,*APT] #d 
,MUTUAL ,AID ,AMONG ! ,B>B>IANS 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY DUNCAN C1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C ,LIC5SE ,MUTUAL ,AID3 ,A ,FACTOR ( ,EVOLUTION 

,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

#aib 

,*APT] #d3 ,M,U,T,U,A,L ,A,I,D ,A,M,O,N,G ,! ,B,>,B,>,I,A,N,S  

,! GREAT MIGRATIONS4 -- ,NEW ORGANIZATION R5D]$ NECESS>Y4 -- ,! VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 -- ,COMMUNAL WORK4 -- ,JUDICIAL PROC$URE -- ,9T]-TRIBAL LAW4 -- ,ILLU/RATIONS FROM ! LIFE ( \R CONTEMPOR>IES -- ,BURYATES4 -- ,KABYLES4 -- ,CAUCASIAN M\NTA9E]S4 -- ,AFRICAN /EMS4 

,IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO /UDY PRIMITIVE MANK9D )\T BE+ DEEPLY IMPRESS$ BY ! SOCIABILITY IT HAS DISPLAY$ S9CE ITS V]Y FIR/ /EPS 9 LIFE4 ,TRACES ( HUMAN SOCIETIES >E F\ND 9 ! RELICS ( BO? ! OLDE/ & ! LAT] /ONE AGE2 &1 :5 WE COME TO OBS]VE ! SAVAGES :OSE MANN]S ( LIFE >E /ILL ?OSE ( NEOLI?IC MAN1 WE F9D !M CLOSELY B\ND TOGE!R BY AN EXTREMELY ANCI5T CLAN ORGANIZATION :I* 5ABLES !M TO COMB9E !IR 9DIVIDUALLY WEAK =CES1 TO 5JOY LIFE 9 COMMON1 & TO PROGRESS4 ,MAN IS NO EXCEPTION 9 NATURE4 ,HE ALSO IS SUBJECT TO ! GREAT PR9CIPLE ( ,MUTUAL ,AID :I* GRANTS ! BE/ *ANCES ( SURVIVAL TO ?OSE :O BE/ SUPPORT EA* O!R 9 ! /RUGGLE = LIFE4 ,!SE W]E ! CONCLUSIONS >RIV$ AT 9 ! PREVI\S *APT]S4 

  ,H[EV]1 AS SOON AS WE COME TO A HI<] /AGE ( CIVILIZATION1 & REF] TO HI/ORY :I* ALREADY HAS SOME?+ TO SAY AB\T ?AT /AGE1 WE >E BEWILD]$ BY ! /RUGGLES & CONFLICTS :I* IT REVEALS4 ,! OLD BONDS SEEM 5TIRELY TO BE BROK54 ,/EMS >E SE5 TO FI<T AGA9/ /EMS1 TRIBES AGA9/ TRIBES1 9DIVIDUALS AGA9/ 9DIVIDUALS2 & \T ( ?IS *AOTIC CONTE/ ( HO/ILE =CES1 MANK9D ISSUES DIVID$ 9TO CA/ES1 5SLAV$ TO DESPOTS1 SEP>AT$ 9TO ,/ATES ALWAYS READY TO WAGE W> AGA9/ EA* O!R4 ,&1 ) ?IS HI/ORY ( MANK9D 9 HIS H&S1 ! PESSIMI/ PHILOSOPH] TRIUMPHANTLY CONCLUDES ?AT W>F>E & OPPRESSION >E ! V]Y ESS5CE ( HUMAN NATURE2 ?AT ! W>LIKE & PR$ATORY 9/9CTS ( MAN CAN ONLY BE RE/RA9$ )9 C]TA9 LIMITS BY A /RONG AU?ORITY :I* 5=CES PEACE & ?US GIVES AN OPPORTUNITY TO ! FEW & NOBL] ONES TO PREP>E A BETT] LIFE = HUMANITY 9 TIMES TO COME4 

  ,& YET1 AS SOON AS ! EV]YDAY LIFE ( MAN DUR+ ! HI/ORICAL P]IOD IS SUBMITT$ TO A CLOS] ANALYSIS & SO IT HAS BE51 ( LATE1 BY MANY PATI5T /UD5TS ( V]Y E>LY 9/ITUTIONS -- IT APPE>S AT ONCE UND] QUITE A DIFF]5T ASPECT4 ,LEAV+ ASIDE ! PRECONCEIV$ IDEAS ( MO/ HI/ORIANS & !IR PRON\NC$ PR$ILECTION = ! DRAMATIC ASPECTS ( HI/ORY1 WE SEE ?AT ! V]Y DOCUM5TS !Y HABITUALLY P]USE >E SU* AS TO EXAGG]ATE ! P>T ( HUMAN LIFE GIV5 TO /RUGGLES & TO UND]RATE ITS PEACEFUL MOODS4 ,! BRI<T & SUNNY DAYS >E LO/ SI<T ( 9 ! GALES & /ORMS4 ,EV5 9 \R [N TIME1 ! CUMB]SOME RECORDS :I* WE PREP>E = ! FUTURE HI/ORIAN1 9 \R ,PRESS1 \R LAW C\RTS1 \R ,GOV]NM5T (FICES1 & EV5 9 \R FICTION & POETRY1 SUFF] FROM ! SAME ONE-SID$NESS4 ,!Y H& D[N TO PO/]ITY ! MO/ M9UTE DESCRIPTIONS ( EV]Y W>1 EV]Y BATTLE & SKIRMI%1 EV]Y CONTE/ & ACT ( VIOL5CE1 EV]Y K9D ( 9DIVIDUAL SUFF]+2 BUT !Y H>DLY BE> ANY TRACE ( ! C\NTLESS ACTS ( MUTUAL SUPPORT & DEVOTION :I* EV]Y ONE ( US KN[S FROM HIS [N EXP]I5CE2 !Y H>DLY TAKE NOTICE ( :AT MAKES ! V]Y ESS5CE ( \R DAILY LIFE -- \R SOCIAL 9/9CTS & MANN]S4 ,NO WOND]1 !N1 IF ! RECORDS ( ! PA/ W]E SO IMP]FECT4 ,! ANNALI/S ( OLD NEV] FAIL$ TO *RONICLE ! PETTY W>S & CALAMITIES :I* H>ASS$ !IR CONTEMPOR>IES2 BUT !Y PAID NO ATT5TION :ATEV] TO ! LIFE ( ! MASSES1 AL?\< ! MASSES *IEFLY US$ TO TOIL PEACEFULLY :ILE ! FEW 9DULG$ 9 FI<T+4 ,! EPIC POEMS1 ! 9SCRIPTIONS ON MONUM5TS1 ! TREATIES ( PEACE -- NE>LY ALL HI/ORICAL DOCUM5TS BE> ! SAME *>ACT]2 !Y DEAL ) BREA*ES ( PEACE1 NOT ) PEACE ITSELF4 ,SO ?AT ! BE/-9T5TION$ HI/ORIAN UNCONSCI\SLY DRAWS A DI/ORT$ PICTURE ( ! TIMES HE 5DEAVORS TO DEPICT2 &1 TO RE/ORE ! REAL PROPORTION BETWE5 CONFLICT & UNION1 WE >E N[ B\ND TO 5T] 9TO A M9UTE ANALYSIS ( ?\S&S ( SMALL FACTS & FA9T 9DICATIONS ACCID5TALLY PRES]V$ 9 ! RELICS ( ! PA/2 TO 9T]PRET !M ) ! AID ( COMP>ATIVE E?NOLOGY2 &1 AFT] HAV+ HE>D SO MU* AB\T :AT US$ TO DIVIDE M51 TO RECON/RUCT /ONE BY /ONE ! 9/ITUTIONS :I* US$ TO UNITE !M4 

  ,]E LONG HI/ORY WILL HAVE TO BE RE-WRITT5 ON NEW L9ES1 SO AS TO TAKE 9TO ACC\NT !SE TWO CURR5TS ( HUMAN LIFE & TO APPRECIATE ! P>T PLAY$ BY EA* ( !M 9 EVOLUTION4 ,BUT 9 ! MEANTIME WE MAY AVAIL \RSELVES ( ! IMM5SE PREP>ATORY WORK REC5TLY DONE T[>DS RE/OR+ ! LEAD+ FEATURES ( ! SECOND CURR5T1 SO MU* NEGLECT$4 ,FROM ! BETT]-KN[N P]IODS ( HI/ORY WE MAY TAKE SOME ILLU/RATIONS ( ! LIFE ( ! MASSES1 9 ORD] TO 9DICATE ! P>T PLAY$ BY MUTUAL SUPPORT DUR+ ?OSE P]IODS2 &1 9 SO DO+1 WE MAY DISP5SE 7= ! SAKE ( BREVITY7 FROM GO+ AS F> BACK AS ! ,EGYPTIAN1 OR EV5 ! ,GREEK & ,ROMAN ANTIQUITY4 ,=1 9 FACT1 ! EVOLUTION ( MANK9D HAS NOT HAD ! *>ACT] ( ONE UNBROK5 S]IES4 ,SEV]AL TIMES CIVILIZATION CAME TO AN 5D 9 ONE GIV5 REGION1 ) ONE GIV5 RACE1 & BEGAN ANEW ELSE:]E1 AMONG O!R RACES4 ,BUT AT EA* FRE% />T IT BEGAN AGA9 ) ! SAME CLAN 9/ITUTIONS :I* WE HAVE SE5 AMONG ! SAVAGES4 ,SO ?AT IF WE TAKE ! LA/ />T ( \R [N CIVILIZATION1 :5 IT BEGAN AFRE% 9 ! FIR/ C5TURIES ( \R ]A1 AMONG ?OSE :OM ! ,ROMANS CALL$ ! 0B>B>IANS10 WE %ALL HAVE ! :OLE SCALE ( EVOLUTION1 BEG9N+ ) ! G5TES & 5D+ 9 ! 9/ITUTIONS ( \R [N TIME4 ,TO !SE ILLU/RATIONS ! FOLL[+ PAGES WILL BE DEVOT$4 

  ,M5 ( SCI5CE HAVE NOT YET SETTL$ UPON ! CAUSES :I* SOME TWO ?\S& YE>S AGO DROVE :OLE NATIONS FROM ,ASIA 9TO ,EUROPE & RESULT$ 9 ! GREAT MIGRATIONS ( B>B>IANS :I* PUT AN 5D TO ! ,WE/ ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE4 ,ONE CAUSE1 H[EV]1 IS NATURALLY SUGGE/$ TO ! GEOGRAPH] AS HE CONTEMPLATES ! RU9S ( POPUL\S CITIES 9 ! DES]TS ( ,C5TRAL ,ASIA1 OR FOLL[S ! OLD B$S ( RIV]S N[ DISAPPE>$ & ! WIDE \TL9ES ( LAKES N[ R$UC$ TO ! SIZE ( M]E PONDS4 ,IT IS DESICCATION3 A QUITE REC5T DESICCATION1 CONT9U$ /ILL AT A SPE$ :I* WE =M]LY W]E NOT PREP>$ TO ADMIT4#a ,AGA9/ IT MAN WAS P[]LESS4 ,:5 ! 9HABITANTS ( ,NOR?-,WE/ ,MONGOLIA & ,EA/ ,TURKE/AN SAW ?AT WAT] WAS AB&ON+ !M1 !Y HAD NO C\RSE OP5 TO !M BUT TO MOVE D[N ! BROAD VALLEYS LEAD+ TO ! L[L&S1 & TO ?RU/ WE/W>DS ! 9HABITANTS ( ! PLA9S4#b ,/EMS AFT] /EMS W]E ?US ?R[N 9TO ,EUROPE1 COMPELL+ O!R /EMS TO MOVE & TO REMOVE = C5TURIES 9 SUCCESSION1 WE/W>DS & EA/W>DS1 9 SE>* ( NEW & MORE OR LESS P]MAN5T ABODES4 ,RACES W]E MIX+ ) RACES DUR+ ?OSE MIGRATIONS1 ABORIG9ES ) IMMIGRANTS1 ,>YANS ) ,URAL-,ALTAYANS2 & IT W\LD HAVE BE5 NO WOND] IF ! SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS :I* HAD KEPT !M TOGE!R 9 !IR MO!R C\NTRIES HAD BE5 TOTALLY WRECK$ DUR+ ! /RATIFICATION ( RACES :I* TOOK PLACE 9 ,EUROPE & ,ASIA4 ,BUT !Y W]E NOT WRECK$2 !Y SIMPLY UND]W5T ! MODIFICATION :I* WAS REQUIR$ BY ! NEW CONDITIONS ( LIFE4 

  ,! ,TEUTONS1 ! ,CELTS1 ! ,SC&9AVIANS1 ! ,SLAVONIANS1 & O!RS1 :5 !Y FIR/ CAME 9 CONTACT ) ! ,ROMANS1 W]E 9 A TRANSITIONAL /ATE ( SOCIAL ORGANIZATION4 ,! CLAN UNIONS1 BAS$ UPON A REAL OR SUPPOS$ COMMON ORIG91 HAD KEPT !M TOGE!R = MANY ?\S&S ( YE>S 9 SUCCESSION4 ,BUT !SE UNIONS C\LD ANSW] !IR PURPOSE SO LONG ONLY AS !RE W]E NO SEP>ATE FAMILIES )9 ! G5S OR CLAN ITSELF4 ,H[EV]1 = CAUSES ALREADY M5TION$1 ! SEP>ATE PATRI>*AL FAMILY HAD SL[LY BUT /EADILY DEVELOP$ )9 ! CLANS1 & 9 ! LONG RUN IT EVID5TLY MEANT ! 9DIVIDUAL ACCUMULATION ( WEAL? & P[]1 & ! H]$IT>Y TRANSMISSION ( BO?4 ,! FREQU5T MIGRATIONS ( ! B>B>IANS & ! 5SU+ W>S ONLY HA/5$ ! DIVISION ( ! G5TES 9TO SEP>ATE FAMILIES1 :ILE ! DISP]S+ ( /EMS & !IR M+L+ ) /RANG]S (F]$ S+UL> FACILITIES = ! ULTIMATE DIS9TEGRATION ( ?OSE UNIONS :I* W]E BAS$ UPON K9%IP4 ,! B>B>IANS ?US /OOD 9 A POSITION ( EI!R SEE+ !IR CLANS DISSOLV$ 9TO LOOSE AGGREGATIONS ( FAMILIES1 ( :I* ! WEAL?IE/1 ESPECIALLY IF COMB9+ SAC]DOTAL FUNCTIONS OR MILIT>Y REPUTE ) WEAL?1 W\LD HAVE SUCCE$$ 9 IMPOS+ !IR AU?ORITY UPON ! O!RS2 OR ( F9D+ \T SOME NEW =M ( ORGANIZATION BAS$ UPON SOME NEW PR9CIPLE4 

  ,MANY /EMS HAD NO =CE TO RESI/ DIS9TEGRATION3 !Y BROKE UP & W]E LO/ = HI/ORY4 ,BUT ! MORE VIGOR\S ONES DID NOT DIS9TEGRATE4 ,!Y CAME \T ( ! ORDEAL ) A NEW ORGANIZATION -- ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY -- :I* KEPT !M TOGE!R = ! NEXT FIFTE5 C5TURIES OR MORE4 ,! CONCEPTION ( A COMMON T]RITORY1 APPROPRIAT$ OR PROTECT$ BY COMMON EF=TS1 WAS ELABORAT$1 & IT TOOK ! PLACE ( ! VANI%+ CONCEPTIONS ( COMMON DESC5T4 ,! COMMON GODS GRADUALLY LO/ !IR *>ACT] ( ANCE/ORS & W]E 5D[$ ) A LOCAL T]RITORIAL *>ACT]4 ,!Y BECAME ! GODS OR SA9TS ( A GIV5 LOCALITY2 0! L&0 WAS ID5TIFI$ ) ITS 9HABITANTS4 ,T]RITORIAL UNIONS GREW UP 9/EAD ( ! CONSANGU9E UNIONS ( OLD1 & ?IS NEW ORGANIZATION EVID5TLY (F]$ MANY ADVANTAGES UND] ! GIV5 CIRCUM/ANCES4 ,IT RECOGNIZ$ ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ! FAMILY & EV5 EMPHASIZ$ IT1 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY DISCLAIM+ ALL RI<TS ( 9T]F]5CE 9 :AT WAS GO+ ON )9 ! FAMILY 5CLOSURE2 IT GAVE MU* MORE FRE$OM TO P]SONAL 9ITIATIVE2 IT WAS NOT HO/ILE 9 PR9CIPLE TO UNION BETWE5 M5 ( DIFF]5T DESC5T1 & IT MA9TA9$ AT ! SAME TIME ! NECESS>Y COHESION ( ACTION & ?\<T1 :ILE IT WAS /RONG 5\< TO OPPOSE ! DOM9ATIVE T5D5CIES ( ! M9ORITIES ( WIZ>DS1 PRIE/S1 & PR(ESSIONAL OR DI/+UI%$ W>RIORS4 ,CONSEQU5TLY IT BECAME ! PRIM>Y CELL ( FUTURE ORGANIZATION1 & ) MANY NATIONS ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY HAS RETA9$ ?IS *>ACT] UNTIL N[4 

  ,IT IS N[ KN[N1 & SC>CELY CONTE/$1 ?AT ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY WAS NOT A SPECIFIC FEATURE ( ! ,SLAVONIANS1 NOR EV5 ( ! ANCI5T ,TEUTONS4 ,IT PREVAIL$ 9 ,5GL& DUR+ BO? ! ,SAXON & ,NORMAN TIMES1 & P>TIALLY SURVIV$ TILL ! LA/ C5TURY2#c IT WAS AT ! BOTTOM ( ! SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ( OLD ,SCOTL&1 OLD ,IREL&1 & OLD ,WALES4 ,9 ,FRANCE1 ! COMMUNAL POSSESSION & ! COMMUNAL ALLOTM5T ( >ABLE L& BY ! VILLAGE FOLKMOTE P]SI/$ FROM ! FIR/ C5TURIES ( \R ]A TILL ! TIMES ( ,TURGOT1 :O F\ND ! FOLKMOTES 0TOO NOISY0 & !RE=E ABOLI%$ !M4 ,IT SURVIV$ ,ROMAN RULE 9 ,ITALY1 & REVIV$ AFT] ! FALL ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE4 ,IT WAS ! RULE ) ! ,SC&9AVIANS1 ! ,SLAVONIANS1 ! ,F9NS 79 ! PITTAYA1 AS ALSO1 PROBABLY1 ! KIHLA-KUNTA71 ! ,C\RES1 & ! ,LIVES4 ,! VILLAGE COMMUNITY 9 ,9DIA -- PA/ & PRES5T1 ,>YAN & NON-,>YAN -- IS WELL KN[N ?R\< ! EPO*-MAK+ WORKS ( ,SIR ,H5RY ,MA9E2 & ,ELPH9/ONE HAS DESCRIB$ IT AMONG ! ,AF<ANS4 ,WE ALSO F9D IT 9 ! ,MONGOLIAN \L\S1 ! ,KABYLE ?ADD>T1 ! ,JAVANESE DESSA1 ! ,MALAYAN KOTA OR T(A1 & UND] A V>IETY ( NAMES 9 ,ABYSS9IA1 ! ,S\DAN1 9 ! 9T]IOR ( ,AFRICA1 ) NATIVES ( BO? ,AM]ICAS1 ) ALL ! SMALL & L>GE TRIBES ( ! ,PACIFIC >*IPELAGOES4 ,9 %ORT1 WE DO NOT KN[ ONE S+LE HUMAN RACE OR ONE S+LE NATION :I* HAS NOT HAD ITS P]IOD ( VILLAGE COMMUNITIES4 ,?IS FACT ALONE DISPOSES ( ! !ORY ACCORD+ TO :I* ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY 9 ,EUROPE W\LD HAVE BE5 A S]VILE GR[?4 ,IT IS ANT]IOR TO S]FDOM1 & EV5 S]VILE SUBMISSION WAS P[]LESS TO BREAK IT4 ,IT WAS A UNIV]SAL PHASE ( EVOLUTION1 A NATURAL \TCOME ( ! CLAN ORGANIZATION1 ) ALL ?OSE /EMS1 AT LEA/1 :I* HAVE PLAY$1 OR PLAY /ILL1 SOME P>T 9 HI/ORY4#d 

  ,IT WAS A NATURAL GR[?1 & AN ABSOLUTE UNI=MITY 9 ITS /RUCTURE WAS !RE=E NOT POSSIBLE4 ,AS A RULE1 IT WAS A UNION BETWE5 FAMILIES CONSID]$ AS ( COMMON DESC5T & [N+ A C]TA9 T]RITORY 9 COMMON4 ,BUT ) SOME /EMS1 & UND] C]TA9 CIRCUM/ANCES1 ! FAMILIES US$ TO GR[ V]Y NUM]\S BE=E !Y ?REW (F NEW BUDS 9 ! %APE ( NEW FAMILIES2 FIVE1 SIX1 OR SEV5 G5]ATIONS CONT9U$ TO LIVE UND] ! SAME RO(1 OR )9 ! SAME 5CLOSURE1 [N+ !IR JO9T H\SEHOLD & CATTLE 9 COMMON1 & TAK+ !IR MEALS AT ! COMMON HE>?4 ,!Y KEPT 9 SU* CASE TO :AT E?NOLOGY KN[S AS ! 0JO9T FAMILY10 OR ! 0UNDIVID$ H\SEHOLD10 :I* WE /ILL SEE ALL OV] ,*9A1 9 ,9DIA1 9 ! ,S\? ,SLAVONIAN ZADRUGA1 & OCCASIONALLY F9D 9 ,AFRICA1 9 ,AM]ICA1 9 ,D5M>K1 9 ,NOR? ,RUSSIA1 & ,WE/ ,FRANCE4#e ,) O!R /EMS1 OR 9 O!R CIRCUM/ANCES1 NOT YET WELL SPECIFI$1 ! FAMILIES DID NOT ATTA9 ! SAME PROPORTIONS2 ! GR&SONS1 & OCCASIONALLY ! SONS1 LEFT ! H\SEHOLD AS SOON AS !Y W]E M>RI$1 & EA* ( !M />T$ A NEW CELL ( HIS [N4 ,BUT1 JO9T OR NOT1 CLU/]$ TOGE!R OR SCATT]$ 9 ! WOODS1 ! FAMILIES REMA9$ UNIT$ 9TO VILLAGE COMMUNITIES2 SEV]AL VILLAGES W]E GR\P$ 9TO TRIBES2 & ! TRIBES JO9$ 9TO CONF$]ATIONS4 ,SU* WAS ! SOCIAL ORGANIZATION :I* DEVELOP$ AMONG ! SO-CALL$ 0B>B>IANS10 :5 !Y BEGAN TO SETTLE MORE OR LESS P]MAN5TLY 9 ,EUROPE4 

  ,A V]Y LONG EVOLUTION WAS REQUIR$ BE=E ! G5TES1 OR CLANS1 RECOGNIZ$ ! SEP>ATE EXI/5CE ( A PATRI>*AL FAMILY 9 A SEP>ATE HUT2 BUT EV5 AFT] ?AT HAD BE5 RECOGNIZ$1 ! CLAN1 AS A RULE1 KNEW NO P]SONAL 9H]ITANCE ( PROP]TY4 ,! FEW ?+S :I* MI<T HAVE BELONG$ P]SONALLY TO ! 9DIVIDUAL W]E EI!R DE/ROY$ ON HIS GRAVE OR BURI$ ) HIM4 ,! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 FULLY RECOGNIZ$ ! PRIVATE ACCUMULATION ( WEAL? )9 ! FAMILY & ITS H]$IT>Y TRANSMISSION4 ,BUT WEAL? WAS CONCEIV$ EXCLUSIVELY 9 ! %APE ( MOVABLE PROP]TY1 9CLUD+ CATTLE1 IMPLEM5TS1 >MS1 & ! DWELL+ H\SE :I* -- 0LIKE ALL ?+S ?AT CAN BE DE/ROY$ BY FIRE0 -- BELONG$ TO ! SAME CATEGORY4#f ,AS TO PRIVATE PROP]TY 9 L&1 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY DID NOT1 & C\LD NOT1 RECOGNIZE ANY?+ ( ! K9D1 &1 AS A RULE1 IT DOES NOT RECOGNIZE IT N[4 ,! L& WAS ! COMMON PROP]TY ( ! TRIBE1 OR ( ! :OLE /EM1 & ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY ITSELF [N$ ITS P>T ( ! TRIBAL T]RITORY SO LONG ONLY AS ! TRIBE DID NOT CLAIM A RE-DI/RIBUTION ( ! VILLAGE ALLOTM5TS4 ,! CLE>+ ( ! WOODS & ! BREAK+ ( ! PRAIRIES BE+ MO/LY DONE BY ! COMMUNITIES OR1 AT LEA/1 BY ! JO9T WORK ( SEV]AL FAMILIES -- ALWAYS ) ! CONS5T ( ! COMMUNITY -- ! CLE>$ PLOTS W]E HELD BY EA* FAMILY = A T]M ( F\R1 TWELVE1 OR TW5TY YE>S1 AFT] :I* T]M !Y W]E TREAT$ AS P>TS ( ! >ABLE L& [N$ 9 COMMON4 ,PRIVATE PROP]TY1 OR POSSESSION 0= EV]01 WAS AS 9COMPATIBLE ) ! V]Y PR9CIPLES & ! RELIGI\S CONCEPTIONS ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY AS IT WAS ) ! PR9CIPLES ( ! G5S2 SO ?AT A LONG 9FLU5CE ( ! ,ROMAN LAW & ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*1 :I* SOON ACCEPT$ ! ,ROMAN PR9CIPLES1 W]E REQUIR$ TO ACCU/OM ! B>B>IANS TO ! IDEA ( PRIVATE PROP]TY 9 L& BE+ POSSIBLE4#g ,& YET1 EV5 :5 SU* PROP]TY1 OR POSSESSION = AN UNLIMIT$ TIME1 WAS RECOGNIZ$1 ! [N] ( A SEP>ATE E/ATE REMA9$ A CO-PROPRIETOR 9 ! WA/E L&S1 =E/S1 & GRAZ+-GR\NDS4 ,MOREOV]1 WE CONT9UALLY SEE1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! HI/ORY ( ,RUSSIA1 ?AT :5 A FEW FAMILIES1 ACT+ SEP>ATELY1 HAD TAK5 POSSESSION ( SOME L& BELONG+ TO TRIBES :I* W]E TREAT$ AS /RANG]S1 !Y V]Y SOON UNIT$ TOGE!R1 & CON/ITUT$ A VILLAGE COMMUNITY :I* 9 ! ?IRD OR F\R? G5]ATION BEGAN TO PR(ESS A COMMUNITY ( ORIG94 

  ,A :OLE S]IES ( 9/ITUTIONS1 P>TLY 9H]IT$ FROM ! CLAN P]IOD1 HAVE DEVELOP$ FROM ?AT BASIS ( COMMON [N]%IP ( L& DUR+ ! LONG SUCCESSION ( C5TURIES :I* WAS REQUIR$ TO BR+ ! B>B>IANS UND] ! DOM9ION ( ,/ATES ORGANIZ$ UPON ! ,ROMAN OR ,BYZANT9E PATT]N4 ,! VILLAGE COMMUNITY WAS NOT ONLY A UNION = GU>ANTEE+ TO EA* ONE HIS FAIR %>E 9 ! COMMON L&1 BUT ALSO A UNION = COMMON CULTURE1 = MUTUAL SUPPORT 9 ALL POSSIBLE =MS1 = PROTECTION FROM VIOL5CE1 & = A FUR!R DEVELOPM5T ( KN[L$GE1 NATIONAL BONDS1 & MORAL CONCEPTIONS2 & EV]Y *ANGE 9 ! JUDICIAL1 MILIT>Y1 $UCATIONAL1 OR ECONOMICAL MANN]S HAD TO BE DECID$ AT ! FOLKMOTES ( ! VILLAGE1 ! TRIBE1 OR ! CONF$]ATION4 ,! COMMUNITY BE+ A CONT9UATION ( ! G5S1 IT 9H]IT$ ALL ITS FUNCTIONS4 ,IT WAS ! UNIV]SITAS1 ! MIR -- A WORLD 9 ITSELF4 

  ,COMMON HUNT+1 COMMON FI%+1 & COMMON CULTURE ( ! OR*>DS OR ! PLANTATIONS ( FRUIT TREES WAS ! RULE ) ! OLD G5TES4 ,COMMON AGRICULTURE BECAME ! RULE 9 ! B>B>IAN VILLAGE COMMUNITIES4 ,TRUE1 ?AT DIRECT TE/IMONY TO ?IS EFFECT IS SC>CE1 & 9 ! LIT]ATURE ( ANTIQUITY WE ONLY HAVE ! PASSAGES ( ,DIODORUS & ,JULIUS ,CES> RELAT+ TO ! 9HABITANTS ( ! ,LIP>I ,ISL&S1 ONE ( ! ,CELT-,IB]IAN TRIBES1 & ! ,SUEVES4 ,BUT !RE IS NO LACK ( EVID5CE TO PROVE ?AT COMMON AGRICULTURE WAS PRACTIC$ AMONG SOME ,TEUTON TRIBES1 ! ,FRANKS1 & ! OLD ,SCOT*1 ,IRI%1 & ,WEL%4#h ,AS TO ! LAT] SURVIVALS ( ! SAME PRACTICE1 !Y SIMPLY >E C\NTLESS4 ,EV5 9 P]FECTLY ,ROMANIZ$ ,FRANCE1 COMMON CULTURE WAS HABITUAL SOME FIVE & TW5TY YE>S AGO 9 ! ,MORBIHAN 7,BRITTANY74#i ,! OLD ,WEL% CYV>1 OR JO9T TEAM1 AS WELL AS ! COMMON CULTURE ( ! L& ALLOTT$ TO ! USE ( ! VILLAGE SANCTU>Y >E QUITE COMMON AMONG ! TRIBES ( ,CAUCASUS ! LEA/ T\*$ BY CIVILIZATION1#a & LIKE FACTS >E ( DAILY OCCURR5CE AMONG ! ,RUSSIAN PEASANTS4 ,MOREOV]1 IT IS WELL KN[N ?AT MANY TRIBES ( ,BRAZIL1 ,C5TRAL ,AM]ICA1 & ,MEXICO US$ TO CULTIVATE !IR FIELDS 9 COMMON1 & ?AT ! SAME HABIT IS WIDELY SPREAD AMONG SOME ,MALAYANS1 9 ,NEW ,CAL$ONIA1 ) SEV]AL ,NEGRO /EMS1 & SO ON4#a#a ,9 %ORT1 COMMUNAL CULTURE IS SO HABITUAL ) MANY ,>YAN1 ,URAL-,ALTAYAN1 ,MONGOLIAN1 ,NEGRO1 ,R$ ,9DIAN1 ,MALAYAN1 & ,MELANESIAN /EMS ?AT WE MU/ CONSID] IT AS A UNIV]SAL -- ?\< NOT AS ! ONLY POSSIBLE -- =M ( PRIMITIVE AGRICULTURE4#a#b 

  ,COMMUNAL CULTIVATION DOES NOT1 H[EV]1 IMPLY BY NECESSITY COMMUNAL CONSUMPTION4 ,ALREADY UND] ! CLAN ORGANIZATION WE (T5 SEE ?AT :5 ! BOATS LAD5 ) FRUITS OR FI% RETURN TO ! VILLAGE1 ! FOOD !Y BR+ 9 IS DIVID$ AMONG ! HUTS & ! 0LONG H\SES0 9HABIT$ BY EI!R SEV]AL FAMILIES OR ! Y\?1 & IS COOK$ SEP>ATELY AT EA* SEP>ATE HE>?4 ,! HABIT ( TAK+ MEALS 9 A N>R[] CIRCLE ( RELATIVES OR ASSOCIATES ?US PREVAILS AT AN E>LY P]IOD ( CLAN LIFE4 ,IT BECAME ! RULE 9 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 ,EV5 ! FOOD GR[N 9 COMMON WAS USUALLY DIVID$ BETWE5 ! H\SEHOLDS AFT] P>T ( IT HAD BE5 LAID 9 /ORE = COMMUNAL USE4 ,H[EV]1 ! TRADITION ( COMMUNAL MEALS WAS PI\SLY KEPT ALIVE2 EV]Y AVAILABLE OPPORTUNITY1 SU* AS ! COMMEMORATION ( ! ANCE/ORS1 ! RELIGI\S FE/IVALS1 ! BEG9N+ & ! 5D ( FIELD WORK1 ! BIR?S1 ! M>RIAGES1 & ! FUN]ALS1 BE+ SEIZ$ UPON TO BR+ ! COMMUNITY TO A COMMON MEAL4 ,EV5 N[ ?IS HABIT1 WELL KN[N 9 ?IS C\NTRY AS ! 0H>VE/ SUPP]10 IS ! LA/ TO DISAPPE>4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 EV5 :5 ! FIELDS HAD LONG S9CE CEAS$ TO BE TILL$ & S[N 9 COMMON1 A V>IETY ( AGRICULTURAL WORK CONT9U$1 & CONT9UES /ILL1 TO BE P]=M$ BY ! COMMUNITY4 ,SOME P>T ( ! COMMUNAL L& IS /ILL CULTIVAT$ 9 MANY CASES 9 COMMON1 EI!R = ! USE ( ! DE/ITUTE1 OR = REFILL+ ! COMMUNAL /ORES1 OR = US+ ! PRODUCE AT ! RELIGI\S FE/IVALS4 ,! IRRIGATION CANALS >E DUG & REPAIR$ 9 COMMON4 ,! COMMUNAL MEAD[S >E M[N BY ! COMMUNITY2 & ! SI<T ( A ,RUSSIAN COMMUNE M[+ A MEAD[ -- ! M5 RIVAL+ EA* O!R 9 !IR ADVANCE ) ! SCY!1 :ILE ! WOM5 TURN ! GRASS OV] & ?R[ IT UP 9TO HEAPS -- IS ONE ( ! MO/ 9SPIR+ SI<TS2 IT %[S :AT HUMAN WORK MI<T BE & \<T TO BE4 ,! HAY1 9 SU* CASE1 IS DIVID$ AMONG ! SEP>ATE H\SEHOLDS1 & IT IS EVID5T ?AT NO ONE HAS ! RI<T ( TAK+ HAY FROM A NEI<BOR'S /ACK )\T HIS P]MISSION2 BUT ! LIMITATION ( ?IS LA/ RULE AMONG ! ,CAUCASIAN ,OSSETES IS MO/ NOTEWOR?Y4 ,:5 ! CUCKOO CRIES & ANN\NCES ?AT SPR+ IS COM+1 & ?AT ! MEAD[S WILL SOON BE CLO!D AGA9 ) GRASS1 EV]Y ONE 9 NE$ HAS ! RI<T ( TAK+ FROM A NEI<BOR'S /ACK ! HAY HE WANTS = HIS CATTLE4#a#c ,! OLD COMMUNAL RI<TS >E ?US RE-ASS]T$1 AS IF TO PROVE H[ CONTR>Y UNBRIDL$ 9DIVIDUALISM IS TO HUMAN NATURE4 

  ,:5 ! ,EUROPEAN TRAVEL] L&S 9 SOME SMALL ISL& ( ! ,PACIFIC1 &1 SEE+ AT A DI/ANCE A GROVE ( PALM TREES1 WALKS 9 ?AT DIRECTION1 HE IS A/ONI%$ TO DISCOV] ?AT ! LITTLE VILLAGES >E CONNECT$ BY ROADS PAV$ ) BIG /ONES1 QUITE COM=TABLE = ! UN%OD NATIVES1 & V]Y SIMIL> TO ! 0OLD ROADS0 ( ! ,SWISS M\NTA9S4 ,SU* ROADS W]E TRAC$ BY ! 0B>B>IANS0 ALL OV] ,EUROPE1 & ONE MU/ HAVE TRAVEL$ 9 WILD1 ?9LY-PEOPL$ C\NTRIES1 F> AWAY FROM ! *IEF L9ES ( COMMUNICATION1 TO REALIZE 9 FULL ! IMM5SE WORK ?AT MU/ HAVE BE5 P]=M$ BY ! B>B>IAN COMMUNITIES 9 ORD] TO CONQU] ! WOODY & M>%Y WILD]NESS :I* ,EUROPE WAS SOME TWO ?\S& YE>S AGO4 ,ISOLAT$ FAMILIES1 HAV+ NO TOOLS1 & WEAK AS !Y W]E1 C\LD NOT HAVE CONQU]$ IT2 ! WILD]NESS W\LD HAVE OV]P[]$ !M4 ,VILLAGE COMMUNITIES ALONE1 WORK+ 9 COMMON1 C\LD MA/] ! WILD =E/S1 ! S9K+ M>%ES1 & ! 5DLESS /EPPES4 ,! R\< ROADS1 ! F]RIES1 ! WOOD5 BRIDGES TAK5 AWAY 9 ! W9T] & REBUILT AFT] ! SPR+ FLOOD WAS OV]1 ! F5CES & ! PALISAD$ WALLS ( ! VILLAGES1 ! E>!N =TS & ! SMALL T[]S ) :I* ! T]RITORY WAS DOTT$ -- ALL !SE W]E ! WORK ( ! B>B>IAN COMMUNITIES4 ,& :5 A COMMUNITY GREW NUM]\S IT US$ TO ?R[ (F A NEW BUD4 ,A NEW COMMUNITY >OSE AT A DI/ANCE1 ?US /EP BY /EP BR++ ! WOODS & ! /EPPES UND] ! DOM9ION ( MAN4 ,! :OLE MAK+ ( ,EUROPEAN NATIONS WAS SU* A BUDD+ ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES4 ,EV5 N[-A-DAYS ! ,RUSSIAN PEASANTS1 IF !Y >E NOT QUITE BROK5 D[N BY MIS]Y1 MIGRATE 9 COMMUNITIES1 & !Y TILL ! SOIL & BUILD ! H\SES 9 COMMON :5 !Y SETTLE ON ! BANKS ( ! ,AMUR1 OR 9 ,MANITOBA4 ,& EV5 ! ,5GLI%1 :5 !Y FIR/ BEGAN TO COLONIZE ,AM]ICA1 US$ TO RETURN TO ! OLD SY/EM2 !Y GR\P$ 9TO VILLAGE COMMUNITIES4#a#d 

  ,! VILLAGE COMMUNITY WAS ! *IEF >M ( ! B>B>IANS 9 !IR H>D /RUGGLE AGA9/ A HO/ILE NATURE4 ,IT ALSO WAS ! BOND !Y OPPOS$ TO OPPRESSION BY ! CUNN+E/ & ! /RONGE/ :I* SO EASILY MI<T HAVE DEVELOP$ DUR+ ?OSE DI/URB$ TIMES4 ,! IMAG9>Y B>B>IAN -- ! MAN :O FI<TS & KILLS AT HIS M]E CAPRICE -- EXI/$ NO MORE ?AN ! 0BLOOD?IR/Y0 SAVAGE4 ,! REAL B>B>IAN WAS LIV+1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 UND] A WIDE S]IES ( 9/ITUTIONS1 IMBU$ ) CONSID]ATIONS AS TO :AT MAY BE USEFUL OR NOXI\S TO HIS TRIBE OR CONF$]ATION1 & !SE 9/ITUTIONS W]E PI\SLY H&$ D[N FROM G5]ATION TO G5]ATION 9 V]SES & SONGS1 9 PROV]BS OR TRIADS1 9 S5T5CES & 9/RUCTIONS4 ,! MORE WE /UDY !M ! MORE WE RECOGNIZE ! N>R[ BONDS :I* UNIT$ M5 9 !IR VILLAGES4 ,EV]Y QU>REL >IS+ BETWE5 TWO 9DIVIDUALS WAS TREAT$ AS A COMMUNAL AFFAIR -- EV5 ! (F5SIVE WORDS ?AT MI<T HAVE BE5 UTT]$ DUR+ A QU>REL BE+ CONSID]$ AS AN (F5SE TO ! COMMUNITY & ITS ANCE/ORS4 ,!Y HAD TO BE REPAIR$ BY AM5DS MADE BO? TO ! 9DIVIDUAL & ! COMMUNITY2#a#e & IF A QU>REL 5D$ 9 A FI<T & W\NDS1 ! MAN :O /OOD BY & DID NOT 9T]POSE WAS TREAT$ AS IF HE HIMSELF HAD 9FLICT$ ! W\NDS4#a#f ,! JUDICIAL PROC$URE WAS IMBU$ ) ! SAME SPIRIT4 ,EV]Y DISPUTE WAS BR\<T FIR/ BE=E M$IATORS OR >BIT]S1 & IT MO/LY 5D$ ) !M1 ! >BIT]S PLAY+ A V]Y IMPORTANT P>T 9 B>B>IAN SOCIETY4 ,BUT IF ! CASE WAS TOO GRAVE TO BE SETTL$ 9 ?IS WAY1 IT CAME BE=E ! FOLKMOTE1 :I* WAS B\ND 0TO F9D ! S5T5CE10 & PRON\NC$ IT 9 A CONDITIONAL =M2 ?AT IS1 0SU* COMP5SATION WAS DUE1 IF ! WRONG BE PROV$10 & ! WRONG HAD TO BE PROV$ OR DISCLAIM$ BY SIX OR TWELVE P]SONS CONFIRM+ OR D5Y+ ! FACT BY OA?2 ORDEAL BE+ RESORT$ TO 9 CASE ( CONTRADICTION BETWE5 ! TWO SETS ( JURORS4 ,SU* PROC$URE1 :I* REMA9$ 9 =CE = MORE ?AN TWO ?\S& YE>S 9 SUCCESSION1 SPEAKS VOLUMES = ITSELF2 IT %[S H[ CLOSE W]E ! BONDS BETWE5 ALL MEMB]S ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,MOREOV]1 !RE WAS NO O!R AU?ORITY TO 5=CE ! DECISIONS ( ! FOLKMOTE BESIDES ITS [N MORAL AU?ORITY4 ,! ONLY POSSIBLE M5ACE WAS ?AT ! COMMUNITY MI<T DECL>E ! REBEL AN \TLAW1 BUT EV5 ?IS M5ACE WAS RECIPROCAL4 ,A MAN DISCONT5T$ ) ! FOLKMOTE C\LD DECL>E ?AT HE W\LD AB&ON ! TRIBE & GO OV] TO ANO!R TRIBE -- A MO/ DREADFUL M5ACE1 AS IT WAS SURE TO BR+ ALL K9DS ( MIS=TUNES UPON A TRIBE ?AT MI<T HAVE BE5 UNFAIR TO ONE ( ITS MEMB]S4#a#g ,A REBELLION AGA9/ A RI<T DECISION ( ! CU/OM>Y LAW WAS SIMPLY 09CONCEIVABLE10 AS ,H5RY ,MA9E HAS SO WELL SAID1 BECAUSE 0LAW1 MORALITY1 & FACT0 C\LD NOT BE SEP>AT$ FROM EA* O!R 9 ?OSE TIMES4#a#h ,! MORAL AU?ORITY ( ! COMMUNE WAS SO GREAT ?AT EV5 AT A MU* LAT] EPO*1 :5 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES FELL 9TO SUBMISSION TO ! FEUDAL LORD1 !Y MA9TA9$ !IR JUDICIAL P[]S2 !Y ONLY P]MITT$ ! LORD1 OR HIS DEPUTY1 TO 0F9D0 ! ABOVE CONDITIONAL S5T5CE 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! CU/OM>Y LAW HE HAD SWORN TO FOLL[1 & TO LEVY = HIMSELF ! F9E 7! F]D7 DUE TO ! COMMUNE4 ,BUT = A LONG TIME1 ! LORD HIMSELF1 IF HE REMA9$ A CO-PROPRIETOR 9 ! WA/E L& ( ! COMMUNE1 SUBMITT$ 9 COMMUNAL AFFAIRS TO ITS DECISIONS4 ,NOBLE OR ECCLESIA/IC1 HE HAD TO SUBMIT TO ! FOLKMOTE -- ,W] DASELB/ ,WASS] UND ,WEID G5US/1 MUSS GEHORSAM SE9 -- 0,:O 5JOYS H]E ! RI<T ( WAT] & PA/URE MU/ OBEY0 -- WAS ! OLD SAY+4 ,EV5 :5 ! PEASANTS BECAME S]FS UND] ! LORD1 HE WAS B\ND TO APPE> BE=E ! FOLKMOTE :5 !Y SUMMON$ HIM4#a#i 

  ,9 !IR CONCEPTIONS ( JU/ICE ! B>B>IANS EVID5TLY DID NOT MU* DIFF] FROM ! SAVAGES4 ,!Y ALSO MA9TA9$ ! IDEA ?AT A MURD] MU/ BE FOLL[$ BY PUTT+ ! MURD]] TO DEA?2 ?AT W\NDS HAD TO BE PUNI%$ BY EQUAL W\NDS1 & ?AT ! WRONG$ FAMILY WAS B\ND TO FULFILL ! S5T5CE ( ! CU/OM>Y LAW4 ,?IS WAS A HOLY DUTY1 A DUTY T[>DS ! ANCE/ORS1 :I* HAD TO BE ACCOMPLI%$ 9 BROAD DAYLI<T1 NEV] 9 SECRECY1 & R5D]$ WIDELY KN[N4 ,!RE=E ! MO/ 9SPIR$ PASSAGES ( ! SAGAS & EPIC POETRY ALTOGE!R >E ?OSE :I* GLORIFY :AT WAS SUPPOS$ TO BE JU/ICE4 ,! GODS !MSELVES JO9$ 9 AID+ IT4 ,H[EV]1 ! PR$OM9ANT FEATURE ( B>B>IAN JU/ICE IS1 ON ! ONE H&1 TO LIMIT ! NUMB]S ( P]SONS :O MAY BE 9VOLV$ 9 A FEUD1 &1 ON ! O!R H&1 TO EXTIRPATE ! BRUTAL IDEA ( BLOOD = BLOOD & W\NDS = W\NDS1 BY SUB/ITUT+ = IT ! SY/EM ( COMP5SATION4 ,! B>B>IAN CODES :I* W]E COLLECTIONS ( COMMON LAW RULES WRITT5 D[N = ! USE ( JUDGES -- 0FIR/ P]MITT$1 !N 5C\RAG$1 & AT LA/ 5=C$10 COMP5SATION 9/EAD ( REV5GE4#b ,! COMP5SATION HAS1 H[EV]1 BE5 TOTALLY MISUND]/OOD BY ?OSE :O REPRES5T$ IT AS A F9E1 & AS A SORT ( C>TE BLAN*E GIV5 TO ! RI* MAN TO DO :ATEV] HE LIK$4 ,! COMP5SATION MONEY 7W]GELD71 :I* WAS QUITE DIFF]5T FROM ! F9E OR F]D1#b#a WAS HABITUALLY SO HI< = ALL K9DS ( ACTIVE (F5SES ?AT IT C]TA9LY WAS NO 5C\RAGEM5T = SU* (F5SES4 ,9 CASE ( A MURD] IT USUALLY EXCE$$ ALL ! POSSIBLE =TUNE ( ! MURD]] 0,EI<TE5 TIMES EI<TE5 C[S0 IS ! COMP5SATION ) ! ,OSSETES :O DO NOT KN[ H[ TO RECKON ABOVE EI<TE51 :ILE ) ! ,AFRICAN TRIBES IT ATTA9S #h C[S OR #a CAMELS ) !IR Y\NG1 OR #daf %EEP 9 ! POOR] TRIBES4#b#b ,9 ! GREAT MAJORITY ( CASES1 ! COMP5SATION MONEY C\LD NOT BE PAID AT ALL1 SO ?AT ! MURD]] HAD NO ISSUE BUT TO 9DUCE ! WRONG$ FAMILY1 BY REP5TANCE1 TO ADOPT HIM4 ,EV5 N[1 9 ! ,CAUCASUS1 :5 FEUDS COME TO AN 5D1 ! (F5D] T\*ES ) HIS LIPS ! BREA/ ( ! OLDE/ WOMAN ( ! TRIBE1 & BECOMES A 0MILK-BRO!R0 TO ALL M5 ( ! WRONG$ FAMILY4#b#c ,) SEV]AL ,AFRICAN TRIBES HE MU/ GIVE HIS DAU<T]1 OR SI/]1 9 M>RIAGE TO SOME ONE ( ! FAMILY2 ) O!R TRIBES HE IS B\ND TO M>RY ! WOMAN :OM HE HAS MADE A WID[2 & 9 ALL CASES HE BECOMES A MEMB] ( ! FAMILY1 :OSE OP9ION IS TAK5 9 ALL IMPORTANT FAMILY MATT]S4#b#d 

  ,F> FROM ACT+ ) DISREG>D TO HUMAN LIFE1 ! B>B>IANS1 MOREOV]1 KNEW NO?+ ( ! HORRID PUNI%M5TS 9TRODUC$ AT A LAT] EPO* BY ! LAIC & CANONIC LAWS UND] ,ROMAN & ,BYZANT9E 9FLU5CE4 ,=1 IF ! ,SAXON CODE ADMITT$ ! DEA? P5ALTY RA!R FREELY EV5 9 CASES ( 9C5DI>ISM & >M$ ROBB]Y1 ! O!R B>B>IAN CODES PRON\NC$ IT EXCLUSIVELY 9 CASES ( BETRAYAL ( ONE'S K91 & SACRILEGE AGA9/ ! COMMUNITY'S GODS1 AS ! ONLY MEANS TO APPEASE ! GODS4 

  ,ALL ?IS1 AS SE5 IS V]Y F> FROM ! SUPPOS$ 0MORAL DISSOLUT5ESS0 ( ! B>B>IANS4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 WE CANNOT BUT ADMIRE ! DEEPLY MORAL PR9CIPLES ELABORAT$ )9 ! E>LY VILLAGE COMMUNITIES :I* F\ND !IR EXPRESSION 9 ,WEL% TRIADS1 9 LEG5DS AB\T ,K+ ,>?UR1 9 ,BREHON COMM5T>IES1#b#e 9 OLD ,G]MAN LEG5DS & SO ON1 OR F9D /ILL !IR EXPRESSION 9 ! SAY+S ( ! MOD]N B>B>IANS4 ,9 HIS 9TRODUCTION TO ,! ,/ORY ( ,BURNT ,NJAL1 ,GEORGE ,DAS5T V]Y JU/LY SUMS UP AS FOLL[S ! QUALITIES ( A ,NOR?MAN1 AS !Y APPE> 9 ! SAGAS3 -- 

,TO DO :AT LAY BE=E HIM OP5LY & LIKE A MAN1 )\T FE> ( EI!R FOES1 FI5DS1 OR FATE2444 TO BE FREE & D>+ 9 ALL HIS DE$S2 TO BE G5TLE & G5]\S TO HIS FRI5DS & K9SM52 TO BE /]N & GRIM TO HIS FOES .<?OSE :O >E UND] ! LEX TALIONIS .<! LAW ( RETALIATION.>.>1 BUT EV5 T[>DS !M TO FULFILL ALL B\ND5 DUTIES4444 ,TO BE NO TRUCE-BREAK]1 NOR TALE-BE>]1 NOR BACKBIT]4 ,TO UTT] NO?+ AGA9/ ANY MAN ?AT HE W\LD NOT D>E TO TELL HIM TO HIS FACE4 ,TO TURN NO MAN FROM HIS DOOR :O S\<T FOOD OR %ELT]1 EV5 ?\< HE W]E A FOE4#b#f 

  ,! SAME OR /ILL BETT] PR9CIPLES P]MEATE ! ,WEL% EPIC POETRY & TRIADS4 ,TO ACT 0ACCORD+ TO ! NATURE ( MILDNESS & ! PR9CIPLES ( EQUITY10 )\T REG>D TO ! FOES OR TO ! FRI5DS1 & 0TO REPAIR ! WRONG10 >E ! HI<E/ DUTIES ( MAN2 0EVIL IS DEA?1 GOOD IS LIFE10 EXCLAIMS ! POET LEGISLATOR4#b#g 0,! ,WORLD W\LD BE FOOL1 IF AGREEM5TS MADE ON LIPS W]E NOT HONORABLE0 -- ! ,BREHON LAW SAYS4 ,& ! HUMBLE ,%AMANI/ ,MORDOVIAN1 AFT] HAV+ PRAIS$ ! SAME QUALITIES1 WILL ADD1 MOREOV]1 9 HIS PR9CIPLES ( CU/OM>Y LAW1 ?AT 0AMONG NEI<BORS ! C[ & ! MILK+-J> >E 9 COMMON40 ?AT1 0! C[ MU/ BE MILK$ = Y\RSELF & HIM :O MAY ASK MILK20 ?AT 0! BODY ( A *ILD R$D5S FROM ! /ROKE1 BUT ! FACE ( HIM :O /RIKES R$D5S FROM %AME20#b#h & SO ON4 ,MANY PAGES MI<T BE FILL$ ) LIKE PR9CIPLES EXPRESS$ & FOLL[$ BY ! 0B>B>IANS40 

  ,ONE FEATURE MORE ( ! OLD VILLAGE COMMUNITIES DES]VES A SPECIAL M5TION4 ,IT IS ! GRADUAL EXT5SION ( ! CIRCLE ( M5 EMBRAC$ BY ! FEEL+S ( SOLID>ITY4 ,NOT ONLY ! TRIBES F$]AT$ 9TO /EMS1 BUT ! /EMS AS WELL1 EV5 ?\< ( DIFF]5T ORIG91 JO9$ TOGE!R 9 CONF$]ATIONS4 ,SOME UNIONS W]E SO CLOSE ?AT1 = 9/ANCE1 ! ,V&ALS1 AFT] P>T ( !IR CONF$]ATION HAD LEFT = ! ,RH9E1 & !NCE W5T OV] TO ,SPA9 & ,AFRICA1 RESPECT$ = =TY CONSECUTIVE YE>S ! L&M>KS & ! AB&ON$ VILLAGES ( !IR CONF$]ATES1 & DID NOT TAKE POSSESSION ( !M UNTIL !Y HAD ASC]TA9$ ?R\< 5VOYS ?AT !IR CONF$]ATES DID NOT 9T5D TO RETURN4 

  ,) O!R B>B>IANS1 ! SOIL WAS CULTIVAT$ BY ONE P>T ( ! /EM1 :ILE ! O!R P>T F\<T ON OR BEYOND ! FRONTI]S ( ! COMMON T]RITORY4 ,AS TO ! LEAGUES BETWE5 SEV]AL /EMS1 !Y W]E QUITE HABITUAL4 ,! ,SICAMB]S UNIT$ ) ! ,*]USQUES & ! ,SUEVES1 ! ,QUADES ) ! ,S>MATES2 ! ,S>MATES ) ! ,ALANS1 ! ,C>PES1 & ! ,HUNS4 ,LAT] ON1 WE ALSO SEE ! CONCEPTION ( NATIONS GRADUALLY DEVELOP+ 9 ,EUROPE1 LONG BE=E ANY?+ LIKE A ,/ATE HAD GR[N 9 ANY P>T ( ! CONT95T OCCUPI$ BY ! B>B>IANS4 ,!SE NATIONS -- = IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO REFUSE ! NAME ( A NATION TO ! ,M]OV+IAN ,FRANCE1 OR TO ! ,RUSSIA ( ! ELEV5? & TWELF? C5TURY -- W]E NEV]!LESS KEPT TOGE!R BY NO?+ ELSE BUT A COMMUNITY ( LANGUAGE1 & A TACIT AGREEM5T ( ! SMALL REPUBLICS TO TAKE !IR DUKES FROM NONE BUT ONE SPECIAL FAMILY4 

  ,W>S W]E C]TA9LY UNAVOIDABLE2 MIGRATION MEANS W>2 BUT ,SIR ,H5RY ,MA9E HAS ALREADY FULLY PROV$ 9 HIS REM>KABLE /UDY ( ! TRIBAL ORIG9 ( ,9T]NATIONAL ,LAW1 ?AT 0,MAN HAS NEV] BE5 SO F]OCI\S OR SO /UPID AS TO SUBMIT TO SU* AN EVIL AS W> )\T SOME K9D ( EF=T TO PREV5T IT10 & HE HAS %[N H[ EXCE$+LY GREAT IS 0! NUMB] ( ANCI5T 9/ITUTIONS :I* BE> ! M>KS ( A DESIGN TO /& 9 ! WAY ( W>1 OR TO PROVIDE AN ALT]NATIVE TO IT40#b#i ,9 REALITY1 MAN IS SO F> FROM ! W>LIKE BE+ HE IS SUPPOS$ TO BE1 ?AT :5 ! B>B>IANS HAD ONCE SETTL$ !Y SO RAPIDLY LO/ ! V]Y HABITS ( W>F>E ?AT V]Y SOON !Y W]E COMPELL$ TO KEEP SPECIAL DUKES FOLL[$ BY SPECIAL S*OLAE OR B&S ( W>RIORS1 9 ORD] TO PROTECT !M FROM POSSIBLE 9TRUD]S4 ,!Y PREF]R$ PEACEFUL TOIL TO W>1 ! V]Y PEACEFULNESS ( MAN BE+ ! CAUSE ( ! SPECIALIZATION ( ! W>RIOR'S TRADE1 :I* SPECIALIZATION RESULT$ LAT] ON 9 S]FDOM & 9 ALL ! W>S ( ! 0,/ATES P]IOD0 ( HUMAN HI/ORY4 

  ,HI/ORY F9DS GREAT DIFFICULTIES 9 RE/OR+ TO LIFE ! 9/ITUTIONS ( ! B>B>IANS4 ,AT EV]Y /EP ! HI/ORIAN MEETS ) SOME FA9T 9DICATION :I* HE IS UNABLE TO EXPLA9 ) ! AID ( HIS [N DOCUM5TS ONLY4 ,BUT A BROAD LI<T IS ?R[N ON ! PA/ AS SOON AS WE REF] TO ! 9/ITUTIONS ( ! V]Y NUM]\S TRIBES :I* >E /ILL LIV+ UND] A SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ALMO/ ID5TICAL ) ?AT ( \R B>B>IAN ANCE/ORS4 ,H]E WE SIMPLY HAVE ! DIFFICULTY ( *OICE1 BECAUSE ! ISL&S ( ! ,PACIFIC1 ! /EPPES ( ,ASIA1 & ! TABLEL&S ( ,AFRICA >E REAL HI/ORICAL MUSEUMS CONTA9+ SPECIM5S ( ALL POSSIBLE 9T]M$IATE /AGES :I* MANK9D HAS LIV$ ?R\<1 :5 PASS+ FROM ! SAVAGE G5TES UP TO ! ,/ATES' ORGANIZATION4 ,LET US1 !N1 EXAM9E A FEW ( ?OSE SPECIM5S4 

  ,IF WE TAKE ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES ( ! ,MONGOL ,BURYATES1 ESPECIALLY ?OSE ( ! ,KUD9SK ,/EPPE ON ! UPP] ,L5A :I* HAVE BETT] ESCAP$ ,RUSSIAN 9FLU5CE1 WE HAVE FAIR REPRES5TATIVES ( B>B>IANS 9 A TRANSITIONAL /ATE1 BETWE5 CATTLE-BRE$+ & AGRICULTURE4#c ,!SE ,BURYATES >E /ILL LIV+ 9 0JO9T FAMILIES02 ?AT IS1 AL?\< EA* SON1 :5 HE IS M>RI$1 GOES TO LIVE 9 A SEP>ATE HUT1 ! HUTS ( AT LEA/ ?REE G5]ATIONS REMA9 )9 ! SAME 5CLOSURE1 & ! JO9T FAMILY WORK 9 COMMON 9 !IR FIELDS1 & [N 9 COMMON !IR JO9T H\SEHOLDS & !IR CATTLE1 AS WELL AS !IR 0CALVES' GR\NDS0 7SMALL F5C$ PAT*ES ( SOIL KEPT UND] S(T GRASS = ! RE>+ ( CALVES74 ,AS A RULE1 ! MEALS >E TAK5 SEP>ATELY 9 EA* HUT2 BUT :5 MEAT IS ROA/$1 ALL ! TW5TY TO SIXTY MEMB]S ( ! JO9T H\SEHOLD FEA/ TOGE!R4 ,SEV]AL JO9T H\SEHOLDS :I* LIVE 9 A CLU/]1 AS WELL AS SEV]AL SMALL] FAMILIES SETTL$ 9 ! SAME VILLAGE -- MO/LY DEBRIS ( JO9T H\SEHOLDS ACCID5TALLY BROK5 UP -- MAKE ! \L\S1 OR ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY2 SEV]AL \L\SES MAKE A TRIBE2 & !1 =TY-SIX TRIBES1 OR CLANS1 ( ! ,KUD9SK ,/EPPE >E UNIT$ 9TO ONE CONF$]ATION4 ,SMALL] & CLOS] CONF$]ATIONS >E 5T]$ 9TO1 AS NECESSITY >ISES = SPECIAL WANTS1 BY SEV]AL TRIBES4 ,!Y KN[ NO PRIVATE PROP]TY 9 L& -- ! L& BE+ HELD 9 COMMON BY ! \L\S1 OR RA!R BY ! CONF$]ATION1 & IF IT BECOMES NECESS>Y1 ! T]RITORY IS RE-ALLOTT$ BETWE5 ! DIFF]5T \L\SES AT A FOLKMOTE ( ! TRIBE1 & BETWE5 ! =TY-SIX TRIBES AT A FOLKMOTE ( ! CONF$]ATION4 ,IT IS WOR?Y ( NOTE ?AT ! SAME ORGANIZATION PREVAILS AMONG ALL ! #b#e1 ,BURYATES ( ,EA/ ,SIB]IA1 AL?\< !Y HAVE BE5 = ?REE C5TURIES UND] ,RUSSIAN RULE1 & >E WELL ACQUA9T$ ) ,RUSSIAN 9/ITUTIONS4 

  ,) ALL ?AT1 9EQUALITIES ( =TUNE RAPIDLY DEVELOP AMONG ! ,BURYATES1 ESPECIALLY S9CE ! ,RUSSIAN ,GOV]NM5T IS GIV+ AN EXAGG]AT$ IMPORTANCE TO !IR ELECT$ TAI%AS 7PR9CES71 :OM IT CONSID]S AS RESPONSIBLE TAX-COLLECTORS & REPRES5TATIVES ( ! CONF$]ATIONS 9 !IR ADM9I/RATIVE & EV5 COMM]CIAL RELATIONS ) ! ,RUSSIANS4 ,! *ANNELS = ! 5RI*M5T ( ! FEW >E ?US MANY1 :ILE ! IMPOV]I%M5T ( ! GREAT NUMB] GOES H& 9 H&1 ?R\< ! APPROPRIATION ( ! ,BURYATE L&S BY ! ,RUSSIANS4 ,BUT IT IS A HABIT ) ! ,BURYATES1 ESPECIALLY ?OSE ( ,KUD9SK -- & HABIT IS MORE ?AN LAW -- ?AT IF A FAMILY HAS LO/ ITS CATTLE1 ! RI*] FAMILIES GIVE IT SOME C[S & HORSES ?AT IT MAY RECOV]4 ,AS TO ! DE/ITUTE MAN :O HAS NO FAMILY1 HE TAKES HIS MEALS 9 ! HUTS ( HIS CONG5]S2 HE 5T]S A HUT1 TAKES -- BY RI<T1 NOT = *>ITY -- HIS SEAT BY ! FIRE1 & %>ES ! MEAL :I* ALWAYS IS SCRUPUL\SLY DIVID$ 9TO EQUAL P>TS2 HE SLEEPS :]E HE HAS TAK5 HIS EV5+ MEAL4 ,ALTOGE!R1 ! ,RUSSIAN CONQU]ORS ( ,SIB]IA W]E SO MU* /RUCK BY ! COMMUNI/IC PRACTICES ( ! ,BURYATES1 ?AT !Y GAVE !M ! NAME ( ,BRATSKIYE -- 0! ,BRO!RLY ,ONES0 -- & REPORT$ TO ,MOSC[4 0,) !M EV]Y?+ IS 9 COMMON2 :ATEV] !Y HAVE IS %>$ 9 COMMON40 ,EV5 N[1 :5 ! ,L5A ,BURYATES SELL !IR :EAT1 OR S5D SOME ( !IR CATTLE TO BE SOLD TO A ,RUSSIAN BUT*]1 ! FAMILIES ( ! \L\S1 OR ! TRIBE1 PUT !IR :EAT & CATTLE TOGE!R1 & SELL IT AS A :OLE4 ,EA* \L\S HAS1 MOREOV]1 ITS GRA9 /ORE = LOANS 9 CASE ( NE$1 ITS COMMUNAL BAK+ OV5 7! F\R BANAL ( ! OLD ,FR5* COMMUNITIES71 & ITS BLACKSMI?1 :O1 LIKE ! BLACKSMI? ( ! ,9DIAN COMMUNITIES1#c#a BE+ A MEMB] ( ! COMMUNITY1 IS NEV] PAID = HIS WORK )9 ! COMMUNITY4 ,HE MU/ MAKE IT = NO?+1 & IF HE UTILIZES HIS SP>E TIME = FABRICAT+ ! SMALL PLATES ( *ISEL$ & SILV]$ IRON :I* >E US$ 9 ,BURYATE L& = ! DECORATION ( DRESS1 HE MAY OCCASIONALLY SELL !M TO A WOMAN FROM ANO!R CLAN1 BUT TO ! WOM5 ( HIS [N CLAN ! ATTIRE IS PRES5T$ AS A GIFT4 ,SELL+ & BUY+ CANNOT TAKE PLACE )9 ! COMMUNITY1 & ! RULE IS SO SEV]E ?AT :5 A RI*] FAMILY HIRES A LABOR] ! LABOR] MU/ BE TAK5 FROM ANO!R CLAN OR FROM AMONG ! ,RUSSIANS4 ,?IS HABIT IS EVID5TLY NOT SPECIFIC TO ! ,BURYATES2 IT IS SO WIDELY SPREAD AMONG ! MOD]N B>B>IANS1 ,>YAN & ,URAL-,ALTAYAN1 ?AT IT MU/ HAVE BE5 UNIV]SAL AMONG \R ANCE/ORS4 

  ,! FEEL+ ( UNION )9 ! CONF$]ATION IS KEPT ALIVE BY ! COMMON 9T]E/S ( ! TRIBES1 !IR FOLKMOTES1 & ! FE/IVITIES :I* >E USUALLY KEPT 9 CONNECTION ) ! FOLKMOTES4 ,! SAME FEEL+ IS1 H[EV]1 MA9TA9$ BY ANO!R 9/ITUTION1 ! ABA1 OR COMMON HUNT1 :I* IS A REM9ISC5CE ( A V]Y REMOTE PA/4 ,EV]Y AUTUMN1 ! =TY-SIX CLANS ( ,KUD9SK COME TOGE!R = SU* A HUNT1 ! PRODUCE ( :I* IS DIVID$ AMONG ALL ! FAMILIES4 ,MOREOV]1 NATIONAL ABAS1 TO ASS]T ! UNITY ( ! :OLE ,BURYATE NATION1 >E CONVOK$ FROM TIME TO TIME4 ,9 SU* CASES1 ALL ,BURYATE CLANS :I* >E SCATT]$ = HUNDR$S ( MILES WE/ & EA/ ( ,LAKE ,BAIKAL1 >E B\ND TO S5D !IR DELEGATE HUNT]S4 ,?\S&S ( M5 COME TOGE!R1 EA* ONE BR++ PROVISIONS = A :OLE MON?4 ,EV]Y ONE'S %>E MU/ BE EQUAL TO ALL ! O!RS1 & !RE=E1 BE=E BE+ PUT TOGE!R1 !Y >E WEI<$ BY AN ELECT$ ELD] 7ALWAYS 0) ! H&03 SCALES W\LD BE A PR(ANATION ( ! OLD CU/OM74 ,AFT] ?AT ! HUNT]S DIVIDE 9TO B&S ( TW5TY1 & ! P>TIES GO HUNT+ ACCORD+ TO A WELL-SETTL$ PLAN4 ,9 SU* ABAS ! 5TIRE ,BURYATE NATION REVIVES ITS EPIC TRADITIONS ( A TIME :5 IT WAS UNIT$ 9 A P[]FUL LEAGUE4 ,LET ME ADD ?AT SU* COMMUNAL HUNTS >E QUITE USUAL ) ! ,R$ ,9DIANS & ! ,*9ESE ON ! BANKS ( ! ,USURI 7! KADA74#c#b 

  ,) ! ,KABYLES1 :OSE MANN]S ( LIFE HAVE BE5 SO WELL DESCRIB$ BY TWO ,FR5* EXPLOR]S1#c#c WE HAVE B>B>IANS /ILL MORE ADVANC$ 9 AGRICULTURE4 ,!IR FIELDS1 IRRIGAT$ & MANUR$1 >E WELL ATT5D$ TO1 & 9 ! HILLY TRACTS EV]Y AVAILABLE PLOT ( L& IS CULTIVAT$ BY ! SPADE4 ,! ,KABYLES HAVE KN[N MANY VICISSITUDES 9 !IR HI/ORY2 !Y HAVE FOLL[$ = SOMETIME ! ,MUSSULMAN LAW ( 9H]ITANCE1 BUT1 BE+ ADV]SE TO IT1 !Y HAVE RETURN$1 #ae YE>S AGO1 TO ! TRIBAL CU/OM>Y LAW ( OLD4 ,ACCORD+LY1 !IR L&-T5URE IS ( A MIX$ *>ACT]1 & PRIVATE PROP]TY 9 L& EXI/S SIDE BY SIDE ) COMMUNAL POSSESSION4 ,/ILL1 ! BASIS ( !IR PRES5T ORGANIZATION IS ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 ! ?ADD>T1 :I* USUALLY CONSI/S ( SEV]AL JO9T FAMILIES 7KH>\BAS71 CLAIM+ A COMMUNITY ( ORIG91 AS WELL AS ( SMALL] FAMILIES ( /RANG]S4 ,SEV]AL VILLAGES >E GR\P$ 9TO CLANS OR TRIBES 7>*72 SEV]AL TRIBES MAKE ! CONF$]ATION 7?AK'EBILT72 & SEV]AL CONF$]ATIONS MAY OCCASIONALLY 5T] 9TO A LEAGUE1 *IEFLY = PURPOSES ( >M$ DEF5SE4 

  ,! ,KABYLES KN[ NO AU?ORITY :ATEV] BESIDES ?AT ( ! DJEMMAA1 OR FOLKMOTE ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 ,ALL M5 ( AGE TAKE P>T 9 IT1 9 ! OP5 AIR1 OR 9 A SPECIAL BUILD+ PROVID$ ) /ONE SEATS1 & ! DECISIONS ( ! DJEMMAA >E EVID5TLY TAK5 AT UNANIMITY3 ?AT IS1 ! DISCUSSIONS CONT9UE UNTIL ALL PRES5T AGREE TO ACCEPT1 OR TO SUBMIT TO1 SOME DECISION4 ,!RE BE+ NO AU?ORITY 9 A VILLAGE COMMUNITY TO IMPOSE A DECISION1 ?IS SY/EM HAS BE5 PRACTIC$ BY MANK9D :]EV] !RE HAVE BE5 VILLAGE COMMUNITIES1 & IT IS PRACTIC$ /ILL :]EV] !Y CONT9UE TO EXI/1 I4E4 BY SEV]AL HUNDR$ MILLION M5 ALL OV] ! WORLD4 ,! DJEMMAA NOM9ATES ITS EXECUTIVE -- ! ELD]1 ! SCRIBE1 & ! TREASUR]2 IT ASSESSES ITS [N TAXES2 & IT MANAGES ! REP>TITION ( ! COMMON L&S1 AS WELL AS ALL K9DS ( WORKS ( PUBLIC UTILITY4 ,A GREAT DEAL ( WORK IS DONE 9 COMMON3 ! ROADS1 ! MOSQUES1 ! F\NTA9S1 ! IRRIGATION CANALS1 ! T[]S ]ECT$ = PROTECTION FROM ROBB]S1 ! F5CES1 & SO ON1 >E BUILT BY ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY2 :ILE ! HI<-ROADS1 ! L>G] MOSQUES1 & ! GREAT M>KET-PLACES >E ! WORK ( ! TRIBE4 ,MANY TRACES ( COMMON CULTURE CONT9UE TO EXI/1 & ! H\SES CONT9UE TO BE BUILT BY1 OR ) ! AID (1 ALL M5 & WOM5 ( ! VILLAGE4 ,ALTOGE!R1 ! 0AIDS0 >E ( DAILY OCCURR5CE1 & >E CONT9UALLY CALL$ 9 = ! CULTIVATION ( ! FIELDS1 = H>VE/+1 & SO ON4 ,AS TO ! SKILL$ WORK1 EA* COMMUNITY HAS ITS BLACKSMI?1 :O 5JOYS HIS P>T ( ! COMMUNAL L&1 & WORKS = ! COMMUNITY2 :5 ! TILL+ SEASON APPROA*ES HE VISITS EV]Y H\SE1 & REPAIRS ! TOOLS & ! PL[S1 )\T EXPECT+ ANY PAY1 :ILE ! MAK+ ( NEW PL[S IS CONSID]$ AS A PI\S WORK :I* CAN BY NO MEANS BE RECOMP5S$ 9 MONEY1 OR BY ANY O!R =M ( SAL>Y4 

  ,AS ! ,KABYLES ALREADY HAVE PRIVATE PROP]TY1 !Y EVID5TLY HAVE BO? RI* & POOR AMONG !M4 ,BUT LIKE ALL PEOPLE :O CLOSELY LIVE TOGE!R1 & KN[ H[ POV]TY BEG9S1 !Y CONSID] IT AS AN ACCID5T :I* MAY VISIT EV]Y ONE4 0,DON'T SAY ?AT Y\ WILL NEV] WE> ! BEGG>'S BAG1 NOR GO TO PRISON10 IS A PROV]B ( ! ,RUSSIAN PEASANTS2 ! ,KABYLES PRACTICE IT1 & NO DIFF]5CE CAN BE DETECT$ 9 ! EXT]NAL BEHAVIOR BETWE5 RI* & POOR2 :5 ! POOR CONVOKES AN 0AID10 ! RI* MAN WORKS 9 HIS FIELD1 JU/ AS ! POOR MAN DOES IT RECIPROCALLY 9 HIS TURN4#c#d ,MOREOV]1 ! DJEMMAAS SET ASIDE C]TA9 G>D5S & FIELDS1 SOMETIMES CULTIVAT$ 9 COMMON1 = ! USE ( ! POORE/ MEMB]S4 ,MANY LIKE CU/OMS CONT9UE TO EXI/4 ,AS ! POOR] FAMILIES W\LD NOT BE ABLE TO BUY MEAT1 MEAT IS REGUL>LY B\<T ) ! MONEY ( ! F9ES1 OR ! GIFTS TO ! DJEMMAA1 OR ! PAYM5TS = ! USE ( ! COMMUNAL OLIVE-OIL BAS9S1 & IT IS DI/RIBUT$ 9 EQUAL P>TS AMONG ?OSE :O CANNOT AF=D BUY+ MEAT !MSELVES4 ,& :5 A %EEP OR A BULLOCK IS KILL$ BY A FAMILY = ITS [N USE ON A DAY :I* IS NOT A M>KET DAY1 ! FACT IS ANN\NC$ 9 ! /REETS BY ! VILLAGE CRI]1 9 ORD] ?AT SICK PEOPLE & PREGNANT WOM5 MAY TAKE ( IT :AT !Y WANT4 ,MUTUAL SUPPORT P]MEATES ! LIFE ( ! ,KABYLES1 & IF ONE ( !M1 DUR+ A J\RNEY ABROAD1 MEETS ) ANO!R ,KABYLE 9 NE$1 HE IS B\ND TO COME TO HIS AID1 EV5 AT ! RISK ( HIS [N =TUNE & LIFE2 IF ?IS HAS NOT BE5 DONE1 ! DJEMMAA ( ! MAN :O HAS SUFF]$ FROM SU* NEGLECT MAY LODGE A COMPLA9T1 & ! DJEMMAA ( ! SELFI% MAN WILL AT ONCE MAKE GOOD ! LOSS4 ,WE ?US COME ACROSS A CU/OM :I* IS FAMILI> TO ! /UD5TS ( ! M$IEVAL M]*ANT GUILDS4 ,EV]Y /RANG] :O 5T]S A ,KABYLE VILLAGE HAS RI<T TO H\S+ 9 ! W9T]1 & HIS HORSES CAN ALWAYS GRAZE ON ! COMMUNAL L&S = TW5TY-F\R H\RS4 ,BUT 9 CASE ( NE$ HE CAN RECKON UPON AN ALMO/ UNLIMIT$ SUPPORT4 ,?US1 DUR+ ! FAM9E ( #a#h#f#g-#f#h1 ! ,KABYLES RECEIV$ & F$ EV]Y ONE :O S\<T REFUGE 9 !IR VILLAGES1 )\T DI/9CTION ( ORIG94 ,9 ! DI/RICT ( ,DELLYS1 NO LESS ?AN #a#b1 PEOPLE :O CAME FROM ALL P>TS ( ,ALG]IA1 & EV5 FROM ,MOROCCO1 W]E F$ 9 ?IS WAY4 ,:ILE PEOPLE DI$ FROM />VATION ALL OV] ,ALG]IA1 !RE WAS NOT ONE S+LE CASE ( DEA? DUE TO ?IS CAUSE ON ,KABYLIAN SOIL4 ,! DJEMMAAS1 DEPRIV+ !MSELVES ( NECESS>IES1 ORGANIZ$ RELIEF1 )\T EV] ASK+ ANY AID FROM ! ,GOV]NM5T1 OR UTT]+ ! SLI<TE/ COMPLA9T2 !Y CONSID]$ IT AS A NATURAL DUTY4 ,& :ILE AMONG ! ,EUROPEAN SETTL]S ALL K9D ( POLICE MEASURES W]E TAK5 TO PREV5T !FTS & DISORD] RESULT+ FROM SU* AN 9FLUX ( /RANG]S1 NO?+ ( ! K9D WAS REQUIR$ ON ! ,KABYLES' T]RITORY3 ! DJEMMAAS NE$$ NEI!R AID NOR PROTECTION FROM )\T4#c#e 

  ,I CAN ONLY CURSORILY M5TION TWO O!R MO/ 9T]E/+ FEATURES ( ,KABYLE LIFE2 NAMELY1 ! ANAYA1 OR PROTECTION GRANT$ TO WELLS1 CANALS1 MOSQUES1 M>KETPLACES1 SOME ROADS1 & SO ON1 9 CASE ( W>1 & ! C(S4 ,9 ! ANAYA WE HAVE A S]IES ( 9/ITUTIONS BO? = DIM9I%+ ! EVILS ( W> & = PREV5T+ CONFLICTS4 ,?US ! M>KET-PLACE IS ANAYA1 ESPECIALLY IF IT /&S ON A FRONTI] & BR+S ,KABYLES & /RANG]S TOGE!R2 NO ONE D>ES DI/URB PEACE 9 ! M>KET1 & IF A DI/URBANCE >ISES1 IT IS QUELL$ AT ONCE BY ! /RANG]S :O HAVE GA!R$ 9 ! M>KET T[N4 ,! ROAD UPON :I* ! WOM5 GO FROM ! VILLAGE TO ! F\NTA9 ALSO IS ANAYA 9 CASE ( W>2 & SO ON4 ,AS TO ! C( IT IS A WIDELY SPREAD =M ( ASSOCIATION1 HAV+ SOME *>ACT]S ( ! M$IEVAL ,BURGS*AFT5 OR ,GEGILD51 AS WELL AS ( SOCIETIES BO? = MUTUAL PROTECTION & = V>I\S PURPOSES -- 9TELLECTUAL1 POLITICAL1 & EMOTIONAL -- :I* CANNOT BE SATISFI$ BY ! T]RITORIAL ORGANIZATION ( ! VILLAGE1 ! CLAN1 & ! CONF$]ATION4 ,! C( KN[S NO T]RITORIAL LIMITS2 IT RECRUITS ITS MEMB]S 9 V>I\S VILLAGES1 EV5 AMONG /RANG]S2 & IT PROTECTS !M 9 ALL POSSIBLE EV5TUALITIES ( LIFE4 ,ALTOGE!R1 IT IS AN ATTEMPT AT SUPPLEM5T+ ! T]RITORIAL GR\P+ BY AN EXTRA-T]RITORIAL GR\P+ 9T5D$ TO GIVE AN EXPRESSION TO MUTUAL AFF9ITIES ( ALL K9DS ACROSS ! FRONTI]S4 ,! FREE 9T]NATIONAL ASSOCIATION ( 9DIVIDUAL TA/ES & IDEAS1 :I* WE CONSID] AS ONE ( ! BE/ FEATURES ( \R [N LIFE1 HAS ?US ITS ORIG9 9 B>B>IAN ANTIQUITY4 

  ,! M\NTA9E]S ( ,CAUCASIA (F] ANO!R EXTREMELY 9/RUCTIVE FIELD = ILLU/RATIONS ( ! SAME K9D4 ,9 /UDY+ ! PRES5T CU/OMS ( ! ,OSSETES -- !IR JO9T FAMILIES & COMMUNES & !IR JUDICI>Y CONCEPTIONS -- ,PR(ESSOR ,KOVALEVSKY1 9 A REM>KABLE WORK ON ,MOD]N ,CU/OM & ,ANCI5T ,LAW WAS 5ABL$ /EP BY /EP TO TRACE ! SIMIL> DISPOSITIONS ( ! OLD B>B>IAN CODES & EV5 TO /UDY ! ORIG9S ( FEUDALISM4 ,) O!R ,CAUCASIAN /EMS WE OCCASIONALLY CAT* A GLIMPSE 9TO ! ORIG9 ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY 9 ?OSE CASES :]E IT WAS NOT TRIBAL BUT ORIG9AT$ FROM A VOLUNT>Y UNION BETWE5 FAMILIES ( DI/9CT ORIG94 ,SU* WAS REC5TLY ! CASE ) SOME ,KHEVS\RE VILLAGES1 ! 9HABITANTS ( :I* TOOK ! OA? ( 0COMMUNITY & FRAT]NITY40#c#f ,9 ANO!R P>T ( ,CAUCASUS1 ,DA<E/AN1 WE SEE ! GR[? ( FEUDAL RELATIONS BETWE5 TWO TRIBES1 BO? MA9TA9+ AT ! SAME TIME !IR VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 7& EV5 TRACES ( ! G5TILE 0CLASSES071 & ?US GIV+ A LIV+ ILLU/RATION ( ! =MS TAK5 BY ! CONQUE/ ( ,ITALY & ,GAUL BY ! B>B>IANS4 ,! VICTORI\S RACE1 ! ,LEZ<9ES1 :O HAVE CONQU]$ SEV]AL ,GEORGIAN & ,T>T> VILLAGES 9 ! ,ZAKATALY DI/RICT1 DID NOT BR+ !M UND] ! DOM9ION ( SEP>ATE FAMILIES2 !Y CON/ITUT$ A FEUDAL CLAN :I* N[ 9CLUDES #a#b1 H\SEHOLDS 9 ?REE VILLAGES1 & [NS 9 COMMON NO LESS ?AN TW5TY ,GEORGIAN & ,T>T> VILLAGES4 ,! CONQU]ORS DIVID$ !IR [N L& AMONG !IR CLANS1 & ! CLANS DIVID$ IT 9 EQUAL P>TS AMONG ! FAMILIES2 BUT !Y DID NOT 9T]F]E ) ! DJEMMAAS ( !IR TRIBUT>IES :I* /ILL PRACTICE ! HABIT M5TION$ BY ,JULIUS ,CES>2 NAMELY1 ! DJEMMAA DECIDES EA* YE> :I* P>T ( ! COMMUNAL T]RITORY MU/ BE CULTIVAT$1 & ?IS L& IS DIVID$ 9TO AS MANY P>TS AS !RE >E FAMILIES1 & ! P>TS >E DI/RIBUT$ BY LOT4 ,IT IS WOR?Y ( NOTE ?AT AL?\< PROLET>IANS >E ( COMMON OCCURR5CE AMONG ! ,LEZ<9ES 7:O LIVE UND] A SY/EM ( PRIVATE PROP]TY 9 L&1 & COMMON [N]%IP ( S]FS#c#g7 !Y >E R>E AMONG !IR ,GEORGIAN S]FS1 :O CONT9UE TO HOLD !IR L& 9 COMMON4 ,AS TO ! CU/OM>Y LAW ( ! ,CAUCASIAN M\NTA9E]S1 IT IS MU* ! SAME AS ?AT ( ! ,LONGOB>DS OR ,SALIC ,FRANKS1 & SEV]AL ( ITS DISPOSITIONS EXPLA9 A GOOD DEAL ! JUDICIAL PROC$URE ( ! B>B>IANS ( OLD4 ,BE+ ( A V]Y IMPRESSIONABLE *>ACT]1 !Y DO !IR BE/ TO PREV5T QU>RELS FROM TAK+ A FATAL ISSUE2 SO1 ) ! ,KHEVS\RES1 ! SWORDS >E V]Y SOON DRAWN :5 A QU>REL BREAKS \T2 BUT IF A WOMAN RU%ES \T & ?R[S AMONG !M ! PIECE ( L95 :I* %E WE>S ON H] HEAD1 ! SWORDS >E AT ONCE RETURN$ TO !IR %EA?S1 & ! QU>REL IS APPEAS$4 ,! HEAD-DRESS ( ! WOM5 IS ANAYA4 ,IF A QU>REL HAS NOT BE5 /OPP$ 9 TIME & HAS 5D$ 9 MURD]1 ! COMP5SATION MONEY IS SO CONSID]ABLE ?AT ! AGGRESSOR IS 5TIRELY RU9$ = HIS LIFE1 UNLESS HE IS ADOPT$ BY ! WRONG$ FAMILY2 & IF HE HAS RESORT$ TO HIS SWORD 9 A TRIFL+ QU>REL & HAS 9FLICT$ W\NDS1 HE LOSES = EV] ! CONSID]ATION ( HIS K94 ,9 ALL DISPUTES1 M$IATORS TAKE ! MATT] 9 H&2 !Y SELECT FROM AMONG ! MEMB]S ( ! CLAN ! JUDGES -- SIX 9 SMALL] AFFAIRS1 & FROM T5 TO FIFTE5 9 MORE S]I\S MATT]S -- & ,RUSSIAN OBS]V]S TE/IFY TO ! ABSOLUTE 9CORRUPTIBILITY ( ! JUDGES4 ,AN OA? HAS SU* A SIGNIFICANCE ?AT M5 5JOY+ G5]AL E/EEM >E DISP5S$ FROM TAK+ IT3 A SIMPLE AFFIRMATION IS QUITE SUFFICI5T1 ! MORE SO AS 9 GRAVE AFFAIRS ! ,KHEVS\RE NEV] HESITATES TO RECOGNIZE HIS GUILT 7,I MEAN1 ( C\RSE1 ! ,KHEVS\RE UNT\*$ YET BY CIVILIZATION74 ,! OA? IS *IEFLY RES]V$ = SU* CASES1 LIKE DISPUTES AB\T PROP]TY1 :I* REQUIRE SOME SORT ( APPRECIATION 9 ADDITION TO A SIMPLE /ATEM5T ( FACTS2 & 9 SU* CASES ! M5 :OSE AFFIRMATION WILL DECIDE 9 ! DISPUTE1 ACT ) ! GREATE/ CIRCUMSPECTION4 ,ALTOGE!R IT IS C]TA9LY NOT A WANT ( HONE/Y OR ( RESPECT TO ! RI<TS ( ! CONG5]S :I* *>ACT]IZES ! B>B>IAN SOCIETIES ( ,CAUCASUS4 

  ,! /EMS ( ,AFRICA (F] SU* AN IMM5SE V>IETY ( EXTREMELY 9T]E/+ SOCIETIES /&+ AT ALL 9T]M$IATE /AGES FROM ! E>LY VILLAGE COMMUNITY TO ! DESPOTIC B>B>IAN MON>*IES ?AT ,I MU/ AB&ON ! IDEA ( GIV+ H]E EV5 ! *IEF RESULTS ( A COMP>ATIVE /UDY ( !IR 9/ITUTIONS4#c#h ,SUFFICE IT TO SAY1 ?AT1 EV5 UND] ! MO/ HORRID DESPOTISM ( K+S1 ! FOLKMOTES ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES & !IR CU/OM>Y LAW REMA9 SOV]EIGN 9 A WIDE CIRCLE ( AFFAIRS4 ,! LAW ( ! ,/ATE ALL[S ! K+ TO TAKE ANY ONE'S LIFE = A SIMPLE CAPRICE1 OR EV5 = SIMPLY SATISFY+ HIS GLUTTONY2 BUT ! CU/OM>Y LAW ( ! PEOPLE CONT9UES TO MA9TA9 ! SAME NETWORK ( 9/ITUTIONS = MUTUAL SUPPORT :I* EXI/ AMONG O!R B>B>IANS OR HAVE EXI/$ AMONG \R ANCE/ORS4 ,& ) SOME BETT]-FAVOR$ /EMS 79 ,BORNU1 ,UG&A1 ,ABYSS9IA71 & ESPECIALLY ! ,BOGOS1 SOME ( ! DISPOSITIONS ( ! CU/OM>Y LAW >E 9SPIR$ ) REALLY GRACEFUL & DELICATE FEEL+S4 

  ,! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES ( ! NATIVES ( BO? ,AM]ICAS HAVE ! SAME *>ACT]4 ,! ,TUPI ( ,BRAZIL W]E F\ND LIV+ 9 0LONG H\SES0 OCCUPI$ BY :OLE CLANS :I* US$ TO CULTIVATE !IR CORN & MANIOC FIELDS 9 COMMON4 ,! ,>ANI1 MU* MORE ADVANC$ 9 CIVILIZATION1 US$ TO CULTIVATE !IR FIELDS 9 COMMON2 SO ALSO ! ,\CAGAS1 :O HAD LE>N$ UND] !IR SY/EM ( PRIMITIVE COMMUNISM & 0LONG H\SES0 TO BUILD GOOD ROADS & TO C>RY ON A V>IETY ( DOME/IC 9DU/RIES1#c#i NOT 9F]IOR TO ?OSE ( ! E>LY M$IEVAL TIMES 9 ,EUROPE4 ,ALL ( !M W]E ALSO LIV+ UND] ! SAME CU/OM>Y LAW ( :I* WE HAVE GIV5 SPECIM5S ON ! PREC$+ PAGES4 ,AT ANO!R EXTREMITY ( ! WORLD WE F9D ! ,MALAYAN FEUDALISM1 BUT ?IS FEUDALISM HAS BE5 P[]LESS TO UNROOT ! NEG>IA1 OR VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 ) ITS COMMON [N]%IP ( AT LEA/ P>T ( ! L&1 & ! R$I/RIBUTION ( L& AMONG ! SEV]AL NEG>IAS ( ! TRIBE4#d ,) ! ,ALFURUS ( ,M9AHASA WE F9D ! COMMUNAL ROTATION ( ! CROPS2 ) ! ,9DIAN /EM ( ! ,WY&OTS WE HAVE ! P]IODICAL R$I/RIBUTION ( L& )9 ! TRIBE1 & ! CLAN-CULTURE ( ! SOIL2 & 9 ALL ?OSE P>TS ( ,SUMATRA :]E ,MUSLIM 9/ITUTIONS HAVE NOT YET TOTALLY DE/ROY$ ! OLD ORGANIZATION WE F9D ! JO9T FAMILY 7SUKA7 & ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY 7KOTA7 :I* MA9TA9S ITS RI<T UPON ! L&1 EV5 IF P>T ( IT HAS BE5 CLE>$ )\T ITS AU?ORIZATION4#d#a ,BUT TO SAY ?IS1 IS TO SAY ?AT ALL CU/OMS = MUTUAL PROTECTION & PREV5TION ( FEUDS & W>S1 :I* HAVE BE5 BRIEFLY 9DICAT$ 9 ! PREC$+ PAGES AS *>ACT]I/IC ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 EXI/ AS WELL4 ,MORE ?AN ?AT3 ! MORE FULLY ! COMMUNAL POSSESSION ( L& HAS BE5 MA9TA9$1 ! BETT] & ! G5TL] >E ! HABITS4 ,DE ,/U]S POSITIVELY AFFIRMS ?AT :]EV] ! 9/ITUTION ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY HAS BE5 LESS 5CROA*$ UPON BY ! CONQU]ORS1 ! 9EQUALITIES ( =TUNES >E SMALL]1 & ! V]Y PRESCRIPTIONS ( ! LEX TALIONIS >E LESS CRUEL2 :ILE1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 :]EV] ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY HAS BE5 TOTALLY BROK5 UP1 0! 9HABITANTS SUFF] ! MO/ UNBE>ABLE OPPRESSION FROM !IR DESPOTIC RUL]S40#d#b ,?IS IS QUITE NATURAL4 ,& :5 ,WAITZ MADE ! REM>K ?AT ?OSE /EMS :I* HAVE MA9TA9$ !IR TRIBAL CONF$]ATIONS /& ON A HI<] LEVEL ( DEVELOPM5T & HAVE A RI*] LIT]ATURE ?AN ?OSE /EMS :I* HAVE =FEIT$ ! OLD BONDS ( UNION1 HE ONLY PO9T$ \T :AT MI<T HAVE BE5 =ETOLD 9 ADVANCE4 

  ,MORE ILLU/RATIONS W\LD SIMPLY 9VOLVE ME 9 T$I\S REPETITIONS -- SO /RIK+LY SIMIL> >E ! B>B>IAN SOCIETIES UND] ALL CLIMATES & AMID ALL RACES4 ,! SAME PROCESS ( EVOLUTION HAS BE5 GO+ ON 9 MANK9D ) A WOND]FUL SIMIL>ITY4 ,:5 ! CLAN ORGANIZATION1 ASSAIL$ AS IT WAS FROM )9 BY ! SEP>ATE FAMILY1 & FROM )\T BY ! DISMEMB]M5T ( ! MIGRAT+ CLANS & ! NECESSITY ( TAK+ 9 /RANG]S ( DIFF]5T DESC5T -- ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 BAS$ UPON A T]RITORIAL CONCEPTION1 CAME 9TO EXI/5CE4 ,?IS NEW 9/ITUTION1 :I* HAD NATURALLY GR[N \T ( ! PREC$+ ONE -- ! CLAN -- P]MITT$ ! B>B>IANS TO PASS ?R\< A MO/ DI/URB$ P]IOD ( HI/ORY )\T BE+ BROK5 9TO ISOLAT$ FAMILIES :I* W\LD HAVE SUCCUMB$ 9 ! /RUGGLE = LIFE4 ,NEW =MS ( CULTURE DEVELOP$ UND] ! NEW ORGANIZATION2 AGRICULTURE ATTA9$ ! /AGE :I* IT H>DLY HAS SURPASS$ UNTIL N[ ) ! GREAT NUMB]2 ! DOME/IC 9DU/RIES REA*$ A HI< DEGREE ( P]FECTION4 ,! WILD]NESS WAS CONQU]$1 IT WAS 9T]SECT$ BY ROADS1 DOTT$ ) SW>MS ?R[N (F BY ! MO!R-COMMUNITIES4 ,M>KETS & =TIFI$ C5T]S1 AS WELL AS PLACES ( PUBLIC WOR%IP1 W]E ]ECT$4 ,! CONCEPTIONS ( A WID] UNION1 EXT5D$ TO :OLE /EMS & TO SEV]AL /EMS ( V>I\S ORIG91 W]E SL[LY ELABORAT$4 ,! OLD CONCEPTIONS ( JU/ICE :I* W]E CONCEPTIONS ( M]E REV5GE1 SL[LY UND]W5T A DEEP MODIFICATION -- ! IDEA ( AM5DS = ! WRONG DONE TAK+ ! PLACE ( REV5GE4 ,! CU/OM>Y LAW :I* /ILL MAKES ! LAW ( ! DAILY LIFE = TWO-?IRDS OR MORE ( MANK9D1 WAS ELABORAT$ UND] ?AT ORGANIZATION1 AS WELL AS A SY/EM ( HABITS 9T5D$ TO PREV5T ! OPPRESSION ( ! MASSES BY ! M9ORITIES :OSE P[]S GREW 9 PROPORTION TO ! GR[+ FACILITIES = PRIVATE ACCUMULATION ( WEAL?4 ,?IS WAS ! NEW =M TAK5 BY ! T5D5CIES ( ! MASSES = MUTUAL SUPPORT4 ,& ! PROGRESS -- ECONOMICAL1 9TELLECTUAL1 & MORAL -- :I* MANK9D ACCOMPLI%$ UND] ?IS NEW POPUL> =M ( ORGANIZATION1 WAS SO GREAT ?AT ! ,/ATES1 :5 !Y W]E CALL$ LAT] ON 9TO EXI/5CE1 SIMPLY TOOK POSSESSION1 9 ! 9T]E/ ( ! M9ORITIES1 ( ALL ! JUDICIAL1 ECONOMICAL1 & ADM9I/RATIVE FUNCTIONS :I* ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY ALREADY HAD EX]CIS$ 9 ! 9T]E/ ( ALL4 

,NOTES 

#a ,NUMB]LESS TRACES ( PO/-PLIOC5E LAKES1 N[ DISAPPE>$1 >E F\ND OV] ,C5TRAL1 ,WE/1 & ,NOR? ,ASIA4 ,%ELLS ( ! SAME SPECIES AS ?OSE N[ F\ND 9 ! ,CASPIAN ,SEA >E SCATT]$ OV] ! SURFACE ( ! SOIL AS F> ,EA/ AS HALF-WAY TO ,LAKE ,>AL1 & >E F\ND 9 REC5T DEPOSITS AS F> NOR? AS ,KAZAN4 ,TRACES ( ,CASPIAN ,GULFS1 =M]LY TAK5 = OLD B$S ( ! ,AMU1 9T]SECT ! ,TURCOMAN T]RITORY4 ,D$UCTION MU/ SURELY BE MADE = TEMPOR>Y1 P]IODICAL OSCILLATIONS4 ,BUT ) ALL ?AT1 DESICCATION IS EVID5T1 & IT PROGRESSES AT A =M]LY UNEXPECT$ SPE$4 ,EV5 9 ! RELATIVELY WET P>TS ( ,S\?-,WE/ ,SIB]IA1 ! SUCCESSION ( RELIABLE SURVEYS1 REC5TLY PUBLI%$ BY ,YADR9TSEFF1 %[S ?AT VILLAGES HAVE GR[N UP ON :AT WAS1 EI<TY YE>S AGO1 ! BOTTOM ( ONE ( ! LAKES ( ! ,T*ANY GR\P2 :ILE ! O!R LAKES ( ! SAME GR\P1 :I* COV]$ HUNDR$S ( SQU>E MILES SOME FIFTY YE>S AGO1 >E N[ M]E PONDS4 ,9 %ORT1 ! DESICCATION ( ,NOR?-,WE/ ,ASIA GOES ON AT A RATE :I* MU/ BE MEASUR$ BY C5TURIES1 9/EAD ( BY ! GEOLOGICAL UNITS ( TIME ( :I* WE =M]LY US$ TO SPEAK4 

#b ,:OLE CIVILIZATIONS HAD ?US DISAPPE>$1 AS IS PROV$ N[ BY ! REM>KABLE DISCOV]IES 9 ,MONGOLIA ON ! ,ORKHON & 9 ! ,LUK*UN DEPRESSION 7BY ,DMITRI ,CLEM5TS74 

#c ,IF ,I FOLL[ ! OP9IONS ( 7TO NAME MOD]N SPECIALI/S ONLY7 ,NASSE1 ,KOVALEVSKY1 & ,V9OGRADOV1 & NOT ?OSE ( ,MR4 ,SEEBOHM 7,MR4 ,D5MAN ,ROSS CAN ONLY BE NAM$ = ! SAKE ( COMPLET5ESS71 IT IS NOT ONLY BECAUSE ( ! DEEP KN[L$GE & CONCORDANCE ( VIEWS ( !SE ?REE WRIT]S1 BUT ALSO ON ACC\NT ( !IR P]FECT KN[L$GE ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY ALTOGE!R -- A KN[L$GE ! WANT ( :I* IS MU* FELT 9 ! O!RWISE REM>KABLE WORK ( ,MR4 ,SEEBOHM4 ,! SAME REM>K APPLIES1 9 A /ILL HI<] DEGREE1 TO ! MO/ ELEGANT WRIT+S ( ,FU/EL DE ,C\LANGES1 :OSE OP9IONS & PASSIONATE 9T]PRETATIONS ( OLD TEXTS >E CONF9$ TO HIMSELF4 

#d ,! LIT]ATURE ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY IS SO VA/ ?AT BUT A FEW WORKS CAN BE NAM$4 ,?OSE ( ,SIR ,H5RY ,MA9E1 ,MR4 ,SEEBOHM1 & ,WALT]'S ,DAS ALTE ,WALLIS 7,BONN1 #a#h#e#i71 >E WELL-KN[N POPUL> S\RCES ( 9=MATION AB\T ,SCOTL&1 ,IREL&1 & ,WALES4 ,= ,FRANCE1 ,P4 ,VIOLLET1 ,PRECIS DE L'HI/OIRE DU DROIT FRANCAIS4 ,DROIT PRIVE1 #a#h#h#f1 & SEV]AL ( HIS MONOGRAPHS 9 ,BIBL4 DE L',ECOLE DES ,*>TES2 ,BABEAU1 ,LE ,VILLAGE S\S L'ANCI5 REGIME 7! MIR 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY71 ?IRD $ITION1 #a#h#h#g2 ,BONNEM]E1 ,DONIOL1 ETC4 ,= ,ITALY & ,SC&9AVIA1 ! *IEF WORKS >E NAM$ 9 ,LAVELEYE'S ,PRIMITIVE ,PROP]TY1 ,G]MAN V]SION BY ,K4 ,BU*]4 ,= ! ,F9NS1 ,RE9'S ,=ELASN+>1 I4 #a#f2 ,KOSK951 ,F9NIS*E ,GES*I*TE1 #a#h#g#d1 & V>I\S MONOGRAPHS4 ,= ! ,LIVES & ,C\RES1 ,PR(4 ,LUT*ITZKY 9 ,SEV]NYI ,VE/NIL1 #a#h#i#a4 ,= ! ,TEUTONS1 BESIDES ! WELL-KN[N WORKS ( ,MAUR]1 ,SOHM 7,ALTDEUTS*E ,REI*S- UND ,G]I*TS- ,V]FASSUNG71 ALSO ,DAHN 7,URZEIT1 ,VOLK]W&]UNG1 ,LANGOB>DIS*E ,/UDI571 ,JANSS51 ,WILH4 ,>NOLD1 ETC4 ,= ,9DIA1 BESIDES ,H4 ,MA9E & ! WORKS HE NAMES1 ,SIR ,JOHN ,PHE>'S ,>YAN ,VILLAGE4 ,= ,RUSSIA & ,S\? ,SLAVONIANS1 SEE ,KAVEL91 ,POSNIK(F1 ,SOKOLOVSKY1 ,KOVALEVSKY1 ,EFIM5KO1 ,IVANI%EFF1 ,KLAUS1 ETC4 7COPI\S BIBLIOGRAPHICAL 9DEX UP TO #ahh 9 ! ,SBORNIK SV$5IY OB OBS*9YE ( ! ,RUSS4 ,GEOG4 ,SOC474 ,= G5]AL CONCLUSIONS1 BESIDES ,LAVELEYE'S ,PROPRIETE1 ,MORGAN'S ,ANCI5T ,SOCIETY1 ,LIPP]T'S ,KULTURGES*I*TE1 ,PO/1 ,D>GUN1 ETC41 ALSO ! LECTURES ( ,M4 ,KOVALEVSKY 7,TABLEAU DES ORIG9ES ET DE L'EVOLUTION DE LA FAMILLE ET DE LA PROPRIETE1 ,/OCKHOLM1 #a#h#i74 ,MANY SPECIAL MONOGRAPHS \<T TO BE M5TION$2 !IR TITLES MAY BE F\ND 9 ! EXCELL5T LI/S GIV5 BY ,P4 ,VIOLLET 9 ,DROIT PRIVE & ,DROIT PUBLIC4 ,= O!R RACES1 SEE SUBSEQU5T NOTES4 

#e ,SEV]AL AU?ORITIES >E 9CL9$ TO CONSID] ! JO9T H\SEHOLD AS AN 9T]M$IATE /AGE BETWE5 ! CLAN & ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY2 & !RE IS NO D\BT ?AT 9 V]Y MANY CASES VILLAGE COMMUNITIES HAVE GR[N UP \T ( UNDIVID$ FAMILIES4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ,I CONSID] ! JO9T H\SEHOLD AS A FACT ( A DIFF]5T ORD]4 ,WE F9D IT )9 ! G5TES2 ON ! O!R H&1 WE CANNOT AFFIRM ?AT JO9T FAMILIES HAVE EXI/$ AT ANY P]IOD )\T BELONG+ EI!R TO A G5S OR TO A VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 OR TO A ,GAU4 ,I CONCEIVE ! E>LY VILLAGE COMMUNITIES AS SL[LY ORIG9AT+ DIRECTLY FROM ! G5TES1 & CONSI/+1 ACCORD+ TO RACIAL & LOCAL CIRCUM/ANCES1 EI!R ( SEV]AL JO9T FAMILIES1 OR ( BO? JO9T & SIMPLE FAMILIES1 OR 7ESPECIALLY 9 ! CASE ( NEW SETTLEM5TS7 ( SIMPLE FAMILIES ONLY4 ,IF ?IS VIEW BE CORRECT1 WE %\LD NOT HAVE ! RI<T ( E/ABLI%+ ! S]IES3 G5S1 COMP\ND FAMILY1 VILLAGE COMMUNITY -- ! SECOND MEMB] ( ! S]IES HAV+ NOT ! SAME E?NOLOGICAL VALUE AS ! TWO O!RS4 ,SEE ,APP5DIX ,I,X4 

#f ,/OBBE1 ,BEITRAG ZUR ,GES*I*TE DES DEUTS*5 ,RE*TES1 P4 #f#b4 

#g ,! FEW TRACES ( PRIVATE PROP]TY 9 L& :I* >E MET ) 9 ! E>LY B>B>IAN P]IOD >E F\ND ) SU* /EMS 7! ,BATAVIANS1 ! ,FRANKS 9 ,GAUL7 AS HAVE BE5 = A TIME UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ,IMP]IAL ,ROME4 ,SEE ,9AMA-,/]NEGG'S ,DIE ,AUSBILDUNG D] GROSS5 ,GRUNDH]RS*AFT5 9 ,DEUTS*L&1 ,BD4 I4 #a#h#g#h4 ,ALSO1 ,BESSEL]1 ,NEUBRU* NA* DEM ALT]5 DEUTS*5 ,RE*T1 PP4 #a#a-#a#b1 QUOT$ BY ,KOVALEVSKY1 ,MOD]N ,CU/OM & ,ANCI5T ,LAW1 ,MOSC[1 #a#h#h#f1 I4 #a#c#d4 

#h ,MAUR]'S ,M>KG5OSS5S*AFT2 ,LAMPRE*T'S 0,WIR?S*AFT UND ,RE*T D] ,FRANK5 ZUR ,ZEIT D] ,VOLKSRE*TE10 9 ,HI/OR4 ,TAS*5BU*1 #a#h#h#c2 ,SEEBOHM'S ,! ,5GLI% ,VILLAGE ,COMMUNITY1 *4 VI1 VII1 & IX4 

#i ,LET\RNEAU1 9 ,BULLET9 DE LA ,SOC4 D',AN?ROPOLOGIE1 #a#h#h#h1 VOL4 XI4 P4 #d#g#f4 

#a ,WALT]1 ,DAS ALTE ,WALLIS1 P4 #c#b#c2 ,DM4 ,BAKRADZE & ,N4 ,KH\DAD(F 9 ,RUSSIAN ,ZAPISKI ( ! ,CAUCASIAN ,GEOGR4 ,SOCIETY1 XIV4 ,P>T ,I4 

#aa ,BANCR(T'S ,NATIVE ,RACES2 ,WAITZ1 ,AN?ROPOLOGIE1 III4 #d#b#c2 ,MONTROZI]1 9 ,BULL4 ,SOC4 D',AN?ROPOLOGIE1 #a#h#g2 ,PO/'S ,/UDI51 ETC4 

#ab ,A NUMB] ( WORKS1 BY ,ORY1 ,LURO1 ,LAUDES1 & ,SYLVE/RE1 ON ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY 9 ,ANNAM1 PROV+ ?AT IT HAS HAD !RE ! SAME =MS AS 9 ,G]MANY OR ,RUSSIA1 IS M5TION$ 9 A REVIEW ( !SE WORKS BY ,JOBBE-,DUVAL1 9 ,N\VELLE ,REVUE HI/ORIQUE DE DROIT FRANCAIS ET ETRANG]1 ,OCTOB] & ,DECEMB]1 #a#h#i#f4 ,A GOOD /UDY ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY ( ,P]U1 BE=E ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! P[] ( ! ,9CAS1 HAS BE5 BR\<T \T BY ,HE9RI* ,CUN[ 7,DIE ,SOZIALE ,V]FASSUNG DES ,9KA-,REI*S1 ,/UTTG>T1 #a#h#i#f4 ,! COMMUNAL POSSESSION ( L& & COMMUNAL CULTURE >E DESCRIB$ 9 ?AT WORK4 

#ac ,KOVALEVSKY1 ,MOD]N ,CU/OM & ,ANCI5T ,LAW1 I4 #a#a#e4 

#ad ,PALFREY1 ,HI/ORY ( ,NEW ,5GL&1 II4 #a#c2 QUOT$ 9 ,MA9E'S ,VILLAGE ,COMMUNITIES1 ,NEW ,YORK1 #a#h#g#f1 P4 #b#a4 

#ae ,KONIGSW>T]1 ,ETUDES SUR LE DEVELOPPEM5T DES SOCIETES HUMA9ES1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#e4 

#af ,?IS IS1 AT LEA/1 ! LAW ( ! ,KALMUCKS1 :OSE CU/OM>Y LAW BE>S ! CLOSE/ RESEMBLANCE TO ! LAWS ( ! ,TEUTONS1 ! OLD ,SLAVONIANS1 ETC4 

#ag ,! HABIT IS 9 =CE /ILL ) MANY ,AFRICAN & O!R TRIBES4 

#ah ,VILLAGE ,COMMUNITIES1 PP4 #f#e-#f#h & #a#i#i4 

#ai ,MAUR] 7,GES*4 D] ,M>KV]FASSUNG1 SECTIONS #b#i1 #i#g7 IS QUITE DECISIVE UPON ?IS SUBJECT4 ,HE MA9TA9S ?AT 0,ALL MEMB]S ( ! COMMUNITY444 ! LAIC & CL]ICAL LORDS AS WELL1 (T5 ALSO ! P>TIAL CO-POSSESSORS 7,M>KB]E*TIGTE71 & EV5 /RANG]S TO ! ,M>K1 W]E SUBMITT$ TO ITS JURISDICTION0 7P4 #c#a#b74 ,?IS CONCEPTION REMA9$ LOCALLY 9 =CE UP TO ! FIFTE5? C5TURY4 

#b ,KONIGSW>T]1 LOC4 CIT4 P4 #e2 ,J4 ,?RUPP1 ,HI/ORICAL ,LAW ,TRACTS1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#d#c1 P4 #a#f4 

#ba ,KONIGSW>T] HAS %[N ?AT ! F]D ORIG9AT$ FROM AN (F]+ :I* HAD TO BE MADE TO APPEASE ! ANCE/ORS4 ,LAT] ON1 IT WAS PAID TO ! COMMUNITY1 = ! BREA* ( PEACE2 & /ILL LAT] TO ! JUDGE1 OR K+1 OR LORD1 :5 !Y HAD APPROPRIAT$ TO !MSELVES ! RI<TS ( ! COMMUNITY4 

#bb ,PO/'S ,BAU/E9E & ,AFRIKANIS*E ,JURISPRUD5Z1 ,OLD5BURG1 #a#h#h#g1 VOL4 I4 PP4 #fd SEQ42 ,KOVALEVSKY1 LOC4 CIT4 II4 #a#f#d-#a#h#i4 

#bc ,O4 ,MILL] & ,M4 ,KOVALEVSKY1 0,9 ! ,M\NTA9E] ,COMMUNITIES ( ,KAB>DIA10 9 ,VE/NIK ,EVROPY1 ,APRIL1 #a#h#h#d4 ,) ! ,%AKHSEV5S ( ! ,MUGAN ,/EPPE1 BLOOD FEUDS ALWAYS 5D BY M>RIAGE BETWE5 ! TWO HO/ILE SIDES 7,M>K(F1 9 APP5DIX TO ! ,ZAPISKI ( ! ,CAUCASIAN ,GEOGR4 ,SOC4 XIV4 #a1 #b#a74 

#bd ,PO/1 9 ,AFRIK4 ,JURISPRUD5Z1 GIVES A S]IES ( FACTS ILLU/RAT+ ! CONCEPTIONS ( EQUITY 9ROOT$ AMONG ! ,AFRICAN B>B>IANS4 ,! SAME MAY BE SAID ( ALL S]I\S EXAM9ATIONS 9TO B>B>IAN COMMON LAW4 

#be ,SEE ! EXCELL5T *APT]1 0,LE DROIT DE ,LA ,VIEILLE ,IRL&E10 7ALSO 0,LE ,HAUT ,NORD07 9 ,ETUDES DE DROIT 9T]NATIONAL ET DE DROIT POLITIQUE1 BY ,PR(4 ,E4 ,NYS1 ,BRUXELLES1 #a#h#i#f4 

#bf ,9TRODUCTION1 P4 XXXV4 

#bg ,DAS ALTE ,WALLIS1 PP4 #c#d#c-#c#e4 

#bh ,MAYN(F1 0,SKET*ES ( ! ,JUDICIAL ,PRACTICES ( ! ,MORDOVIANS10 9 ! E?NOGRAPHICAL ,ZAPISKI ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,GEOGRAPHICAL ,SOCIETY1 #a#h#h#e1 PP4 #b#c#f1 #b#e#g4 

#bi ,H5RY ,MA9E1 ,9T]NATIONAL ,LAW1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#h#h1 PP4 #a#a-#a#c4 ,E4 ,NYS1 ,LES ORIG9ES DU DROIT 9T]NATIONAL1 ,BRUXELLES1 #a#h#i#d4 

#c ,A ,RUSSIAN HI/ORIAN1 ! ,KAZAN ,PR(ESSOR ,S*AP(F1 :O WAS EXIL$ 9 #ahfb TO ,SIB]IA1 HAS GIV5 A GOOD DESCRIPTION ( !IR 9/ITUTIONS 9 ! ,IZVE/IA ( ! ,EA/-,SIB]IAN ,GEOGRAPHICAL ,SOCIETY1 VOL4 V4 #a#h#g#d4 

#ca ,SIR ,H5RY ,MA9E'S ,VILLAGE ,COMMUNITIES1 ,NEW ,YORK1 #a#h#g#f1 PP4 #a#i#c-#a#i#f4 

#cb ,NAZ>(F1 ,! ,NOR? ,USURI ,T]RITORY 7,RUSSIAN71 ,/4 ,PET]SBURG1 #a#h#h#g1 P4 #f#e4 

#cc ,HANOTEAU ET ,LET\RNEUX1 ,LA ,KABYLIE1 #c VOLS4 ,P>IS1 #a#h#h#c4 

#cd ,TO CONVOKE AN 0AID0 OR 0BEE10 SOME K9D ( MEAL MU/ BE (F]$ TO ! COMMUNITY4 ,I AM TOLD BY A ,CAUCASIAN FRI5D ?AT 9 ,GEORGIA1 :5 ! POOR MAN WANTS AN 0AID10 HE BORR[S FROM ! RI* MAN A %EEP OR TWO TO PREP>E ! MEAL1 & ! COMMUNITY BR+1 9 ADDITION TO !IR WORK1 SO MANY PROVISIONS ?AT HE MAY REPAY T,HE DEBT4 ,A SIMIL> HABIT EXI/S ) ! ,MORDOVIANS4 

#ce ,HANOTEAU ET ,LET\RNEUX1 ,LA KABYLIE1 II4 #e#h4 ,! SAME RESPECT TO /RANG]S IS ! RULE ) ! ,MONGOLS4 ,! ,MONGOL :O HAS REFUS$ HIS RO( TO A /RANG] PAYS ! FULL BLOOD-COMP5SATION IF ! /RANG] HAS SUFF]$ !REFROM 7,BA/IAN1 ,D] ,M5S* 9 D] ,GES*I*TE1 III4 #b#c#a74 

#cf ,N4 ,KH\DAD(F1 0,NOTES ON ! ,KHEVS\RES10 9 ,ZAPISKI ( ! ,CAUCASIAN ,GEOGR4 ,SOCIETY1 XIV4 #a1 ,TIFLIS1 #a#h#i1 P4 #f#h4 ,!Y ALSO TOOK ! OA? ( NOT M>RY+ GIRLS FROM !IR [N UNION1 ?US DISPLAY+ A REM>KABLE RETURN TO ! OLD G5TILE RULES4 

#cg ,DM4 ,BAKRADZE1 0,NOTES ON ! ,ZAKATALY ,DI/RICT10 9 SAME ,ZAPISKI1 XIV4 #a1 P4 #b#f#d4 ,! 0JO9T TEAM0 IS AS COMMON AMONG ! ,LEZ<9ES AS IT IS AMONG ! ,OSSETES4 

#* ,SEE ,PO/1 ,AFRIKANIS*E ,JURISPRUD5Z1 ,OLD5BURG1 #a#h#h#g4 ,MUNZ+]1 ,UEB] DAS ,RE*T UND ,SITT5 D] ,BOGOS1 ,W9T]?UR0 #a#h#e#i2 ,CASALIS1 ,LES ,BASS\TOS1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#e#i2 ,MACLEAN1 ,KAFIR ,LAWS & ,CU/OMS1 ,M\NT ,COKE1 #a#h#e#h1 ETC4 

#ci ,WAITZ1 III4 #dbc SEQ4 

#d ,PO/'S ,/UDI5 ZUR ,5TWICKLUNGSGES*I*TE DES ,FAMILI5 ,RE*TS ,OLD5BURG1 #a#h#h#i1 PP4 #bg SEQ4 

#da ,P[ELL1 ,ANNUAL ,REPORT ( ! ,BUREAU ( ,E?NOGRAPHY1 ,WA%+TON1 #a#h#h#a1 QUOT$ 9 ,PO/'S ,/UDI51 P4 #b#i2 ,BA/IAN'S ,9SELGRUPP5 9 ,OCEANI51 #a#h#h#c1 P4 #h#h4 

#db ,DE ,/U]S1 QUOT$ BY ,WAITZ1 V4 #a#d#a4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #b#a1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #d -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #a#a1 #bbb 3 ,*APT] #d -- ,UPDAT$4 

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