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,MUTUAL ,AID 9 ! ,M$IAEVAL ,CITY 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY BE?OM#c#c1,C,C ,B,Y-,S,A ,LIC5SE ,MUTUAL ,AID3 ,A ,FACTOR ( ,EVOLUTION 

,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

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,*APT] #e3 ,M,U,T,U,A,L ,A,I,D ,9 ,! ,M,$,I,A,E,V,A,L ,C,I,T,Y 

,GR[? ( AU?ORITY 9 ,B>B>IAN ,SOCIETY4 -- ,S]FDOM 9 ! VILLAGES4 -- ,REVOLT ( =TIFI$ T[NS3 !IR LIB]ATION2 !IR *>TS4 -- ,! GUILD4 -- ,D\BLE ORIG9 ( ! FREE M$IAEVAL CITY4 -- ,SELF-JURISDICTION1 SELF-ADM9I/RATION4 -- ,HONORABLE POSITION ( LABOR4 -- ,TRADE BY ! GUILD & BY ! CITY4 

,SOCIABILITY & NE$ ( MUTUAL AID & SUPPORT >E SU* 9H]5T P>TS ( HUMAN NATURE ?AT AT NO TIME ( HI/ORY CAN WE DISCOV] M5 LIV+ 9 SMALL ISOLAT$ FAMILIES1 FI<T+ EA* O!R = ! MEANS ( SUBSI/5CE4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 MOD]N RESE>*1 AS WE SAW IT 9 ! TWO PREC$+ *APT]S1 PROVES ?AT S9CE ! V]Y BEG9N+ ( !IR PREHI/ORIC LIFE M5 US$ TO AGGLOM]ATE 9TO G5TES1 CLANS1 OR TRIBES1 MA9TA9$ BY AN IDEA ( COMMON DESC5T & BY WOR%IP ( COMMON ANCE/ORS4 ,= ?\S&S & ?\S&S ( YE>S ?IS ORGANIZATION HAS KEPT M5 TOGE!R1 EV5 ?\< !RE WAS NO AU?ORITY :ATEV] TO IMPOSE IT4 ,IT HAS DEEPLY IMPRESS$ ALL SUBSEQU5T DEVELOPM5T ( MANK9D2 & :5 ! BONDS ( COMMON DESC5T HAD BE5 LOOS5$ BY MIGRATIONS ON A GR& SCALE1 :ILE ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! SEP>AT$ FAMILY )9 ! CLAN ITSELF HAD DE/ROY$ ! OLD UNITY ( ! CLAN1 A NEW =M ( UNION1 T]RITORIAL 9 ITS PR9CIPLE -- ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY -- WAS CALL$ 9TO EXI/5CE BY ! SOCIAL G5IUS ( MAN4 ,?IS 9/ITUTION1 AGA91 KEPT M5 TOGE!R = A NUMB] ( C5TURIES1 P]MITT+ !M TO FUR!R DEVELOP !IR SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS & TO PASS ?R\< SOME ( ! D>KE/ P]IODS ( HI/ORY1 )\T BE+ DISSOLV$ 9TO LOOSE AGGREGATIONS ( FAMILIES & 9DIVIDUALS1 TO MAKE A FUR!R /EP 9 !IR EVOLUTION1 & TO WORK \T A NUMB] ( SECOND>Y SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1 SEV]AL ( :I* HAVE SURVIV$ D[N TO ! PRES5T TIME4 ,WE HAVE N[ TO FOLL[ ! FUR!R DEVELOPM5TS ( ! SAME EV]-LIV+ T5D5CY = MUTUAL AID4 ,TAK+ ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES ( ! SO-CALL$ B>B>IANS AT A TIME :5 !Y W]E MAK+ A NEW />T ( CIVILIZATION AFT] ! FALL ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 WE HAVE TO /UDY ! NEW ASPECTS TAK5 BY ! SOCIABLE WANTS ( ! MASSES 9 ! MIDDLE AGES1 & ESPECIALLY 9 ! M$IAEVAL GUILDS & ! M$IAEVAL CITY4 

  ,F> FROM BE+ ! FI<T+ ANIMALS !Y HAVE (T5 BE5 COMP>$ TO1 ! B>B>IANS ( ! FIR/ C5TURIES ( \R ]A 7LIKE SO MANY ,MONGOLIANS1 ,AFRICANS1 ,>ABS1 & SO ON1 :O /ILL CONT9UE 9 ! SAME B>B>IAN /AGE7 9V>IABLY PREF]R$ PEACE TO W>4 ,) ! EXCEPTION ( A FEW TRIBES :I* HAD BE5 DRIV5 DUR+ ! GREAT MIGRATIONS 9TO UNPRODUCTIVE DES]TS OR HI<L&S1 & W]E ?US COMPELL$ P]IODICALLY TO PREY UPON !IR BETT]-FAVOR$ NEI<BORS -- AP>T FROM !SE1 ! GREAT BULK ( ! ,TEUTONS1 ! ,SAXONS1 ! ,CELTS1 ! ,SLAVONIANS1 & SO ON1 V]Y SOON AFT] !Y HAD SETTL$ 9 !IR NEWLY-CONQU]$ ABODES1 REV]T$ TO ! SPADE OR TO !IR H]DS4 ,! E>LIE/ B>B>IAN CODES ALREADY REPRES5T TO US SOCIETIES COMPOS$ ( PEACEFUL AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES1 NOT HORDES ( M5 AT W> ) EA* O!R4 ,!SE B>B>IANS COV]$ ! C\NTRY ) VILLAGES & F>MH\SES2#a !Y CLE>$ ! =E/S1 BRIDG$ ! TORR5TS1 & COLONIZ$ ! =M]LY QUITE UN9HABIT$ WILD]NESS2 & !Y LEFT ! UNC]TA9 W>LIKE PURSUITS TO BRO!RHOODS1 S*OLAE1 OR 0TRU/S0 ( UNRULY M51 GA!R$ R\ND TEMPOR>Y *IEFTA9S1 :O W&]$ AB\T1 (F]+ !IR ADV5TUR\S SPIRIT1 !IR >MS1 & !IR KN[L$GE ( W>F>E = ! PROTECTION ( POPULATIONS1 ONLY TOO ANXI\S TO BE LEFT 9 PEACE4 ,! W>RIOR B&S CAME & W5T1 PROSECUT+ !IR FAMILY FEUDS2 BUT ! GREAT MASS CONT9U$ TO TILL ! SOIL1 TAK+ BUT LITTLE NOTICE ( !IR W\LD-BE RUL]S1 SO LONG AS !Y DID NOT 9T]F]E ) ! 9DEP5D5CE ( !IR VILLAGE COMMUNITIES4#b ,! NEW OCCUPI]S ( ,EUROPE EVOLV$ ! SY/EMS ( L& T5URE & SOIL CULTURE :I* >E /ILL 9 =CE ) HUNDR$S ( MILLIONS ( M52 !Y WORK$ \T !IR SY/EMS ( COMP5SATION = WRONGS1 9/EAD ( ! OLD TRIBAL BLOOD-REV5GE2 !Y LE>N$ ! FIR/ RUDIM5TS ( 9DU/RY2 & :ILE !Y =TIFI$ !IR VILLAGES ) PALISAD$ WALLS1 OR ]ECT$ T[]S & E>!N =TS :]ETO TO REPAIR 9 CASE ( A NEW 9VASION1 !Y SOON AB&ON$ ! TASK ( DEF5D+ !SE T[]S & =TS TO ?OSE :O MADE ( W> A SPECIALTY4 

  ,! V]Y PEACEFULNESS ( ! B>B>IANS1 C]TA9LY NOT !IR SUPPOS$ W>LIKE 9/9CTS1 ?US BECAME ! S\RCE ( !IR SUBSEQU5T SUBJECTION TO ! MILIT>Y *IEFTA9S4 ,IT IS EVID5T ?AT ! V]Y MODE ( LIFE ( ! >M$ BRO!RHOODS (F]$ !M MORE FACILITIES = 5RI*M5T ?AN ! TILL]S ( ! SOIL C\LD F9D 9 !IR AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES4 ,EV5 N[ WE SEE ?AT >M$ M5 OCCASIONALLY COME TOGE!R TO %OOT D[N ,MATABELES & TO ROB !M ( !IR DROVES ( CATTLE1 ?\< ! ,MATABELES ONLY WANT PEACE & >E READY TO BUY IT AT A HI< PRICE4 ,! S*OLAE ( OLD C]TA9LY W]E NOT MORE SCRUPUL\S ?AN ! S*OLAE ( \R [N TIME4 ,DROVES ( CATTLE1 IRON 7:I* WAS EXTREMELY CO/LY AT ?AT TIME#c71 & SLAVES W]E APPROPRIAT$ 9 ?IS WAY2 & AL?\< MO/ ACQUISITIONS W]E WA/$ ON ! SPOT 9 ?OSE GLORI\S FEA/S ( :I* EPIC POETRY HAS SO MU* TO SAY -- /ILL SOME P>T ( ! ROBB$ RI*ES WAS US$ = FUR!R 5RI*M5T4 ,!RE WAS PL5TY ( WA/E L&1 & NO LACK ( M5 READY TO TILL IT1 IF ONLY !Y C\LD OBTA9 ! NECESS>Y CATTLE & IMPLEM5TS4 ,:OLE VILLAGES1 RU9$ BY MURRA9S1 PE/S1 FIRES1 OR RAIDS ( NEW IMMIGRANTS1 W]E (T5 AB&ON$ BY !IR 9HABITANTS1 :O W5T ANY:]E 9 SE>* ( NEW ABODES4 ,!Y /ILL DO SO 9 ,RUSSIA 9 SIMIL> CIRCUM/ANCES4 ,& IF ONE ( ! HIRDM5 ( ! >M$ BRO!RHOODS (F]$ ! PEASANTS SOME CATTLE = A FRE% />T1 SOME IRON TO MAKE A PL[1 IF NOT ! PL[ ITSELF1 HIS PROTECTION FROM FUR!R RAIDS1 & A NUMB] ( YE>S FREE FROM ALL OBLIGATIONS1 BE=E !Y %\LD BEG9 TO REPAY ! CONTRACT$ DEBT1 !Y SETTL$ UPON ! L&4 ,& :51 AFT] A H>D FI<T ) BAD CROPS1 9UNDATIONS & PE/IL5CES1 ?OSE PIONE]S BEGAN TO REPAY !IR DEBTS1 !Y FELL 9TO S]VILE OBLIGATIONS T[>DS ! PROTECTOR ( ! T]RITORY4 ,WEAL? UND\BT$LY DID ACCUMULATE 9 ?IS WAY1 & P[] ALWAYS FOLL[S WEAL?4#d ,& YET1 ! MORE WE P5ETRATE 9TO ! LIFE ( ?OSE TIMES1 ! SIX? & SEV5? C5TURIES ( \R ]A1 ! MORE WE SEE ?AT ANO!R ELEM5T1 BESIDES WEAL? & MILIT>Y =CE1 WAS REQUIR$ TO CON/ITUTE ! AU?ORITY ( ! FEW4 ,IT WAS AN ELEM5T ( LAW & RI<T1 A DESIRE ( ! MASSES TO MA9TA9 PEACE1 & TO E/ABLI% :AT !Y CONSID]$ TO BE JU/ICE1 :I* GAVE TO ! *IEFTA9S ( ! S*OLAE -- K+S1 DUKES1 KNYAZES1 & ! LIKE -- ! =CE !Y ACQUIR$ TWO OR ?REE HUNDR$ YE>S LAT]4 ,?AT SAME IDEA ( JU/ICE1 CONCEIV$ AS AN ADEQUATE REV5GE = ! WRONG DONE1 :I* HAD GR[N 9 ! TRIBAL /AGE1 N[ PASS$ AS A R$ ?READ ?R\< ! HI/ORY ( SUBSEQU5T 9/ITUTIONS1 &1 MU* MORE EV5 ?AN MILIT>Y OR ECONOMIC CAUSES1 IT BECAME ! BASIS UPON :I* ! AU?ORITY ( ! K+S & ! FEUDAL LORDS WAS F\ND$4 

  ,9 FACT1 ONE ( ! *IEF PREOCCUPATIONS ( ! B>B>IAN VILLAGE COMMUNITY ALWAYS WAS1 AS IT /ILL IS ) \R B>B>IAN CONTEMPOR>IES1 TO PUT A SPE$Y 5D TO ! FEUDS :I* >OSE FROM ! !N CURR5T CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE4 ,:5 A QU>REL TOOK PLACE1 ! COMMUNITY AT ONCE 9T]F]$1 & AFT] ! FOLKMOTE HAD HE>D ! CASE1 IT SETTL$ ! AM\NT ( COMPOSITION 7W]GELD7 TO BE PAID TO ! WRONG$ P]SON1 OR TO HIS FAMILY1 AS WELL AS ! F]D1 OR F9E = BREA* ( PEACE1 :I* HAD TO BE PAID TO ! COMMUNITY4 ,9T]IOR QU>RELS W]E EASILY APPEAS$ 9 ?IS WAY4 ,BUT :5 FEUDS BROKE \T BETWE5 TWO DIFF]5T TRIBES1 OR TWO CONF$]ATIONS ( TRIBES1 NOT)/&+ ALL MEASURES TAK5 TO PREV5T !M1#e ! DIFFICULTY WAS TO F9D AN >BIT] OR S5T5CE-F9D] :OSE DECISION %\LD BE ACCEPT$ BY BO? P>TIES ALIKE1 BO? = HIS IMP>TIALITY & = HIS KN[L$GE ( ! OLDE/ LAW4 ,! DIFFICULTY WAS ! GREAT] AS ! CU/OM>Y LAWS ( DIFF]5T TRIBES & CONF$]ATIONS W]E AT V>IANCE AS TO ! COMP5SATION DUE 9 DIFF]5T CASES4 ,IT !RE=E BECAME HABITUAL TO TAKE ! S5T5CE-F9D] FROM AMONG SU* FAMILIES1 OR SU* TRIBES1 AS W]E REPUT$ = KEEP+ ! LAW ( OLD 9 ITS PURITY2 ( BE+ V]S$ 9 ! SONGS1 TRIADS1 SAGAS1 ETC41 BY MEANS ( :I* LAW WAS P]PETUAT$ 9 MEMORY2 & TO RETA9 LAW 9 ?IS WAY BECAME A SORT ( >T1 A 0MY/]Y10 C>EFULLY TRANSMITT$ 9 C]TA9 FAMILIES FROM G5]ATION TO G5]ATION4 ,?US 9 ,ICEL&1 & 9 O!R ,SC&9AVIAN L&S1 AT EV]Y ,ALL?+1 OR NATIONAL FOLKMOTE1 A LOVSOGMA?R US$ TO RECITE ! :OLE LAW FROM MEMORY = ! 5LI<T5+ ( ! ASSEMBLY2 & 9 ,IREL& !RE WAS1 AS IS KN[N1 A SPECIAL CLASS ( M5 REPUT$ = ! KN[L$GE ( ! OLD TRADITIONS1 & !RE=E 5JOY+ A GREAT AU?ORITY AS JUDGES4#f ,AGA91 :5 WE >E TOLD BY ! ,RUSSIAN ANNALS ?AT SOME /EMS ( ,NOR?-,WE/ ,RUSSIA1 MOV$ BY ! GR[+ DISORD] :I* RESULT$ FROM 0CLANS RIS+ AGA9/ CLANS10 APPEAL$ TO ,NORMAN V>+I> TO BE !IR JUDGES & COMM&]S ( W>RIOR S*OLAE2 & :5 WE SEE ! KNYAZES1 OR DUKES1 ELECT$ = ! NEXT TWO HUNDR$ YE>S ALWAYS FROM ! SAME ,NORMAN FAMILY1 WE CANNOT BUT RECOGNIZE ?AT ! ,SLAVONIANS TRU/$ TO ! ,NORMANS = A BETT] KN[L$GE ( ! LAW :I* W\LD BE EQUALLY RECOGNIZ$ AS GOOD BY DIFF]5T ,SLAVONIAN K9S4 ,9 ?IS CASE ! POSSESSION ( RUNES1 US$ = ! TRANSMISSION ( OLD CU/OMS1 WAS A DECID$ ADVANTAGE 9 FAVOR ( ! ,NORMANS2 BUT 9 O!R CASES !RE >E FA9T 9DICATIONS ?AT ! 0ELDE/0 BRAN* ( ! /EM1 ! SUPPOS$ MO!RBRAN*1 WAS APPEAL$ TO TO SUPPLY ! JUDGES1 & ITS DECISIONS W]E RELI$ UPON AS JU/2#g :ILE AT A LAT] EPO* WE SEE A DI/9CT T5D5CY T[>DS TAK+ ! S5T5CE-F9D]S FROM ! ,*RI/IAN CL]GY1 :I*1 AT ?AT TIME1 KEPT /ILL TO ! FUNDAM5TAL1 N[ =GOTT51 PR9CIPLE ( ,*RI/IANITY1 ?AT RETALIATION IS NO ACT ( JU/ICE4 ,AT ?AT TIME ! ,*RI/IAN CL]GY OP5$ ! *UR*ES AS PLACES ( ASYLUM = ?OSE :O FL$ FROM BLOOD REV5GE1 & !Y WILL+LY ACT$ AS >BIT]S 9 CRIM9AL CASES1 ALWAYS OPPOS+ ! OLD TRIBAL PR9CIPLE ( LIFE = LIFE & W\ND = W\ND4 ,9 %ORT1 ! DEEP] WE P5ETRATE 9TO ! HI/ORY ( E>LY 9/ITUTIONS1 ! LESS WE F9D GR\NDS = ! MILIT>Y !ORY ( ORIG9 ( AU?ORITY4 ,EV5 ?AT P[] :I* LAT] ON BECAME SU* A S\RCE ( OPPRESSION SEEMS1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 TO HAVE F\ND ITS ORIG9 9 ! PEACEFUL 9CL9ATIONS ( ! MASSES4 

  ,9 ALL !SE CASES ! F]D1 :I* (T5 AM\NT$ TO HALF ! COMP5SATION1 W5T TO ! FOLKMOTE1 & FROM TIMES IMMEMORIAL IT US$ TO BE APPLI$ TO WORKS ( COMMON UTILITY & DEF5SE4 ,IT HAS /ILL ! SAME DE/9ATION 7! ]ECTION ( T[]S7 AMONG ! ,KABYLES & C]TA9 ,MONGOLIAN /EMS2 & WE HAVE DIRECT EVID5CE ?AT EV5 SEV]AL C5TURIES LAT] ! JUDICIAL F9ES1 9 ,PSKOV & SEV]AL ,FR5* & ,G]MAN CITIES1 CONT9U$ TO BE US$ = ! REPAIR ( ! CITY WALLS4#h ,IT WAS ?US QUITE NATURAL ?AT ! F9ES %\LD BE H&$ OV] TO ! S5T5CE-F9D]1 :O WAS B\ND1 9 RETURN1 BO? TO MA9TA9 ! S*OLA ( >M$ M5 TO :OM ! DEF5SE ( ! T]RITORY WAS TRU/$1 & TO EXECUTE ! S5T5CES4 ,?IS BECAME A UNIV]SAL CU/OM 9 ! EI<? & N9? C5TURIES1 EV5 :5 ! S5T5CE-F9D] WAS AN ELECT$ BI%OP4 ,! G]M ( A COMB9ATION ( :AT WE %\LD N[ CALL ! JUDICIAL P[] & ! EXECUTIVE ?US MADE ITS APPE>ANCE4 ,BUT TO !SE TWO FUNCTIONS ! ATTRIBUTIONS ( ! DUKE OR K+ W]E /RICTLY LIMIT$4 ,HE WAS NO RUL] ( ! PEOPLE -- ! SUPREME P[] /ILL BELONG+ TO ! FOLKMOTE -- NOT EV5 A COMM&] ( ! POPUL> MILITIA2 :5 ! FOLK TOOK TO >MS1 IT M>*$ UND] A SEP>ATE1 ALSO ELECT$1 COMM&]1 :O WAS NOT A SUBORD9ATE1 BUT AN EQUAL TO ! K+4#i ,! K+ WAS A LORD ON HIS P]SONAL DOMA9 ONLY4 ,9 FACT1 9 B>B>IAN LANGUAGE1 ! WORD KONUNG1 KON+1 OR CYN+ SYNONYM\S ) ! ,LAT9 REX1 HAD NO O!R MEAN+ ?AN ?AT ( A TEMPOR>Y LEAD] OR *IEFTA9 ( A B& ( M54 ,! COMM&] ( A FLOTILLA ( BOATS1 OR EV5 ( A S+LE PIRATE BOAT1 WAS ALSO A KONUNG1 & TILL ! PRES5T DAY ! COMM&] ( FI%+ 9 ,NORWAY IS NAM$ ,NOT-KONG -- 0! K+ ( ! NETS40#a#a ,! V5]ATION ATTA*$ LAT] ON TO ! P]SONALITY ( A K+ DID NOT YET EXI/1 & :ILE TREASON TO ! K9 WAS PUNI%$ BY DEA?1 ! SLAY+ ( A K+ C\LD BE REC\P$ BY ! PAYM5T ( COMP5SATION3 A K+ SIMPLY WAS VALU$ SO MU* MORE ?AN A FREEMAN4#a#a ,& :5 ,K+ ,KNU 7OR ,CANUTE7 HAD KILL$ ONE MAN ( HIS [N S*OLA1 ! SAGA REPRES5TS HIM CONVOK+ HIS COMRADES TO A ?+ :]E HE /OOD ON HIS KNEES IMPLOR+ P>DON4 ,HE WAS P>DON$1 BUT NOT TILL HE HAD AGRE$ TO PAY N9E TIMES ! REGUL> COMPOSITION1 ( :I* ONE-?IRD W5T TO HIMSELF = ! LOSS ( ONE ( HIS M51 ONE-?IRD TO ! RELATIVES ( ! SLA9 MAN1 & ONE-?IRD 7! F]D7 TO ! S*OLA4#a#b ,9 REALITY1 A COMPLETE *ANGE HAD TO BE ACCOMPLI%$ 9 ! CURR5T CONCEPTIONS1 UND] ! D\BLE 9FLU5CE ( ! ,*UR* & ! /UD5TS ( ,ROMAN LAW1 BE=E AN IDEA ( SANCTITY BEGAN TO BE ATTA*$ TO ! P]SONALITY ( ! K+4 

  ,H[EV]1 IT LIES BEYOND ! SCOPE ( !SE ESSAYS TO FOLL[ ! GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T ( AU?ORITY \T ( ! ELEM5TS JU/ 9DICAT$4 ,HI/ORIANS1 SU* AS ,MR4 & ,MRS4 ,GRE5 = ?IS C\NTRY1 ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RY1 ,MI*ELET1 & ,LU*AIRE = ,FRANCE1 ,KAUFMANN1 ,JANSS51 ,W4 ,>NOLD1 & EV5 ,NITZS*1 = ,G]MANY1 ,LEO & ,BOTTA = ,ITALY1 ,BYELAEFF1 ,KO/OM>(F1 & !IR FOLL[]S = ,RUSSIA1 & MANY O!RS1 HAVE FULLY TOLD ?AT TALE4 ,!Y HAVE %[N H[ POPULATIONS1 ONCE FREE1 & SIMPLY AGREE+ 0TO FE$0 A C]TA9 PORTION ( !IR MILIT>Y DEF5D]S1 GRADUALLY BECAME ! S]FS ( !SE PROTECTORS2 H[ 0COMM5DATION0 TO ! ,*UR*1 OR TO A LORD1 BECAME A H>D NECESSITY = ! FREEMAN2 H[ EA* LORD'S & BI%OP'S CA/LE BECAME A ROBB]'S NE/ -- H[ FEUDALISM WAS IMPOS$1 9 A WORD -- & H[ ! CRUSADES1 BY FREE+ ! S]FS :O WORE ! CROSS1 GAVE ! FIR/ IMPULSE TO POPUL> EMANCIPATION4 ,ALL ?IS NE$ NOT BE RETOLD 9 ?IS PLACE1 \R *IEF AIM BE+ TO FOLL[ ! CON/RUCTIVE G5IUS ( ! MASSES 9 !IR MUTUAL-AID 9/ITUTIONS4 

  ,AT A TIME :5 ! LA/ VE/IGES ( B>B>IAN FRE$OM SEEM$ TO DISAPPE>1 & ,EUROPE1 FALL5 UND] ! DOM9ION ( ?\S&S ( PETTY RUL]S1 WAS M>*+ T[>DS ! CON/ITUTION ( SU* !OCRACIES & DESPOTIC ,/ATES AS HAD FOLL[$ ! B>B>IAN /AGE DUR+ ! PREVI\S />TS ( CIVILIZATION1 OR ( B>B>IAN MON>*IES1 SU* AS WE SEE N[ 9 ,AFRICA1 LIFE 9 ,EUROPE TOOK ANO!R DIRECTION4 ,IT W5T ON ON L9ES SIMIL> TO ?OSE IT HAD ONCE TAK5 9 ! CITIES ( ANTIQUE ,GREECE4 ,) A UNANIMITY :I* SEEMS ALMO/ 9COMPREH5SIBLE1 & = A LONG TIME WAS NOT UND]/OOD BY HI/ORIANS1 ! URBAN AGGLOM]ATIONS1 D[N TO ! SMALLE/ BURGS1 BEGAN TO %AKE (F ! YOKE ( !IR WORLDLY & CL]ICAL LORDS4 ,! =TIFI$ VILLAGE ROSE AGA9/ ! LORD'S CA/LE1 DEFI$ IT FIR/1 ATTACK$ IT NEXT1 & F9ALLY DE/ROY$ IT4 ,! MOVEM5T SPREAD FROM SPOT TO SPOT1 9VOLV+ EV]Y T[N ON ! SURFACE ( ,EUROPE1 & 9 LESS ?AN A HUNDR$ YE>S FREE CITIES HAD BE5 CALL$ 9TO EXI/5CE ON ! COA/S ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN1 ! ,NOR? ,SEA1 ! ,BALTIC1 ! ,ATLANTIC ,OCEAN1 D[N TO ! FJORDS ( ,SC&9AVIA2 AT ! FEET ( ! ,AP5N9ES1 ! ,ALPS1 ! ,BLACK ,=E/1 ! ,GRAMPIANS1 & ! ,C>PA?IANS2 9 ! PLA9S ( ,RUSSIA1 ,HUNG>Y1 ,FRANCE & ,SPA94 ,EV]Y:]E ! SAME REVOLT TOOK PLACE1 ) ! SAME FEATURES1 PASS+ ?R\< ! SAME PHASES1 LEAD+ TO ! SAME RESULTS4 ,:]EV] M5 HAD F\ND1 OR EXPECT$ TO F9D1 SOME PROTECTION BEH9D !IR T[N WALLS1 !Y 9/ITUT$ !IR 0CO-JURATIONS10 !IR 0FRAT]NITIES10 !IR 0FRI5D%IPS10 UNIT$ 9 ONE COMMON IDEA1 & BOLDLY M>*+ T[>DS A NEW LIFE ( MUTUAL SUPPORT & LIB]TY4 ,& !Y SUCCE$$ SO WELL ?AT 9 ?REE OR F\R HUNDR$ YE>S !Y HAD *ANG$ ! V]Y FACE ( ,EUROPE4 ,!Y HAD COV]$ ! C\NTRY ) BEAUTIFUL SUMPTU\S BUILD+S1 EXPRESS+ ! G5IUS ( FREE UNIONS ( FREE M51 UNRIVAL$ S9CE = !IR BEAUTY & EXPRESSIV5ESS2 & !Y BEQUEA!D TO ! FOLL[+ G5]ATIONS ALL ! >TS1 ALL ! 9DU/RIES1 ( :I* \R PRES5T CIVILIZATION1 ) ALL ITS A*IEVEM5TS & PROMISES = ! FUTURE1 IS ONLY A FUR!R DEVELOPM5T4 ,& :5 WE N[ LOOK TO ! =CES :I* HAVE PRODUC$ !SE GR& RESULTS1 WE F9D !M -- NOT 9 ! G5IUS ( 9DIVIDUAL H]OES1 NOT 9 ! MI<TY ORGANIZATION ( HUGE ,/ATES OR ! POLITICAL CAPACITIES ( !IR RUL]S1 BUT 9 ! V]Y SAME CURR5T ( MUTUAL AID & SUPPORT :I* WE SAW AT WORK 9 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 & :I* WAS VIVIFI$ & RE9=C$ 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES BY A NEW =M ( UNIONS1 9SPIR$ BY ! V]Y SAME SPIRIT BUT %AP$ ON A NEW MODEL -- ! GUILDS4 

  ,IT IS WELL KN[N BY ?IS TIME ?AT FEUDALISM DID NOT IMPLY A DISSOLUTION ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 ,AL?\< ! LORD HAD SUCCE$$ 9 IMPOS+ S]VILE LABOR UPON ! PEASANTS1 & HAD APPROPRIAT$ = HIMSELF SU* RI<TS AS W]E =M]LY VE/$ 9 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY ALONE 7TAXES1 MORTMA91 DUTIES ON 9H]ITANCES & M>RIAGES71 ! PEASANTS HAD1 NEV]!LESS1 MA9TA9$ ! TWO FUNDAM5TAL RI<TS ( !IR COMMUNITIES3 ! COMMON POSSESSION ( ! L&1 & SELF-JURISDICTION4 ,9 OLD5 TIMES1 :5 A K+ S5T HIS VOGT TO A VILLAGE1 ! PEASANTS RECEIV$ HIM ) FL[]S 9 ONE H& & >MS 9 ! O!R1 & ASK$ HIM -- :I* LAW HE 9T5D$ TO APPLY3 ! ONE HE F\ND 9 ! VILLAGE1 OR ! ONE HE BR\<T ) HIM8 ,&1 9 ! FIR/ CASE1 !Y H&$ HIM ! FL[]S & ACCEPT$ HIM2 :ILE 9 ! SECOND CASE !Y F\<T HIM4#a#c ,N[1 !Y ACCEPT$ ! K+'S OR ! LORD'S (FICIAL :OM !Y C\LD NOT REFUSE2 BUT !Y MA9TA9$ ! FOLKMOTE'S JURISDICTION1 & !MSELVES NOM9AT$ SIX1 SEV51 OR TWELVE JUDGES1 :O ACT$ ) ! LORD'S JUDGE1 9 ! PRES5CE ( ! FOLKMOTE1 AS >BIT]S & S5T5CE-F9D]S4 ,9 MO/ CASES ! (FICIAL HAD NO?+ LEFT TO HIM BUT TO CONFIRM ! S5T5CE & TO LEVY ! CU/OM>Y F]D4 ,?IS PRECI\S RI<T ( SELF-JURISDICTION1 :I*1 AT ?AT TIME1 MEANT SELF-ADM9I/RATION & SELF-LEGISLATION1 HAD BE5 MA9TA9$ ?R\< ALL ! /RUGGLES2 & EV5 ! LAWY]S BY :OM ,K>L ! ,GREAT WAS SURR\ND$ C\LD NOT ABOLI% IT2 !Y W]E B\ND TO CONFIRM IT4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 9 ALL MATT]S CONC]N+ ! COMMUNITY'S DOMA91 ! FOLKMOTE RETA9$ ITS SUPREMACY & 7AS %[N BY ,MAUR]7 (T5 CLAIM$ SUBMISSION FROM ! LORD HIMSELF 9 L& T5URE MATT]S4 ,NO GR[? ( FEUDALISM C\LD BREAK ?IS RESI/ANCE2 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY KEPT ITS GR\ND2 & :51 9 ! N9? & T5? C5TURIES1 ! 9VASIONS ( ! ,NORMANS1 ! ,>ABS1 & ! ,UGRIANS HAD DEMON/RAT$ ?AT MILIT>Y S*OLAE W]E ( LITTLE VALUE = PROTECT+ ! L&1 A G5]AL MOVEM5T BEGAN ALL OV] ,EUROPE = =TIFY+ ! VILLAGES ) /ONE WALLS & CITADELS4 ,?\S&S ( =TIFI$ C5T]S W]E !N BUILT BY ! 5]GIES ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES2 &1 ONCE !Y HAD BUILT !IR WALLS1 ONCE A COMMON 9T]E/ HAD BE5 CREAT$ 9 ?IS NEW SANCTU>Y -- ! T[N WALLS -- !Y SOON UND]/OOD ?AT !Y C\LD H5CE=W>D RESI/ ! 5CROA*M5TS ( ! 9N] 5EMIES1 ! LORDS1 AS WELL AS ! 9VASIONS ( =EIGN]S4 ,A NEW LIFE ( FRE$OM BEGAN TO DEVELOP )9 ! =TIFI$ 5CLOSURES4 ,! M$IAEVAL CITY WAS BORN4#a#d 

  ,NO P]IOD ( HI/ORY C\LD BETT] ILLU/RATE ! CON/RUCTIVE P[]S ( ! POPUL> MASSES ?AN ! T5? & ELEV5? C5TURIES1 :5 ! =TIFI$ VILLAGES & M>KET-PLACES1 REPRES5T+ SO MANY 0OASES AMID ! FEUDAL =E/10 BEGAN TO FREE !MSELVES FROM !IR LORD'S YOKE1 & SL[LY ELABORAT$ ! FUTURE CITY ORGANIZATION2 BUT1 UNHAPPILY1 ?IS IS A P]IOD AB\T :I* HI/ORICAL 9=MATION IS ESPECIALLY SC>CE3 WE KN[ ! RESULTS1 BUT LITTLE HAS REA*$ US AB\T ! MEANS BY :I* !Y W]E A*IEV$4 ,UND] ! PROTECTION ( !IR WALLS ! CITIES' FOLKMOTES -- EI!R QUITE 9DEP5D5T1 OR L$ BY ! *IEF NOBLE OR M]*ANT FAMILIES -- CONQU]$ & MA9TA9$ ! RI<T ( ELECT+ ! MILIT>Y DEF5SOR & SUPREME JUDGE ( ! T[N1 OR AT LEA/ ( *OOS+ BETWE5 ?OSE :O PRET5D$ TO OCCUPY ?IS POSITION4 ,9 ,ITALY ! Y\NG COMMUNES W]E CONT9UALLY S5D+ AWAY !IR DEF5SORS OR DOM9I1 FI<T+ ?OSE :O REFUS$ TO GO4 ,! SAME W5T ON 9 ! ,EA/4 ,9 ,BOHEMIA1 RI* & POOR ALIKE 7,BOHEMICAE G5TIS MAGNI ET P>VI1 NOBILES ET IGNOBILES7 TOOK P>T 9 ! ELECTION2#a#e :ILE1 ! VYE*ES 7FOLKMOTES7 ( ! ,RUSSIAN CITIES REGUL>LY ELECT$ !IR DUKES -- ALWAYS FROM ! SAME ,RURIK FAMILY -- COV5ANT$ ) !M1 & S5T ! KNYAZ AWAY IF HE HAD PROVOK$ DISCONT5T4#a#f ,AT ! SAME TIME 9 MO/ CITIES ( ,WE/]N & ,S\!RN ,EUROPE1 ! T5D5CY WAS TO TAKE = DEF5SOR A BI%OP :OM ! CITY HAD ELECT$ ITSELF2 & SO MANY BI%OPS TOOK ! LEAD 9 PROTECT+ ! 0IMMUNITIES0 ( ! T[NS & 9 DEF5D+ !IR LIB]TIES1 ?AT NUMB]S ( !M W]E CONSID]$1 AFT] !IR DEA?1 AS SA9TS & SPECIAL PATRONS ( DIFF]5T CITIES4 ,/4 ,U!LR$ ( ,W9*E/]1 ,/4 ,ULRIK ( ,AUGSBURG1 ,/4 ,WOLFGANG ( ,RATISBON1 ,/4 ,H]IB]T ( ,COLOGNE1 ,/4 ,ADALB]T ( ,PRAGUE1 & SO ON1 AS WELL AS MANY ABBOTS & MONKS1 BECAME SO MANY CITIES' SA9TS = HAV+ ACT$ 9 DEF5SE ( POPUL> RI<TS4#a#g ,& UND] ! NEW DEF5SORS1 :E!R LAIC OR CL]ICAL1 ! CITIZ5S CONQU]$ FULL SELF-JURISDICTION & SELF-ADM9I/RATION = !IR FOLKMOTES4#a#h 

  ,! :OLE PROCESS ( LIB]ATION PROGRESS$ BY A S]IES ( IMP]CEPTIBLE ACTS ( DEVOTION TO ! COMMON CAUSE1 ACCOMPLI%$ BY M5 :O CAME \T ( ! MASSES -- BY UNKN[N H]OES :OSE V]Y NAMES HAVE NOT BE5 PRES]V$ BY HI/ORY4 ,! WOND]FUL MOVEM5T ( ! ,GOD'S PEACE 7TREUGA ,DEI7 BY :I* ! POPUL> MASSES 5DEAVOR$ TO PUT A LIMIT TO ! 5DLESS FAMILY FEUDS ( ! NOBLE FAMILIES1 WAS BORN 9 ! Y\NG T[NS1 ! BI%OPS & ! CITIZ5S TRY+ TO EXT5D TO ! NOBLES ! PEACE !Y HAD E/ABLI%$ )9 !IR T[N WALLS4#a#i ,ALREADY AT ?AT P]IOD1 ! COMM]CIAL CITIES ( ,ITALY1 & ESPECIALLY ,AMALFI 7:I* HAD ITS ELECT$ CONSULS S9CE #h#d#d1 & FREQU5TLY *ANG$ ITS DOGES 9 ! T5? C5TURY7#b WORK$ \T ! CU/OM>Y M>ITIME & COMM]CIAL LAW :I* LAT] ON BECAME A MODEL = ALL ,EUROPE2 ,RAV5NA ELABORAT$ ITS CRAFT ORGANIZATION1 & ,MILAN1 :I* HAD MADE ITS FIR/ REVOLUTION 9 #i#h1 BECAME A GREAT C5T] ( COMM]CE1 ITS TRADES 5JOY+ A FULL 9DEP5D5CE S9CE ! ELEV5? C5TURY4#b#a ,SO ALSO ,BRUGGE & ,<5T2 SO ALSO SEV]AL CITIES ( ,FRANCE 9 :I* ! ,MAHL OR =UM HAD BECOME A QUITE 9DEP5D5T 9/ITUTION4#b#b ,& ALREADY DUR+ ?AT P]IOD BEGAN ! WORK ( >TI/IC DECORATION ( ! T[NS BY WORKS ( >*ITECTURE1 :I* WE /ILL ADMIRE & :I* L\DLY TE/IFY ( ! 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T ( ! TIMES4 0,! BASILICAE W]E !N R5EW$ 9 ALMO/ ALL ! UNIV]SE10 ,RA\L ,GLAB] WROTE 9 HIS *RONICLE1 & SOME ( ! F9E/ MONUM5TS ( M$IAEVAL >*ITECTURE DATE FROM ?AT P]IOD3 ! WOND]FUL OLD *UR* ( ,BREM5 WAS BUILT 9 ! N9? C5TURY1 ,SA9T ,M>C ( ,V5ICE WAS F9I%$ 9 #a#g#a1 & ! BEAUTIFUL DOME ( ,PISA 9 #a#f#c4 ,9 FACT1 ! 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T :I* HAS BE5 DESCRIB$ AS ! ,TWELF? ,C5TURY ,R5AISSANCE#b#c & ! ,TWELF? ,C5TURY ,RATIONALISM -- ! PRECURSOR ( ! ,RE=M#b#d DATE FROM ?AT P]IOD1 :5 MO/ CITIES W]E /ILL SIMPLE AGGLOM]ATIONS ( SMALL VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 5CLOS$ BY WALLS4 

  ,H[EV]1 ANO!R ELEM5T1 BESIDES ! VILLAGE-COMMUNITY PR9CIPLE1 WAS REQUIR$ TO GIVE TO !SE GR[+ C5T]S ( LIB]TY & 5LI<T5M5T ! UNITY ( ?\<T & ACTION1 & ! P[]S ( 9ITIATIVE1 :I* MADE !IR =CE 9 ! TWELF? & ?IRTE5? C5TURIES4 ,) ! GR[+ DIV]SITY ( OCCUPATIONS1 CRAFTS & >TS1 & ) ! GR[+ COMM]CE 9 DI/ANT L&S1 SOME NEW =M ( UNION WAS REQUIR$1 & ?IS NECESS>Y NEW ELEM5T WAS SUPPLI$ BY ! GUILDS4 ,VOLUMES & VOLUMES HAVE BE5 WRITT5 AB\T !SE UNIONS :I*1 UND] ! NAME ( GUILDS1 BRO!RHOODS1 FRI5D%IPS & DRUZHE/VA1 M9NE1 >TELS 9 ,RUSSIA1 ESNAIFS 9 ,S]VIA & ,TURKEY1 AMK>I 9 ,GEORGIA1 & SO ON1 TOOK SU* A =MIDABLE DEVELOPM5T 9 M$IAEVAL TIMES & PLAY$ SU* AN IMPORTANT P>T 9 ! EMANCIPATION ( ! CITIES4 ,BUT IT TOOK HI/ORIANS MORE ?AN SIXTY YE>S BE=E ! UNIV]SALITY ( ?IS 9/ITUTION & ITS TRUE *>ACT]S W]E UND]/OOD4 ,ONLY N[1 :5 HUNDR$S ( GUILD /ATUTES HAVE BE5 PUBLI%$ & /UDI$1 & !IR RELATION%IP TO ! ,ROMAN COLLEGIAE1 & ! E>LI] UNIONS 9 ,GREECE & 9 ,9DIA1#b#e IS KN[N1 CAN WE MA9TA9 ) FULL CONFID5CE ?AT !SE BRO!RHOODS W]E BUT A FUR!R DEVELOPM5T ( ! SAME PR9CIPLES :I* WE SAW AT WORK 9 ! G5S & ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 

  ,NO?+ ILLU/RATES BETT] !SE M$IAEVAL BRO!RHOODS ?AN ?OSE TEMPOR>Y GUILDS :I* W]E =M$ ON BO>D %IPS4 ,:5 A %IP ( ! ,HANSA HAD ACCOMPLI%$ H] FIR/ HALF-DAY PASSAGE AFT] HAV+ LEFT ! PORT1 ! CAPTA9 7,S*IFF]7 GA!R$ ALL CREW & PASS5G]S ON ! DECK1 & HELD ! FOLL[+ LANGUAGE1 AS REPORT$ BY A CONTEMPOR>Y3 -- 

0',AS WE >E N[ AT ! M]CY ( ,GOD & ! WAVES1' HE SAID1 'EA* ONE MU/ BE EQUAL TO EA* O!R4 ,& AS WE >E SURR\ND$ BY /ORMS1 HI< WAVES1 PIRATES & O!R DANG]S1 WE MU/ KEEP A /RICT ORD] ?AT WE MAY BR+ \R VOYAGE TO A GOOD 5D4 ,?AT IS :Y WE %ALL PRON\NCE ! PRAY] = A GOOD W9D & GOOD SUCCESS1 &1 ACCORD+ TO M>9E LAW1 WE %ALL NAME ! OCCUPI]S ( ! JUDGES' SEATS 7,S*(F5/ELL574' ,!REUPON ! CREW ELECT$ A ,VOGT & F\R SCAB9I1 TO ACT AS !IR JUDGES4 ,AT ! 5D ( ! VOYAGE ! ,VOGT & ! SCAB9I ABDICAT$ !IR FUNCTIONS & ADDRESS$ ! CREW AS FOLL[S3 ',:AT HAS HAPP5$ ON BO>D %IP1 WE MU/ P>DON TO EA* O!R & CONSID] AS DEAD 7TODT UND AB SE9 LASS574 ,:AT WE HAVE JUDG$ RI<T1 WAS = ! SAKE ( JU/ICE4 ,?IS IS :Y WE BEG Y\ ALL1 9 ! NAME ( HONE/ JU/ICE1 TO =GET ALL ! ANIMOSITY ONE MAY N\RI% AGA9/ ANO!R1 & TO SWE> ON BREAD & SALT ?AT HE WILL NOT ?9K ( IT 9 A BAD SPIRIT4 ,IF ANY ONE1 H[EV]1 CONSID]S HIMSELF WRONG$1 HE MU/ APPEAL TO ! L& ,VOGT & ASK JU/ICE FROM HIM BE=E SUNSET4' ,ON L&+1 ! ,/OCK ) ! F]D F9ES WAS H&$ OV] TO ! ,VOGT ( ! SEA-PORT = DI/RIBUTION AMONG ! POOR40#b#f 

  ,?IS SIMPLE N>RATIVE1 P]HAPS BETT] ?AN ANY?+ ELSE1 DEPICTS ! SPIRIT ( ! M$IAEVAL GUILDS4 ,LIKE ORGANIZATIONS CAME 9TO EXI/5CE :]EV] A GR\P ( M5 -- FI%]M51 HUNT]S1 TRAVEL+ M]*ANTS1 BUILD]S1 OR SETTL$ CRAFTSM5 -- CAME TOGE!R = A COMMON PURSUIT4 ,?US1 !RE WAS ON BO>D %IP ! NAVAL AU?ORITY ( ! CAPTA92 BUT1 = ! V]Y SUCCESS ( ! COMMON 5T]PRISE1 ALL M5 ON BO>D1 RI* & POOR1 MA/]S & CREW1 CAPTA9 & SAILORS1 AGRE$ TO BE EQUALS 9 !IR MUTUAL RELATIONS1 TO BE SIMPLY M51 B\ND TO AID EA* O!R & TO SETTLE !IR POSSIBLE DISPUTES BE=E JUDGES ELECT$ BY ALL ( !M4 ,SO ALSO :5 A NUMB] ( CRAFTSM5 -- MASONS1 C>P5T]S1 /ONE-CUTT]S1 ETC4 -- CAME TOGE!R = BUILD+1 SAY1 A CA!DRAL1 !Y ALL BELONG$ TO A CITY :I* HAD ITS POLITICAL ORGANIZATION1 & EA* ( !M BELONG$ MOREOV] TO HIS [N CRAFT2 BUT !Y W]E UNIT$ BESIDES BY !IR COMMON 5T]PRISE1 :I* !Y KNEW BETT] ?AN ANY ONE ELSE1 & !Y JO9$ 9TO A BODY UNIT$ BY CLOS]1 AL?\< TEMPOR>Y1 BONDS2 !Y F\ND$ ! GUILD = ! BUILD+ ( ! CA!DRAL4#b#g ,WE MAY SEE ! SAME TILL N[ 9 ! ,KABYLIAN C(3#b#h ! ,KABYLES HAVE !IR VILLAGE COMMUNITY2 BUT ?IS UNION IS NOT SUFFICI5T = ALL POLITICAL1 COMM]CIAL1 & P]SONAL NE$S ( UNION1 & ! CLOS] BRO!RHOOD ( ! C( IS CON/ITUT$4 

  ,AS TO ! SOCIAL *>ACT]S ( ! M$IAEVAL GUILD1 ANY GUILD-/ATUTE MAY ILLU/RATE !M4 ,TAK+1 = 9/ANCE1 ! SKRAA ( SOME E>LY ,DANI% GUILD1 WE READ 9 IT1 FIR/1 A /ATEM5T ( ! G5]AL BRO!RLY FEEL+S :I* MU/ REIGN 9 ! GUILD2 NEXT COME ! REGULATIONS RELATIVE TO SELF-JURISDICTION 9 CASES ( QU>RELS >IS+ BETWE5 TWO BRO!RS1 OR A BRO!R & A /RANG]2 & !N1 ! SOCIAL DUTIES ( ! BRE?R5 >E 5UM]AT$4 ,IF A BRO!R'S H\SE IS BURN$1 OR HE HAS LO/ HIS %IP1 OR HAS SUFF]$ ON A PILGRIM'S VOYAGE1 ALL ! BRE?R5 MU/ COME TO HIS AID4 ,IF A BRO!R FALLS DANG]\SLY ILL1 TWO BRE?R5 MU/ KEEP WAT* BY HIS B$ TILL HE IS \T ( DANG]1 & IF HE DIES1 ! BRE?R5 MU/ BURY HIM -- A GREAT AFFAIR 9 ?OSE TIMES ( PE/IL5CES -- & FOLL[ HIM TO ! *UR* & ! GRAVE4 ,AFT] HIS DEA? !Y MU/ PROVIDE = HIS *ILDR51 IF NECESS>Y2 V]Y (T5 ! WID[ BECOMES A SI/] TO ! GUILD4#b#i 

  ,!SE TWO LEAD+ FEATURES APPE>$ 9 EV]Y BRO!RHOOD =M$ = ANY POSSIBLE PURPOSE4 ,9 EA* CASE ! MEMB]S TREAT$ EA* O!R AS1 & NAM$ EA* O!R1 BRO!R & SI/]2#c ALL W]E EQUALS BE=E ! GUILD4 ,!Y [N$ SOME 0*ATTEL0 7CATTLE1 L&1 BUILD+S1 PLACES ( WOR%IP1 OR 0/OCK07 9 COMMON4 ,ALL BRO!RS TOOK ! OA? ( AB&ON+ ALL FEUDS ( OLD2 &1 )\T IMPOS+ UPON EA* O!R ! OBLIGATION ( NEV] QU>REL+ AGA91 !Y AGRE$ ?AT NO QU>REL %\LD DEG5]ATE 9TO A FEUD1 OR 9TO A LAWSUIT BE=E ANO!R C\RT ?AN ! TRIBUNAL ( ! BRO!RS !MSELVES4 ,& IF A BRO!R WAS 9VOLV$ 9 A QU>REL ) A /RANG] TO ! GUILD1 !Y AGRE$ TO SUPPORT HIM = BAD & = GOOD2 ?AT IS1 :E!R HE WAS UNJU/LY ACCUS$ ( AGGRESSION1 OR REALLY WAS ! AGGRESSOR1 !Y HAD TO SUPPORT HIM1 & TO BR+ ?+S TO A PEACEFUL 5D4 ,SO LONG AS HIS WAS NOT A SECRET AGGRESSION -- 9 :I* CASE HE W\LD HAVE BE5 TREAT$ AS AN \TLAW -- ! BRO!RHOOD /OOD BY HIM4#c#a ,IF ! RELATIVES ( ! WRONG$ MAN WANT$ TO REV5GE ! (F5SE AT ONCE BY A NEW AGGRESSION1 ! BRO!RHOOD SUPPLI$ HIM ) A HORSE TO RUN AWAY1 OR ) A BOAT1 A PAIR ( O>S1 A KNIFE & A /EEL = /RIK+ LI<T2 IF HE REMA9$ 9 T[N1 TWELVE BRO!RS ACCOMPANI$ HIM TO PROTECT HIM2 & 9 ! MEANTIME !Y >RANG$ ! COMPOSITION4 ,!Y W5T TO C\RT TO SUPPORT BY OA? ! TRU?FULNESS ( HIS /ATEM5TS1 & IF HE WAS F\ND GUILTY !Y DID NOT LET HIM GO TO FULL RU9 & BECOME A SLAVE ?R\< NOT PAY+ ! DUE COMP5SATION3 !Y ALL PAID IT1 JU/ AS ! G5S DID 9 OLD5 TIMES4 ,ONLY :5 A BRO!R HAD BROK5 ! FAI? T[>DS HIS GUILD-BRE?R51 OR O!R PEOPLE1 HE WAS EXCLUD$ FROM ! BRO!RHOOD 0) A ,NO?+'S NAME0 7?A SCAL HAN MAELES AF BRODRESCAP MET NID+S NAFN74#c#b 

  ,SU* W]E ! LEAD+ IDEAS ( ?OSE BRO!RHOODS :I* GRADUALLY COV]$ ! :OLE ( M$IAEVAL LIFE4 ,9 FACT1 WE KN[ ( GUILDS AMONG ALL POSSIBLE PR(ESSIONS3 GUILDS ( S]FS1#c#c GUILDS ( FREEM51 & GUILDS ( BO? S]FS & FREEM52 GUILDS CALL$ 9TO LIFE = ! SPECIAL PURPOSE ( HUNT+1 FI%+1 OR A TRAD+ EXP$ITION1 & DISSOLV$ :5 ! SPECIAL PURPOSE HAD BE5 A*IEV$2 & GUILDS LA/+ = C5TURIES 9 A GIV5 CRAFT OR TRADE4 ,&1 9 PROPORTION AS LIFE TOOK AN ALWAYS GREAT] V>IETY ( PURSUITS1 ! V>IETY 9 ! GUILDS GREW 9 PROPORTION4 ,SO WE SEE NOT ONLY M]*ANTS1 CRAFTSM51 HUNT]S1 & PEASANTS UNIT$ 9 GUILDS2 WE ALSO SEE GUILDS ( PRIE/S1 PA9T]S1 TEA*]S ( PRIM>Y S*OOLS & UNIV]SITIES1 GUILDS = P]=M+ ! PASSION PLAY1 = BUILD+ A *UR*1 = DEVELOP+ ! 0MY/]Y0 ( A GIV5 S*OOL ( >T OR CRAFT1 OR = A SPECIAL RECREATION -- EV5 GUILDS AMONG BEGG>S1 EXECUTION]S1 & LO/ WOM51 ALL ORGANIZ$ ON ! SAME D\BLE PR9CIPLE ( SELF-JURISDICTION & MUTUAL SUPPORT4#c#d ,= ,RUSSIA WE HAVE POSITIVE EVID5CE %[+ ?AT ! V]Y 0MAK+ ( ,RUSSIA0 WAS AS MU* ! WORK ( ITS HUNT]S'1 FI%]M5'S1 & TRAD]S' >TELS AS ( ! BUDD+ VILLAGE COMMUNITIES1 & UP TO ! PRES5T DAY ! C\NTRY IS COV]$ ) >TELS4#c#e 

  ,!SE FEW REM>KS %[ H[ 9CORRECT WAS ! VIEW TAK5 BY SOME E>LY EXPLOR]S ( ! GUILDS :5 !Y WANT$ TO SEE ! ESS5CE ( ! 9/ITUTION 9 ITS YE>LY FE/IVAL4 ,9 REALITY1 ! DAY ( ! COMMON MEAL WAS ALWAYS ! DAY1 OR ! MORR[ ( ! DAY1 ( ELECTION ( ALD]M51 ( DISCUSSION ( ALT]ATIONS 9 ! /ATUTES1 & V]Y (T5 ! DAY ( JUDGM5T ( QU>RELS ?AT HAD RIS5 AMONG ! BRE?R51#c#f OR ( R5EW$ ALLEGIANCE TO ! GUILD4 ,! COMMON MEAL1 LIKE ! FE/IVAL AT ! OLD TRIBAL FOLKMOTE -- ! MAHL OR MALUM -- OR ! ,BURYATE ABA1 OR ! P>I% FEA/ & ! H>VE/ SUPP]1 WAS SIMPLY AN AFFIRMATION ( BRO!RHOOD4 ,IT SYMBOLIZ$ ! TIMES :5 EV]Y?+ WAS KEPT 9 COMMON BY ! CLAN4 ,?IS DAY1 AT LEA/1 ALL BELONG$ TO ALL2 ALL SAT AT ! SAME TABLE & P>TOOK ( ! SAME MEAL4 ,EV5 AT A MU* LAT] TIME ! 9MATE ( ! ALM%\SE ( A ,LONDON GUILD SAT ?IS DAY BY ! SIDE ( ! RI* ALD]MAN4 ,AS TO ! DI/9CTION :I* SEV]AL EXPLOR]S HAVE TRI$ TO E/ABLI% BETWE5 ! OLD ,SAXON 0FRI? GUILD0 & ! SO-CALL$ 0SOCIAL0 OR 0RELIGI\S0 GUILDS -- ALL W]E FRI? GUILDS 9 ! S5SE ABOVE M5TION$1#c#g & ALL W]E RELIGI\S 9 ! S5SE 9 :I* A VILLAGE COMMUNITY OR A CITY PLAC$ UND] ! PROTECTION ( A SPECIAL SA9T IS SOCIAL & RELIGI\S4 ,IF ! 9/ITUTION ( ! GUILD HAS TAK5 SU* AN IMM5SE EXT5SION 9 ,ASIA1 ,AFRICA1 & ,EUROPE1 IF IT HAS LIV$ ?\S&S ( YE>S1 REAPPE>+ AGA9 & AGA9 :5 SIMIL> CONDITIONS CALL$ IT 9TO EXI/5CE1 IT IS BECAUSE IT WAS MU* MORE ?AN AN EAT+ ASSOCIATION1 OR AN ASSOCIATION = GO+ TO *UR* ON A C]TA9 DAY1 OR A BURIAL CLUB4 ,IT ANSW]$ TO A DEEPLY 9ROOT$ WANT ( HUMAN NATURE2 & IT EMBODI$ ALL ! ATTRIBUTES :I* ! ,/ATE APPROPRIAT$ LAT] ON = ITS BUREAUCRACY & POLICE1 & MU* MORE ?AN ?AT4 ,IT WAS AN ASSOCIATION = MUTUAL SUPPORT 9 ALL CIRCUM/ANCES & 9 ALL ACCID5TS ( LIFE1 0BY DE$ & ADVISE10 & IT WAS AN ORGANIZATION = MA9TA9+ JU/ICE -- ) ?IS DIFF]5CE FROM ! ,/ATE1 ?AT ON ALL !SE OCCASIONS A HUMANE1 A BRO!RLY ELEM5T WAS 9TRODUC$ 9/EAD ( ! =MAL ELEM5T :I* IS ! ESS5TIAL *>ACT]I/IC ( ,/ATE 9T]F]5CE4 ,EV5 :5 APPE>+ BE=E ! GUILD TRIBUNAL1 ! GUILD-BRO!R ANSW]$ BE=E M5 :O KNEW HIM WELL & HAD /OOD BY HIM BE=E 9 !IR DAILY WORK1 AT ! COMMON MEAL1 9 ! P]=MANCE ( !IR BRO!RLY DUTIES3 M5 :O W]E HIS EQUALS & BRE?R5 9DE$1 NOT !ORI/S ( LAW NOR DEF5D]S ( SOME ONE ELSE'S 9T]E/S4#c#h 

  ,IT IS EVID5T ?AT AN 9/ITUTION SO WELL SUIT$ TO S]VE ! NE$ ( UNION1 )\T DEPRIV+ ! 9DIVIDUAL ( HIS 9ITIATIVE1 C\LD BUT SPREAD1 GR[1 & =TIFY4 ,! DIFFICULTY WAS ONLY TO F9D SU* =M AS W\LD P]MIT TO F$]ATE ! UNIONS ( ! GUILDS )\T 9T]F]+ ) ! UNIONS ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES1 & TO F$]ATE ALL !SE 9TO ONE H>MONI\S :OLE4 ,& :5 ?IS =M ( COMB9ATION HAD BE5 F\ND1 & A S]IES ( FAVORABLE CIRCUM/ANCES P]MITT$ ! CITIES TO AFFIRM !IR 9DEP5D5CE1 !Y DID SO ) A UNITY ( ?\<T :I* CAN BUT EXCITE \R ADMIRATION1 EV5 9 \R C5TURY ( RAILWAYS1 TELEGRAPHS1 & PR9T+4 ,HUNDR$S ( *>T]S 9 :I* ! CITIES 9SCRIB$ !IR LIB]ATION HAVE REA*$ US1 & ?R\< ALL ( !M -- NOT)/&+ ! 9F9ITE V>IETY ( DETAILS1 :I* DEP5D$ UPON ! MORE OR LESS GREAT] FULLNESS ( EMANCIPATION -- ! SAME LEAD+ IDEAS RUN4 ,! CITY ORGANIZ$ ITSELF AS A F$]ATION ( BO? SMALL VILLAGE COMMUNITIES & GUILDS4 

  0,ALL ?OSE :O BELONG TO ! FRI5D%IP ( ! T[N0 -- SO RUNS A *>T] GIV5 9 #aahh TO ! BUR<ESSES ( ,AIRE BY ,PHILIP1 ,C\NT ( ,FL&]S -- 0HAVE PROMIS$ & CONFIRM$ BY FAI? & OA? ?AT !Y WILL AID EA* O!R AS BRE?R51 9 :ATEV] IS USEFUL & HONE/4 ,?AT IF ONE COMMITS AGA9/ ANO!R AN (F5SE 9 WORDS OR 9 DE$S1 ! ONE :O HAS SUFF]$ !RE FROM WILL NOT TAKE REV5GE1 EI!R HIMSELF OR HIS PEOPLE444 HE WILL LODGE A COMPLA9T & ! (F5D] WILL MAKE GOOD = HIS (F5SE1 ACCORD+ TO :AT WILL BE PRON\NC$ BY TWELVE ELECT$ JUDGES ACT+ AS >BIT]S1 ,& IF ! (F5D] OR ! (F5D$1 AFT] HAV+ BE5 W>N$ ?RICE1 DOES NOT SUBMIT TO ! DECISION ( ! >BIT]S1 HE WILL BE EXCLUD$ FROM ! FRI5D%IP AS A WICK$ MAN & A P]JUROR4#c#i 

  0,EA* ONE ( ! M5 ( ! COMMUNE WILL BE FAI?FUL TO HIS CONJUR]1 & WILL GIVE HIM AID & ADVICE1 ACCORD+ TO :AT JU/ICE WILL DICTATE HIM0 -- ! ,AMI5S & ,ABBEVILLE *>T]S SAY4 0,ALL WILL AID EA* O!R1 ACCORD+ TO !IR P[]S1 )9 ! B\ND>IES ( ! ,COMMUNE1 & WILL NOT SUFF] ?AT ANY ONE TAKES ANY?+ FROM ANY ONE ( !M1 OR MAKES ONE PAY CONTRIBUTIONS0 -- DO WE READ 9 ! *>T]S ( ,SOISSONS1 ,COMPIEGNE1 ,S5LIS1 & MANY O!RS ( ! SAME TYPE4#d ,& SO ON ) C\NTLESS V>IATIONS ON ! SAME !ME4 

  0,! ,COMMUNE10 ,GUILB]T DE ,NOG5T WROTE1 0IS AN OA? ( MUTUAL AID 7MUTUI ADJUTORII CONJURATIO7444 ,A NEW & DETE/ABLE WORD4 ,?R\< IT ! S]FS 7CAPITE S5SI7 >E FRE$ FROM ALL S]FDOM2 ?R\< IT1 !Y CAN ONLY BE CONDEMN$ TO A LEGALLY DET]M9$ F9E = BREA*ES ( ! LAW2 ?R\< IT1 !Y CEASE TO BE LIABLE TO PAYM5TS :I* ! S]FS ALWAYS US$ TO PAY40#d#a 

  ,! SAME WAVE ( EMANCIPATION RAN1 9 ! TWELF? C5TURY1 ?R\< ALL P>TS ( ! CONT95T1 9VOLV+ BO? RI* CITIES & ! POORE/ T[NS4 ,& IF WE MAY SAY ?AT1 AS A RULE1 ! ,ITALIAN CITIES W]E ! FIR/ TO FREE !MSELVES1 WE CAN ASSIGN NO C5T] FROM :I* ! MOVEM5T W\LD HAVE SPREAD4 ,V]Y (T5 A SMALL BURG 9 C5TRAL ,EUROPE TOOK ! LEAD = ITS REGION1 & BIG AGGLOM]ATIONS ACCEPT$ ! LITTLE T[N'S *>T] AS A MODEL = !IR [N4 ,?US1 ! *>T] ( A SMALL T[N1 ,LORRIS1 WAS ADOPT$ BY EI<TY-?REE T[NS 9 S\?-WE/ ,FRANCE1 & ?AT ( ,BEAUMONT BECAME ! MODEL = OV] FIVE HUNDR$ T[NS & CITIES 9 ,BELGIUM & ,FRANCE4 ,SPECIAL DEPUTIES W]E DISPAT*$ BY ! CITIES TO !IR NEI<BORS TO OBTA9 A COPY FROM !IR *>T]1 & ! CON/ITUTION WAS FRAM$ UPON ?AT MODEL4 ,H[EV]1 !Y DID NOT SIMPLY COPY EA* O!R3 !Y FRAM$ !IR [N *>T]S 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! CONCESSIONS !Y HAD OBTA9$ FROM !IR LORDS2 & ! RESULT WAS ?AT1 AS REM>K$ BY A HI/ORIAN1 ! *>T]S ( ! M$IAEVAL COMMUNES (F] ! SAME V>IETY AS ! ,GO?IC >*ITECTURE ( !IR *UR*ES & CA!DRALS4 ,! SAME LEAD+ IDEAS 9 ALL ( !M -- ! CA!DRAL SYMBOLIZ+ ! UNION ( P>I% & GUILD 9 ! CITY1 -- & ! SAME 9F9ITELY RI* V>IETY ( DETAIL4 

  ,SELF-JURISDICTION WAS ! ESS5TIAL PO9T1 & SELF-JURISDICTION MEANT SELF-ADM9I/RATION4 ,BUT ! COMMUNE WAS NOT SIMPLY AN 0AUTONOM\S0 P>T ( ! ,/ATE -- SU* AMBIGU\S WORDS HAD NOT YET BE5 9V5T$ BY ?AT TIME -- IT WAS A ,/ATE 9 ITSELF4 ,IT HAD ! RI<T ( W> & PEACE1 ( F$]ATION & ALLIANCE ) ITS NEI<BORS4 ,IT WAS SOV]EIGN 9 ITS [N AFFAIRS1 & MIX$ ) NO O!RS4 ,! SUPREME POLITICAL P[] C\LD BE VE/$ 5TIRELY 9 A DEMOCRATIC =UM1 AS WAS ! CASE 9 ,PSKOV1 :OSE VYE*E S5T & RECEIV$ AMBASSADORS1 CONCLUD$ TREATIES1 ACCEPT$ & S5T AWAY PR9CES1 OR W5T ON )\T !M = DOZ5S ( YE>S2 OR IT WAS VE/$ 91 OR USURP$ BY1 AN >I/OCRACY ( M]*ANTS OR EV5 NOBLES1 AS WAS ! CASE 9 HUNDR$S ( ,ITALIAN & MIDDLE ,EUROPEAN CITIES4 ,! PR9CIPLE1 NEV]!LESS1 REMA9$ ! SAME3 ! CITY WAS A ,/ATE & -- :AT WAS P]HAPS /ILL MORE REM>KABLE -- :5 ! P[] 9 ! CITY WAS USURP$ BY AN >I/OCRACY ( M]*ANTS OR EV5 NOBLES1 ! 9N] LIFE ( ! CITY & ! DEMOCRATISM ( ITS DAILY LIFE DID NOT DISAPPE>3 !Y DEP5D$ BUT LITTLE UPON :AT MAY BE CALL$ ! POLITICAL =M ( ! ,/ATE4 

  ,! SECRET ( ?IS SEEM+ ANOMALY LIES 9 ! FACT ?AT A M$IAEVAL CITY WAS NOT A C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE4 ,DUR+ ! FIR/ C5TURIES ( ITS EXI/5CE1 ! CITY H>DLY C\LD BE NAM$ A ,/ATE AS REG>DS ITS 9T]IOR ORGANIZATION1 BECAUSE ! MIDDLE AGES KNEW NO MORE ( ! PRES5T C5TRALIZATION ( FUNCTIONS ?AN ( ! PRES5T T]RITORIAL C5TRALIZATION4 ,EA* GR\P HAD ITS %>E ( SOV]EIGNTY4 ,! CITY WAS USUALLY DIVID$ 9TO F\R QU>T]S1 OR 9TO FIVE TO SEV5 SECTIONS RADIAT+ FROM A C5T]1 EA* QU>T] OR SECTION R\<LY CORRESPOND+ TO A C]TA9 TRADE OR PR(ESSION :I* PREVAIL$ 9 IT1 BUT NEV]!LESS CONTA9+ 9HABITANTS ( DIFF]5T SOCIAL POSITIONS & OCCUPATIONS -- NOBLES1 M]*ANTS1 >TISANS1 OR EV5 HALF-S]FS2 & EA* SECTION OR QU>T] CON/ITUT$ A QUITE 9DEP5D5T AGGLOM]ATION4 ,9 ,V5ICE1 EA* ISL& WAS AN 9DEP5D5T POLITICAL COMMUNITY4 ,IT HAD ITS [N ORGANIZ$ TRADES1 ITS [N COMM]CE 9 SALT1 ITS [N JURISDICTION & ADM9I/RATION1 ITS [N =UM2 & ! NOM9ATION ( A DOGE BY ! CITY *ANG$ NO?+ 9 ! 9N] 9DEP5D5CE ( ! UNITS4#d#b ,9 ,COLOGNE1 WE SEE ! 9HABITANTS DIVID$ 9TO ,GEBURS*AFT5 & ,HEIMS*AFT5 7VIC9IAE71 I4E4 NEI<BOR GUILDS1 :I* DAT$ FROM ! ,FRANCONIAN P]IOD4 ,EA* ( !M HAD ITS JUDGE 7,BURRI*T]7 & ! USUAL TWELVE ELECT$ S5T5CE-F9D]S 7,S*(F571 ITS ,VOGT1 & ITS GREVE OR COMM&] ( ! LOCAL MILITIA4#d#c ,! /ORY ( E>LY ,LONDON BE=E ! ,CONQUE/ -- ,MR4 ,GRE5 SAYS -- IS ?AT 0( A NUMB] ( LITTLE GR\PS SCATT]$ H]E & !RE OV] ! >EA )9 ! WALLS1 EA* GR[+ UP ) ITS [N LIFE & 9/ITUTIONS1 GUILDS1 SOKES1 RELIGI\S H\SES & ! LIKE1 & ONLY SL[LY DRAW+ TOGE!R 9TO A MUNICIPAL UNION40#d#d ,& IF WE REF] TO ! ANNALS ( ! ,RUSSIAN CITIES1 ,NOVGOROD & ,PSKOV1 BO? ( :I* >E RELATIVELY RI* 9 LOCAL DETAILS1 WE F9D ! SECTION 7KONETS7 CONSI/+ ( 9DEP5D5T /REETS 7ULITSA71 EA* ( :I*1 ?\< *IEFLY PEOPL$ ) >TISANS ( A C]TA9 CRAFT1 HAD ALSO M]*ANTS & L&[N]S AMONG ITS 9HABITANTS1 & WAS A SEP>ATE COMMUNITY4 ,IT HAD ! COMMUNAL RESPONSIBILITY ( ALL MEMB]S 9 CASE ( CRIME1 ITS [N JURISDICTION & ADM9I/RATION BY /REET ALD]M5 7ULI*ANSKIYE />O/Y71 ITS [N SEAL &1 9 CASE ( NE$1 ITS [N =UM2 ITS [N MILITIA1 AS ALSO ITS SELF-ELECT$ PRIE/S & ITS1 [N COLLECTIVE LIFE & COLLECTIVE 5T]PRISE4#d#e 

,! M$IAEVAL CITY ?US APPE>S AS A D\BLE F$]ATION3 ( ALL H\SEHOLD]S UNIT$ 9TO SMALL T]RITORIAL UNIONS -- ! /REET1 ! P>I%1 ! SECTION -- & ( 9DIVIDUALS UNIT$ BY OA? 9TO GUILDS ACCORD+ TO !IR PR(ESSIONS2 ! =M] BE+ A PRODUCE ( ! VILLAGE-COMMUNITY ORIG9 ( ! CITY1 :ILE ! SECOND IS A SUBSEQU5T GR[? CALL$ TO LIFE BY NEW CONDITIONS4 

  ,TO GU>ANTEE LIB]TY1 SELF-ADM9I/RATION1 & PEACE WAS ! *IEF AIM ( ! M$IAEVAL CITY2 & LABOR1 AS WE %ALL PRES5TLY SEE :5 SPEAK+ ( ! CRAFT GUILDS1 WAS ITS *IEF F\NDATION4 ,BUT 0PRODUCTION0 DID NOT ABSORB ! :OLE ATT5TION ( ! M$IAEVAL ECONOMI/4 ,) HIS PRACTICAL M9D1 HE UND]/OOD ?AT 0CONSUMPTION0 MU/ BE GU>ANTE$ 9 ORD] TO OBTA9 PRODUCTION2 & !RE=E1 TO PROVIDE = 0! COMMON FIR/ FOOD & LODG+ ( POOR & RI* ALIKE0 7GEME9E NOTDURFT UND GEMA* >M] UND RI*]#d#f7 WAS ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE 9 EA* CITY4 ,! PUR*ASE ( FOOD SUPPLIES & O!R FIR/ NECESS>IES 7COAL1 WOOD1 ETC47 BE=E !Y HAD REA*$ ! M>KET1 OR ALTOGE!R 9 ESPECIALLY FAVORABLE CONDITIONS FROM :I* O!RS W\LD BE EXCLUD$ -- ! PREEMPCIO1 9 A WORD -- WAS 5TIRELY PROHIBIT$4 ,EV]Y?+ HAD TO GO TO ! M>KET & BE (F]$ !RE = EV]Y ONE'S PUR*ASE1 TILL ! R++ ( ! BELL HAD CLOS$ ! M>KET4 ,!N ONLY C\LD ! RETAIL] BUY ! REMA9D]1 & EV5 !N HIS PR(IT %\LD BE AN 0HONE/ PR(IT0 ONLY4#d#g ,MOREOV]1 :5 CORN WAS B\<T BY A BAK] :OLESALE AFT] ! CLOSE ( ! M>KET1 EV]Y CITIZ5 HAD ! RI<T TO CLAIM P>T ( ! CORN 7AB\T HALF-A-QU>T]7 = HIS [N USE1 AT :OLESALE PRICE1 IF HE DID SO BE=E ! F9AL CONCLUSION ( ! B>GA92 & RECIPROCALLY1 EV]Y BAK] C\LD CLAIM ! SAME IF ! CITIZ5 PUR*AS$ CORN = RE-SELL+ IT4 ,9 ! FIR/ CASE1 ! CORN HAD ONLY TO BE BR\<T TO ! T[N MILL TO BE GR\ND 9 ITS PROP] TURN = A SETTL$ PRICE1 & ! BREAD C\LD BE BAK$ 9 ! F\R BANAL1 OR COMMUNAL OV54#d#h ,9 %ORT1 IF A SC>CITY VISIT$ ! CITY1 ALL HAD TO SUFF] FROM IT MORE OR LESS2 BUT AP>T FROM ! CALAMITIES1 SO LONG AS ! FREE CITIES EXI/$ NO ONE C\LD DIE 9 !IR MID/ FROM />VATION1 AS IS UNHAPPILY TOO (T5 ! CASE 9 \R [N TIMES4 

  ,H[EV]1 ALL SU* REGULATIONS BELONG TO LAT] P]IODS ( ! CITIES' LIFE1 :ILE AT AN E>LI] P]IOD IT WAS ! CITY ITSELF :I* US$ TO BUY ALL FOOD SUPPLIES = ! USE ( ! CITIZ5S4 ,! DOCUM5TS REC5TLY PUBLI%$ BY ,MR4 ,GROSS >E QUITE POSITIVE ON ?IS PO9T & FULLY SUPPORT HIS CONCLUSION TO ! EFFECT ?AT ! C>GOES ( SUBSI/5CES 0W]E PUR*AS$ BY C]TA9 CIVIC (FICIALS 9 ! NAME ( ! T[N1 & !N DI/RIBUT$ 9 %>ES AMONG ! M]*ANT BURGESSES1 NO ONE BE+ ALL[$ TO BUY W>ES L&$ 9 ! PORT UNLESS ! MUNICIPAL AU?ORITIES REFUS$ TO PUR*ASE !M4 ,?IS SEEM -- %E ADDS -- TO HAVE BE5 QUITE A COMMON PRACTICE 9 ,5GL&1 ,IREL&1 ,WALES & ,SCOTL&40#d#i ,EV5 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY WE F9D ?AT COMMON PUR*ASES ( CORN W]E MADE = ! 0COMODITIE & PR(ITT 9 ALL ?+S ( ?IS4444 ,CITIE & ,*AMB] ( ,LONDON1 & ( ALL ! ,CITIZ5S & ,9HABITANTS ( ! SAME AS MO*E AS 9 US LIE?0 -- AS ! ,MAYOR WROTE 9 #a#e#f#e4#e ,9 ,V5ICE1 ! :OLE ( ! TRADE 9 CORN IS WELL KN[N TO HAVE BE5 9 ! H&S ( ! CITY2 ! 0QU>T]S10 ON RECEIV+ ! C]EALS FROM ! BO>D :I* ADM9I/RAT$ ! IMPORTS1 BE+ B\ND TO S5D TO EV]Y CITIZ5'S H\SE ! QUANTITY ALLOTT$ TO HIM4#e#a ,9 ,FRANCE1 ! CITY ( ,AMI5S US$ TO PUR*ASE SALT & TO DI/RIBUTE IT TO ALL CITIZ5S AT CO/ PRICE2#e#b & EV5 N[ ONE SEES 9 MANY ,FR5* T[NS ! HALLES :I* =M]LY W]E MUNICIPAL DEPOTS = CORN & SALT4#e#c ,9 ,RUSSIA IT WAS A REGUL> CU/OM 9 ,NOVGOROD & ,PSKOV4 

  ,! :OLE MATT] RELATIVE TO ! COMMUNAL PUR*ASES = ! USE ( ! CITIZ5S1 & ! MANN] 9 :I* !Y US$ TO BE MADE1 SEEMS NOT TO HAVE YET RECEIV$ PROP] ATT5TION FROM ! HI/ORIANS ( ! P]IOD2 BUT !RE >E H]E & !RE SOME V]Y 9T]E/+ FACTS :I* ?R[ A NEW LI<T UPON IT4 ,?US !RE IS1 AMONG ,MR4 ,GROSS'S DOCUM5TS1 A ,KILK5NY ORD9ANCE ( ! YE> #a#c#f#g1 FROM :I* WE LE>N H[ ! PRICES ( ! GOODS W]E E/ABLI%$4 0,! M]*ANTS & ! SAILORS10 ,MR4 ,GROSS WRITES1 0W]E TO /ATE ON OA? ! FIR/ CO/ ( ! GOODS & ! EXP5SES ( TRANSPORTATION4 ,!N ! MAYOR ( ! T[N & TWO DISCREET M5 W]E TO NAME ! PRICE AT :I* ! W>ES W]E TO BE SOLD40 ,! SAME RULE HELD GOOD 9 ,?URSO = M]*&ISE COM+ 0BY SEA OR L&40 ,?IS WAY ( 0NAM+ ! PRICE0 SO WELL ANSW]S TO ! V]Y CONCEPTIONS ( TRADE :I* W]E CURR5T 9 M$IAEVAL TIMES ?AT IT MU/ HAVE BE5 ALL BUT UNIV]SAL4 ,TO HAVE ! PRICE E/ABLI%$ BY A ?IRD P]SON WAS A V]Y OLD CU/OM2 & = ALL 9T]*ANGE )9 ! CITY IT C]TA9LY WAS A WIDELY-SPREAD HABIT TO LEAVE ! E/ABLI%M5T ( PRICES TO 0DISCREET M50 -- TO A ?IRD P>TY -- & NOT TO ! V5DOR OR ! BUY]4 ,BUT ?IS ORD] ( ?+S TAKES US /ILL FUR!R BACK 9 ! HI/ORY ( TRADE -- NAMELY1 TO A TIME :5 TRADE 9 /APLE PRODUCE WAS C>RI$ ON BY ! :OLE CITY1 & ! M]*ANTS W]E ONLY ! COMMISSION]S1 ! TRU/EES1 ( ! CITY = SELL+ ! GOODS :I* IT EXPORT$4 ,A ,WAT]=D ORD9ANCE1 PUBLI%$ ALSO BY ,MR4 ,GROSS1 SAYS 0?AT ALL MAN]E ( M>*&IS :AT SO EV] KYNDE !I BE (444 %AL BE B\<T BY ! ,MAIRE & BALIVES :I* B5E COMM5E BI]S .<COMMON BUY]S1 = ! T[N.> = ! TIME BE+1 & TO DI/RIBUTE ! SAME ON FREEM5 ( ! CITIE 7! PROPRE GOODS ( FREE CITISA9S & 9HABITANTS ONLY EXCEPT$740 ,?IS ORD9ANCE CAN H>DLY BE EXPLA9$ O!RWISE ?AN BY ADMITT+ ?AT ALL ! EXT]IOR TRADE ( ! T[N WAS C>RI$ ON BY ITS AG5TS4 ,MOREOV]1 WE HAVE DIRECT EVID5CE ( SU* HAV+ BE5 ! CASE = ,NOVGOROD & ,PSKOV4 ,IT WAS ! ,SOV]EIGN ,NOVGOROD & ! ,SOV]EIGN ,PSKOV :O S5T !IR C>AVANS ( M]*ANTS TO DI/ANT L&S4 

  ,WE KN[ ALSO ?AT 9 NE>LY ALL M$IAEVAL CITIES ( ,MIDDLE & ,WE/]N ,EUROPE1 ! CRAFT GUILDS US$ TO BUY1 AS A BODY1 ALL NECESS>Y RAW PRODUCE1 & TO SELL ! PRODUCE ( !IR WORK ?R\< !IR (FICIALS1 & IT IS H>DLY POSSIBLE ?AT ! SAME %\LD NOT HAVE BE5 DONE = EXT]IOR TRADE -- ! MORE SO AS IT IS WELL KN[N ?AT UP TO ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY1 NOT ONLY ALL M]*ANTS ( A GIV5 CITY W]E CONSID]$ ABROAD AS RESPONSIBLE 9 A BODY = DEBTS CONTRACT$ BY ANY ONE ( !M1 BUT ! :OLE CITY AS WELL WAS RESPONSIBLE = ! DEBTS ( EA* ONE ( ITS M]*ANTS4 ,ONLY 9 ! TWELF? & ?IRTE5? C5TURY ! T[NS ON ! ,RH9E 5T]$ 9TO SPECIAL TREATIES ABOLI%+ ?IS RESPONSIBILITY4#e#d ,& F9ALLY WE HAVE ! REM>KABLE ,IPSWI* DOCUM5T PUBLI%$ BY ,MR4 ,GROSS1 FROM :I* DOCUM5T WE LE>N ?AT ! M]*ANT GUILD ( ?IS T[N WAS CON/ITUT$ BY ALL :O HAD ! FRE$OM ( ! CITY1 & :O WI%$ TO PAY !IR CONTRIBUTION 70!IR HANSE07 TO ! GUILD1 ! :OLE COMMUNITY DISCUSS+ ALL TOGE!R H[ BETT] TO MA9TA9 ! M]*ANT GUILD1 & GIV+ IT C]TA9 PRIVILEGES4 ,! M]*ANT GUILD ( ,IPSWI* ?US APPE>S RA!R AS A BODY ( TRU/EES ( ! T[N ?AN AS A COMMON PRIVATE GUILD4 

  ,9 %ORT1 ! MORE WE BEG9 TO KN[ ! M$IEVAL CITY ! MORE WE SEE ?AT IT WAS NOT SIMPLY A POLITICAL ORGANIZATION = ! PROTECTION ( C]TA9 POLITICAL LIB]TIES4 ,IT WAS AN ATTEMPT AT ORGANIZ+1 ON A MU* GR&] SCALE ?AN 9 A VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 A CLOSE UNION = MUTUAL AID & SUPPORT1 = CONSUMPTION & PRODUCTION1 & = SOCIAL LIFE ALTOGE!R1 )\T IMPOS+ UPON M5 ! FETT]S ( ! ,/ATE1 BUT GIV+ FULL LIB]TY ( EXPRESSION TO ! CREATIVE G5IUS ( EA* SEP>ATE GR\P ( 9DIVIDUALS 9 >T1 CRAFTS1 SCI5CE1 COMM]CE1 & POLITICAL ORGANIZATION4 ,H[ F> ?IS ATTEMPT HAS BE5 SUCCESSFUL WILL BE BE/ SE5 :5 WE HAVE ANALYZ$ 9 ! NEXT *APT] ! ORGANIZATION ( LABOR 9 ! M$IAEVAL CITY & ! RELATIONS ( ! CITIES ) ! SURR\ND+ PEASANT POPULATION4 

#a ,W4 ,>NOLD1 9 HIS ,W&]UNG5 UND ,ANSI$ELUNG5 D] DEUTS*5 ,/AMME1 P4 #d#c#a1 EV5 MA9TA9S ?AT ONE-HALF ( ! N[ >ABLE >EA 9 MIDDLE ,G]MANY MU/ HAVE BE5 RECLAIM$ FROM ! SIX? TO ! N9? C5TURY4 ,NITZS* 7,GES*I*TE DES DEUTS*5 ,VOLKES1 ,LEIPZIG1 #a#h#h#c1 VOL4 I47 %>ES ! SAME OP9ION4 

#b ,LEO & ,BOTTA1 ,HI/OIRE D',ITALIE1 ,FR5* $ITION1 #a#h#d#d1 T4 I41 P4 #c#g4 

#c ,! COMPOSITION = ! /EAL+ ( A SIMPLE KNIFE WAS #ae SOLIDII & ( ! IRON P>TS ( A MILL1 #de SOLIDII 7,SEE ON ?IS SUBJECT ,LAMPRE*T'S ,WIR?S*AFT UND ,RE*T D] ,FRANK5 9 ,RAUM]'S ,HI/ORIS*ES ,TAS*5BU*1 #a#h#h#c1 P4 #e#b47 ,ACCORD+ TO ! ,RIP>IAN LAW1 ! SWORD1 ! SPE>1 & ! IRON >MOR ( A W>RIOR ATTA9$ ! VALUE ( AT LEA/ TW5TY-FIVE C[S1 OR TWO YE>S ( A FREEMAN'S LABOR4 ,A CUIRASS ALONE WAS VALU$ 9 ! ,SALIC LAW 7,DESMI*ELS1 QUOT$ BY ,MI*ELET7 AT AS MU* AS ?IRTY-SIX BU%ELS ( :EAT4 

#d ,! *IEF WEAL? ( ! *IEFTA9S1 = A LONG TIME1 WAS 9 !IR P]SONAL DOMA9S PEOPL$ P>TLY ) PRISON] SLAVES1 BUT *IEFLY 9 ! ABOVE WAY4 ,ON ! ORIG9 ( PROP]TY SEE ,9AMA ,/]NEGG'S ,DIE ,AUSBILDUNG D] GROSS5 ,GRUNDH]RS*AFT5 9 ,DEUTS*L&1 9 ,S*MOLL]'S ,=S*UNG51 ,BD4 ,I41 #a#h#g#h2 ,F4 ,DAHN'S ,URGES*I*TE D] G]MANIS*5 UND ROMANIS*5 ,VOLK]1 ,B]L91 #a#h#h#a2 ,MAUR]'S ,DORFV]FASSUNG2 ,GUIZOT'S ,ESSAIS SUR L'HI/OIRE DE ,FRANCE2 ,MA9E'S ,VILLAGE ,COMMUNITY2 ,BOTTA'S ,HI/OIRE D',ITALIE2 ,SEEBOHM1 ,V9OGRADOV1 ,J4 ,R4 ,GRE51 ETC4 

#e ,SEE ,SIR ,H5RY ,MA9E'S ,9T]NATIONAL ,LAW1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#h#h4 

#f ,ANCI5T ,LAWS ( ,IREL&1 ,9TRODUCTION2 ,E4 ,NYS1 ,ETUDES DE DROIT 9T]NATIONAL1 T4 I41 #a#h#i#f1 PP4 #hf SEQ4 ,AMONG ! ,OSSETES ! >BIT]S FROM ?REE OLDE/ VILLAGES 5JOY A SPECIAL REPUTATION 7,M4 ,KOVALEVSKY'S ,MOD]N ,CU/OM & ,OLD ,LAW1 ,MOSC[1 #a#h#h#f1 II4 #b#a#g1 ,RUSSIAN74 

#g ,IT IS P]MISSIBLE TO ?9K ?AT ?IS CONCEPTION 7RELAT$ TO ! CONCEPTION ( TANI/RY7 PLAY$ AN IMPORTANT P>T 9 ! LIFE ( ! P]IOD2 BUT RESE>* HAS NOT YET BE5 DIRECT$ ?AT WAY4 

#h ,IT WAS DI/9CTLY /AT$ 9 ! *>T] ( ,/4 ,QU5T9 ( ! YE> #ab ?AT ! RANSOM = H\SES :I* HAD TO BE DEMOLI%$ = CRIMES W5T = ! CITY WALLS4 ,! SAME DE/9ATION WAS GIV5 TO ! ,UNGELD 9 ,G]MAN CITIES4 ,AT ,PSKOV ! CA!DRAL WAS ! BANK = ! F9ES1 & FROM ?IS FUND MONEY WAS TAK5 = ! WAILS4 

#i ,SOHM1 ,FRANKIS*E ,RE*TS- UND ,G]I*TSV]FASSUNG1 P4 #b#c2 ALSO ,NITZS*1 ,GES*E*TE DES DEUTS*5 ,VOLKES1 I4 #g#h4 

#a ,SEE ! EXCELL5T REM>KS ON ?IS SUBJECT 9 ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RY'S ,LETTRES SUR L'HI/OIRE DE ,FRANCE4 #g? ,LETT]4 ,! B>B>IAN TRANSLATIONS ( P>TS ( ! ,BIBLE >E EXTREMELY 9/RUCTIVE ON ?IS PO9T4 

#aa ,?IRTY-SIX TIMES MORE ?AN A NOBLE1 ACCORD+ TO ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON LAW4 ,9 ! CODE ( ,RO?>I ! SLAY+ ( A K+ IS1 H[EV]1 PUNI%$ BY DEA?2 BUT 7AP>T FROM ,ROMAN 9FLU5CE7 ?IS NEW DISPOSITION WAS 9TRODUC$ 79 #f#d#f7 9 ! ,LOMB>DIAN LAW -- AS REM>K$ BY ,LEO & ,BOTTA -- TO COV] ! K+ FROM BLOOD REV5GE4 ,! K+ BE+ AT ?AT TIME ! EXECUTION] ( HIS [N S5T5CES 7AS ! TRIBE =M]LY WAS ( ITS [N S5T5CES71 HE HAD TO BE PROTECT$ BY A SPECIAL DISPOSITION1 ! MORE SO AS SEV]AL ,LOMB>DIAN K+S BE=E ,RO?>I HAD BE5 SLA9 9 SUCCESSION 7,LEO & ,BOTTA1 L4C41 I4 #f#f-#i74 

#ab ,KAUFMANN1 ,DEUTS*E ,GES*I*TE1 ,BD4 ,I4 0,DIE ,G]MAN5 D] ,URZEIT10 P4 #a#c#c4 

#ac ,DR4 ,F4 ,DAHN1 ,URGES*I*TE D] G]MANIS*5 UND ROMANIS*5 ,VOLK]1 ,B]L91 #a#h#h#a1 ,BD4 ,I4 #i#f4 

#ad ,IF ,I ?US FOLL[ ! VIEWS LONG S9CE ADVOCAT$ BY ,MAUR] 7,GES*I*TE D] ,/ADTEV]FASSUNG 9 ,DEUTS*L&1 ,]LANG51 #a#h#f#i71 IT IS BECAUSE HE HAS FULLY PROV$ ! UN9T]RUPT$ EVOLUTION FROM ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY TO ! M$IEVAL CITY1 & ?AT HIS VIEWS ALONE CAN EXPLA9 ! UNIV]SALITY ( ! COMMUNAL MOVEM5T4 ,SAVIGNY & ,EI*HORN & !IR FOLL[]S HAVE C]TA9LY PROV$ ?AT ! TRADITIONS ( ! ,ROMAN MUNICIPIA HAD NEV] TOTALLY DISAPPE>$4 ,BUT !Y TOOK NO ACC\NT ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY P]IOD :I* ! B>B>IANS LIV$ ?R\< BE=E !Y HAD ANY CITIES4 ,! FACT IS1 ?AT :5EV] MANK9D MADE A NEW />T 9 CIVILIZATION1 9 ,GREECE1 ,ROME1 OR MIDDLE ,EUROPE1 IT PASS$ ?R\< ! SAME /AGES -- ! TRIBE1 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 ! FREE CITY1 ! /ATE -- EA* ONE NATURALLY EVOLV+ \T ( ! PREC$+ /AGE4 ,( C\RSE1 ! EXP]I5CE ( EA* PREC$+ CIVILIZATION WAS NEV] LO/4 ,GREECE 7ITSELF 9FLU5C$ BY ,EA/]N CIVILIZATIONS7 9FLU5C$ ,ROME1 & ,ROME 9FLU5C$ \R CIVILIZATION2 BUT EA* ( !M BEG9 FROM ! SAME BEG9N+ -- ! TRIBE4 ,& JU/ AS WE CANNOT SAY ?AT \R /ATES >E CONT9UATIONS ( ! ,ROMAN /ATE1 SO ALSO CAN WE NOT SAY ?AT ! M$IAEVAL CITIES ( ,EUROPE 79CLUD+ ,SC&9AVIA & ,RUSSIA7 W]E A CONT9UATION ( ! ,ROMAN CITIES4 ,!Y W]E A CONT9UATION ( ! B>B>IAN VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 9FLU5C$ TO A C]TA9 EXT5T BY ! TRADITIONS ( ! ,ROMAN T[NS4 

#ae ,M4 ,KOVALEVSKY1 ,MOD]N ,CU/OMS & ,ANCI5T ,LAWS ( ,RUSSIA 7,IL*E/] ,LECTURES1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#i#a1 ,LECTURE #d74 

#af ,A CONSID]ABLE AM\NT ( RESE>* HAD TO BE DONE BE=E ?IS *>ACT] ( ! SO-CALL$ UDYELNYI P]IOD WAS PROP]LY E/ABLI%$ BY ! WORKS ( ,BYELAEFF 7,TALES FROM ,RUSSIAN ,HI/ORY71 ,KO/OM>(F 7,! ,BEG9N+S ( ,AUTOCRACY 9 ,RUSSIA71 & ESPECIALLY ,PR(ESSOR ,S]GIEVI* 7,! ,VYE*E & ! ,PR9CE74 ,! ,5GLI% READ] MAY F9D SOME 9=MATION AB\T ?IS P]IOD 9 ! JU/-NAM$ WORK ( ,M4 ,KOVALEVSKY1 9 ,RAMBAUD'S ,HI/ORY ( ,RUSSIA1 &1 9 A %ORT SUMM>Y1 9 ! >TICLE 0,RUSSIA0 ( ! LA/ $ITION ( ,*AMB]S'S ,5CYCLOPA$IA4 

#ag ,F]R>I1 ,HI/OIRE DES REVOLUTIONS D',ITALIE1 I4 #b#e#g2 ,KALLS51 ,DIE DEUTS*5 ,/ADTE IM ,MITTELALT]1 ,BD4 ,I4 7,HALLE1 #a#h#i#a74 

#ah ,SEE ! EXCELL5T REM>KS ( ,MR4 ,G4,L4 ,GOMME AS REG>DS ! FOLKMOTE ( ,LONDON 7,! ,LIT]ATURE ( ,LOCAL ,9/ITUTIONS1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#h#f1 P4 #g#f74 ,IT MU/1 H[EV]1 BE REM>K$ ?AT 9 ROYAL CITIES ! FOLKMOTE NEV] ATTA9$ ! 9DEP5D5CE :I* IT ASSUM$ ELSE:]E4 ,IT IS EV5 C]TA9 ?AT ,MOSC[ & ,P>IS W]E *OS5 BY ! K+S & ! ,*UR* AS ! CRADLES ( ! FUTURE ROYAL AU?ORITY 9 ! ,/ATE1 BECAUSE !Y DID NOT POSSESS ! TRADITION ( FOLKMOTES ACCU/OM$ TO ACT AS SOV]EIGN 9 ALL MATT]S4 

#ai ,A4 ,LU*AIRE1 ,LES ,COMMUNES FRANCAISES2 ALSO ,KLUCKOHN1 ,GES*I*TE DES ,GOTTESFRI$51 #a#h#e#g4 ,L4 ,SEMI*ON 7,LA PAIX ET LA TREVE DE ,DIEU1 #b VOLS41 ,P>IS1 #a#h#f#i7 HAS TRI$ TO REPRES5T ! COMMUNAL MOVEM5T AS ISSU$ FROM ?AT 9/ITUTION4 ,9 REALITY1 ! TREUGA ,DEI1 LIKE ! LEAGUE />T$ UND] ,L\IS LE ,GROS = ! DEF5SE AGA9/ BO? ! ROBB]IES ( ! NOBLES & ! ,NORMAN 9VASIONS1 WAS A ?OR\<LY POPUL> MOVEM5T4 ,! ONLY HI/ORIAN :O M5TIONS ?IS LA/ LEAGUE -- ?AT IS1 ,VITALIS -- DESCRIBES IT AS A 0POPUL> COMMUNITY0 70,CONSID]ATIONS SUR L'HI/OIRE DE ,FRANCE10 9 VOL4 IV4 ( ,AUG4 ,?I]RY'S ,O,EUVRES1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#f#h1 P4 #aia & NOTE74 

#b ,F]R>I1 I4 #a#e#b1 #b#f#c1 ETC4 

#ba ,P]R5S1 ,HI/OIRE DE ,FLOR5CE1 I4 #a#h#h2 ,F]R>I1 L4C41 I4 #b#h#c4 

#bb ,AUG4 ,?I]RY1 ,ESSAI SUR L'HI/OIRE DU ,TI]S ,ETAT1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#g#e1 P4 #d#a#d1 NOTE4 

#bc ,F4 ,ROCQUA91 0,LA ,R5AISSANCE AU ,X,I,IE SIECLE10 9 ,ETUDES SUR L'HI/OIRE DE ,FRANCE1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#g#e1 PP4 #e#e-#a#a#g4 

#bd ,N4 ,KO/OM>(F1 0,! ,RATIONALI/S ( ! ,TWELF? ,C5TURY10 9 HIS ,MONOGRAPHIES & ,RESE>*ES 7,RUSSIAN74 

#be ,V]Y 9T]E/+ FACTS RELATIVE TO ! UNIV]SALITY ( GUILDS WILL BE F\ND 9 0,TWO ,?\S& ,YE>S ( ,GUILD ,LIFE10 BY ,REV4 ,J4 ,M4 ,LAMB]T1 ,HULL1 #a#h#i#a4 ,ON ! ,GEORGIAN AMK>I1 SEE ,S4 ,E<IAZ>OV1 ,GORODSKIYE ,TSEKHI 70,ORGANIZATION ( ,TRANSCAUCASIAN ,AMK>I071 9 ,MEMOIRS ( ! ,CAUCASIAN ,GEOGRAPHICAL ,SOCIETY1 XIV4 #b1 #a#h#i#a4 

#bf ,J4,D4 ,WUND]]'S 0,REISEB]I*T0 9 ,FI*>D'S ,FRANKFURT] ,>*IV1 II4 #b#d#e2 QUOT$ BY ,JANSS51 ,GES*I*TE DES DEUTS*5 ,VOLKES1 I4 #c#e#e4 

#bg ,DR4 ,LEON>D ,5N51 ,D] ,DOM ZU ,KOLN1 ,HI/ORIS*E ,E9LEITUNG1 ,KOLN1 #a#h#g#a1 PP4 #d#f1 #e4 

#bh ,SEE PREVI\S *APT]4 

#bi ,K(OD ,AN*]1 ,OM GAMLE ,DANSKE ,GILD] OG D]ES ,UND]GANG1 ,COP5HAG51 #a#g#h#e4 ,/ATUTES ( A ,KNU GUILD4 

#c ,UPON ! POSITION ( WOM5 9 GUILDS1 SEE ,MISS ,T\LM9 ,SMI?'S 9TRODUCTORY REM>KS TO ! ,5GLI% ,GUILDS ( H] FA!R4 ,ONE ( ! ,CAMBRIDGE /ATUTES 7P4 #b#h#a7 ( ! YE> #aec IS QUITE POSITIVE 9 ! FOLL[+ S5T5CE3 0,?YS /ATUTE IS MADE BY ! COMYNE ASS5T ( ALL ! BRE!RNE & SI/]NE ( ALHALL[E YELDE40 

#ca ,9 M$IAEVAL TIMES1 ONLY SECRET AGGRESSION WAS TREAT$ AS A MURD]4 ,BLOOD-REV5GE 9 BROAD DAYLI<T WAS JU/ICE2 & SLAY+ 9 A QU>REL WAS NOT MURD]1 ONCE ! AGGRESSOR %[$ HIS WILL+NESS TO REP5T & TO REPAIR ! WRONG HE HAD DONE4 ,DEEP TRACES ( ?IS DI/9CTION /ILL EXI/ 9 MOD]N CRIM9AL LAW1 ESPECIALLY 9 ,RUSSIA4 

#cb ,K(OD ,AN*]1 L4C4 ,?IS OLD BOOKLET CONTA9S MU* ?AT HAS BE5 LO/ SI<T ( BY LAT] EXPLOR]S4 

#cc ,!Y PLAY$ AN IMPORTANT P>T 9 ! REVOLTS ( ! S]FS1 & W]E !RE=E PROHIBIT$ SEV]AL TIMES 9 SUCCESSION 9 ! SECOND HALF ( ! N9? C5TURY4 ,( C\RSE1 ! K+'S PROHIBITIONS REMA9$ A DEAD LETT]4 

#cd ,! M$IAEVAL ,ITALIAN PA9T]S W]E ALSO ORGANIZ$ 9 GUILDS1 :I* BECAME AT A LAT] EPO* ,ACADEMIES ( >T4 ,IF ! ,ITALIAN >T ( ?OSE TIMES IS IMPRESS$ ) SO MU* 9DIVIDUALITY ?AT WE DI/+UI%1 EV5 N[1 BETWE5 ! DIFF]5T S*OOLS ( ,PADUA1 ,BASSANO1 ,TREVISO1 ,V]ONA1 & SO ON1 AL?\< ALL !SE CITIES W]E UND] ! SWAY ( ,V5ICE1 ?IS WAS DUE -- ,J4 ,PAUL ,RI*T] REM>KS -- TO ! FACT ?AT ! PA9T]S ( EA* CITY BELONG$ TO A SEP>ATE GUILD1 FRI5DLY ) ! GUILDS ( O!R T[NS1 BUT LEAD+ A SEP>ATE EXI/5CE4 ,! OLDE/ GUILD-/ATUTE KN[N IS ?AT ( ,V]ONA1 DAT+ FROM #a#c#c1 BUT EVID5TLY COPI$ FROM SOME MU* OLD] /ATUTE4 0,FRAT]NAL ASSI/ANCE 9 NECESSITY ( :ATEV] K9D10 0HOSPITALITY T[>DS /RANG]S1 :5 PASS+ ?R\< ! T[N1 AS ?US 9=MATION MAY BE OBTA9$ AB\T MATT]S :I* ONE MAY LIKE TO LE>N10 & 0OBLIGATION ( (F]+ COM=T 9 CASE ( DEBILITY0 >E AMONG ! OBLIGATIONS ( ! MEMB]S 7,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY1 ,NOV4 #a#h#i1 & ,AUG4 #a#h#i#b74 

#ce ,! *IEF WORKS ON ! >TELS >E NAM$ 9 ! >TICLE 0,RUSSIA0 ( ! ,5CYCLOPA$IA ,BRITANNICA1 #i? $ITION1 P4 #h#d4 

#cf ,SEE1 = 9/ANCE1 ! TEXTS ( ! ,CAMBRIDGE GUILDS GIV5 BY ,T\LM9 ,SMI? 7,5GLI% ,GUILDS1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#g1 PP4 #b#g#d-#b#g#f71 FROM :I* IT APPE>S ?AT ! 0G5]ALL & PR9CIPALL DAY0 WAS ! 0ELECCI\N DAY20 OR1 ,*4 ,M4 ,CLODE'S ,! ,E>LY ,HI/ORY ( ! ,GUILD ( ! ,M]*ANT ,TAYLORS1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#h#h1 I4 #d#e2 & SO ON4 ,= ! R5EWAL ( ALLEGIANCE1 SEE ! ,JOMSVIK+ SAGA1 M5TION$ 9 ,PAPP5HEIM'S ,ALTDANIS*E ,S*UTZGILD51 ,BRESLAU1 #a#h#h#e1 P4 #f#g4 ,IT APPE>S V]Y PROBABLE ?AT :5 ! GUILDS BEGAN TO BE PROSECUT$1 MANY ( !M 9SCRIB$ 9 !IR /ATUTES ! MEAL DAY ONLY1 OR !IR PI\S DUTIES1 & ONLY ALLUD$ TO ! JUDICIAL FUNCTION ( ! GUILD 9 VAGUE WORDS2 BUT ?IS FUNCTION DID NOT DISAPPE> TILL A V]Y MU* LAT] TIME4 ,! QUE/ION1 0,:O WILL BE MY JUDGE80 HAS NO MEAN+ N[1 S9CE ! ,/ATE HAS APPROPRIAT$ = ITS BUREAUCRACY ! ORGANIZATION ( JU/ICE2 BUT IT WAS ( PRIMORDIAL IMPORTANCE 9 M$IAEVAL TIMES1 ! MORE SO AS SELF-JURISDICTION MEANT SELF-ADM9I/RATION4 ,IT MU/ ALSO BE REM>K$ ?AT ! TRANSLATION ( ! ,SAXON & ,DANI% 0GUILD-BRE!R510 OR 0BRODRE10 BY ! ,LAT9 CONVIVII MU/ ALSO HAVE CONTRIBUT$ TO ! ABOVE CONFUSION4 

#cg ,SEE ! EXCELL5T REM>KS UPON ! FRI? GUILD BY ,J4,R4 ,GRE5 & ,MRS4 ,GRE5 9 ,! ,CONQUE/ ( ,5GL&1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#h#c1 PP4 #b#b#i-#b#c4 

#* ,SEE ,APP5DIX ,X4 

#ci ,RECUEIL DES ORDONNANCES DES ROIS DE ,FRANCE1 T4 XII4 #e#f#b2 QUOT$ BY ,AUG4 ,?I]RY 9 ,CONSID]ATIONS SUR L'HI/OIRE DE ,FRANCE1 P4 #a#i#f1 $4 #a#bMO4 

#d ,A4 ,LU*AIRE1 ,LES ,COMMUNES FRANCAISES1 PP1 #d#e-#d#f4 

#da ,GUILB]T DE ,NOG5T1 ,DE VITA SUA1 QUOT$ BY ,LU*AIRE1 L4C41 P4 #a#d4 

#db ,LEBRET1 ,HI/OIRE DE ,V5ISE1 I4 #c#i#c2 ALSO ,M>91 QUOT$ BY ,LEO & ,BOTTA 9 ,HI/OIRE DE L',ITALIE1 ,FR5* $ITION1 #a#h#d#d1 T4 I #e4 

#dc ,DR4 ,W4 ,>NOLD1 ,V]FASSUNGSGES*I*TE D] DEUTS*5 ,FREI/ADTE1 #a#h#e#d1 ,BD4 II4 #bbg SEQ42 ,5N51 ,GES*I*TE D] ,/ADT ,KOELN1 ,BD4 I4 #b#b#h-#b#b#i2 ALSO ! DOCUM5TS PUBLI%$ BY ,5N5 & ,ECK]T4 

#dd ,CONQUE/ ( ,5GL&1 #a#h#h#c1 P4 #d#e#c4 

#de ,BYELAEFF1 ,RUSSIAN ,HI/ORY1 VOLS4 II4 & III4 

#df ,W4 ,GRAMI*1 ,V]FASSUNGS- UND ,V]WALTUNGSGES*I*TE D] ,/ADT ,WURZBURG IM #a#c4 BIS ZUM #a#e4 ,JAHRHUND]T1 ,WURZBURG1 #a#h#h#b1 P4 #c#d4 

#dg ,:5 A BOAT BR\<T A C>GO ( COAL TO ,WURZBURG1 COAL C\LD ONLY BE SOLD 9 RETAIL DUR+ ! FIR/ EI<T DAYS1 EA* FAMILY BE+ 5TITL$ TO NO MORE ?AN FIFTY BASKETFULS4 ,! REMA9+ C>GO C\LD BE SOLD :OLESALE1 BUT ! RETAIL] WAS ALL[$ TO RAISE A ZITTLI*] PR(IT ONLY1 ! UNZITTLI*]1 OR DI%ONE/ PR(IT1 BE+ /RICTLY =BIDD5 7,GRAMI*1 L4C474 ,SAME 9 ,LONDON 7,LIB] ALBUS1 QUOT$ BY ,O*5K[SKI1 P4 #a#f#a71 &1 9 FACT1 EV]Y:]E4 

#dh ,SEE ,FAGNIEZ1 ,ETUDES SUR L'9DU/RIE ET LA CLASSE 9DU/RIELLE A ,P>IS AU ,X,I,I,IME ET ,X,I,VME SIECLE1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#g#g1 PP4 #aee SEQ4 ,IT H>DLY NE$ BE ADD$ ?AT ! TAX ON BREAD1 & ON BE] AS WELL1 WAS SETTL$ AFT] C>EFUL EXP]IM5TS AS TO ! QUANTITY ( BREAD & BE] :I* C\LD BE OBTA9$ FROM A GIV5 AM\NT ( CORN4 ,! ,AMI5S >*IVES CONTA9 ! M9UTES ( SU* EXP]I5CES 7,A4 DE ,CALONNE1 L4C4 PP4 #g#g1 #i#c74 ,ALSO ?OSE ( ,LONDON 7,O*5K[SKI1 ,5GL&'S WIR?S*AFTLI*E ,5TWICKELUNG1 ETC41 ,J5A1 #a#h#g#i1 P4 #a#f#e74 

#di ,*4 ,GROSS1 ,! ,GUILD ,M]*ANT1 ,OX=D1 #a#h#i1 I4 #a#c#e4 ,HIS DOCUM5TS PROVE ?AT ?IS PRACTICE EXI/$ 9 ,LIV]POOL 7II4 #a#d#h-#a#e71 ,WAT]=D 9 ,IREL&1 ,NEA? 9 ,WALES1 & ,L9LI?G[ & ,?URSO 9 ,SCOTL&4 ,MR4 ,GROSS'S TEXTS ALSO %[ ?AT ! PUR*ASES W]E MADE = DI/RIBUTION1 NOT ONLY AMONG ! M]*ANT BURGESSES1 BUT 0UPON ALL CITSA9S & COMMYNALTE0 7P4 #a#c#f1 NOTE71 OR1 AS ! ,?URSO ORD9ANCE ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY RUNS1 TO 0MAKE (F] TO ! M]*ANTS1 CRAFTSM51 & 9HABITANTS ( ! SAID BUR<1 ?AT !Y MAY HAVE !IR PROPORTION ( ! SAME1 ACCORD+ TO !IR NECESSITYS & ABILITY40 

#e ,! ,E>LY ,HI/ORY ( ! ,GUILD ( ,M]*ANT ,TAYLORS1 BY ,*>LES ,M4 ,CLODE1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#h#h1 I4 #c#f#a1 APP5DIX #a2 ALSO ! FOLL[+ APP5DIX :I* %[S ?AT ! SAME PUR*ASES W]E MADE 9 #a#e#d#f4 

#ea ,CIBR>IO1 ,LES CONDITIONS ECONOMIQUES DE L',ITALIE AU TEMPS DE ,DANTE1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#f#e1 P4 #d#d4 

#eb ,A4 DE ,CALONNE1 ,LA VIE MUNICIPALE AU ,X,VME SIECLE DANS LE ,NORD DE LA ,FRANCE1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#h1 PP4 #a#b-#a#f4 ,9 #adhe ! CITY P]MITT$ ! EXPORT TO ,ANTW]P ( A C]TA9 QUANTITY ( CORN1 0! 9HABITANTS ( ,ANTW]P BE+ ALWAYS READY TO BE AGREEABLE TO ! M]*ANTS & BURGESSES ( ,AMI5S0 7IBID41 PP4 #g#e-#g#g & TEXTS74 

#ec ,A4 ,BABEAU1 ,LA VILLE S\S L'ANCI5 REGIME1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#h4 

#$ ,5N51 ,GES*I*TE D] ,/ADT ,KOLN1 I4 #d#i#a1 #d#i#b1 ALSO TEXTS4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #b#a1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #e -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #a#a1 #bbb 3 ,*APT] #e -- ,UPDAT$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/