TEMPOR>Y DIVISION ( LABOR COMB9$ ) ! CAPACITY ( EA* BEE TO P]=M EV]Y K9D ( WORK :5 REQUIR$1 !Y ATTA9 SU* A DEGREE ( WELL-BE+ & SAFETY AS NO ISOLAT$ ANIMAL CAN EV] EXPECT TO A*IEVE H[EV] /RONG OR WELL >M$ IT MAY BE4 ,9 !IR COMB9ATIONS !Y >E (T5 MORE SUCCESSFUL ?AN MAN1 :5 HE NEGLECTS TO TAKE ADVANTAGE ( A WELL-PLANN$ MUTUAL ASSI/ANCE4 ,?US1 :5 A NEW SW>M ( BEES IS GO+ TO LEAVE ! HIVE 9 SE>* ( A NEW ABODE1 A NUMB] ( BEES WILL MAKE A PRELIM9>Y EXPLORATION ( ! NEI<BORHOOD1 & IF !Y DISCOV] A CONV5I5T DWELL+-PLACE -- SAY1 AN OLD BASKET1 OR ANY?+ ( ! K9D -- !Y WILL TAKE POSSESSION ( IT1 CLEAN IT1 & GU>D IT1 SOMETIMES = A :OLE WEEK1 TILL ! SW>M COMES TO SETTLE !RE94 ,BUT H[ MANY HUMAN SETTL]S WILL P]I% 9 NEW C\NTRIES SIMPLY = NOT HAV+ UND]/OOD ! NECESSITY ( COMB9+ !IR EF=TS6 ,BY COMB9+ !IR 9DIVIDUAL 9TELLIG5CES !Y SUCCE$ 9 COP+ ) ADV]SE CIRCUM/ANCES1 EV5 QUITE UN=ESE5 & UNUSUAL1 LIKE ?OSE BEES ( ! ,P>IS ,EXHIBITION :I* FA/5$ ) !IR RES9\S PROPOLIS ! %UTT] TO A GLASS-PLATE FITT$ 9 ! WALL ( !IR HIVE4 ,BESIDES1 !Y DISPLAY NONE ( ! SANGU9>Y PROCLIVITIES & LOVE ( USELESS FI<T+ ) :I* MANY WRIT]S SO READILY 5D[ ANIMALS4 ,! S5TRIES :I* GU>D ! 5TRANCE TO ! HIVE PITILESSLY PUT TO DEA? ! ROBB+ BEES :I* ATTEMPT 5T]+ ! HIVE2 BUT ?OSE /RANG] BEES :I* COME TO ! HIVE BY MI/AKE >E LEFT UNMOLE/$1 ESPECIALLY IF !Y COME LAD5 ) POLL51 OR >E Y\NG 9DIVIDUALS :I* CAN EASILY GO A/RAY4 ,!RE IS NO MORE W>F>E ?AN IS /RICTLY REQUIR$4 

  ,! SOCIABILITY ( ! BEES IS ! MORE 9/RUCTIVE AS PR$ATORY 9/9CTS & LAZ9ESS CONT9UE TO EXI/ AMONG ! BEES AS WELL1 & REAPPE> EA* TIME ?AT !IR GR[? IS FAVOR$ BY SOME CIRCUM/ANCES4 ,IT IS WELL KN[N ?AT !RE ALWAYS >E A NUMB] ( BEES :I* PREF] A LIFE ( ROBB]Y TO ! LABORI\S LIFE ( A WORK]2 & ?AT BO? P]IODS ( SC>CITY & P]IODS ( AN UNUSUALLY RI* SUPPLY ( FOOD LEAD TO AN 9CREASE ( ! ROBB+ CLASS4 ,:5 \R CROPS >E 9 & !RE REMA9S BUT LITTLE TO GA!R 9 \R MEAD[S & FIELDS1 ROBB+ BEES BECOME ( MORE FREQU5T OCCURR5CE2 :ILE1 ON ! O!R SIDE1 AB\T ! SUG> PLANTATIONS ( ! ,WE/ ,9DIES & ! SUG> REF9]IES ( ,EUROPE1 ROBB]Y1 LAZ9ESS1 & V]Y (T5 DRUNK5NESS BECOME QUITE USUAL ) ! BEES4 ,WE ?US SEE ?AT ANTI-SOCIAL 9/9CTS CONT9UE TO EXI/ AMID ! BEES AS WELL2 BUT NATURAL SELECTION CONT9UALLY MU/ ELIM9ATE !M1 BECAUSE 9 ! LONG RUN ! PRACTICE ( SOLID>ITY PROVES MU* MORE ADVANTAGE\S TO ! SPECIES ?AN ! DEVELOPM5T ( 9DIVIDUALS 5D[$ ) PR$ATORY 9CL9ATIONS4 ,! CUNN+E/ & ! %REWDE/ >E ELIM9AT$ 9 FAVOR ( ?OSE :O UND]/& ! ADVANTAGES ( SOCIABLE LIFE & MUTUAL SUPPORT4 

  ,C]TA9LY1 NEI!R ! ANTS1 NOR ! BEES1 NOR EV5 ! T]MITES1 HAVE RIS5 TO ! CONCEPTION ( A HI<] SOLID>ITY EMBODY+ ! :OLE ( ! SPECIES4 ,9 ?AT RESPECT !Y EVID5TLY HAVE NOT ATTA9$ A DEGREE ( DEVELOPM5T :I* WE DO NOT F9D EV5 AMONG \R POLITICAL1 SCI5TIFIC1 & RELIGI\S LEAD]S4 ,!IR SOCIAL 9/9CTS H>DLY EXT5D BEYOND ! LIMITS ( ! HIVE OR ! NE/4 ,H[EV]1 COLONIES ( NO LESS ?AN TWO HUNDR$ NE/S1 BELONG+ TO TWO DIFF]5T SPECIES 7,=MICA EXSECTA & ,F4 PRESSILABRIS7 HAVE BE5 DESCRIB$ BY ,=EL ON ,M\NT ,T5DRE & ,M\NT ,SALEVE2 & ,=EL MA9TA9S ?AT EA* MEMB] ( !SE COLONIES RECOGNIZES EV]Y O!R MEMB] ( ! COLONY1 & ?AT !Y ALL TAKE P>T 9 COMMON DEF5SE2 :ILE 9 ,P5NSYLVANIA ,MR4 ,MAC,COOK SAW A :OLE NATION ( FROM #a1#f TO #a1#g NE/S ( ! M\ND-MAK+ ANT1 ALL LIV+ 9 P]FECT 9TELLIG5CE2 & ,MR4 ,BATES HAS DESCRIB$ ! HILLOCKS ( ! T]MITES COV]+ L>GE SURFACES 9 ! 0CAMPOS0 -- SOME ( ! NE/S BE+ ! REFUGE ( TWO OR ?REE DIFF]5T SPECIES1 & MO/ ( !M BE+ CONNECT$ BY VAULT$ GALL]IES OR >CADES4#a#a ,SOME /EPS T[>DS ! AMALGAMATION ( L>G] DIVISIONS ( ! SPECIES = PURPOSES ( MUTUAL PROTECTION >E ?US MET ) EV5 AMONG ! 9V]TEBRATE ANIMALS4 

  ,GO+ N[ OV] TO HI<] ANIMALS1 WE F9D F> MORE 9/ANCES ( UND\BT$LY CONSCI\S MUTUAL HELP = ALL POSSIBLE PURPOSES1 ?\< WE MU/ RECOGNIZE AT ONCE ?AT \R KN[L$GE EV5 ( ! LIFE ( HI<] ANIMALS /ILL REMA9S V]Y IMP]FECT4 ,A L>GE NUMB] ( FACTS HAVE BE5 ACCUMULAT$ BY FIR/-RATE OBS]V]S1 BUT !RE >E :OLE DIVISIONS ( ! ANIMAL K+DOM ( :I* WE KN[ ALMO/ NO?+4 ,TRU/WOR?Y 9=MATION AS REG>DS FI%ES IS EXTREMELY SC>CE1 P>TLY [+ TO ! DIFFICULTIES ( OBS]VATION1 & P>TLY BECAUSE NO PROP] ATT5TION HAS YET BE5 PAID TO ! SUBJECT4 ,AS TO ! MAMMALIA1 ,KESSL] ALREADY REM>K$ H[ LITTLE WE KN[ AB\T !IR MANN]S ( LIFE4 ,MANY ( !M >E NOCTURNAL 9 !IR HABITS2 O!RS CONCEAL !MSELVES UND]GR\ND2 & ?OSE RUM9ANTS :OSE SOCIAL LIFE & MIGRATIONS (F] ! GREATE/ 9T]E/ DO NOT LET MAN APPROA* !IR H]DS4 ,IT IS *IEFLY UPON BIRDS ?AT WE HAVE ! WIDE/ RANGE ( 9=MATION1 & YET ! SOCIAL LIFE ( V]Y MANY SPECIES REMA9S BUT IMP]FECTLY KN[N4 ,/ILL1 WE NE$ NOT COMPLA9 AB\T ! LACK ( WELL-ASC]TA9$ FACTS1 AS WILL BE SE5 FROM ! FOLL[+4 

  ,I NE$ NOT DWELL UPON ! ASSOCIATIONS ( MALE & FEMALE = RE>+ !IR (FSPR+1 = PROVID+ IT ) FOOD DUR+ !IR FIR/ /EPS 9 LIFE1 OR = HUNT+ 9 COMMON2 ?\< IT MAY BE M5TION$ BY ! WAY ?AT SU* ASSOCIATIONS >E ! RULE EV5 ) ! LEA/ SOCIABLE C>NIVORES & RAPACI\S BIRDS2 & ?AT !Y D]IVE A SPECIAL 9T]E/ FROM BE+ ! FIELD UPON :I* T5D]] FEEL+S DEVELOP EV5 AMID O!RWISE MO/ CRUEL ANIMALS4 ,IT MAY ALSO BE ADD$ ?AT ! R>ITY ( ASSOCIATIONS L>G] ?AN ?AT ( ! FAMILY AMONG ! C>NIVORES & ! BIRDS ( PREY1 ?\< MO/LY BE+ ! RESULT ( !IR V]Y MODES ( FE$+1 CAN ALSO BE EXPLA9$ TO SOME EXT5T AS A CONSEQU5CE ( ! *ANGE PRODUC$ 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD BY ! RAPID 9CREASE ( MANK9D4 ,AT ANY RATE IT IS WOR?Y ( NOTE ?AT !RE >E SPECIES LIV+ A QUITE ISOLAT$ LIFE 9 D5SELY-9HABIT$ REGIONS1 :ILE ! SAME SPECIES1 OR !IR NE>E/ CONG5]S1 >E GREG>I\S 9 UN9HABIT$ C\NTRIES4 ,WOLVES1 FOXES1 & SEV]AL BIRDS ( PREY MAY BE QUOT$ AS 9/ANCES 9 PO9T4 

  ,H[EV]1 ASSOCIATIONS :I* DO NOT EXT5D BEYOND ! FAMILY BONDS >E ( RELATIVELY SMALL IMPORTANCE 9 \R CASE1 ! MORE SO AS WE KN[ NUMB]S ( ASSOCIATIONS = MORE G5]AL PURPOSES1 SU* AS HUNT+1 MUTUAL PROTECTION1 & EV5 SIMPLE 5JOYM5T ( LIFE4 ,AUDUBON ALREADY M5TION$ ?AT EAGLES OCCASIONALLY ASSOCIATE = HUNT+1 & HIS DESCRIPTION ( ! TWO BALD EAGLES1 MALE & FEMALE1 HUNT+ ON ! ,MISSISSIPPI1 IS WELL KN[N = ITS GRAPHIC P[]S4 ,BUT ONE ( ! MO/ CONCLUSIVE OBS]VATIONS ( ! K9D BELONGS TO ,SYEV]TS(F4 ,:IL/ /UDY+ ! FAUNA ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,/EPPES1 HE ONCE SAW AN EAGLE BELONG+ TO AN ALTOGE!R GREG>I\S SPECIES 7! :ITE-TAIL$ EAGLE1 ,HALIACTOS ALBICILLA7 RIS+ HI< 9 ! AIR = HALF AN H\R IT WAS DESCRIB+ ITS WIDE CIRCLES 9 SIL5CE :5 AT ONCE ITS PI]C+ VOICE WAS HE>D4 ,ITS CRY WAS SOON ANSW]$ BY ANO!R EAGLE :I* APPROA*$ IT1 & WAS FOLL[$ BY A ?IRD1 A F\R?1 & SO ON1 TILL N9E OR T5 EAGLES CAME TOGE!R & SOON DISAPPE>$4 ,9 ! AFT]NOON1 ,SYEV]TS(F W5T TO ! PLACE :]ETO HE SAW ! EAGLES FLY+2 CONCEAL$ BY ONE ( ! UNDULATIONS ( ! ,/EPPE1 HE APPROA*$ !M1 & DISCOV]$ ?AT !Y HAD GA!R$ >\ND ! CORPSE ( A HORSE4 ,! OLD ONES1 :I*1 AS A RULE1 BEG9 ! MEAL FIR/ -- SU* >E !IR RULES ( PROPRIETY -- ALREADY W]E SITT+ UPON ! HAY/ACKS ( ! NEI<BORHOOD & KEPT WAT*1 :ILE ! Y\NG] ONES W]E CONT9U+ ! MEAL1 SURR\ND$ BY B&S ( CR[S4 ,FROM ?IS & LIKE OBS]VATIONS1 ,SYEV]TS(F CONCLUD$ ?AT ! :ITE-TAIL$ EAGLES COMB9E = HUNT+2 :5 !Y ALL HAVE RIS5 TO A GREAT HEI<T !Y >E 5ABL$1 IF !Y >E T51 TO SURVEY AN >EA ( AT LEA/ TW5TY-FIVE MILES SQU>E2 & AS SOON AS ANY ONE HAS DISCOV]$ SOME?+1 HE W>NS ! O!RS4#a#b ,( C\RSE1 IT MI<T BE >GU$ ?AT A SIMPLE 9/9CTIVE CRY ( ! FIR/ EAGLE1 OR EV5 ITS MOVEM5TS1 W\LD HAVE HAD ! SAME EFFECT ( BR++ SEV]AL EAGLES TO ! PREY1 BUT 9 ?IS CASE !RE IS /RONG EVID5CE 9 FAVOR ( MUTUAL W>N+1 BECAUSE ! T5 EAGLES CAME TOGE!R BE=E DESC5D+ T[>DS ! PREY1 & ,SYEV]TS(F HAD LAT] ON SEV]AL OPPORTUNITIES ( ASC]TA9+ ?AT ! :ITETAIL$ EAGLES ALWAYS ASSEMBLE = DEV\R+ A CORPSE1 & ?AT SOME ( !M 7! Y\NG] ONES FIR/7 ALWAYS KEEP WAT* :ILE ! O!RS >E EAT+4 ,9 FACT1 ! :ITE-TAIL$ EAGLE -- ONE ( ! BRAVE/ & BE/ HUNT]S -- IS A GREG>I\S BIRD ALTOGE!R1 & ,BREHM SAYS ?AT :5 KEPT 9 CAPTIVITY IT V]Y SOON CONTRACTS AN ATTA*M5T TO ITS KEEP]S4 

  ,SOCIABILITY IS A COMMON FEATURE ) V]Y MANY O!R BIRDS ( PREY4 ,! ,BRAZILIAN KITE1 ONE ( ! MO/ 0IMPUD5T0 ROBB]S1 IS NEV]!LESS A MO/ SOCIABLE BIRD4 ,ITS HUNT+ ASSOCIATIONS HAVE BE5 DESCRIB$ BY ,D>W9 & O!R NATURALI/S1 & IT IS A FACT ?AT :5 IT HAS SEIZ$ UPON A PREY :I* IS TOO BIG1 IT CALLS TOGE!R FIVE OR SIX FRI5DS TO C>RY IT AWAY4 ,AFT] A BUSY DAY1 :5 !SE KITES RETIRE = !IR NI<T-RE/ TO A TREE OR TO ! BU%ES1 !Y ALWAYS GA!R 9 B&S1 SOMETIMES COM+ TOGE!R FROM DI/ANCES ( T5 OR MORE MILES1 & !Y (T5 >E JO9$ BY SEV]AL O!R VULTURES1 ESPECIALLY ! P]CNOPT]S1 0!IR TRUE FRI5DS10 ,D',ORBIGNY SAYS4 ,9 ANO!R CONT95T1 9 ! ,TRANSCASPIAN DES]TS1 !Y HAVE1 ACCORD+ TO ,Z>UDNYI1 ! SAME HABIT ( NE/+ TOGE!R4 ,! SOCIABLE VULTURE1 ONE ( ! /RONGE/ VULTURES1 HAS RECEIV$ ITS V]Y NAME FROM ITS LOVE ( SOCIETY4 ,!Y LIVE 9 NUM]\S B&S1 & DECID$LY 5JOY SOCIETY2 NUMB]S ( !M JO9 9 !IR HI< FLI<TS = SPORT4 0,!Y LIVE 9 V]Y GOOD FRI5D%IP10 ,LE ,VAILLANT SAYS1 0& 9 ! SAME CAVE ,I SOMETIMES F\ND AS MANY AS ?REE NE/S CLOSE TOGE!R40#a#c ,! ,URUBU VULTURES ( ,BRAZIL >E AS1 OR P]HAPS EV5 MORE1 SOCIABLE ?AN ROOKS4#a#d ,! LITTLE ,EGYPTIAN VULTURES LIVE 9 CLOSE FRI5D%IP4 ,!Y PLAY 9 B&S 9 ! AIR1 !Y COME TOGE!R TO SP5D ! NI<T1 & 9 ! MORN+ !Y ALL GO TOGE!R TO SE>* = !IR FOOD1 & NEV] DOES ! SLI<TE/ QU>REL >ISE AMONG !M2 SU* IS ! TE/IMONY ( ,BREHM1 :O HAD PL5TY ( OPPORTUNITIES ( OBS]V+ !IR LIFE4 ,! R$-?ROAT$ FALCON IS ALSO MET ) 9 NUM]\S B&S 9 ! =E/S ( ,BRAZIL1 & ! KE/REL 7,T9NUNCULUS C5*RIS71 :5 IT HAS LEFT ,EUROPE1 & HAS REA*$ 9 ! W9T] ! PRAIRIES & =E/S ( ,ASIA1 GA!RS 9 NUM]\S SOCIETIES4 ,9 ! ,/EPPES ( ,S\? ,RUSSIA IT IS 7OR RA!R WAS7 SO SOCIABLE ?AT ,NORDMANN SAW !M 9 NUM]\S B&S1 ) O!R FALCONS 7,FALCO T9NUNCULUS1 ,F4 OESULON1 & ,F4 SUBBUTEO71 COM+ TOGE!R EV]Y F9E AFT]NOON AB\T F\R O'CLOCK1 & 5JOY+ !IR SPORTS TILL LATE 9 ! NI<T4 ,!Y SET (F FLY+1 ALL AT ONCE1 9 A QUITE /RAI<T L9E1 T[>DS SOME DET]M9$ PO9T1 & HAV+ REA*$ IT1 IMM$IATELY RETURN$ OV] ! SAME L9E1 TO REPEAT ! SAME FLI<T4#a#e 

  ,TO TAKE FLI<TS 9 FLOCKS = ! M]E PLEASURE ( ! FLI<T1 IS QUITE COMMON AMONG ALL SORTS ( BIRDS4 0,9 ! ,HUMB] DI/RICT ESPECIALLY10 ,*4 ,DIXON WRITES1 0VA/ FLI<TS ( DUNL9S (T5 APPE> UPON ! MUD-FLATS T[>DS ! 5D ( ,AUGU/1 & REMA9 = ! W9T]4444 ,! MOVEM5TS ( !SE BIRDS >E MO/ 9T]E/+1 AS A VA/ FLOCK :EELS & SPREADS \T OR CLOSES UP ) AS MU* PRECISION AS DRILL$ TROOPS4 ,SCATT]$ AMONG !M >E MANY ODD /9TS & S&]L+S & R+$-PLOV]S40#a#f 

  ,IT W\LD BE QUITE IMPOSSIBLE TO 5UM]ATE H]E ! V>I\S HUNT+ ASSOCIATIONS ( BIRDS2 BUT ! FI%+ ASSOCIATIONS ( ! PELICANS >E C]TA9LY WOR?Y ( NOTICE = ! REM>KABLE ORD] & 9TELLIG5CE DISPLAY$ BY !SE CLUMSY BIRDS4 ,!Y ALWAYS GO FI%+ 9 NUM]\S B&S1 & AFT] HAV+ *OS5 AN APPROPRIATE BAY1 !Y =M A WIDE HALF-CIRCLE 9 FACE ( ! %ORE1 & N>R[ IT BY PADDL+ T[>DS ! %ORE1 CAT*+ ALL FI% ?AT HAPP5 TO BE 5CLOS$ 9 ! CIRCLE4 ,ON N>R[ RIV]S & CANALS !Y EV5 DIVIDE 9TO TWO P>TIES1 EA* ( :I* DRAWS UP ON A HALF-CIRCLE1 & BO? PADDLE TO MEET EA* O!R1 JU/ AS IF TWO P>TIES ( M5 DRAGG+ TWO LONG NETS %\LD ADVANCE TO CAPTURE ALL FI% TAK5 BETWE5 ! NETS :5 BO? P>TIES COME TO MEET4 ,AS ! NI<T COMES !Y FLY TO !IR RE/+-PLACES -- ALWAYS ! SAME = EA* FLOCK -- & NO ONE HAS EV] SE5 !M FI<T+ = ! POSSESSION ( EI!R ! BAY OR ! RE/+ PLACE4 ,9 ,S\? ,AM]ICA !Y GA!R 9 FLOCKS ( FROM =TY TO FIFTY ?\S& 9DIVIDUALS1 P>T ( :I* 5JOY SLEEP :ILE ! O!RS KEEP WAT*1 & O!RS AGA9 GO FI%+4#a#g ,& F9ALLY1 ,I %\LD BE DO+ AN 9JU/ICE TO ! MU*-CALUMNIAT$ H\SE-SP>R[S IF ,I DID NOT M5TION H[ FAI?FULLY EA* ( !M %>ES ANY FOOD IT DISCOV]S ) ALL MEMB]S ( ! SOCIETY TO :I* IT BELONGS4 ,! FACT WAS KN[N TO ! ,GREEKS1 & IT HAS BE5 TRANSMITT$ TO PO/]ITY H[ A ,GREEK ORATOR ONCE EXCLAIM$ 7,I QUOTE FROM MEMORY73 -- 0,:ILE ,I AM SPEAK+ TO Y\ A SP>R[ HAS COME TO TELL TO O!R SP>R[S ?AT A SLAVE HAS DROPP$ ON ! FLOOR A SACK ( CORN1 & !Y ALL GO !RE TO FE$ UPON ! GRA940 ,! MORE1 ONE IS PLEAS$ TO F9D ?IS OBS]VATION ( OLD CONFIRM$ 9 A REC5T LITTLE BOOK BY ,MR4 ,GURNEY1 :O DOES NOT D\BT ?AT ! H\SE SP>R[S ALWAYS 9=M EA* O!R AS TO :]E !RE IS SOME FOOD TO /EAL2 HE SAYS1 0,:5 A /ACK HAS BE5 ?RA%$ EV] SO F> FROM ! Y>D1 ! SP>R[S 9 ! Y>D HAVE ALWAYS HAD !IR CROPS FULL ( ! GRA940#a#h ,TRUE1 ! SP>R[S >E EXTREMELY P>TICUL> 9 KEEP+ !IR DOMA9S FREE FROM ! 9VASIONS ( /RANG]S2 ?US ! SP>R[S ( ! ,J>D9 DU ,LUXEMB\RG BITT]LY FI<T ALL O!R SP>R[S :I* MAY ATTEMPT TO 5JOY !IR TURN ( ! G>D5 & ITS VISITORS2 BUT )9 !IR [N COMMUNITIES !Y FULLY PRACTICE MUTUAL SUPPORT1 ?\< OCCASIONALLY !RE WILL BE ( C\RSE SOME QU>REL+ EV5 AMONG ! BE/ FRI5DS4 

   ,HUNT+ & FE$+ 9 COMMON IS SO MU* ! HABIT 9 ! FEA!R$ WORLD ?AT MORE QUOTATIONS H>DLY W\LD BE NE$FUL3 IT MU/ BE CONSID]$ AS AN E/ABLI%$ FACT4 ,AS TO ! =CE D]IV$ FROM SU* ASSOCIATIONS1 IT IS SELF-EVID5T4 ,! /RONGE/ BIRDS ( PREY >E P[]LESS 9 FACE ( ! ASSOCIATIONS ( \R SMALLE/ BIRD PETS4 ,EV5 EAGLES -- EV5 ! P[]FUL & T]RIBLE BOOT$ EAGLE1 & ! M>TIAL EAGLE1 :I* IS /RONG 5\< TO C>RY AWAY A H>E OR A Y\NG ANTELOPE 9 ITS CLAWS -- >E COMPELL$ TO AB&ON !IR PREY TO B&S ( ?OSE BEGG>S ! KITES1 :I* GIVE ! EAGLE A REGUL> *ASE AS SOON AS !Y SEE IT 9 POSSESSION ( A GOOD PREY4 ,! KITES WILL ALSO GIVE *ASE TO ! SWIFT FI%+-HAWK1 & ROB IT ( ! FI% IT HAS CAPTUR$2 BUT NO ONE EV] SAW ! KITES FI<T+ TOGE!R = ! POSSESSION ( ! PREY SO /OL54 ,ON ! ,K]GUEL5 ,ISL&1 ,DR4 ,C\ES SAW ! GULLS TO ,BUPHOGUS -- ! SEA-H5 ( ! SEAL]S -- PURSUE GULLS TO MAKE !M DISGORGE !IR FOOD1 :ILE1 ON ! O!R SIDE1 ! GULLS & ! T]NS COMB9$ TO DRIVE AWAY ! SEA-H5 AS SOON AS IT CAME NE> TO !IR ABODES1 ESPECIALLY AT NE/+-TIME4#a#i ,! LITTLE1 BUT EXTREMELY SWIFT LAPW+S 7,VANELLUS CRI/ATUS7 BOLDLY ATTACK ! BIRDS ( PREY4 0,TO SEE !M ATTACK+ A BUZZ>D1 A KITE1 A CR[1 OR AN EAGLE1 IS ONE ( ! MO/ AMUS+ SPECTACLES4 ,ONE FEELS ?AT !Y >E SURE ( VICTORY1 & ONE SEES ! ANG] ( ! BIRD ( PREY4 ,9 SU* CIRCUM/ANCES !Y P]FECTLY SUPPORT ONE ANO!R1 & !IR C\RAGE GR[S ) !IR NUMB]S4#b ,! LAPW+ HAS WELL M]IT$ ! NAME ( A 0GOOD MO!R0 :I* ! ,GREEKS GAVE TO IT1 = IT NEV] FAILS TO PROTECT O!R AQUATIC BIRDS FROM ! ATTACKS ( !IR 5EMIES4 ,BUT EV5 ! LITTLE :ITE WAGTAILS 7,MOTACILLA ALBA71 :OM WE WELL KN[ 9 \R G>D5S & :OSE :OLE L5G? H>DLY ATTA9S EI<T 9*ES1 COMPEL ! SP>R[-HAWK TO AB&ON ITS HUNT4 0,I (T5 ADMIR$ !IR C\RAGE & AGILITY10 ! OLD ,BREHM WROTE1 0& ,I AM P]SUAD$ ?AT ! FALCON ALONE IS CAPABLE ( CAPTUR+ ANY ( !M4444 ,:5 A B& ( WAGTAILS HAS COMPELL$ A BIRD ( PREY TO RETREAT1 !Y MAKE ! AIR RES\ND ) !IR TRIUMPHANT CRIES1 & AFT] ?AT !Y SEP>ATE4 0,!Y ?US COME TOGE!R = ! SPECIAL PURPOSE ( GIV+ *ASE TO !IR 5EMY1 JU/ AS WE SEE IT :5 ! :OLE BIRD-POPULATION ( A =E/ HAS BE5 RAIS$ BY ! NEWS ?AT A NOCTURNAL BIRD HAS MADE ITS APPE>ANCE DUR+ ! DAY1 & ALL TOGE!R -- BIRDS ( PREY & SMALL 9(F5SIVE S+]S -- SET TO *ASE ! /RANG] & MAKE IT RETURN TO ITS CONCEALM5T4 

  ,:AT AN IMM5SE DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! =CE ( A KITE1 A BUZZ>D OR A HAWK1 & SU* SMALL BIRDS AS ! MEAD[-WAGTAIL2 & YET !SE LITTLE BIRDS1 BY !IR COMMON ACTION & C\RAGE1 PROVE SUP]IOR TO ! P[]FULLY-W+$ & >M$ ROBB]S6 ,9 ,EUROPE1 ! WAGTAILS NOT ONLY *ASE ! BIRDS ( PREY :I* MI<T BE DANG]\S TO !M1 BUT !Y *ASE ALSO ! FI%+-HAWK 0RA!R = FUN ?AN = DO+ IT ANY H>M20 :ILE 9 ,9DIA1 ACCORD+ TO ,DR4 ,J]DON'S TE/IMONY1 ! JACKDAWS *ASE ! G[9DA-KITE 0= SIMPLE MATT] ( AMUSEM5T40 ,PR9CE ,WI$ SAW ! ,BRAZILIAN EAGLE URUBIT+A SURR\ND$ BY NUMB]LESS FLOCKS ( T\CANS & CASSIQUES 7A BIRD NE>LY AK9 TO \R ROOK71 :I* MOCK$ IT4 0,! EAGLE10 HE ADDS1 0USUALLY SUPPORTS !SE 9SULTS V]Y QUIETLY1 BUT FROM TIME TO TIME IT WILL CAT* ONE ( !SE MOCK]S40 ,9 ALL SU* CASES ! LITTLE BIRDS1 ?\< V]Y MU* 9F]IOR 9 =CE TO ! BIRD ( PREY1 PROVE SUP]IOR TO IT BY !IR COMMON ACTION4#b#a 

  ,H[EV]1 ! MO/ /RIK+ EFFECTS ( COMMON LIFE = ! SECURITY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 = ITS 5JOYM5T ( LIFE1 & = ! DEVELOPM5T ( ITS 9TELLECTUAL CAPACITIES1 >E SE5 9 TWO GREAT FAMILIES ( BIRDS1 ! CRANES & ! P>ROTS4 ,! CRANES >E EXTREMELY SOCIABLE & LIVE 9 MO/ EXCELL5T RELATIONS1 NOT ONLY ) !IR CONG5]S1 BUT ALSO ) MO/ AQUATIC BIRDS4 ,!IR PRUD5CE IS REALLY A/ONI%+1 SO ALSO !IR 9TELLIG5CE2 !Y GRASP ! NEW CONDITIONS 9 A MOM5T1 & ACT ACCORD+LY4 ,!IR S5TRIES ALWAYS KEEP WAT* >\ND A FLOCK :I* IS FE$+ OR RE/+1 & ! HUNT]S KN[ WELL H[ DIFFICULT IT IS TO APPROA* !M4 ,IF MAN HAS SUCCE$$ 9 SURPRIS+ !M1 !Y WILL NEV] RETURN TO ! SAME PLACE )\T HAV+ S5T \T ONE S+LE SC\T FIR/1 & A P>TY ( SC\TS AFT]W>DS2 & :5 ! RECONNOIT]+ P>TY RETURNS & REPORTS ?AT !RE IS NO DANG]1 A SECOND GR\P ( SC\TS IS S5T \T TO V]IFY ! FIR/ REPORT1 BE=E ! :OLE B& MOVES4 ,) K9DR$ SPECIES ! CRANES CONTRACT REAL FRI5D%IP2 & 9 CAPTIVITY !RE IS NO BIRD1 SAVE ! ALSO SOCIABLE & HI<LY 9TELLIG5T P>ROT1 :I* 5T]S 9TO SU* REAL FRI5D%IP ) MAN4 0,IT SEES 9 MAN1 NOT A MA/]1 BUT A FRI5D1 & 5DEAVORS TO MANIFE/ IT10 ,BREHM CONCLUDES FROM A WIDE P]SONAL EXP]I5CE4 ,! CRANE IS 9 CONT9UAL ACTIVITY FROM E>LY 9 ! MORN+ TILL LATE 9 ! NI<T2 BUT IT GIVES A FEW H\RS ONLY 9 ! MORN+ TO ! TASK ( SE>*+ ITS FOOD1 *IEFLY VEGETABLE4 ,ALL ! REMA9D] ( ! DAY IS GIV5 TO SOCIETY LIFE4 0,IT PICKS UP SMALL PIECES ( WOOD OR SMALL /ONES1 ?R[S !M 9 ! AIR & TRIES TO CAT* !M2 IT B5DS ITS NECK1 OP5S ITS W+S1 DANCES1 JUMPS1 RUNS AB\T1 & TRIES TO MANIFE/ BY ALL MEANS ITS GOOD DISPOSITION ( M9D1 & ALWAYS IT REMA9S GRACEFUL & BEAUTIFUL40#b#b ,AS IT LIVES 9 SOCIETY IT HAS ALMO/ NO 5EMIES1 & ?\< ,BREHM OCCASIONALLY SAW ONE ( !M CAPTUR$ BY A CROCODILE1 HE WROTE ?AT EXCEPT ! CROCODILE HE KNEW NO 5EMIES ( ! CRANE4 ,IT ES*EWS ALL ( !M BY ITS PROV]BIAL PRUD5CE2 & IT ATTA9S1 AS A RULE1 A V]Y OLD AGE4 ,NO WOND] ?AT = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! SPECIES ! CRANE NE$ NOT RE> A NUM]\S (FSPR+2 IT USUALLY HAT*ES BUT TWO EGGS4 ,AS TO ITS SUP]IOR 9TELLIG5CE1 IT IS SUFFICI5T TO SAY ?AT ALL OBS]V]S >E UNANIM\S 9 RECOGNIZ+ ?AT ITS 9TELLECTUAL CAPACITIES REM9D ONE V]Y MU* ( ?OSE ( MAN4 

  ,! O!R EXTREMELY SOCIABLE BIRD1 ! P>ROT1 /&S1 AS KN[N1 AT ! V]Y TOP ( ! :OLE FEA!R$ WORLD = ! DEVELOPM5T ( ITS 9TELLIG5CE4 ,BREHM HAS SO ADMIRABLY SUMM$ UP ! MANN]S ( LIFE ( ! P>ROT1 ?AT ,I CANNOT DO BETT] ?AN TRANSLATE ! FOLL[+ S5T5CE3 -- 

  0,EXCEPT 9 ! PAIR+ SEASON1 !Y LIVE 9 V]Y NUM]\S SOCIETIES OR B&S4 ,!Y *OOSE A PLACE 9 ! =E/ TO /AY !RE1 & !NCE !Y />T EV]Y MORN+ = !IR HUNT+ EXP$ITIONS4 ,! MEMB]S ( EA* B& REMA9 FAI?FULLY ATTA*$ TO EA* O!R1 & !Y %>E 9 COMMON GOOD OR BAD LUCK4 ,ALL TOGE!R !Y REPAIR 9 ! MORN+ TO A FIELD1 OR TO A G>D51 OR TO A TREE1 TO FE$ UPON FRUITS4 ,!Y PO/ S5TRIES TO KEEP WAT* OV] ! SAFETY ( ! :OLE B&1 & >E ATT5TIVE TO !IR W>N+S4 ,9 CASE ( DANG]1 ALL TAKE TO FLI<T1 MUTUALLY SUPPORT+ EA* O!R1 & ALL SIMULTANE\SLY RETURN TO !IR RE/+-PLACE4 ,9 A WORD1 !Y ALWAYS LIVE CLOSELY UNIT$40  

  ,!Y 5JOY SOCIETY ( O!R BIRDS AS WELL4 ,9 ,9DIA1 ! JAYS & CR[S COME TOGE!R FROM MANY MILES R\ND1 TO SP5D ! NI<T 9 COMPANY ) ! P>ROTS 9 ! BAMBOO ?ICKETS4 ,:5 ! P>ROTS />T HUNT+1 !Y DISPLAY ! MO/ WOND]FUL 9TELLIG5CE1 PRUD5CE1 & CAPACITY ( COP+ ) CIRCUM/ANCES4 ,TAKE1 = 9/ANCE1 A B& ( :ITE CACADOOS 9 ,AU/RALIA4 ,BE=E />T+ TO PLUND] A CORN-FIELD1 !Y FIR/ S5D \T A RECONNOIT]+ P>TY :I* OCCUPIES ! HI<E/ TREES 9 ! VIC9ITY ( ! FIELD1 :ILE O!R SC\TS P]* UPON ! 9T]M$IATE TREES BETWE5 ! FIELD & ! =E/ & TRANSMIT ! SIGNALS4 ,IF ! REPORT RUNS 0,ALL RI<T10 A SCORE ( CACADOOS WILL SEP>ATE FROM ! BULK ( ! B&1 TAKE A FLI<T 9 ! AIR1 & !N FLY T[>DS ! TREES NE>E/ TO ! FIELD4 ,!Y ALSO WILL SCRUT9IZE ! NEI<BORHOOD = A LONG :ILE1 & ONLY !N WILL !Y GIVE ! SIGNAL = G5]AL ADVANCE1 AFT] :I* ! :OLE B& />TS AT ONCE & PLUND]S ! FIELD 9 NO TIME4 ,! ,AU/RALIAN SETTL]S HAVE ! GREATE/ DIFFICULTIES 9 BEGUIL+ ! PRUD5CE ( ! P>ROTS2 BUT IF MAN1 ) ALL HIS >T & WEAPONS1 HAS SUCCE$$ 9 KILL+ SOME ( !M1 ! CACADOOS BECOME SO PRUD5T & WAT*FUL ?AT !Y H5CE=W>D BAFFLE ALL /RATAGEMS4#b#c 

  ,!RE CAN BE NO D\BT ?AT IT IS ! PRACTICE ( LIFE 9 SOCIETY :I* 5ABLES ! P>ROTS TO ATTA9 ?AT V]Y HI< LEVEL ( ALMO/ HUMAN 9TELLIG5CE & ALMO/ HUMAN FEEL+S :I* WE KN[ 9 !M4 ,!IR HI< 9TELLIG5CE HAS 9DUC$ ! BE/ NATURALI/S TO DESCRIBE SOME SPECIES1 NAMELY ! GRAY P>ROT1 AS ! 0BIRDMAN40 ,AS TO !IR MUTUAL ATTA*M5T IT IS KN[N ?AT :5 A P>ROT HAS BE5 KILL$ BY A HUNT]1 ! O!RS FLY OV] ! CORPSE ( !IR COMRADE ) %RIEKS ( COMPLA9TS & 0!MSELVES FALL ! VICTIMS ( !IR FRI5D%IP10 AS ,AUDUBON SAID2 & :5 TWO CAPTIVE P>ROTS1 ?\< BELONG+ TO TWO DIFF]5T SPECIES1 HAVE CONTRACT$ MUTUAL FRI5D%IP1 ! ACCID5TAL DEA? ( ONE ( ! TWO FRI5DS HAS SOMETIMES BE5 FOLL[$ BY ! DEA? FROM GRIEF & SORR[ ( ! O!R FRI5D4 ,IT IS NO LESS EVID5T ?AT 9 !IR SOCIETIES !Y F9D 9F9ITELY MORE PROTECTION ?AN !Y POSSIBLY MI<T F9D 9 ANY IDEAL DEVELOPM5T ( BEAK & CLAW4 ,V]Y FEW BIRDS ( PREY OR MAMMALS D>E ATTACK ANY BUT ! SMALL] SPECIES ( P>ROTS1 & ,BREHM IS ABSOLUTELY RI<T 9 SAY+ ( ! P>ROTS1 AS HE ALSO SAYS ( ! CRANES & ! SOCIABLE MONKEYS1 ?AT !Y H>DLY HAVE ANY 5EMIES BESIDES M52 & HE ADDS3 0,IT IS MO/ PROBABLE ?AT ! L>G] P>ROTS SUCCUMB *IEFLY TO OLD AGE RA!R ?AN DIE FROM ! CLAWS ( ANY 5EMIES40 ,ONLY MAN1 [+ TO HIS /ILL MORE SUP]IOR 9TELLIG5CE & WEAPONS1 ALSO D]IV$ FROM ASSOCIATION1 SUCCE$S 9 P>TIALLY DE/ROY+ !M4 ,!IR V]Y LONGEVITY W\LD ?US APPE> AS A RESULT ( !IR SOCIAL LIFE4 ,C\LD WE NOT SAY ! SAME AS REG>DS !IR WOND]FUL MEMORY1 :I* ALSO MU/ BE FAVOR$ 9 ITS DEVELOPM5T BY SOCIETY -- LIFE & BY LONGEVITY ACCOMPANI$ BY A FULL 5JOYM5T ( BODILY & M5TAL FACULTIES TILL A V]Y OLD AGE8 

  ,AS SE5 FROM ! ABOVE1 ! W> ( EA* AGA9/ ALL IS NOT ! LAW ( NATURE4 ,MUTUAL AID IS AS MU* A LAW ( NATURE AS MUTUAL /RUGGLE1 & ?AT LAW WILL BECOME /ILL MORE APP>5T :5 WE HAVE ANALYZ$ SOME O!R ASSOCIATIONS ( BIRDS & ?OSE ( ! MAMMALIA4 ,A FEW H9TS AS TO ! IMPORTANCE ( ! LAW ( MUTUAL AID = ! EVOLUTION ( ! ANIMAL K+DOM HAVE ALREADY BE5 GIV5 9 ! PREC$+ PAGES2 BUT !IR PURPORT WILL /ILL BETT] APPE> :51 AFT] HAV+ GIV5 A FEW MORE ILLU/RATIONS1 WE %ALL BE 5ABL$ PRES5TLY TO DRAW !REFROM \R CONCLUSIONS4 

,NOTES 

#a ,ORIG9 ( ,SPECIES1 *AP4 III4 

#b,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY1 ,FEB4 #a#h#h#h1 P4 #a#f#e4 

#c ,LEAV+ ASIDE ! PRE-,D>W9IAN WRIT]S1 LIKE ,T\SS5EL1 ,FEE1 & MANY O!RS1 SEV]AL WORKS CONTA9+ MANY /RIK+ 9/ANCES ( MUTUAL AID -- *IEFLY1 H[EV]1 ILLU/RAT+ ANIMAL 9TELLIG5CE W]E ISSU$ PREVI\SLY TO ?AT DATE4 ,I MAY M5TION ?OSE ( ,H\ZEAU1 ,LES FACULT@&EACUT]2S ETALES DES ANIMAUX1 #b VOLS41 ,BRUSSELS1 #a#h#g#b2 ,L4 ,BU*N]'S ,AUS DEM ,GEI/ESLEB5 D] ,?I]E1 #bND $4 9 #a#h#g#g2 & ,MAXIMILIAN ,P]TY'S ,UEB] DAS ,SEEL5LEB5 D] ,?I]E1 ,LEIPZIG1 #a#h#g#f4 ,ESP9AS PUBLI%$ HIS MO/ REM>KABLE WORK1 ,LES ,SOCIETES ANIMALES1 9 #a#h#g#g1 & 9 ?AT WORK HE PO9T$ \T ! IMPORTANCE ( ANIMAL SOCIETIES1 & !IR BE>+ UPON ! PRES]VATION ( SPECIES1 & 5T]$ UPON A MO/ VALUABLE DISCUSSION ( ! ORIG9 ( SOCIETIES4 ,9 FACT1 ,ESP9AS'S BOOK CONTA9S ALL ?AT HAS BE5 WRITT5 S9CE UPON MUTUAL AID1 & MANY GOOD ?+S BESIDES4 ,IF ,I NEV]!LESS MAKE A SPECIAL M5TION ( ,KESSL]'S ADDRESS1 IT IS BECAUSE HE RAIS$ MUTUAL AID TO ! HEI<T ( A LAW MU* MORE IMPORTANT 9 EVOLUTION ?AN ! LAW ( MUTUAL /RUGGLE4 ,! SAME IDEAS W]E DEVELOP$ NEXT YE> 79 ,APRIL #a#h#h#a7 BY ,J4 ,LANESSAN 9 A LECTURE PUBLI%$ 9 #ahhb UND] ?IS TITLE3 ,LA LUTTE P\R L'EXI/5CE ET L'ASSOCIATION P\R LA LUTTE4 ,G4 ,ROMANES'S CAPITAL WORK1 ,ANIMAL ,9TELLIG5CE1 WAS ISSU$ 9 #a#h#h#b1 & FOLL[$ NEXT YE> BY ! ,M5TAL ,EVOLUTION 9 ,ANIMALS4 ,AB\T ! SAME TIME 7#a#h#h#c71 ,BU*N] PUBLI%$ ANO!R WORK1 ,LIEBE UND ,LIEBES-,LEB5 9 D] ,?I]WELT1 A SECOND $ITION ( :I* WAS ISSU$ 9 #a#h#h#e4 ,! IDEA1 AS SE51 WAS 9 ! AIR4 

#d ,MEMOIRS 7,TRUDY7 ( ! ,/4 ,PET]SBURG ,SOCIETY ( ,NATURALI/S1 VOL4 XI4 #a#h#h4 

#e ,SEE ,APP5DIX ,I4 

#f ,GEORGE ,J4 ,ROMANES'S ,ANIMAL ,9TELLIG5CE1 #a/ $4 P4 #b#c#c4 

#g ,PI]RE ,HUB]'S ,LES F\RMIS 9DIGEES1 ,G5EVE1 #a#h#f#a2 ,=EL'S ,RE*]*ES SUR LES F\RMIS DE LA ,SUISSE1 ,ZURI*1 #a#h#g#d1 & ,J4,T4 ,MOGGRIDGE'S ,H>VE/+ ,ANTS & ,TRAPDOOR ,SPID]S1 ,LONDON1 #ahgc & #a#h#g#d1 \<T TO BE 9 ! H&S ( EV]Y BOY & GIRL4 ,SEE ALSO3 ,BLAN*>D'S ,METAMORPHOSES DES ,9SECTES1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#f#h2 ,J4,H4 ,FABRE'S ,S\V5IRS 5TOMOLOGIQUES1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#h#f2 ,EBR>D'S ,ETUDES DES MOEURS DES F\RMIS1 ,G5EVE1 #a#h#f#d2 ,SIR ,JOHN ,LUBBOCK'S ,ANTS1 ,BEES1 & ,WASPS1 & SO ON4 

#h ,=EL'S ,RE*]*ES1 PP4 #b#d#d1 #b#g#e1 #b#g#h4 ,HUB]'S DESCRIPTION ( ! PROCESS IS ADMIRABLE4 ,IT ALSO CONTA9S A H9T AS TO ! POSSIBLE ORIG9 ( ! 9/9CT 7POPUL> $ITION1 PP4 #a#e#h1 #a#f74 ,SEE ,APP5DIX ,I,I4 

#i ,! AGRICULTURE ( ! ANTS IS SO WOND]FUL ?AT = A LONG TIME IT HAS BE5 D\BT$4 ,! FACT IS N[ SO WELL PROV$ BY ,MR4 ,MOGGRIDGE1 ,DR4 ,L9CECUM1 ,MR4 ,MAC,COOK1 ,COL4 ,SYKES1 & ,DR4 ,J]DON1 ?AT NO D\BT IS POSSIBLE4 ,SEE AN EXCELL5T SUMM>Y ( EVID5CE 9 ,MR4 ,ROMANES'S WORK4 ,SEE ALSO ,DIE ,PILZGA]T5 E9IG] ,SUD-,AM]IKANIS*5 ,AMEIS51 BY ,ALF4 ,MOELL]1 9 ,S*IMP]'S ,BOTAN4 ,MIT?4 AUS D5 ,TROP51 VI4 #a#h#i#c4 

#a ,?IS SECOND PR9CIPLE WAS NOT RECOGNIZ$ AT ONCE4 ,=M] OBS]V]S (T5 SPOKE ( K+S1 QUE5S1 MANAG]S1 & SO ON2 BUT S9CE ,HUB] & ,=EL HAVE PUBLI%$ !IR M9UTE OBS]VATIONS1 NO D\BT IS POSSIBLE AS TO ! FREE SCOPE LEFT = EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL'S 9ITIATIVE 9 :ATEV] ! ANTS DO1 9CLUD+ !IR W>S4 

#aa ,H4,W4 ,BATES1 ,! ,NATURALI/ ON ! ,RIV] ,AMAZONS1 II4 #ei SEQ4 

#ab ,N4 ,SYEV]TS(F1 ,P]IODICAL ,PH5OM5A 9 ! ,LIFE ( ,MAMMALIA1 ,BIRDS1 & ,REPTILES ( ,VORONEJE1 ,MOSC[1 #ahee 79 ,RUSSIAN74 

#ac ,A4 ,BREHM1 ,LIFE ( ,ANIMALS1 III4 #d#g#g2 ALL QUOTATIONS AFT] ! ,FR5* $ITION4 

#ad ,BATES1 P4 #a#e#a4 

#a#e,CATALOG RAISONNE DES OISEAUX DE LA FAUNE PONTIQUE1 9 ,DEMID(F'S ,VOYAGE2 AB/RACTS 9 ,BREHM1 III4 #c#f4 ,DUR+ !IR MIGRATIONS BIRDS ( PREY (T5 ASSOCIATE4 ,ONE FLOCK1 :I* ,H4 ,SEEBOHM SAW CROSS+ ! ,PYR5EES1 REPRES5T$ A CURI\S ASSEMBLAGE ( 0EI<T KITES1 ONE CRANE1 & A P]EGR9E FALCON0 7,! ,BIRDS ( ,SIB]IA1 #a#i#a1 P4 #d#a#g74 

#af ,BIRDS 9 ! ,NOR!RN ,%IRES1 P4 #b#g4 

#ag ,MAX4 ,P]TY1 ,UEB] DAS ,SEEL5LEB5 D] ,?I]E 7,LEIPZIG1 #a#h#g#f71 PP4 #h#g1 #a#c4 

#ah ,G4 ,H4 ,GURNEY1 ,! ,H\SE-,SP>R[ 7,LONDON1 #a#h#h#e71 P4 #e4 

#ai ,DR4 ,ELLIOT ,C\ES1 ,BIRDS ( ! ,K]GUEL5 ,ISL&1 9 ,SMI?SONIAN ,MISCELLANE\S ,COLLECTIONS1 VOL4 XIII4 ,NO4 #b1 P4 #a#a4 

#b ,BREHM1 IV4 #e#f#g4 

#ba ,AS TO ! H\SE-SP>R[S1 A ,NEW ,ZEAL& OBS]V]1 ,MR4 ,T4,W4 ,KIRK1 DESCRIB$ AS FOLL[S ! ATTACK ( !SE 0IMPUD5T0 BIRDS UPON AN 0UN=TUNATE0 HAWK4 -- 0,HE HE>D ONE DAY A MO/ UNUSUAL NOISE1 AS ?\< ALL ! SMALL BIRDS ( ! C\NTRY HAD JO9$ 9 ONE GR& QU>REL4 ,LOOK+ UP1 HE SAW A L>GE HAWK 7,C4 G\LDI -- A C>RION FE$]7 BE+ BUFFET$ BY A FLOCK ( SP>R[S4 ,!Y KEPT DA%+ AT HIM 9 SCORES1 & FROM ALL PO9TS AT ONCE4 ,! UN=TUNATE HAWK WAS QUITE P[]LESS4 ,AT LA/1 APPROA*+ SOME SCRUB1 ! HAWK DA%$ 9TO IT & REMA9$ !RE1 :ILE ! SP>R[S CONGREGAT$ 9 GR\PS R\ND ! BU%1 KEEP+ UP A CON/ANT *ATT]+ & NOISE0 7,PAP] READ BE=E ! ,NEW ,ZEAL& ,9/ITUTE2 ,NATURE1 ,OCT4 #a1 #a#h#i#a74 

#bb ,BREHM1 IV4 #fga SEQ4 

#bc ,R4 ,L5D5FELD1 9 ,D] ZOOLOGIS*E ,G>T51 #a#h#h#i4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #b#a1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #a -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #a#a1 #bbb 3 ,*APT] #a -- ,UPDAT$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/