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,MUTUAL ,AID 9 ! ,M$IAEVAL ,CITY 7,CONT9U$7 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,LOZ ,PYCOCK1,C,C ,B,Y-,S,A ,LIC5SE ,MUTUAL ,AID3 ,A ,FACTOR ( ,EVOLUTION 

,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

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,LIK5ESS & DIV]SITY AMONG ! M$IAEVAL CITIES4 -- ,! CRAFTGUILDS3 ,/ATE-ATTRIBUTES 9 EA* ( !M4 -- ,ATTITUDE ( ! CITY T[>DS ! PEASANTS2 ATTEMPTS TO FREE !M4 -- ,! LORDS4 -- ,RESULTS A*IEV$ BY ! M$IAEVAL CITY3 9 >TS1 9 LE>N+4 -- ,CAUSES ( DECAY4 

,! M$IAEVAL CITIES W]E NOT ORGANIZ$ UPON SOME PRECONCEIV$ PLAN 9 OB$I5CE TO ! WILL ( AN \TSIDE LEGISLATOR4 ,EA* ( !M WAS A NATURAL GR[? 9 ! FULL S5SE ( ! WORD -- AN ALWAYS V>Y+ RESULT ( /RUGGLE BETWE5 V>I\S =CES :I* ADJU/$ & RE-ADJU/$ !MSELVES 9 CON=MITY ) !IR RELATIVE 5]GIES1 ! *ANCES ( !IR CONFLICTS1 & ! SUPPORT !Y F\ND 9 !IR SURR\ND+S4 ,!RE=E1 !RE >E NOT TWO CITIES :OSE 9N] ORGANIZATION & DE/9IES W\LD HAVE BE5 ID5TICAL4 ,EA* ONE1 TAK5 SEP>ATELY1 V>IES FROM C5TURY TO C5TURY4 ,& YET1 :5 WE CA/ A BROAD GLANCE UPON ALL ! CITIES ( ,EUROPE1 ! LOCAL & NATIONAL UNLIK5ESSES DISAPPE>1 & WE >E /RUCK TO F9D AMONG ALL ( !M A WOND]FUL RESEMBLANCE1 AL?\< EA* HAS DEVELOP$ = ITSELF1 9DEP5D5TLY FROM ! O!RS1 & 9 DIFF]5T CONDITIONS4 ,A SMALL T[N 9 ! NOR? ( ,SCOTL&1 ) ITS POPULATION ( CO>SE LABOR]S & FI%]M52 A RI* CITY ( ,FL&]S1 ) ITS WORLD-WIDE COMM]CE1 LUXURY1 LOVE ( AMUSEM5T & ANIMAT$ LIFE2 AN ,ITALIAN CITY 5RI*$ BY ITS 9T]C\RSE ) ! ,EA/1 & BRE$+ )9 ITS WALLS A REF9$ >TI/IC TA/E & CIVILIZATION2 & A POOR1 *IEFLY AGRICULTURAL1 CITY 9 ! M>% & LAKE DI/RICT ( ,RUSSIA1 SEEM TO HAVE LITTLE 9 COMMON4 ,& NEV]!LESS1 ! LEAD+ L9ES ( !IR ORGANIZATION1 & ! SPIRIT :I* ANIMATES !M1 >E IMBU$ ) A /RONG FAMILY LIK5ESS4 ,EV]Y:]E WE SEE ! SAME F$]ATIONS ( SMALL COMMUNITIES & GUILDS1 ! SAME 0SUB-T[NS0 R\ND ! MO!R CITY1 ! SAME FOLKMOTE1 & ! SAME 9SIGNS ( ITS 9DEP5D5CE4 ,! DEF5SOR ( ! CITY1 UND] DIFF]5T NAMES & 9 DIFF]5T ACC\T]M5TS1 REPRES5TS ! SAME AU?ORITY & 9T]E/S2 FOOD SUPPLIES1 LABOR & COMM]CE1 >E ORGANIZ$ ON CLOSELY SIMIL> L9ES2 9N] & \T] /RUGGLES >E F\<T ) LIKE AMBITIONS2 NAY1 ! V]Y =MULAS US$ 9 ! /RUGGLES1 AS ALSO 9 ! ANNALS1 ! ORD9ANCES1 & ! ROLLS1 >E ID5TICAL2 & ! >*ITECTURAL MONUM5TS1 :E!R ,GO?IC1 ,ROMAN1 OR ,BYZANT9E 9 /YLE1 EXPRESS ! SAME ASPIRATIONS & ! SAME IDEALS2 !Y >E CONCEIV$ & BUILT 9 ! SAME WAY4 ,MANY DISSEMBLANCES >E M]E DIFF]5CES ( AGE1 & ?OSE DISP>ITIES BETWE5 SI/] CITIES :I* >E REAL >E REPEAT$ 9 DIFF]5T P>TS ( ,EUROPE4 ,! UNITY ( ! LEAD+ IDEA & ! ID5TITY ( ORIG9 MAKE UP = DIFF]5CES ( CLIMATE1 GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION1 WEAL?1 LANGUAGE & RELIGION4 ,?IS IS :Y WE CAN SPEAK ( ! M$IAEVAL CITY AS ( A WELL-DEF9$ PHASE ( CIVILIZATION2 & :ILE EV]Y RESE>* 9SI/+ UPON LOCAL & 9DIVIDUAL DIFF]5CES IS MO/ WELCOME1 WE MAY /ILL 9DICATE ! *IEF L9ES ( DEVELOPM5T :I* >E COMMON TO ALL CITIES4#a 

  ,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ! PROTECTION :I* US$ TO BE ACCORD$ TO ! M>KET-PLACE FROM ! E>LIE/ B>B>IAN TIMES HAS PLAY$ AN IMPORTANT1 ?\< NOT AN EXCLUSIVE1 P>T 9 ! EMANCIPATION ( ! M$IAEVAL CITY4 ,! E>LY B>B>IANS KNEW NO TRADE )9 !IR VILLAGE COMMUNITIES2 !Y TRAD$ ) /RANG]S ONLY1 AT C]TA9 DEF9ITE SPOTS1 ON C]TA9 DET]M9$ DAYS4 ,&1 9 ORD] ?AT ! /RANG] MI<T COME TO ! B>T]-PLACE )\T RISK ( BE+ SLA9 = SOME FEUD :I* MI<T BE RUNN+ BETWE5 TWO K9S1 ! M>KET WAS ALWAYS PLAC$ UND] ! SPECIAL PROTECTION ( ALL K9S4 ,IT WAS 9VIOLABLE1 LIKE ! PLACE ( WOR%IP UND] ! %AD[ ( :I* IT WAS HELD4 ,) ! ,KABYLES IT IS /ILL ANNAYA1 LIKE ! FOOTPA? ALONG :I*WOM5 C>RY WAT] FROM ! WELL2 NEI!R MU/ BE TRODD5 UPON 9 >MS1 EV5 DUR+ 9T]-TRIBAL W>S4 ,9 M$IAEVAL TIMES ! M>KET UNIV]SALLY 5JOY$ ! SAME PROTECTION4#b ,NO FEUD C\LD BE PROSECUT$ ON ! PLACE :]ETO PEOPLE CAME TO TRADE1 NOR )9 A C]TA9 RADIUS FROM IT2 & IF A QU>REL >OSE 9 ! MOTLEY CR[D ( BUY]S & SELL]S1 IT HAD TO BE BR\<T BE=E ?OSE UND] :OSE PROTECTION ! M>KET /OOD -- ! COMMUNITY'S TRIBUNAL1 OR ! BI%OP'S1 ! LORD'S1 OR ! K+'S JUDGE4 ,A /RANG] :O CAME TO TRADE WAS A GUE/1 & HE W5T ON UND] ?IS V]Y NAME4 ,EV5 ! LORD :O HAD NO SCRUPLES AB\T ROBB+ A M]*ANT ON ! HI< ROAD1 RESPECT$ ! ,WEI*BILD1 ?AT IS1 ! POLE :I* /OOD 9 ! M>KET-PLACE & BORE EI!R ! K+'S >MS1 OR A GLOVE1 OR ! IMAGE ( ! LOCAL SA9T1 OR SIMPLY A CROSS1 ACCORD+ TO :E!R ! M>KET WAS UND] ! PROTECTION ( ! K+1 ! LORD1 ! LOCAL *UR*1 OR ! FOLKMOTE -- ! VYE*E4#c 

  ,IT IS EASY TO UND]/& H[ ! SELF-JURISDICTION ( ! CITY C\LD DEVELOP \T ( ! SPECIAL JURISDICTION 9 ! M>KET-PLACE1 :5 ?IS LA/ RI<T WAS CONC$$1 WILL+LY OR NOT1 TO ! CITY ITSELF4 ,& SU* AN ORIG9 ( ! CITY'S LIB]TIES1 :I* CAN BE TRAC$ 9 V]Y MANY CASES1 NECESS>ILY LAID A SPECIAL /AMP UPON !IR SUBSEQU5T DEVELOPM5T4 ,IT GAVE A PR$OM9ANCE TO ! TRAD+ P>T ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,! BUR<]S :O POSSESS$ A H\SE 9 ! CITY AT ! TIME BE+1 & W]E CO-[N]S 9 ! T[N-L&S1 CON/ITUT$ V]Y (T5 A M]*ANT GUILD :I* HELD 9 ITS H&S ! CITY'S TRADE2 & AL?\< AT ! \TSET EV]Y BUR<]1 RI* & POOR1 C\LD MAKE P>T ( ! M]*ANT GUILD1 & ! TRADE ITSELF SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 C>RI$ ON = ! 5TIRE CITY BY ITS TRU/EES1 ! GUILD GRADUALLY BECAME A SORT ( PRIVILEG$ BODY4 ,IT JEAL\SLY PREV5T$ ! \TSID]S :O SOON BEGAN TO FLOCK 9TO ! FREE CITIES FROM 5T]+ ! GUILD1 & KEPT ! ADVANTAGES RESULT+ FROM TRADE = ! FEW 0FAMILIES0 :I* HAD BE5 BUR<]S AT ! TIME ( ! EMANCIPATION4 ,!RE EVID5TLY WAS A DANG] ( A M]*ANT OLIG>*Y BE+ ?US CON/ITUT$4 ,BUT ALREADY 9 ! T5?1 & /ILL MORE DUR+ ! TWO NEXT C5TURIES1 ! *IEF CRAFTS1 ALSO ORGANIZ$ 9 GUILDS1 W]E P[]FUL 5\< TO *ECK ! OLIG>*IC T5D5CIES ( ! M]*ANTS4 

  ,! CRAFT GUILD WAS !N A COMMON SELL] ( ITS PRODUCE & A COMMON BUY] ( ! RAW MAT]IALS1 & ITS MEMB]S W]E M]*ANTS & MANUAL WORK]S AT ! SAME TIME4 ,!RE=E1 ! PR$OM9ANCE TAK5 BY ! OLD CRAFT GUILDS FROM ! V]Y BEG9N+S ( ! FREE CITY LIFE GU>ANTE$ TO MANUAL LABOR ! HI< POSITION :I* IT AFT]W>DS OCCUPI$ 9 ! CITY4#d ,9 FACT1 9 A M$IAEVAL CITY MANUAL LABOR WAS NO TOK5 ( 9F]IORITY2 IT BORE1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 TRACES ( ! HI< RESPECT IT HAD BE5 KEPT 9 9 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 ,MANUAL LABOR 9 A 0MY/]Y0 WAS CONSID]$ AS A PI\S DUTY T[>DS ! CITIZ5S3 A PUBLIC FUNCTION 7,AMT71 AS HONORABLE AS ANY O!R4 ,AN IDEA ( 0JU/ICE0 TO ! COMMUNITY1 ( 0RI<T0 T[>DS BO? PRODUC] & CONSUM]1 :I* W\LD SEEM SO EXTRAVAGANT N[1 P5ETRAT$ PRODUCTION & EX*ANGE4 ,! TANN]'S1 ! COOP]'S1 OR ! %OEMAK]'S WORK MU/ BE 0JU/10 FAIR1 !Y WROTE 9 ?OSE TIMES4 ,WOOD1 LEA!R OR ?READ :I* >E US$ BY ! >TISAN MU/ BE 0RI<T02 BREAD MU/ BE BAK$ 09 JU/ICE10 & SO ON4 ,TRANSPORT ?IS LANGUAGE 9TO \R PRES5T LIFE1 & IT W\LD SEEM AFFECT$ & UNNATURAL2 BUT IT WAS NATURAL & UNAFFECT$ !N1 BECAUSE ! M$IAEVAL >TISAN DID NOT PRODUCE = AN UNKN[N BUY]1 OR TO ?R[ HIS GOODS 9TO AN UNKN[N M>KET4 ,HE PRODUC$ = HIS GUILD FIR/2 = A BRO!RHOOD ( M5 :O KNEW EA* O!R1 KNEW ! TE*NICS ( ! CRAFT1 &1 9 NAM+ ! PRICE ( EA* PRODUCT1 C\LD APPRECIATE ! SKILL DISPLAY$ 9 ITS FABRICATION OR ! LABOR BE/[$ UPON IT4 ,!N ! GUILD1 NOT ! SEP>ATE PRODUC]1 (F]$ ! GOODS = SALE 9 ! COMMUNITY1 & ?IS LA/1 9 ITS TURN1 (F]$ TO ! BRO!RHOOD ( ALLI$ COMMUNITIES ?OSE GOODS :I* W]E EXPORT$1 & ASSUM$ RESPONSIBILITY = !IR QUALITY4 ,) SU* AN ORGANIZATION1 IT WAS ! AMBITION ( EA* CRAFT NOT TO (F] GOODS ( 9F]IOR QUALITY1 & TE*NICAL DEFECTS OR ADULT]ATIONS BECAME A MATT] CONC]N+ ! :OLE COMMUNITY1 BECAUSE1 AN ORD9ANCE SAYS1 0!Y W\LD DE/ROY PUBLIC CONFID5CE40#e ,PRODUCTION BE+ ?US A SOCIAL DUTY1 PLAC$ UND] ! CONTROL ( ! :OLE AMITAS1 MANUAL LABOR C\LD NOT FALL 9TO ! DEGRAD$ CONDITION :I* IT OCCUPIES N[1 SO LONG AS ! FREE CITY WAS LIV+4 

  ,A DIFF]5CE BETWE5 MA/] & APPR5TICE1 OR BETWE5 MA/] & WORK] 7COMPAYNE1 ,GESELLE71 EXI/$ BUT 9 ! M$IAEVAL CITIES FROM !IR V]Y BEG9N+S2 ?IS WAS AT ! \TSET A M]E DIFF]5CE ( AGE & SKILL1 NOT ( WEAL? & P[]4 ,AFT] A SEV5 YE>S' APPR5TICE%IP1 & AFT] HAV+ PROV$ HIS KN[L$GE & CAPACITIES BY A WORK ( >T1 ! APPR5TICE BECAME A MA/] HIMSELF4 ,& ONLY MU* LAT]1 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 AFT] ! ROYAL P[] HAD DE/ROY$ ! CITY & ! CRAFT ORGANIZATION1 WAS IT POSSIBLE TO BECOME MA/] 9 VIRTUE ( SIMPLE 9H]ITANCE OR WEAL?4 ,BUT ?IS WAS ALSO ! TIME ( A G5]AL DECAY 9 M$IAEVAL 9DU/RIES & >T4 

  ,!RE WAS NOT MU* ROOM = HIR$ WORK 9 ! E>LY FL\RI%+ P]IODS ( ! M$IAEVAL CITIES1 /ILL LESS = 9DIVIDUAL HIREL+S4 ,! WORK ( ! WEAV]S1 ! >*]S1 ! SMI?S1 ! BAK]S1 & SO ON1 WAS P]=M$ = ! CRAFT & ! CITY2 & :5 CRAFTSM5 W]E HIR$ 9 ! BUILD+ TRADES1 !Y WORK$ AS TEMPOR>Y CORPORATIONS 7AS !Y /ILL DO 9 ! ,RUSSIAN >TELS71 :OSE WORK WAS PAID 5 BLOC4 ,WORK = A MA/] BEGAN TO MULTIPLY ONLY LAT] ON2 BUT EV5 9 ?IS CASE ! WORK] WAS PAID BETT] ?AN HE IS PAID N[1 EV5 9 ?IS C\NTRY1 & V]Y MU* BETT] ?AN HE US$ TO BE PAID ALL OV] ,EUROPE 9 ! FIR/ HALF ( ?IS C5TURY4 ,?OROLD ,ROG]S HAS FAMILI>IZ$ ,5GLI% READ]S ) ?IS IDEA2 BUT ! SAME IS TRUE = ! ,CONT95T AS WELL1 AS IS %[N BY ! RESE>*ES ( ,FALKE & ,S*ONB]G1 & BY MANY OCCASIONAL 9DICATIONS4 ,EV5 9 ! FIFTE5? C5TURY A MASON1 A C>P5T]1 OR A SMI? WORK] W\LD BE PAID AT ,AMI5S F\R SOLS A DAY1 :I* CORRESPOND$ TO =TY-EI<T P\NDS ( BREAD1 OR TO ! EI<? P>T ( A SMALL OX 7B\V>D74 ,9 ,SAXONY1 ! SAL>Y ( ! ,GESELLE 9 ! BUILD+ TRADE WAS SU* ?AT1 TO PUT IT 9 ,FALKE'S WORDS1 HE C\LD BUY ) HIS SIX DAYS' WAGES ?REE %EEP & ONE PAIR ( %OES4#f ,! DONATIONS ( WORK]S 7,GESELLE7 TO CA!DRALS ALSO BE> TE/IMONY ( !IR RELATIVE WELL-BE+1 TO SAY NO?+ ( ! GLORI\S DONATIONS ( C]TA9 CRAFT GUILDS NOR ( :AT !Y US$ TO SP5D 9 FE/IVITIES & PAGEANTS4#g ,9 FACT1 ! MORE WE LE>N AB\T ! M$IAEVAL CITY1 ! MORE WE >E CONV9C$ ?AT AT NO TIME HAS LABOR 5JOY$ SU* CONDITIONS ( PROSP]ITY & SU* RESPECT AS :5 CITY LIFE /OOD AT ITS HI<E/4 

  ,MORE ?AN ?AT2 NOT ONLY MANY ASPIRATIONS ( \R MOD]N RADICALS W]E ALREADY REALIZ$ 9 ! MIDDLE AGES1 BUT MU* ( :AT IS DESCRIB$ N[ AS ,UTOPIAN WAS ACCEPT$ !N AS A MATT] ( FACT4 ,WE >E LAU<$ AT :5 WE SAY ?AT WORK MU/ BE PLEASANT1 BUT -- 0EV]Y ONE MU/ BE PLEAS$ ) HIS WORK10 A M$IAEVAL ,KUTT5B]G ORD9ANCE SAYS1 0& NO ONE %ALL1 :ILE DO+ NO?+ 7MIT NI*TS ?UN71 APPROPRIATE = HIMSELF :AT O!RS HAVE PRODUC$ BY APPLICATION & WORK1 BECAUSE LAWS MU/ BE A %IELD = APPLICATION & WORK40#h ,& AMID ALL PRES5T TALK AB\T AN EI<T H\RS' DAY1 IT MAY BE WELL TO REMEMB] AN ORD9ANCE ( ,F]D9& ! ,FIR/ RELATIVE TO ! ,IMP]IAL COAL M9ES1 :I* SETTL$ ! M9]'S DAY AT EI<T H\RS1 0AS IT US$ TO BE ( OLD0 7WIE VOR ,ALT]S H]KOMM571 & WORK ON ,SATURDAY AFT]NOON WAS PROHIBIT$4 ,LONG] H\RS W]E V]Y R>E1 WE >E TOLD BY ,JANSS51 :ILE %ORT] H\RS W]E ( COMMON OCCURR5CE4 ,9 ?IS C\NTRY1 9 ! FIFTE5? C5TURY1 ,ROG]S SAYS1 0! WORKM5 WORK$ ONLY =TY-EI<T H\RS A WEEK40#i ,! ,SATURDAY HALF-HOLIDAY1 TOO1 :I* WE CONSID] AS A MOD]N CONQUE/1 WAS 9 REALITY AN OLD M$IAEVAL 9/ITUTION2 IT WAS BA?+-TIME = A GREAT P>T ( ! COMMUNITY1 :ILE ,W$NESDAY AFT]NOON WAS BA?+-TIME = ! ,GESELLE4#a ,& AL?\< S*OOL MEALS DID NOT EXI/ -- PROBABLY BECAUSE NO *ILDR5 W5T HUNGRY TO S*OOL -- A DI/RIBUTION ( BA?-MONEY TO ! *ILDR5 :OSE P>5TS F\ND DIFFICULTY 9 PROVID+ IT WAS HABITUAL 9 SEV]AL PLACES4 ,AS TO ,LABOR ,CONGRESSES1 !Y ALSO W]E A REGUL> FEATURE ( ! MIDDLES AGES4 ,9 SOME P>TS ( ,G]MANY CRAFTSM5 ( ! SAME TRADE1 BELONG+ TO DIFF]5T COMMUNES1 US$ TO COME TOGE!R EV]Y YE> TO DISCUSS QUE/IONS RELATIVE TO !IR TRADE1 ! YE>S ( APPR5TICE%IP1 ! W&]+ YE>S1 ! WAGES1 & SO ON2 & 9 #a#e#g#b1 ! ,HANSEATIC T[NS =MALLY RECOGNIZ$ ! RI<T ( ! CRAFTS TO COME TOGE!R AT P]IODICAL CONGRESSES1 & TO TAKE ANY RESOLUTIONS1 SO LONG AS !Y W]E NOT CONTR>Y TO ! CITIES' ROLLS1 RELATIVE TO ! QUALITY ( GOODS4 ,SU* ,LABOR ,CONGRESSES1 P>TLY 9T]NATIONAL LIKE ! ,HANSA ITSELF1 >E KN[N TO HAVE BE5 HELD BY BAK]S1 F\ND]S1 SMI?S1 TANN]S1 SWORD-MAK]S & CASK-MAK]S4#a#a 

  ,! CRAFT ORGANIZATION REQUIR$1 ( C\RSE1 A CLOSE SUP]VISION ( ! CRAFTSM5 BY ! GUILD1 & SPECIAL JURATES W]E ALWAYS NOM9AT$ = ?AT PURPOSE4 ,BUT IT IS MO/ REM>KABLE ?AT1 SO LONG AS ! CITIES LIV$ !IR FREE LIFE1 NO COMPLA9TS W]E HE>D AB\T ! SUP]VISION2 :ILE1 AFT] ! ,/ATE HAD /EPP$ 91 CONFISCAT+ ! PROP]TY ( ! GUILDS & DE/ROY+ !IR 9DEP5D5CE 9 FAVOR ( ITS [N BUREAUCRACY1 ! COMPLA9TS BECAME SIMPLY C\NTLESS4#a#b ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! IMM5SITY ( PROGRESS REALIZ$ 9 ALL >TS UND] ! M$IEVAL GUILD SY/EM IS ! BE/ PRO( ?AT ! SY/EM WAS NO H9DRANCE TO 9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE4#a#c ,! FACT IS1 ?AT ! M$IAEVAL GUILD1 LIKE ! M$IAEVAL P>I%1 0/REET10 OR 0QU>T]10 WAS NOT A BODY ( CITIZ5S1 PLAC$ UND] ! CONTROL ( ,/ATE FUNCTION>IES2 IT WAS A UNION ( ALL M5 CONNECT$ ) A GIV5 TRADE3 JURATE BUY]S ( RAW PRODUCE1 SELL]S ( MANUFACTUR$ GOODS1 & >TISANS -- MA/]S1 0COMPAYNES10 & APPR5TICES4 ,= ! 9N] ORGANIZATION ( ! TRADE ITS ASSEMBLY WAS SOV]EIGN1 SO LONG AS IT DID NOT HAMP] ! O!R GUILDS1 9 :I* CASE ! MATT] WAS BR\<T BE=E ! GUILD ( ! GUILDS -- ! CITY4 ,BUT !RE WAS 9 IT SOME?+ MORE ?AN ?AT4 ,IT HAD ITS [N SELF-JURISDICTION1 ITS [N MILIT>Y =CE1 ITS [N G5]AL ASSEMBLIES1 ITS [N TRADITIONS ( /RUGGLES1 GLORY1 & 9DEP5D5CE1 ITS [N RELATIONS ) O!R GUILDS ( ! SAME TRADE 9 O!R CITIES3 IT HAD1 9 A WORD1 A FULL ORGANIC LIFE :I* C\LD ONLY RESULT FROM ! 9TEGRALITY ( ! VITAL FUNCTIONS4 ,:5 ! T[N WAS CALL$ TO >MS1 ! GUILD APPE>$ AS A SEP>ATE COMPANY 7,S*A>71 >M$ ) ITS [N >MS 7OR ITS [N GUNS1 LOV+LY DECORAT$ BY ! GUILD1 AT A SUBSEQU5T EPO*71 UND] ITS [N SELF-ELECT$ COMM&]S4 ,IT WAS1 9 A WORD1 AS 9DEP5D5T A UNIT ( ! F$]ATION AS ! REPUBLIC ( ,URI OR ,G5EVA WAS FIFTY YE>S AGO 9 ! ,SWISS ,CONF$]ATION4 ,SO ?AT1 TO COMP>E IT ) A MOD]N TRADE UNION1 DIVE/$ ( ALL ATTRIBUTES ( ,/ATE SOV]EIGNTY1 & R$UC$ TO A C\PLE ( FUNCTIONS ( SECOND>Y IMPORTANCE1 IS AS UNREASONABLE AS TO COMP>E ,FLOR5CE OR ,BRUGGE ) A ,FR5* COMMUNE VEGETAT+ UND] ! ,CODE ,NAPOLEON1 OR ) A ,RUSSIAN T[N PLAC$ UND] ,CA!R9E ! ,SECOND'S MUNICIPAL LAW4 ,BO? HAVE ELECT$ MAYORS1 & ! LATT] HAS ALSO ITS CRAFT CORPORATIONS2 BUT ! DIFF]5CE IS -- ALL ! DIFF]5CE ?AT EXI/S BETWE5 ,FLOR5CE & ,FONT5AY-LES-,OIES OR ,TS>EVOKOK%AISK1 OR BETWE5 A ,V5ETIAN DOGE & A MOD]N MAYOR :O LIFTS HIS HAT BE=E ! S\S-PREFET'S CL]K4 

  ,! M$IAEVAL GUILDS W]E CAPABLE ( MA9TA9+ !IR 9DEP5D5CE2 &1 LAT] ON1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! F\RTE5? C5TURY1 :51 9 CONSEQU5CE ( SEV]AL CAUSES :I* %ALL PRES5TLY BE 9DICAT$1 ! OLD MUNICIPAL LIFE UND]W5T A DEEP MODIFICATION1 ! Y\NG] CRAFTS PROV$ /RONG 5\< TO CONQU] !IR DUE %>E 9 ! MANAGEM5T ( ! CITY AFFAIRS4 ,! MASSES1 ORGANIZ$ 9 0M9OR0 >TS1 ROSE TO WRE/ ! P[] \T ( ! H&S ( A GR[+ OLIG>*Y1 & MO/LY SUCCE$$ 9 ?IS TASK1 OP5+ AGA9 A NEW ]A ( PROSP]ITY4 ,TRUE1 ?AT 9 SOME CITIES ! UPRIS+ WAS CRU%$ 9 BLOOD1 & MASS DECAPITATIONS ( WORK]S FOLL[$1 AS WAS ! CASE 9 ,P>IS 9 #a#c#f1 & 9 ,COLOGNE 9 #a#c#g#a4 ,9 SU* CASES ! CITY'S LIB]TIES RAPIDLY FELL 9TO DECAY1 & ! CITY WAS GRADUALLY SUBDU$ BY ! C5TRAL AU?ORITY4 ,BUT ! MAJORITY ( ! T[NS HAD PRES]V$ 5\< ( VITALITY TO COME \T ( ! TURMOIL ) A NEW LIFE & VIGOR4#a#d ,A NEW P]IOD ( REJUV5ESC5CE WAS !IR REW>D4 ,NEW LIFE WAS 9FUS$1 & IT F\ND ITS EXPRESSION 9 SPL5DID >*ITECTURAL MONUM5TS1 9 A NEW P]IOD ( PROSP]ITY1 9 A SUDD5 PROGRESS ( TE*NICS & 9V5TION1 & 9 A NEW 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T LEAD+ TO ! ,R5AISSANCE & TO ! ,RE=MATION4 

  ,! LIFE ( A M$IEVAL CITY WAS A SUCCESSION ( H>D BATTLES TO CONQU] LIB]TY & TO MA9TA9 IT4 ,TRUE1 ?AT A /RONG & T5ACI\S RACE ( BUR<]S HAD DEVELOP$ DUR+ ?OSE FI]CE CONTE/S2 TRUE1 ?AT LOVE & WOR%IP ( ! MO!R CITY HAD BE5 BR$ BY !SE /RUGGLES1 & ?AT ! GR& ?+S A*IEV$ BY ! M$IEVAL COMMUNES W]E A DIRECT \TCOME ( ?AT LOVE4 ,BUT ! SACRIFICES :I* ! COMMUNES HAD TO SU/A9 9 ! BATTLE = FRE$OM W]E1 NEV]!LESS1 CRUEL1 & LEFT DEEP TRACES ( DIVISION ON !IR 9N] LIFE AS WELL4 ,V]Y FEW CITIES HAD SUCCE$$1 UND] A CONCURR5CE ( FAVORABLE CIRCUM/ANCES1 9 OBTA9+ LIB]TY AT ONE /ROKE1 & !SE FEW MO/LY LO/ IT EQUALLY EASILY2 :ILE ! GREAT NUMB] HAD TO FI<T FIFTY OR A HUNDR$ YE>S 9 SUCCESSION1 (T5 MORE1 BE=E !IR RI<TS TO FREE LIFE HAD BE5 RECOGNIZ$1 & ANO!R HUNDR$ YE>S TO F\ND !IR LIB]TY ON A FIRM BASIS -- ! TWELF? C5TURY *>T]S ?US BE+ BUT ONE ( ! /EPP+-/ONES TO FRE$OM4#a#e ,9 REALITY1 ! M$IEVAL CITY WAS A =TIFI$ OASIS AMID A C\NTRY PLUNG$ 9TO FEUDAL SUBMISSION1 & IT HAD TO MAKE ROOM = ITSELF BY ! =CE ( ITS >MS4 ,9 CONSEQU5CE ( ! CAUSES BRIEFLY ALLUD$ TO 9 ! PREC$+ *APT]1 EA* VILLAGE COMMUNITY HAD GRADUALLY FALL5 UND] ! YOKE ( SOME LAY OR CL]ICAL LORD4 ,HIS H\SE HAD GR[N TO BE A CA/LE1 & HIS BRO!RS-9->MS W]E N[ ! SCUM ( ADV5TUR]S1 ALWAYS READY TO PLUND] ! PEASANTS4 ,9 ADDITION TO ?REE DAYS A WEEK :I* ! PEASANTS HAD TO WORK = ! LORD1 !Y HAD ALSO TO BE> ALL SORTS ( EXACTIONS = ! RI<T TO S[ & TO CROP1 TO BE GAY OR SAD1 TO LIVE1 TO M>RY1 OR TO DIE4 ,&1 WOR/ ( ALL1 !Y W]E CONT9UALLY PLUND]$ BY ! >M$ ROBB]S ( SOME NEI<BOR+ LORD1 :O *OSE TO CONSID] !M AS !IR MA/]'S K91 & TO TAKE UPON !M1 & UPON !IR CATTLE & CROPS1 ! REV5GE = A FEUD HE WAS FI<T+ AGA9/ !IR [N]4 ,EV]Y MEAD[1 EV]Y FIELD1 EV]Y RIV]1 & ROAD >\ND ! CITY1 & EV]Y MAN UPON ! L& WAS UND] SOME LORD4 

  ,! HATR$ ( ! BUR<]S T[>DS ! FEUDAL B>ONS HAS F\ND A MO/ *>ACT]I/IC EXPRESSION 9 ! WORD+ ( ! DIFF]5T *>T]S :I* !Y COMPELL$ !M TO SIGN4 ,HE9RI* ,V4 IS MADE TO SIGN 9 ! *>T] GRANT$ TO ,SPEI] 9 #a#a#a#a1 ?AT HE FREES ! BUR<]S FROM 0! HORRIBLE & EXECRABLE LAW ( MORTMA91 ?R\< :I* ! T[N HAS BE5 SUNK 9TO DEEPE/ POV]TY0 7VON DEM S*EUSSLI*5 UND NI*TSWURDIG5 ,GESETZE1 WEL%ES GEME9 ,BUDEL G5ANNT WIRD1 ,KALLS51 I4 #c#g74 ,! C\TUME ( ,BAYONNE1 WRITT5 AB\T #a#b#g#c1 CONTA9S SU* PASSAGES AS !SE3 0,! PEOPLE IS ANT]IOR TO ! LORDS4 ,IT IS ! PEOPLE1 MORE NUM]\S ?AN ALL O!RS1 :O1 DESIR\S ( PEACE1 HAS MADE ! LORDS = BRIDL+ & KNOCK+ D[N ! P[]FUL ONES1 0& SO ON 7,GIRY1 ,ETABLISSEM5TS DE ,R\51 I4 #a#a#g1 ,QUOT$ BY ,LU*AIRE1 P4 #b#d74 ,A *>T] SUBMITT$ = ,K+ ,ROB]T'S SIGNATURE IS EQUALLY *>ACT]I/IC4 ,HE IS MADE TO SAY 9 IT3 0,I %ALL ROB NO OX5 NOR O!R ANIMALS4 ,I %ALL SEIZE NO M]*ANTS1 NOR TAKE !IR MONEYS1 NOR IMPOSE RANSOM4 ,FROM ,LADY ,DAY TO ! ,ALL ,SA9TS' ,DAY ,I %ALL SEIZE NO HORSE1 NOR M>E1 NOR FOALS1 9 ! MEAD[S4 ,I %ALL NOT BURN ! MILLS1 NOR ROB ! FL\R444 ,I %ALL (F] NO PROTECTION TO ?IEVES10 ETC4 7,PFI/] HAS PUBLI%$ ?AT DOCUM5T1 REPRODUC$ BY ,LU*AIRE74 ,! *>T] 0GRANT$0 BY ! ,BESANCON ,>*BI%OP ,HUGUES1 9 :I* HE HAS BE5 COMPELL$ TO 5UM]ATE ALL ! MIS*IEFS DUE TO HIS MORTMA9 RI<TS1 IS EQUALLY *>ACT]I/IC4#a#f ,& SO ON4 

  ,FRE$OM C\LD NOT BE MA9TA9$ 9 SU* SURR\ND+S1 & ! CITIES W]E COMPELL$ TO C>RY ON ! W> \TSIDE !IR WALLS4 ,! BUR<]S S5T \T EMISS>IES TO LEAD REVOLT 9 ! VILLAGES2 !Y RECEIV$ VILLAGES 9TO !IR CORPORATIONS1 & !Y WAG$ DIRECT W> AGA9/ ! NOBLES4 ,IT ,ITALY1 :]E ! L& WAS ?ICKLY SPR9KL$ ) FEUDAL CA/LES1 ! W> ASSUM$ H]OIC PROPORTIONS1 & WAS F\<T ) A /]N ACRIMONY ON BO? SIDES4 ,FLOR5CE SU/A9$ = SEV5TY-SEV5 YE>S A SUCCESSION ( BLOODY W>S1 9 ORD] TO FREE ITS CONTADO FROM ! NOBLES2 BUT :5 ! CONQUE/ HAD BE5 ACCOMPLI%$ 79 #a#a#h#a7 ALL HAD TO BEG9 ANEW4 ,! NOBLES RALLI$2 !Y CON/ITUT$ !IR [N LEAGUES 9 OPPOSITION TO ! LEAGUES ( ! T[NS1 &1 RECEIV+ FRE% SUPPORT FROM EI!R ! ,EMP]OR OR ! ,POPE1 !Y MADE ! W> LA/ = ANO!R #ac YE>S4 ,! SAME TOOK PLACE 9 ,ROME1 9 ,LOMB>DY1 ALL OV] ,ITALY4 

  ,PRODIGIES ( VALOR1 AUDACITY1 & T5ACI\SNESS W]E DISPLAY$ BY ! CITIZ5S 9 !SE W>S4 ,BUT ! B[S & ! HAT*ETS ( ! >TS & CRAFTS HAD NOT ALWAYS ! UPP] H& 9 !IR 5C\NT]S ) ! >MOR-CLAD KNI<TS1 & MANY CA/LES )/OOD ! +5I\S SIEGE-MA*9]Y & ! P]SEV]ANCE ( ! CITIZ5S4 ,SOME CITIES1 LIKE ,FLOR5CE1 ,BOLOGNA1 & MANY T[NS 9 ,FRANCE1 ,G]MANY1 & ,BOHEMIA1 SUCCE$$ 9 EMANCIPAT+ ! SURR\ND+ VILLAGES1 & !Y W]E REW>D$ = !IR EF=TS BY AN EXTRAORD9>Y PROSP]ITY & TRANQUILITY4 ,BUT EV5 H]E1 & /ILL MORE 9 ! LESS /RONG OR LESS IMPULSIVE T[NS1 ! M]*ANTS & >TISANS1 EXHAU/$ BY W>1 & MISUND]/&+ !IR [N 9T]E/S1 B>GA9$ OV] ! PEASANTS' HEADS4 ,!Y COMPELL$ ! LORD TO SWE> ALLEGIANCE TO ! CITY2 HIS C\NTRY CA/LE WAS DISMANTL$1 & HE AGRE$ TO BUILD A H\SE & TO RESIDE 9 ! CITY1 ( :I* HE BECAME A CO-BUR<] 7COM-B\RGEOIS1 CON-CITTAD9O72 BUT HE MA9TA9$ 9 RETURN MO/ ( HIS RI<TS UPON ! PEASANTS1 :O ONLY WON A P>TIAL RELIEF FROM !IR BURD5S4 ,! BUR<] C\LD NOT UND]/& ?AT EQUAL RI<TS ( CITIZ5%IP MI<T BE GRANT$ TO ! PEASANT UPON :OSE FOOD SUPPLIES HE HAD TO RELY1 & A DEEP R5T WAS TRAC$ BETWE5 T[N & VILLAGE4 ,9 SOME CASES ! PEASANTS SIMPLY *ANG$ [N]S1 ! CITY BUY+ \T ! B>ONS' RI<TS & SELL+ !M 9 %>ES TO H] [N CITIZ5S4#a#g ,S]FDOM WAS MA9TA9$1 & ONLY MU* LAT] ON1 T[>DS ! 5D ( ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY1 IT WAS ! CRAFT REVOLUTION :I* UND]TOOK TO PUT AN 5D TO IT1 & ABOLI%$ P]SONAL S]VITUDE1 BUT DISPOSSESS$ AT ! SAME TIME ! S]FS ( ! L&4#a#h ,IT H>DLY NE$ BE ADD$ ?AT ! FATAL RESULTS ( SU* POLICY W]E SOON FELT BY ! CITIES !MSELVES2 ! C\NTRY BECAME ! CITY'S 5EMY4 

  ,! W> AGA9/ ! CA/LES HAD ANO!R BAD EFFECT4 ,IT 9VOLV$ ! CITIES 9 A LONG SUCCESSION ( MUTUAL W>S1 :I* HAVE GIV5 ORIG9 TO ! !ORY1 TILL LATELY 9 VOGUE1 NAMELY1 ?AT ! T[NS LO/ !IR 9DEP5D5CE ?R\< !IR [N JEAL\SIES & MUTUAL FI<TS4 ,! IMP]IALI/ HI/ORIANS HAVE ESPECIALLY SUPPORT$ ?IS !ORY1 :I*1 H[EV]1 IS V]Y MU* UND]M9$ N[ BY MOD]N RESE>*4 ,IT IS C]TA9 ?AT 9 ,ITALY CITIES F\<T EA* O!R ) A /UBBORN ANIMOSITY1 BUT NO:]E ELSE DID SU* CONTE/S ATTA9 ! SAME PROPORTIONS2 & 9 ,ITALY ITSELF ! CITY W>S1 ESPECIALLY ?OSE ( ! E>LI] P]IOD1 HAD !IR SPECIAL CAUSES4 ,!Y W]E 7AS WAS ALREADY %[N BY ,SISMONDI & ,F]R>I7 A M]E CONT9UATION ( ! W> AGA9/ ! CA/LES -- ! FREE MUNICIPAL & F$]ATIVE PR9CIPLE UNAVOIDABLY 5T]+ 9TO A FI]CE CONTE/ ) FEUDALISM1 IMP]IALISM1 & PAPACY4 ,MANY T[NS :I* HAD BUT P>TIALLY %AK5 (F ! YOKE ( ! BI%OP1 ! LORD1 OR ! ,EMP]OR1 W]E SIMPLY DRIV5 AGA9/ ! FREE CITIES BY ! NOBLES1 ! ,EMP]OR1 & ,*UR*1 :OSE POLICY WAS TO DIVIDE ! CITIES & TO >M !M AGA9/ EA* O!R4 ,!SE SPECIAL CIRCUM/ANCES 7P>TLY REFLECT$ ON TO ,G]MANY ALSO7 EXPLA9 :Y ! ,ITALIAN T[NS1 SOME ( :I* S\<T SUPPORT ) ! ,EMP]OR TO COMBAT ! ,POPE1 :ILE ! O!RS S\<T SUPPORT FROM ! ,*UR* TO RESI/ ! ,EMP]OR1 W]E SOON DIVID$ 9TO A ,GIBEL9 & A ,GUELF CAMP1 & :Y ! SAME DIVISION APPE>$ 9 EA* SEP>ATE CITY4#a#i 

  ,! IMM5SE ECONOMICAL PROGRESS REALIZ$ BY MO/ ,ITALIAN CITIES JU/ AT ! TIME :5 !SE W>S W]E HOTTE/1#b & ! ALLIANCES SO EASILY CONCLUD$ BETWE5 T[NS1 /ILL BETT] *>ACT]IZE ?OSE /RUGGLES & FUR!R UND]M9E ! ABOVE !ORY4 ,ALREADY 9 ! YE>S #a#a#c-#a#a#e P[]FUL LEAGUES CAME 9TO EXI/5CE2 & A FEW YE>S LAT]1 :5 ,FR$]ICK ,B>B>OSSA 9VAD$ ,ITALY &1 SUPPORT$ BY ! NOBLES & SOME RET>DATORY CITIES1 M>*$ AGA9/ ,MILAN1 POPUL> 5?USIASM WAS R\S$ 9 MANY T[NS BY POPUL> PREA*]S4 ,CREMA1 ,PIAC5ZA1 ,BRESCIA1 ,TORTONA1 ETC41 W5T TO ! RESCUE2 ! BANN]S ( ! GUILDS ( ,V]ONA1 ,PADUA1 ,VIC5ZA1 & ,TREVISA FLOAT$ SIDE BY SIDE 9 ! CITIES' CAMP AGA9/ ! BANN]S ( ! ,EMP]OR & ! NOBLES4 ,NEXT YE> ! ,LOMB>DIAN ,LEAGUE CAME 9TO EXI/5CE1 & SIXTY YE>S LAT] WE SEE IT RE9=C$ BY MANY O!R CITIES1 & =M+ A LA/+ ORGANIZATION :I* HAD HALF ( ITS F$]AL W>-*E/ 9 ,G5OA & ! O!R HALF 9 ,V5ICE4#b#a ,9 ,TUSCANY1 ,FLOR5CE HEAD$ ANO!R P[]FUL LEAGUE1 TO :I* ,LUCCA1 ,BOLOGNA1 ,PI/OIA1 ETC41 BELONG$1 & :I* PLAY$ AN IMPORTANT P>T 9 CRU%+ D[N ! NOBLES 9 MIDDLE ,ITALY1 :ILE SMALL] LEAGUES W]E ( COMMON OCCURR5CE4 ,IT IS ?US C]TA9 ?AT AL?\< PETTY JEAL\SIES UND\BT$LY EXI/$1 & DISCORD C\LD BE EASILY S[N1 !Y DID NOT PREV5T ! T[NS FROM UNIT+ TOGE!R = ! COMMON DEF5SE ( LIB]TY4 ,ONLY LAT] ON1 :5 SEP>ATE CITIES BECAME LITTLE ,/ATES1 W>S BROKE \T BETWE5 !M1 AS ALWAYS MU/ BE ! CASE :5 ,/ATES /RUGGLE = SUPREMACY OR COLONIES4 

  ,SIMIL> LEAGUES W]E =M$ 9 ,G]MANY = ! SAME PURPOSE4 ,:51 UND] ! SUCCESSORS ( ,CONRAD1 ! L& WAS ! PREY ( 9T]M9ABLE FEUDS BETWE5 ! NOBLES1 ! ,WE/PHALIAN T[NS CONCLUD$ A LEAGUE AGA9/ ! KNI<TS1 ONE ( ! CLAUSES ( :I* WAS NEV] TO L5D MONEY TO A KNI<T :O W\LD CONT9UE TO CONCEAL /OL5 GOODS4#b#b ,:5 0! KNI<TS & ! NOBLES LIV$ ON PLUND]1 & MURD]$ :OM !Y *OSE TO MURD]10 AS ! ,WORMS] ,ZORN COMPLA9S1 ! CITIES ON ! ,RH9E 7,MA9Z1 ,COLOGNE1 ,SPEI]1 ,/RASBURG1 & ,BASEL7 TOOK ! 9ITIATIVE ( A LEAGUE :I* SOON NUMB]$ SIXTY ALLI$ T[NS1 REPRESS$ ! ROBB]S1 & MA9TA9$ PEACE4 ,LAT] ON1 ! LEAGUE ( ! T[NS ( ,SUABIA1 DIVID$ 9TO ?REE 0PEACE DI/RICTS0 7,AUGSBURG1 ,CON/ANCE1 & ,ULM71 HAD ! SAME PURPOSE4 ,& EV5 :5 SU* LEAGUES W]E BROK51#b#c !Y LIV$ LONG 5\< TO %[ ?AT :ILE ! SUPPOS$ PEACEMAK]S -- ! K+S1 ! EMP]ORS1 & ! ,*UR*-FOM5T$ DISCORD1 & W]E !MSELVES HELPLESS AGA9/ ! ROBB] KNI<TS1 IT WAS FROM ! CITIES ?AT ! IMPULSE CAME = REE/ABLI%+ PEACE & UNION4 ,! CITIES -- NOT ! EMP]ORS -- W]E ! REAL MAK]S ( ! NATIONAL UNITY4#b#d  

  ,SIMIL> F$]ATIONS W]E ORGANIZ$ = ! SAME PURPOSE AMONG SMALL VILLAGES1 & N[ ?AT ATT5TION HAS BE5 DRAWN TO ?IS SUBJECT BY ,LU*AIRE WE MAY EXPECT SOON TO LE>N MU* MORE AB\T !M4 ,VILLAGES JO9$ 9TO SMALL F$]ATIONS 9 ! CONTADO ( ,FLOR5CE1 SO ALSO 9 ! DEP5D5CIES ( ,NOVGOROD & ,PSKOV4 ,AS TO ,FRANCE1 !RE IS POSITIVE EVID5CE ( A F$]ATION ( SEV5TE5 PEASANT VILLAGES :I* HAS EXI/$ 9 ! ,LAONNAIS = NE>LY A HUNDR$ YE>S 7TILL #a#b#e#f71 & HAS F\<T H>D = ITS 9DEP5D5CE4 ,?REE MORE PEASANT REPUBLICS1 :I* HAD SWORN *>T]S SIMIL> TO ?OSE ( ,LAON & ,SOISSONS1 EXI/$ 9 ! NEI<BORHOOD ( ,LAON1 &1 !IR T]RITORIES BE+ CONTIGU\S1 !Y SUPPORT$ EA* O!R 9 !IR LIB]ATION W>S4 ,ALTOGE!R1 ,LU*AIRE IS ( ! OP9ION ?AT MANY SU* F$]ATIONS MU/ HAVE COME 9TO EXI/5CE 9 ,FRANCE 9 ! TWELF? & ?IRTE5? C5TURIES1 BUT ?AT DOCUM5TS RELATIVE TO !M >E MO/LY LO/4 ,( C\RSE1 BE+ UNPROTECT$ BY WALLS1 !Y C\LD EASILY BE CRU%$ D[N BY ! K+S & ! LORDS2 BUT 9 C]TA9 FAVORABLE CIRCUM/ANCES1 :5 !Y F\ND SUPPORT 9 A LEAGUE ( T[NS & PROTECTION 9 !IR M\NTA9S1 SU* PEASANT REPUBLICS BECAME 9DEP5D5T UNITS ( ! ,SWISS ,CONF$]ATION4#b#e 

  ,AS TO UNIONS BETWE5 CITIES = PEACEFUL PURPOSES1 !Y W]E ( QUITE COMMON OCCURR5CE4 ,! 9T]C\RSE :I* HAD BE5 E/ABLI%$ DUR+ ! P]IOD ( LIB]ATION WAS NOT 9T]RUPT$ AFT]W>DS4 ,SOMETIMES1 :5 ! SCAB9I ( A ,G]MAN T[N1 HAV+ TO PRON\NCE JUDGM5T 9 A NEW OR COMPLICAT$ CASE1 DECL>$ ?AT !Y KNEW NOT ! S5T5CE 7DES ,UR!ILES NI*T WEIZE ZU SE971 !Y S5T DELEGATES TO ANO!R CITY TO GET ! S5T5CE4 ,! SAME HAPP5$ ALSO 9 ,FRANCE2#b#f :ILE ,=LI & ,RAV5NA >E KN[N TO HAVE MUTUALLY NATURALIZ$ !IR CITIZ5S & GRANT$ !M FULL RI<TS 9 BO? CITIES4 ,TO SUBMIT A CONTE/ >IS5 BETWE5 TWO T[NS1 OR )9 A CITY1 TO ANO!R COMMUNE :I* WAS 9VIT$ TO ACT AS >BIT]1 WAS ALSO 9 ! SPIRIT ( ! TIMES4#b#g ,AS TO COMM]CIAL TREATIES BETWE5 CITIES1 !Y W]E QUITE HABITUAL4#b#h ,UNIONS = REGULAT+ ! PRODUCTION & ! SIZES ( CASKS :I* W]E US$ = ! COMM]CE 9 W9E1 0H]R+ UNIONS10 & SO ON1 W]E M]E PRECURSORS ( ! GREAT COMM]CIAL F$]ATIONS ( ! ,FLEMI% ,HANSA1 &1 LAT] ON1 ( ! GREAT ,NOR? ,G]MAN ,HANSA1 ! HI/ORY ( :I* ALONE MI<T CONTRIBUTE PAGES & PAGES TO ILLU/RATE ! F$]ATION SPIRIT :I* P]MEAT$ M5 AT ?AT TIME4 ,IT H>DLY NE$ BE ADD$1 ?AT ?R\< ! ,HANSEATIC UNIONS ! M$IAEVAL CITIES HAVE CONTRIBUT$ MORE TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( 9T]NATIONAL 9T]C\RSE1 NAVIGATION1 & M>ITIME DISCOV]Y ?AN ALL ! ,/ATES ( ! FIR/ SEV5TE5 C5TURIES ( \R ]A4 

  ,9 A WORD1 F$]ATIONS BETWE5 SMALL T]RITORIAL UNITS1 AS WELL AS AMONG M5 UNIT$ BY COMMON PURSUITS )9 !IR RESPECTIVE GUILDS1 & F$]ATIONS BETWE5 CITIES & GR\PS ( CITIES CON/ITUT$ ! V]Y ESS5CE ( LIFE & ?\<T DUR+ ?AT P]IOD4 ,! FIR/ FIVE ( ! SECOND DECADE ( C5TURIES ( \R ]A MAY ?US BE DESCRIB$ AS AN IMM5SE ATTEMPT AT SECUR+ MUTUAL AID & SUPPORT ON A GR& SCALE1 BY MEANS ( ! PR9CIPLES ( F$]ATION & ASSOCIATION C>RI$ ON ?R\< ALL MANIFE/ATIONS ( HUMAN LIFE & TO ALL POSSIBLE DEGREES4 ,?IS ATTEMPT WAS ATT5D$ ) SUCCESS TO A V]Y GREAT EXT5T4 ,IT UNIT$ M5 =M]LY DIVID$2 IT SECUR$ !M A V]Y GREAT DEAL ( FRE$OM1 & IT T5FOLD$ !IR =CES4 ,AT A TIME :5 P>TICUL>ISM WAS BR$ BY SO MANY AG5CIES1 & ! CAUSES ( DISCORD & JEAL\SY MI<T HAVE BE5 SO NUM]\S1 IT IS GRATIFY+ TO SEE ?AT CITIES SCATT]$ OV] A WIDE CONT95T HAD SO MU* 9 COMMON1 & W]E SO READY TO CONF$]ATE = ! PROSECUTION ( SO MANY COMMON AIMS4 ,!Y SUCCUMB$ 9 ! LONG RUN BE=E P[]FUL 5EMIES2 NOT HAV+ UND]/OOD ! MUTUAL-AID PR9CIPLE WIDELY 5\<1 !Y !MSELVES COMMITT$ FATAL FAULTS2 BUT !Y DID NOT P]I% ?R\< !IR [N JEAL\SIES1 & !IR ]RORS W]E NOT A WANT ( F$]ATION SPIRIT AMONG !MSELVES4 

  ,! RESULTS ( ?AT NEW MOVE :I* MANK9D MADE 9 ! M$IAEVAL CITY W]E IMM5SE4 ,AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! ELEV5? C5TURY ! T[NS ( ,EUROPE W]E SMALL CLU/]S ( MIS]ABLE HUTS1 ADORN$ BUT ) L[ CLUMSY *UR*ES1 ! BUILD]S ( :I* H>DLY KNEW H[ TO MAKE AN >*2 ! >TS1 MO/LY CONSI/+ ( SOME WEAV+ & =G+1 W]E 9 !IR 9FANCY2 LE>N+ WAS F\ND 9 BUT A FEW MONA/]IES4 ,?REE HUNDR$ & FIFTY YE>S LAT]1 ! V]Y FACE ( ,EUROPE HAD BE5 *ANG$4 ,! L& WAS DOTT$ ) RI* CITIES1 SURR\ND$ BY IMM5SE ?ICK WALLS :I* W]E EMBELLI%$ BY T[]S & GATES1 EA* ( !M A WORK ( >T 9 ITSELF4 ,! CA!DRALS1 CONCEIV$ 9 A GR& /YLE & PR(USELY DECORAT$1 LIFT$ !IR BELL-T[]S TO ! SKIES1 DISPLAY+ A PURITY ( =M & A BOLDNESS ( IMAG9ATION :I* WE N[ VA9LY /RIVE TO ATTA94 ,! CRAFTS & >TS HAD RIS5 TO A DEGREE ( P]FECTION :I* WE CAN H>DLY BOA/ ( HAV+ SUP]S$$ 9 MANY DIRECTIONS1 IF ! 9V5TIVE SKILL ( ! WORK] & ! SUP]IOR F9I% ( HIS WORK BE APPRECIAT$ HI<] ?AN RAPIDITY ( FABRICATION4 ,! NAVIES ( ! FREE CITIES FURR[$ 9 ALL DIRECTIONS ! ,NOR!RN & ! ,S\!RN ,M$IT]RANEAN2 ONE EF=T MORE1 & !Y W\LD CROSS ! OCEANS4 ,OV] L>GE TRACTS ( L& WELL-BE+ HAD TAK5 ! PLACE ( MIS]Y2 LE>N+ HAD GR[N & SPREAD4 ,! ME?ODS ( SCI5CE HAD BE5 ELABORAT$2 ! BASIS ( NATURAL PHILOSOPHY HAD BE5 LAID D[N2 & ! WAY HAD BE5 PAV$ = ALL ! ME*ANICAL 9V5TIONS ( :I* \R [N TIMES >E SO PR\D4 ,SU* W]E ! MAGIC *ANGES ACCOMPLI%$ 9 ,EUROPE 9 LESS ?AN F\R HUNDR$ YE>S4 ,& ! LOSSES :I* ,EUROPE SU/A9$ ?R\< ! LOSS ( ITS FREE CITIES CAN ONLY BE UND]/OOD :5 WE COMP>E ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY ) ! F\RTE5? OR ! ?IRTE5?4 ,! PROSP]ITY :I* =M]LY *>ACT]IZ$ ,SCOTL&1 ,G]MANY1 ! PLA9S ( ,ITALY1 WAS GONE4 ,! ROADS HAD FALL5 9TO AN ABJECT /ATE1 ! CITIES W]E DEPOPULAT$1 LABOR WAS BR\<T 9TO SLAV]Y1 >T HAD VANI%$1 COMM]CE ITSELF WAS DECAY+4#b#i  

  ,IF ! M$IAEVAL CITIES HAD BEQUEA!D TO US NO WRITT5 DOCUM5TS TO TE/IFY ( !IR SPL5DOR1 & LEFT NO?+ BEH9D BUT ! MONUM5TS ( BUILD+ >T :I* WE SEE N[ ALL OV] ,EUROPE1 FROM ,SCOTL& TO ,ITALY1 & FROM ,G]ONA 9 ,SPA9 TO ,BRESLAU 9 ,SLAVONIAN T]RITORY1 WE MI<T YET CONCLUDE ?AT ! TIMES ( 9DEP5D5T CITY LIFE W]E TIMES ( ! GREATE/ DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN 9TELLECT DUR+ ! ,*RI/IAN ]A D[N TO ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,ON LOOK+1 = 9/ANCE1 AT A M$IAEVAL PICTURE REPRES5T+ ,NUREMB]G ) ITS SCORES ( T[]S & L(TY SPIRES1 EA* ( :I* BORE ! /AMP ( FREE CREATIVE >T1 WE CAN H>DLY CONCEIVE ?AT ?REE HUNDR$ YE>S BE=E ! T[N WAS BUT A COLLECTION ( MIS]ABLE HOVELS4 ,& \R ADMIRATION GR[S :5 WE GO 9TO ! DETAILS ( ! >*ITECTURE & DECORATIONS ( EA* ( ! C\NTLESS *UR*ES1 BELL-T[]S1 GATES1 & COMMUNAL H\SES :I* >E SCATT]$ ALL OV] ,EUROPE AS F> EA/ AS ,BOHEMIA & ! N[ DEAD T[NS ( ,POLI% ,GALICIA4 ,NOT ONLY ,ITALY1 ?AT MO!R ( >T1 BUT ALL ,EUROPE IS FULL ( SU* MONUM5TS4 ,! V]Y FACT ?AT ( ALL >TS >*ITECTURE -- A SOCIAL >T ABOVE ALL -- HAD ATTA9$ ! HI<E/ DEVELOPM5T1 IS SIGNIFICANT 9 ITSELF4 ,TO BE :AT IT WAS1 IT MU/ HAVE ORIG9AT$ FROM AN EM95TLY SOCIAL LIFE4 

  ,M$IAEVAL >*ITECTURE ATTA9$ ITS GR&EUR -- NOT ONLY BECAUSE IT WAS A NATURAL DEVELOPM5T ( H&ICRAFT2 NOT ONLY BECAUSE EA* BUILD+1 EA* >*ITECTURAL DECORATION1 HAD BE5 DEVIS$ BY M5 :O KNEW ?R\< ! EXP]I5CE ( !IR [N H&S :AT >TI/IC EFFECTS CAN BE OBTA9$ FROM /ONE1 IRON1 BRONZE1 OR EV5 FROM SIMPLE LOGS & MORT>2 NOT ONLY BECAUSE1 EA* MONUM5T WAS A RESULT ( COLLECTIVE EXP]I5CE1 ACCUMULAT$ 9 EA* 0MY/]Y0 OR CRAFT#c -- IT WAS GR& BECAUSE IT WAS BORN \T ( A GR& IDEA4 ,LIKE ,GREEK >T1 IT SPRANG \T ( A CONCEPTION ( BRO!RHOOD & UNITY FO/]$ BY ! CITY4 ,IT HAD AN AUDACITY :I* C\LD ONLY BE WON BY AUDACI\S /RUGGLES & VICTORIES2 IT HAD ?AT EXPRESSION ( VIGOR1 BECAUSE VIGOR P]MEAT$ ALL ! LIFE ( ! CITY4 ,A CA!DRAL OR A COMMUNAL H\SE SYMBOLIZ$ ! GR&EUR ( AN ORGANISM ( :I* EV]Y MASON & /ONE-CUTT] WAS ! BUILD]1 & A M$IAEVAL BUILD+ APPE>S -- NOT AS A SOLIT>Y EF=T TO :I* ?\S&S ( SLAVES W\LD HAVE CONTRIBUT$ ! %>E ASSIGN$ !M BY ONE MAN'S IMAG9ATION2 ALL ! CITY CONTRIBUT$ TO IT4 ,! L(TY BELL-T[] ROSE UPON A /RUCTURE1 GR& 9 ITSELF1 9 :I* ! LIFE ( ! CITY WAS ?ROBB+ -- NOT UPON A MEAN+LESS SCAFFOLD LIKE ! ,P>IS IRON T[]1 NOT AS A %AM /RUCTURE 9 /ONE 9T5D$ TO CONCEAL ! UGL9ESS ( AN IRON FRAME1 AS HAS BE5 DONE 9 ! ,T[] ,BRIDGE4 ,LIKE ! ,ACROPOLIS ( ,A!NS1 ! CA!DRAL ( A M$IAEVAL CITY WAS 9T5D$ TO GLORIFY ! GR&EUR ( ! VICTORI\S CITY1 TO SYMBOLIZE ! UNION ( ITS CRAFTS1 TO EXPRESS ! GLORY ( EA* CITIZ5 9 A CITY ( HIS [N CREATION4 ,AFT] HAV+ A*IEV$ ITS CRAFT REVOLUTION1 ! CITY (T5 BEGAN A NEW CA!DRAL 9 ORD] TO EXPRESS ! NEW1 WID]1 & BROAD] UNION :I* HAD BE5 CALL$ 9TO LIFE4 

  ,! MEANS AT H& = !SE GR& UND]TAK+S W]E DISPROPORTIONATELY SMALL4 ,COLOGNE ,CA!DRAL WAS BEGUN ) A YE>LY \TLAY ( BUT #e M>KS2 A GIFT ( #a M>KS WAS 9SCRIB$ AS A GR& DONATION2#c#a & EV5 :5 ! WORK APPROA*$ COMPLETION1 & GIFTS P\R$ 9 9 PROPORTION1 ! YE>LY \TLAY 9 MONEY /OOD AT AB\T #e1 M>KS1 & NEV] EXCE$$ #a#d14 ,! CA!DRAL ( ,BASEL WAS BUILT ) EQUALLY SMALL MEANS4 ,BUT EA* CORPORATION CONTRIBUT$ ITS P>T ( /ONE1 WORK1 & DECORATIVE G5IUS TO !IR COMMON MONUM5T4 ,EA* GUILD EXPRESS$ 9 IT ITS POLITICAL CONCEPTIONS1 TELL+ 9 /ONE OR 9 BRONZE ! HI/ORY ( ! CITY1 GLORIFY+ ! PR9CIPLES ( 0,LIB]TY1 EQUALITY1 & FRAT]NITY10#c#b PRAIS+ ! CITY'S ALLIES1 & S5D+ TO ET]NAL FIRE ITS 5EMIES4 ,& EA* GUILD BE/[$ ITS LOVE UPON ! COMMUNAL MONUM5T BY RI*LY DECORAT+ IT ) /A9$ W9D[S1 PA9T+S1 0GATES1 WOR?Y TO BE ! GATES ( ,P>ADISE10 AS ,MI*ELANGELO SAID1 OR /ONE DECORATIONS ( EA* M9UTE/ CORN] ( ! BUILD+4#c#c ,SMALL CITIES1 EV5 SMALL P>I%ES1#c#d VI$ ) ! BIG AGGLOM]ATIONS 9 ?IS WORK1 & ! CA!DRALS ( ,LAON & ,/4 ,\5 H>DLY /& BEH9D ?AT ( ,RHEIMS1 OR ! ,COMMUNAL ,H\SE ( ,BREM51 OR ! FOLKMOTE'S BELL-T[] ( ,BRESLAU4 0,NO WORKS MU/ BE BEGUN BY ! COMMUNE BUT SU* AS >E CONCEIV$ 9 RESPONSE TO ! GR& HE>T ( ! COMMUNE1 COMPOS$ ( ! HE>TS ( ALL CITIZ5S1 UNIT$ 9 ONE COMMON WILL0 -- SU* W]E ! WORDS ( ! ,C\NCIL ( ,FLOR5CE2 & ?IS SPIRIT APPE>S 9 ALL COMMUNAL WORKS ( COMMON UTILITY1 SU* AS ! CANALS1 T]RACES1 V9EY>DS1 & FRUIT G>D5S >\ND ,FLOR5CE1 OR ! IRRIGATION CANALS :I* 9T]SECT$ ! PLA9S ( ,LOMB>DY1 OR ! PORT & AQU$UCT ( ,G5OA1 OR1 9 FACT1 ANY WORKS ( ! K9D :I* W]E A*IEV$ BY ALMO/ EV]Y CITY4#c#e  

  ,ALL >TS HAD PROGRESS$ 9 ! SAME WAY 9 ! M$IAEVAL CITIES1 ?OSE ( \R [N DAYS MO/LY BE+ BUT A CONT9UATION ( :AT HAD GR[N AT ?AT TIME4 ,! PROSP]ITY ( ! ,FLEMI% CITIES WAS BAS$ UPON ! F9E WOOL5 CLO? !Y FABRICAT$4 ,FLOR5CE1 AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! F\RTE5? C5TURY1 BE=E ! BLACK DEA?1 FABRICAT$ FROM #g1 TO #a1 PANNI ( WOOL5 /UFFS1 :I* W]E VALU$ AT #a1#b1 GOLD5 FLOR9S4#c#f ,! *ISEL+ ( PRECI\S METALS1 ! >T ( CA/+1 ! F9E =G+ ( IRON1 W]E CREATIONS ( ! M$IAEVAL 0MY/]IES0 :I* HAD SUCCE$$ 9 ATTA9+ 9 !IR [N DOMA9S ALL ?AT C\LD BE MADE BY ! H&1 )\T ! USE ( A P[]FUL PRIME MOTOR4 ,BY ! H& & BY 9V5TION1 BECAUSE1 TO USE ,:EWELL'S WORDS3 

  0,P>*M5T & PAP]1 PR9T+ & 5GRAV+1 IMPROV$ GLASS & /EEL1 GUNP[D]1 CLOCKS1 TELESCOPES1 ! M>9]'S COMPASS1 ! RE=M$ CAL5D>1 ! DECIMAL NOTATION2 ALGEBRA1 TRIGONOMETRY1 *EMI/RY1 C\NT]PO9T 7AN 9V5TION EQUIVAL5T TO A NEW CREATION ( MUSIC72 !SE >E ALL POSSESSIONS :I* WE 9H]IT FROM ?AT :I* HAS SO DISP>AG+LY BE5 T]M$ ! ,/ATION>Y ,P]IOD0 7,HI/ORY ( ,9DUCTIVE ,SCI5CES1 I4 #b#e#b74  

  ,TRUE ?AT NO NEW PR9CIPLE WAS ILLU/RAT$ BY ANY ( !SE DISCOV]IES1 AS ,:EWELL SAID2 BUT M$IAEVAL SCI5CE HAD DONE SOME?+ MORE ?AN ! ACTUAL DISCOV]Y ( NEW PR9CIPLES4 ,IT HAD PREP>$ ! DISCOV]Y ( ALL ! NEW PR9CIPLES :I* WE KN[ AT ! PRES5T TIME 9 ME*ANICAL SCI5CES3 IT HAD ACCU/OM$ ! EXPLOR] TO OBS]VE FACTS & TO REASON FROM !M4 ,IT WAS 9DUCTIVE SCI5CE1 EV5 ?\< IT HAD NOT YET FULLY GRASP$ ! IMPORTANCE & ! P[]S ( 9DUCTION2 & IT LAID ! F\NDATIONS ( BO? ME*ANICS & NATURAL PHILOSOPHY4 ,FRANCIS ,BACON1 ,GALILEO1 & ,COP]NICUS W]E ! DIRECT DESC5DANTS ( A ,ROG] ,BACON & A ,MI*AEL ,SCOT1 AS ! /EAM 5G9E WAS A DIRECT PRODUCT ( ! RESE>*ES C>RI$ ON 9 ! ,ITALIAN UNIV]SITIES ON ! WEI<T ( ! ATMOSPH]E1 & ( ! MA!MATICAL & TE*NICAL LE>N+ :I* *>ACT]IZ$ ,NUREMB]G4 

  ,BUT :Y %\LD ONE TAKE TR\BLE TO 9SI/ UPON ! ADVANCE ( SCI5CE & >T 9 ! M$IAEVAL CITY8 ,IS IT NOT 5\< TO PO9T TO ! CA!DRALS 9 ! DOMA9 ( SKILL1 & TO ! ,ITALIAN LANGUAGE & ! POEM ( ,DANTE 9 ! DOMA9 ( ?\<T1 TO GIVE AT ONCE ! MEASURE ( :AT ! M$IAEVAL CITY CREAT$ DUR+ ! F\R C5TURIES IT LIV$8 

  ,! M$IAEVAL CITIES HAVE UND\BT$LY R5D]$ AN IMM5SE S]VICE TO ,EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION4 ,!Y HAVE PREV5T$ IT FROM BE+ DRIFT$ 9TO ! !OCRACIES & DESPOTICAL /ATES ( OLD2 !Y HAVE 5D[$ IT ) ! V>IETY1 ! SELF-RELIANCE1 ! =CE ( 9ITIATIVE1 & ! IMM5SE 9TELLECTUAL & MAT]IAL 5]GIES IT N[ POSSESSES1 :I* >E ! BE/ PL$GE = ITS BE+ ABLE TO RESI/ ANY NEW 9VASION ( ! ,EA/4 ,BUT :Y DID !SE C5T]S ( CIVILIZATION1 :I* ATTEMPT$ TO ANSW] TO DEEPLY-SEAT$ NE$S ( HUMAN NATURE1 & W]E SO FULL ( LIFE1 NOT LIVE FUR!R ON8 ,:Y W]E !Y SEIZ$ ) S5ILE DEBILITY 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY8 ,&1 AFT] HAV+ REPULS$ SO MANY ASSAULTS FROM )\T1 & ONLY BORR[$ NEW VIGOR FROM !IR 9T]IOR /RUGGLES1 :Y DID !Y F9ALLY SUCCUMB TO BO?8 

  ,V>I\S CAUSES CONTRIBUT$ TO ?IS EFFECT1 SOME ( !M HAV+ !IR ROOTS 9 ! REMOTE PA/1 :ILE O!RS ORIG9AT$ 9 ! MI/AKES COMMITT$ BY ! CITIES !MSELVES4 ,T[>DS ! 5D ( ! FIFTE5? C5TURY1 MI<TY ,/ATES1 RECON/RUCT$ ON ! OLD ,ROMAN PATT]N1 W]E ALREADY COM+ 9TO EXI/5CE4 ,9 EA* C\NTRY & EA* REGION SOME FEUDAL LORD1 MORE CUNN+1 MORE GIV5 TO HO>D+1 & (T5 LESS SCRUPUL\S ?AN HIS NEI<BORS1 HAD SUCCE$$ 9 APPROPRIAT+ TO HIMSELF RI*] P]SONAL DOMA9S1 MORE PEASANTS ON HIS L&S1 MORE KNI<TS 9 HIS FOLL[+1 MORE TREASURES 9 HIS *E/4 ,HE HAD *OS5 = HIS SEAT A GR\P ( HAPPILY-SITUAT$ VILLAGES1 NOT YET TRA9$ 9TO FREE MUNICIPAL LIFE -- ,P>IS1 ,MADRID1 OR ,MOSC[ -- & ) ! LABOR ( HIS S]FS HE HAD MADE ( !M ROYAL =TIFI$ CITIES1 :]ETO HE ATTRACT$ W> COMPANIONS BY A FREE DI/RIBUTION ( VILLAGES1 & M]*ANTS BY ! PROTECTION HE (F]$ TO TRADE4 ,! G]M ( A FUTURE ,/ATE1 :I* BEGAN GRADUALLY TO ABSORB O!R SIMIL> C5T]S1 WAS ?US LAID4 ,LAWY]S1 V]S$ 9 ! /UDY ( ,ROMAN LAW1 FLOCK$ 9TO SU* C5T]S2 A T5ACI\S & AMBITI\S RACE ( M5 ISSU$ FROM AMONG ! BURGESSES1 :O EQUALLY HAT$ ! NAU<T9ESS ( ! LORDS & :AT !Y CALL$ ! LAWLESSNESS ( ! PEASANTS4 ,! V]Y =MS ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 UNKN[N TO !IR CODE1 ! V]Y PR9CIPLES ( F$]ALISM W]E REPULSIVE TO !M AS 0B>B>IAN0 9H]ITANCES4 ,CAES>ISM1 SUPPORT$ BY ! FICTION ( POPUL> CONS5T & BY ! =CE ( >MS1 WAS !IR IDEAL1 & !Y WORK$ H>D = ?OSE :O PROMIS$ TO REALIZE IT4#c#g 

  ,! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*1 ONCE A REBEL AGA9/ ,ROMAN LAW & N[ ITS ALLY1 WORK$ 9 ! SAME DIRECTION4 ,! ATTEMPT AT CON/ITUT+ ! !OCRATIC ,EMPIRE ( ,EUROPE HAV+ PROV$ A FAILURE1 ! MORE 9TELLIG5T & AMBITI\S BI%OPS N[ YIELD$ SUPPORT TO ?OSE :OM !Y RECKON$ UPON = RECON/ITUT+ ! P[] ( ! ,K+S ( ,ISRAEL OR ( ! ,EMP]ORS ( ,CON/ANT9OPLE4 ,! ,*UR* BE/[$ UPON ! RIS+ RUL]S H] SANCTITY1 %E CR[N$ !M AS ,GOD'S REPRES5TATIVES ON E>?1 %E BR\<T TO !IR S]VICE ! LE>N+ & ! /ATESMAN%IP ( H] M9I/]S1 H] BLESS+S & MAL$ICTIONS1 H] RI*ES1 & ! SYMPA?IES %E HAD RETA9$ AMONG ! POOR4 ,! PEASANTS1 :OM ! CITIES HAD FAIL$ OR REFUS$ TO FREE1 ON SEE+ ! BUR<]S IMPOT5T TO PUT AN 5D TO ! 9T]M9ABLE W>S BETWE5 ! KNI<TS -- :I* W>S !Y HAD SO DE>LY TO PAY = -- N[ SET !IR HOPES UPON ! ,K+1 ! ,EMP]OR1 OR ! ,GREAT ,PR9CE2 & :ILE AID+ !M TO CRU% D[N ! MI<TY FEUDAL [N]S1 !Y AID$ !M TO CON/ITUTE ! C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE4 ,& F9ALLY1 ! 9VASIONS ( ! ,MONGOLS & ! ,TURKS1 ! HOLY W> AGA9/ ! ,MAURES 9 ,SPA91 AS WELL AS ! T]RIBLE W>S :I* SOON BROKE \T BETWE5 ! GR[+ C5T]S ( SOV]EIGNTY -- ,ILE DE ,FRANCE & ,BURGUNDY1 ,SCOTL& & ,5GL&1 ,5GL& & ,FRANCE1 ,LI?UANIA & ,POL&1 ,MOSC[ & ,TV]1 & SO ON -- CONTRIBUT$ TO ! SAME 5D4 ,MI<TY ,/ATES MADE !IR APPE>ANCE2 & ! CITIES HAD N[ TO RESI/ NOT ONLY LOOSE F$]ATIONS ( LORDS1 BUT /RONGLY-ORGANIZ$ C5T]S1 :I* HAD >MIES ( S]FS AT !IR DISPOSAL4 

  ,! WOR/ WAS1 ?AT ! GR[+ AUTOCRACIES F\ND SUPPORT 9 ! DIVISIONS :I* HAD GR[N )9 ! CITIES !MSELVES4 ,! FUNDAM5TAL IDEA ( ! M$IAEVAL CITY WAS GR&1 BUT IT WAS NOT WIDE 5\<4 ,MUTUAL AID & SUPPORT CANNOT BE LIMIT$ TO A SMALL ASSOCIATION2 !Y MU/ SPREAD TO ITS SURR\ND+S1 OR ELSE ! SURR\ND+S WILL ABSORB ! ASSOCIATION4 ,& 9 ?IS RESPECT ! M$IAEVAL CITIZ5 HAD COMMITT$ A =MIDABLE MI/AKE AT ! \TSET4 ,9/EAD ( LOOK+ UPON ! PEASANTS & >TISANS :O GA!R$ UND] ! PROTECTION ( HIS WALLS AS UPON SO MANY AIDS :O W\LD CONTRIBUTE !IR P>T TO ! MAK+ ( ! CITY -- AS !Y REALLY DID -- A %>P DIVISION WAS TRAC$ BETWE5 ! 0FAMILIES0 ( OLD BUR<]S & ! NEWCOM]S4 ,= ! =M]1 ALL B5EFITS FROM COMMUNAL TRADE & COMMUNAL L&S W]E RES]V$1 & NO?+ WAS LEFT = ! LATT] BUT ! RI<T ( FREELY US+ ! SKILL ( !IR [N H&S4 ,! CITY ?US BECAME DIVID$ 9TO 0! BUR<]S0 OR 0! COMMONALTY10 & 0! 9HABITANTS40#c#h ,! TRADE1 :I* WAS =M]LY COMMUNAL1 N[ BECAME ! PRIVILEGE ( ! M]*ANT & >TISAN 0FAMILIES10 & ! NEXT /EP -- ?AT ( BECOM+ 9DIVIDUAL1 OR ! PRIVILEGE ( OPPRESSIVE TRU/S -- WAS UNAVOIDABLE4 

  ,! SAME DIVISION TOOK PLACE BETWE5 ! CITY PROP] & ! SURR\ND+ VILLAGES4 ,! COMMUNE HAD WELL TRI$ TO FREE ! PEASANTS1 BUT H] W>S AGA9/ ! LORDS BECAME1 AS ALREADY M5TION$1 W>S = FREE+ ! CITY ITSELF FROM ! LORDS1 RA!R ?AN = FREE+ ! PEASANTS4 ,%E LEFT TO ! LORD HIS RI<TS OV] ! VILLE9S1 ON CONDITION ?AT HE W\LD MOLE/ ! CITY NO MORE & W\LD BECOME CO-BUR<]4 ,BUT ! NOBLES 0ADOPT$0 BY ! CITY1 & N[ RESID+ )9 ITS WALLS1 SIMPLY C>RI$ ON ! OLD W> )9 ! V]Y PREC9CTS ( ! CITY4 ,!Y DISLIK$ TO SUBMIT TO A TRIBUNAL ( SIMPLE >TISANS & M]*ANTS1 & F\<T !IR OLD FEUDS 9 ! /REETS4 ,EA* CITY HAD N[ ITS ,COLONNAS & ,ORS9IS1 ITS ,OV]/OLZES & ,WISES4 ,DRAW+ L>GE 9COMES FROM ! E/ATES !Y HAD /ILL RETA9$1 !Y SURR\ND$ !MSELVES ) NUM]\S CLI5TS & FEUDALIZ$ ! CU/OMS & HABITS ( ! CITY ITSELF4 ,& :5 DISCONT5T BEGAN TO BE FELT 9 ! >TISAN CLASSES ( ! T[N1 !Y (F]$ !IR SWORD & !IR FOLL[]S TO SETTLE ! DIFF]5CES BY A FREE FI<T1 9/EAD ( LETT+ ! DISCONT5T F9D \T ! *ANNELS :I* IT DID NOT FAIL TO SECURE ITSELF 9 OLD5 TIMES4 

  ,! GREATE/ & ! MO/ FATAL ]ROR ( MO/ CITIES WAS TO BASE !IR WEAL? UPON COMM]CE & 9DU/RY1 TO ! NEGLECT ( AGRICULTURE4 ,!Y ?US REPEAT$ ! ]ROR :I* HAD ONCE BE5 COMMITT$ BY ! CITIES ( ANTIQUE ,GREECE1 & !Y FELL ?R\< IT 9TO ! SAME CRIMES4#c#i ,! E/RANGEM5T ( SO MANY CITIES FROM ! L& NECESS>ILY DREW !M 9TO A POLICY HO/ILE TO ! L&1 :I* BECAME MORE & MORE EVID5T 9 ! TIMES ( ,$W>D ! ,?IRD1#d ! ,FR5* ,JACQU]IES1 ! ,HUSSITE W>S1 & ! ,PEASANT ,W> 9 ,G]MANY4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 A COMM]CIAL POLICY 9VOLV$ !M 9 DI/ANT 5T]PRISES4 ,COLONIES W]E F\ND$ BY ! ,ITALIANS 9 ! S\?-EA/1 BY ,G]MAN CITIES 9 ! EA/1 BY ,SLAVONIAN CITIES 9 ! F> NOR!A/4 ,M]C5>Y >MIES BEGAN TO BE KEPT = COLONIAL W>S1 & SOON = LOCAL DEF5SE AS WELL4 ,LOANS W]E CONTACT$ TO SU* AN EXT5T AS TO TOTALLY DEMORALIZE ! CITIZ5S2 & 9T]NAL CONTE/S GREW WORSE & WORSE AT EA* ELECTION1 DUR+ :I* ! COLONIAL POLITICS 9 ! 9T]E/ ( A FEW FAMILIES WAS AT /AKE4 ,! DIVISION 9TO RI* & POOR GREW DEEP]1 & 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 9 EA* CITY1 ! ROYAL AU?ORITY F\ND READY ALLIES & SUPPORT AMONG ! POOR4 

  ,& !RE IS YET ANO!R CAUSE ( ! DECAY ( COMMUNAL 9/ITUTIONS1 :I* /&S HI<] & LIES DEEP] ?AN ALL ! ABOVE4 ,! HI/ORY ( ! M$IAEVAL CITIES (F]S ONE ( ! MO/ /RIK+ ILLU/RATIONS ( ! P[] ( IDEAS & PR9CIPLES UPON ! DE/9IES ( MANK9D1 & ( ! QUITE OPPOS$ RESULTS :I* >E OBTA9$ :5 A DEEP MODIFICATION ( LEAD+ IDEAS HAS TAK5 PLACE4 ,SELF-RELIANCE & F$]ALISM1 ! SOV]EIGNTY ( EA* GR\P1 & ! CON/RUCTION ( ! POLITICAL BODY FROM ! SIMPLE TO ! COMPOSITE1 W]E ! LEAD+ IDEAS 9 ! ELEV5? C5TURY4 ,BUT S9CE ?AT TIME ! CONCEPTIONS HAD 5TIRELY *ANG$4 ,! /UD5TS ( ,ROMAN LAW & ! PRELATES ( ! ,*UR*1 CLOSELY B\ND TOGE!R S9CE ! TIME ( ,9NOC5T ! ,?IRD1 HAD SUCCE$$ 9 P>ALYZ+ ! IDEA -- ! ANTIQUE ,GREEK IDEA -- :I* PRESID$ AT ! F\NDATION ( ! CITIES4 ,= TWO OR ?REE HUNDR$ YE>S !Y TAU<T FROM ! PULPIT1 ! ,UNIV]SITY *AIR1 & ! JUDGES' B5*1 ?AT SALVATION MU/ BE S\<T = 9 A /RONGLY-C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE1 PLAC$ UND] A SEMI-DIV9E AU?ORITY2#d#a ?AT ONE MAN CAN & MU/ BE ! SAVIOR ( SOCIETY1 & ?AT 9 ! NAME ( PUBLIC SALVATION HE CAN COMMIT ANY VIOL5CE3 BURN M5 & WOM5 AT ! /AKE1 MAKE !M P]I% UND] 9DESCRIBABLE TORTURES1 PLUNGE :OLE PROV9CES 9TO ! MO/ ABJECT MIS]Y4 ,NOR DID !Y FAIL TO GIVE OBJECT LESSONS TO ?IS EFFECT ON A GR& SCALE1 & ) AN UNHE>D-( CRUELTY1 :]EV] ! K+'S SWORD & ! ,*UR*'S FIRE1 OR BO? AT ONCE1 C\LD REA*4 ,BY !SE TEA*+S & EXAMPLES1 CONT9UALLY REPEAT$ & 5=C$ UPON PUBLIC ATT5TION1 ! V]Y M9DS ( ! CITIZ5S HAD BE5 %AP$ 9TO A NEW MOLD4 ,!Y BEGAN TO F9D NO AU?ORITY TOO EXT5SIVE1 NO KILL+ BY DEGREES TOO CRUEL1 ONCE IT WAS 0= PUBLIC SAFETY40 ,&1 ) ?IS NEW DIRECTION ( M9D & ?IS NEW BELIEF 9 ONE MAN'S P[]1 ! OLD F$]ALI/ PR9CIPLE FAD$ AWAY1 & ! V]Y CREATIVE G5IUS ( ! MASSES DI$ \T4 ,! ,ROMAN IDEA WAS VICTORI\S1 & 9 SU* CIRCUM/ANCES ! C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE HAD 9 ! CITIES A READY PREY4 

  ,FLOR5CE 9 ! FIFTE5? C5TURY IS TYPICAL ( ?IS *ANGE4 ,=M]LY A POPUL> REVOLUTION WAS ! SIGNAL ( A NEW DEP>TURE4 ,N[1 :5 ! PEOPLE1 BR\<T TO DESPAIR1 9SURG$1 IT HAD CON/RUCTIVE IDEAS NO MORE2 NO FRE% IDEA CAME \T ( ! MOVEM5T4 ,A ?\S& REPRES5TATIVES W]E PUT 9TO ! ,COMMUNAL ,C\NCIL 9/EAD ( #d2 #a M5 5T]$ ! SIGNORIA 9/EAD ( #h4 ,BUT A REVOLUTION ( FIGURES C\LD BE ( NO AVAIL4 ,! PEOPLE'S DISCONT5T WAS GR[+ UP1 & NEW REVOLTS FOLL[$4 ,A SAVIOR -- ! 0TYRAN0 -- WAS APPEAL$ TO2 HE MASSACR$ ! REBELS1 BUT ! DIS9TEGRATION ( ! COMMUNAL BODY CONT9U$ WORSE ?AN EV]4 ,& :51 AFT] A NEW REVOLT1 ! PEOPLE ( ,FLOR5CE APPEAL$ TO !IR MO/ POPUL> MAN1 ,GI]ONIMO ,SAVON>OLA1 = ADVICE1 ! MONK'S ANSW] WAS3 -- 0,OH1 PEOPLE M9E1 ?\ KN[E/ ?AT ,I CANNOT GO 9TO ,/ATE AFFAIRS444 PURIFY ?Y S\L1 & IF 9 SU* A DISPOSITION ( M9D ?\ RE=ME/ ?Y CITY1 !N1 PEOPLE ( ,FLOR5CE1 ?\ %ALT HAVE 9AUGURAT$ ! RE=M 9 ALL ,ITALY60 ,C>NIVAL MASKS & VICI\S BOOKS W]E BURN$1 A LAW ( *>ITY & ANO!R AGA9/ USUR]S W]E PASS$ -- & ! DEMOCRACY ( ,FLOR5CE REMA9$ :]E IT WAS4 ,! OLD SPIRIT HAD GONE4 ,BY TOO MU* TRU/+ TO GOV]NM5T1 !Y HAD CEAS$ TO TRU/ TO !MSELVES2 !Y W]E UNABLE TO OP5 NEW ISSUES4 ,! ,/ATE HAD ONLY TO /EP 9 & TO CRU% D[N !IR LA/ LIB]TIES4 

  ,& YET1 ! CURR5T ( MUTUAL AID & SUPPORT DID NOT DIE \T 9 ! MASSES1 IT CONT9U$ TO FL[ EV5 AFT] ?AT DEFEAT4 ,IT ROSE UP AGA9 ) A =MIDABLE =CE1 9 ANSW] TO ! COMMUNI/ APPEALS ( ! FIR/ PROPAG&I/S ( ! RE=M1 & IT CONT9U$ TO EXI/ EV5 AFT] ! MASSES1 HAV+ FAIL$ TO REALIZE ! LIFE :I* !Y HOP$ TO 9AUGURATE UND] ! 9SPIRATION ( A RE=M$ RELIGION1 FELL UND] ! DOM9IONS ( AN AUTOCRATIC P[]4 ,IT FL[S /ILL EV5 N[1 & IT SEEKS ITS WAY TO F9D \T A NEW EXPRESSION :I* W\LD NOT BE ! ,/ATE1 NOR ! M$IAEVAL CITY1 NOR ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY ( ! B>B>IANS1 NOR ! SAVAGE CLAN1 BUT W\LD PROCE$ FROM ALL ( !M1 & YET BE SUP]IOR TO !M 9 ITS WID] & MORE DEEPLY HUMANE CONCEPTIONS4 

#a ,! LIT]ATURE ( ! SUBJECT IS IMM5SE2 BUT !RE IS NO WORK YET :I* TREATS ( ! M$IAEVAL CITY AS ( A :OLE4 ,= ! ,FR5* ,COMMUNES1 ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RY'S ,LETTRES & ,CONSID]ATIONS SUR L'HI/OIRE DE ,FRANCE /ILL REMA9 CLASSICAL1 & ,LU*AIRE'S ,COMMUNES FRANCAISES IS AN EXCELL5T ADDITION ON ! SAME L9ES4 ,= ! CITIES ( ,ITALY1 ! GREAT WORK ( ,SISMONDI 7,HI/OIRE DES REPUBLIQUES ITALI5NES DU MOY5 AGE1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#b#f1 #af VOLS471 ,LEO & ,BOTTA'S ,HI/ORY ( ,ITALY1 ,F]R>I'S ,REVOLUTIONS D',ITALIE1 & ,HEGEL'S ,GES*I*TE D] ,/ADTEV]FASSUNG 9 ,ITALI51 >E ! *IEF S\RCES ( G5]AL 9=MATION4 ,= ,G]MANY WE HAVE ,MAUR]'S ,/ADTEV]FASSUNG1 ,B>?OLD'S ,GES*I*TE D] DEUTS*5 ,/ADTE1 &1 ( REC5T WORKS1 ,HEGEL'S ,/ADTE UND ,GILD5 D] G]MANIS*5 ,VOLK] 7#b VOLS4 ,LEIPZIG1 #a#h#i#a71 & ,DR4 ,OTTO ,KALLS5'S ,DIE DEUTS*5 ,/ADTE IM ,MITTELALT] 7#b VOLS4 ,HALLE1 #a#h#i#a71 AS ALSO ,JANSS5'S ,GES*I*TE DES DEUTS*5 ,VOLKES 7#e VOLS4 #a#h#h#f71 :I*1 LET US HOPE1 WILL SOON BE TRANSLAT$ 9TO ,5GLI% 7,FR5* TRANSLATION 9 #a#h#i#b74 ,= ,BELGIUM1 ,A4 ,WAUT]S1 ,LES ,LIB]TES COMMUNALES 7,BRUXELLES1 #a#h#f#i-#g#h1 #c VOLS474 ,= ,RUSSIA1 ,BYELAEFF'S1 ,KO/OM>(F'S & ,S]GIEVI*'S WORKS4 ,& F9ALLY1 = ,5GL&1 WE POSSES ONE ( ! BE/ WORKS ON CITIES ( A WID] REGION 9 ,MRS4 ,J4,R4 ,GRE5'S ,T[N ,LIFE 9 ! ,FIFTE5? ,C5TURY 7#b VOLS4 ,LONDON1 #a#h#i#d74 ,WE HAVE1 MOREOV]1 A WEAL? ( WELL-KN[N LOCAL HI/ORIES1 & SEV]AL EXCELL5T WORKS ( G5]AL OR ECONOMICAL HI/ORY :I* ,I HAVE SO (T5 M5TION$ 9 ?IS & ! PREC$+ *APT]4 ,! RI*NESS ( LIT]ATURE CONSI/S1 H[EV]1 *IEFLY 9 SEP>ATE1 SOMETIMES ADMIRABLE1 RESE>*ES 9TO ! HI/ORY ( SEP>ATE CITIES1 ESPECIALLY ,ITALIAN & ,G]MAN2 ! GUILDS2 ! L& QUE/ION2 ! ECONOMICAL PR9CIPLES ( ! TIME2 ! ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE ( GUILDS & CRAFTS2 ! LEAGUES BETWE51 CITIES 7! ,HANSA72 & COMMUNAL >T4 ,AN 9CR$IBLE WEAL? ( 9=MATION IS CONTA9$ 9 WORKS ( ?IS SECOND CATEGORY1 ( :I* ONLY SOME ( ! MORE IMPORTANT >E NAM$ 9 !SE PAGES4 

#b ,KULIS*]1 9 AN EXCELL5T ESSAY ON PRIMITIVE TRADE 7,ZEITS*RIFT FUR ,VOLK]PSY*OLOGIE1 ,BD4 X4 #c#h71 ALSO PO9TS \T ?AT1 ACCORD+ TO ,H]ODOTUS1 ! ,>GIPPAEANS W]E CONSID]$ 9VIOLABLE1 BECAUSE ! TRADE BETWE5 ! ,SCY?IANS & ! NOR!RN TRIBES TOOK PLACE ON !IR T]RITORY4 ,A FUGITIVE WAS SACR$ ON !IR T]RITORY1 & !Y W]E (T5 ASK$ TO ACT AS >BIT]S = !IR NEI<BORS4 ,SEE ,APP5DIX ,X,I4 

#c ,SOME DISCUSSION HAS LATELY TAK5 PLACE UPON ! ,WEI*BILD & ! ,WEI*BILD-LAW1 :I* /ILL REMA9 OBSCURE 7SEE ,ZOPFL1 ,ALT]?UM] DES DEUTS*5 ,REI*S UND ,RE*TS1 III4 #b#i2 ,KALLS51 I4 #c#a#f74 ,! ABOVE EXPLANATION SEEMS TO BE ! MORE PROBABLE1 BUT1 ( C\RSE1 IT MU/ BE TE/$ BY FUR!R RESE>*4 ,IT IS ALSO EVID5T ?AT1 TO USE A ,SCOT* EXPRESSION1 ! 0M]CET CROSS0 C\LD BE CONSID]$ AS AN EMBLEM ( ,*UR* JURISDICTION1 BUT WE F9D IT BO? 9 BI%OP CITIES & 9 ?OSE 9 :I* ! FOLKMOTE WAS SOV]EIGN4 

#d ,= ALL CONC]N+ ! M]*ANT GUILD SEE ,MR4 ,GROSS'S EXHAU/IVE WORK1 ,! ,GUILD ,M]*ANT 7,OX=D1 #a#h#i1 #b VOLS472 ALSO ,MRS4 ,GRE5'S REM>KS 9 ,T[N ,LIFE 9 ! ,FIFTE5? ,C5TURY1 VOL4 II4 *APS4 V4 VIII4 X2 & ,A4 ,DOR5'S REVIEW ( ! SUBJECT 9 ,S*MOLL]'S ,=S*UNG51 VOL4 XII4 ,IF ! CONSID]ATIONS 9DICAT$ 9 ! PREVI\S *APT] 7ACCORD+ TO :I* TRADE WAS COMMUNAL AT ITS BEG9N+S7 PROVE TO BE CORRECT1 IT WILL BE P]MISSIBLE TO SUGGE/ AS A PROBABLE HYPO!SIS ?AT ! GUILD M]*ANT WAS A BODY 5TRU/$ ) COMM]CE 9 ! 9T]E/ ( ! :OLE CITY1 & ONLY GRADUALLY BECAME A GUILD ( M]*ANTS TRAD+ = !MSELVES2 :ILE ! M]*ANT ADV5TUR]S ( ?IS C\NTRY1 ! ,NOVGOROD POVOLNIKI 7FREE COLONIZ]S & M]*ANTS7 & ! M]CATI P]SONATI1 W\LD BE ?OSE TO :OM IT WAS LEFT TO OP5 NEW M>KETS & NEW BRAN*ES ( COMM]CE = !MSELVES4 ,ALTOGE!R1 IT MU/ BE REM>K$ ?AT ! ORIG9 ( ! M$IEVAL CITY CAN BE ASCRIB$ TO NO SEP>ATE AG5CY4 ,IT WAS A RESULT ( MANY AG5CIES 9 DIFF]5T DEGREES4 

#e ,JANSS5'S ,GES*I*TE DES DEUTS*5 ,VOLKES1 I4 #c#a#e2 ,GRAMI*'S ,WURZBURG2 &1 9 FACT1 ANY COLLECTION ( ORD9ANCES4 

#f ,FALKE1 ,GES*I*TLI*E ,/ATI/IK1 I4 #c#g#c-#c#i#c1 & II4 #f#f2 QUOT$ 9 ,JANSS5'S ,GES*I*TE1 I4 #c#c#i2 ,J4,D4 ,BLAVIGNAC1 9 ,COMPTES ET DEP5SES DE LA CON/RUCTION DU CLO*] DE ,SA9T-,NICOLAS A ,FRIBORG 5 ,SUISSE1 COMES TO A SIMIL> CONCLUSION4 ,= ,AMI5S1 ,DE ,CALONNE'S ,VIE ,MUNICIPALE1 P4 #ii & ,APP5DIX4 ,= A ?OR\< APPRECIATION & GRAPHICAL REPRES5TATION ( ! M$IAEVAL WAGES 9 ,5GL& & !IR VALUE 9 BREAD & MEAT1 SEE ,G4 ,/EFF5'S EXCELL5T >TICLE & CURVES 9 ,! ,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY = #a#h#i#a1 & ,/UDI] (V] LONSY/EMETS HI/ORIA I ,5GL&1 ,/OCKHOLM1 #a#h#i#e4 

#g ,TO QUOTE BUT ONE EXAMPLE \T ( MANY :I* MAY BE F\ND 9 ,S*ONB]G'S & ,FALKE'S WORKS1 ! SIXTE5 %OEMAK] WORK]S 7,S*U/]KNE*TE7 ( ! T[N ,XANT51 ON ! ,RH9E1 GAVE1 = ]ECT+ A SCRE5 & AN ALT> 9 ! *UR*1 #ge GULD5S ( SUBSCRIPTIONS1 & #ab GULD5S \T ( !IR BOX1 :I* MONEY WAS WOR?1 ACCORD+ TO ! BE/ VALUATIONS1 T5 TIMES ITS PRES5T VALUE4 

#h ,QUOT$ BY ,JANSS51 L4C4 I4 #c#d#c4 

#i ,! ,ECONOMICAL ,9T]PRETATION ( ,HI/ORY1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#i#a1 P4 #c#c4 

#a ,JANSS51 L4C4 ,SEE ALSO ,DR4 ,ALW9 ,S*ULTZ1 ,DEUTS*ES ,LEB5 IM ,X,I,V UND ,X,V ,JAHRHUND]T1 GROSSE ,AUSGABE1 ,WI51 #a#h#i#b1 PP4 #fg SEQ4 ,AT ,P>IS1 ! DAY ( LABOR V>I$ FROM SEV5 TO EI<T H\RS 9 ! W9T] TO F\RTE5 H\RS 9 SUMM] 9 C]TA9 TRADES1 :ILE 9 O!RS IT WAS FROM EI<T TO N9E H\RS 9 W9T]1 TO FROM T5 TO TWELVE 9 ,SUMM]4 ,ALL WORK WAS /OPP$ ON ,SATURDAYS & ON AB\T TW5TY-FIVE O!R DAYS 7JORS DE COMMUN DE VILE FOIRE7 AT F\R O'CLOCK1 :ILE ON ,SUNDAYS & ?IRTY O!R HOLIDAYS !RE WAS NO WORK AT ALL4 ,! G5]AL CONCLUSION IS1 ?AT ! M$IAEVAL WORK] WORK$ LESS H\RS1 ALL TAK51 ?AN ! PRES5T-DAY WORK] 7,DR4 ,E4 ,M>T9 ,SA9T-,LEON1 ,HI/OIRE DES CORPORATIONS1 P4 #a#b#a74 

#aa ,W4 ,/I$A1 0,HANSIS*E ,V]E9B>UNG5 UB] /ADTIS*ES ,GEW]BE IM ,X,I,V UND ,X,V ,JAHRHUND]T10 9 ,HANSIS*E ,GES*I*TSBLATT]1 ,JAHRGANG #a#h#h#f1 P4 #a#b#a4 ,S*ONB]G'S ,WIR?S*AFTLI*E ,B$EUTUNG D] ,ZUNFTE2 ALSO1 P>TLY1 ,ROS*]4 

#ab ,SEE ,T\LM9 ,SMI?'S DEEPLY-FELT REM>KS AB\T ! ROYAL SPOLIATION ( ! GUILDS1 9 ,MISS ,SMI?'S ,9TRODUCTION TO ,5GLI% ,GUILDS4 ,9 ,FRANCE ! SAME ROYAL SPOLIATION & ABOLITION ( ! GUILDS' JURISDICTION WAS BEGUN FROM #a#c#f1 & ! F9AL BL[ WAS /RUCK 9 #a*b 7,FAGNIEZ1 L4C4 PP4 #e#b-#e#d74 

#ac ,ADAM ,SMI? & HIS CONTEMPOR>IES KNEW WELL :AT !Y W]E CONDEMN+ :5 !Y WROTE AGA9/ ! ,/ATE 9T]F]5CE 9 TRADE & ! TRADE MONOPOLIES ( ,/ATE CREATION4 ,UNHAPPILY1 !IR FOLL[]S1 ) !IR HOPELESS SUP]FICIALITY1 FLUNG M$IAEVAL GUILDS & ,/ATE 9T]F]5CE 9TO ! SAME SACK1 MAK+ NO DI/9CTION BETWE5 A ,V]SAILLES $ICT & A GUILD ORD9ANCE4 ,IT H>DLY NE$ BE SAID ?AT ! ECONOMI/S :O HAVE S]I\SLY /UDI$ ! SUBJECT1 LIKE ,S*ONB]G 7! $ITOR ( ! WELL-KN[N C\RSE ( ,POLITICAL ,ECONOMY71 NEV] FELL 9TO SU* AN ]ROR4 ,BUT1 TILL LATELY1 DIFFUSE DISCUSSIONS ( ! ABOVE TYPE W5T ON = ECONOMICAL 0SCI5CE40 

#ad ,9 ,FLOR5CE ! SEV5 M9OR >TS MADE !IR REVOLUTION 9 #a#b#g-#h#b1 & ITS RESULTS >E FULLY DESCRIB$ BY ,P]R5S 7,HI/OIRE DE ,FLOR5CE1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#g#g1 #c VOLS471 & ESPECIALLY BY ,G9O ,CAPPONI 7,/ORIA DELLA REPUBBLICA DI ,FIR5ZE1 #bDA $IZIONE1 #a#h#g#f1 I4 #e#h-#h2 TRANSLAT$ 9TO ,G]MAN74 ,9 ,LYONS1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 :]E ! MOVEM5T ( ! M9OR CRAFTS TOOK PLACE 9 #a#d#b1 ! LATT] W]E DEFEAT$ & LO/ ! RI<T ( !MSELVES NOM9AT+ !IR [N JUDGES4 ,! TWO P>TIES CAME APP>5TLY TO A COMPROMISE4 ,9 ,RO/OCK ! SAME MOVEM5T TOOK PLACE 9 #a#c#a#c2 9 ,ZURI* 9 #a#c#c#f2 9 ,B]N 9 #a#c#f#c2 9 ,BRAUNS*WEIG 9 #a#c#g#d1 & NEXT YE> 9 ,HAMBURG2 9 ,LUBECK 9 #a#c#g#f-#h#d2 & SO ON4 ,SEE ,S*MOLL]'S ,/RASSBURG ZUR ,ZEIT D] ,ZUNFTKAMPFE & ,/RASSBURG'S ,BLU!2 ,BR5TANO'S ,>BEIT]GILD5 D] ,GEG5W>T1 #b VOLS41 ,LEIPZIG1 #a#h#g#a-#g#b2 ,EB4 ,BA9'S ,M]*ANT & ,CRAFT ,GUILDS1 ,AB]DE51 #a#h#h#g1 PP4 #b#f-#d#g1 #g#e1 ETC4 ,AS TO ,MR4 ,GROSS'S OP9ION RELATIVE TO ! SAME /RUGGLES 9 ,5GL&1 SEE ,MRS4 ,GRE5'S REM>KS 9 H] ,T[N ,LIFE 9 ! ,FIFTE5? ,C5TURY1 II4 #a#i-#b#a#g2 ALSO ! *APT] ON ! ,LABOR ,QUE/ION1 &1 9 FACT1 ! :OLE ( ?IS EXTREMELY 9T]E/+ VOLUME4 ,BR5TANO'S VIEWS ON ! CRAFTS' /RUGGLES1 EXPRESS$ ESPECIALLY 9 III4 & IV4 ( HIS ESSAY 0,ON ! ,HI/ORY & ,DEVELOPM5T ( ,GUILDS10 9 ,T\LM9 ,SMI?'S ,5GLI% ,GUILDS REMA9 CLASSICAL = ! SUBJECT1 & MAY BE SAID TO HAVE BE5 AGA9 & AGA9 CONFIRM$ BY SUBSEQU5T RESE>*4 

#ae ,TO GIVE BUT ONE EXAMPLE -- ,CAMBRAI MADE ITS FIR/ REVOLUTION 9 #i#g1 &1 AFT] ?REE OR F\R MORE REVOLTS1 IT OBTA9$ ITS *>T] 9 #a#g#f4 ,?IS *>T] WAS REPEAL$ TWICE 7#a#a#g & #a#a#c#h71 & TWICE OBTA9$ AGA9 79 #aabg & #a#a#h74 ,TOTAL1 #bbc YE>S ( /RUGGLES BE=E CONQU]+ ! RI<T TO 9DEP5D5CE4 ,LYONS -- FROM #aaie TO #a#c#b4 

#af ,SEE ,TUETEY1 0,ETUDE SUR ,LE DROIT MUNICIPAL444 5 ,FRAN*E-,COMTE10 9 ,MEMOIRES DE LA ,SOCIETE D'EMULATION DE ,MONTBELI>D1 #bE S]IE1 II4 #abi SEQ4 

#ag ,?IS SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 (T5 ! CASE 9 ,ITALY4 ,9 ,SWITZ]L&1 ,B]N B\<T EV5 ! T[NS ( ,?UN & ,BURGDORF4 

#ah ,SU* WAS1 AT LEA/1 ! CASE 9 ! CITIES ( ,TUSCANY 7,FLOR5CE1 ,LUCCA1 ,SI5NA1 ,BOLOGNA1 ETC471 = :I* ! RELATIONS BETWE5 CITY & PEASANTS >E BE/ KN[N4 7,LU*ITZKIY1 0,SLAV]Y & ,RUSSIAN ,SLAVES 9 ,FLOR5CE10 9 ,KIEFF ,UNIV]SITY ,IZVE/IA = #a#h#h#e1 :O HAS P]US$ ,RUMOHR'S ,URSPRUNG D] ,BESITZLOSIGKEIT D] ,COLONI5 9 ,TOSCANA1 #a#h#c47 ,! :OLE MATT] CONC]N+ ! RELATIONS BETWE5 ! CITIES & ! PEASANTS REQUIRES MU* MORE /UDY ?AN HAS HI!RTO BE5 DONE4 

#ai ,F]R>I'S G5]ALIZATIONS >E (T5 TOO !ORETICAL TO BEALWAYS CORRECT2 BUT HIS VIEWS UPON ! P>T PLAY$ BY ! NOBLES 9 ! CITY W>S >E BAS$ UPON A WIDE RANGE ( AU!NTICAT$ FACTS4 

#b ,ONLY SU* CITIES AS /UBBORNLY KEPT TO ! CAUSE ( ! B>ONS1 LIKE ,PISA OR ,V]ONA1 LO/ ?R\< ! W>S4 ,= MANY T[NS :I* F\<T ON ! B>ONS' SIDE1 ! DEFEAT WAS ALSO ! BEG9N+ ( LIB]ATION & PROGRESS4 

#ba ,F]R>I1 II4 #a#h1 #ad SEQ42 ,LEO & ,BOTTA1 I4 #d#c#b4 

#bb ,JOH4 ,FALKE1 ,DIE ,HANSA ALS ,DEUTS*E ,SEE- UND ,H&ELSMA*T1 ,B]L91 #a#h#f#c1 PP4 #c#a1 #e#e4 

#bc ,= ,AA*5 & ,COLOGNE WE HAVE DIRECT TE/IMONY ?AT ! BI%OPS ( !SE TWO CITIES -- ONE ( !M B\<T BY ! 5EMY OP5$ TO HIM ! GATES4 

#bd ,SEE ! FACTS1 ?\< NOT ALWAYS ! CONCLUSIONS1 ( ,NITZS*1 III4 #acc SEQ42 ALSO ,KALLS51 I4 #d#e#h1 ETC4 

#be ,ON ! ,COMMUNE ( ! ,LAONNAIS1 :I*1 UNTIL ,MELLEVILLE'S RESE>*ES 7,HI/OIRE DE LA ,COMMUNE DU ,LAONNAIS1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#e#c71 WAS CONF\ND$ ) ! ,COMMUNE ( ,LAON1 SEE ,LU*AIRE1 PP4 #ge SEQ4 ,= ! E>LY PEASANTS' GUILDS & SUBSEQU5T UNIONS SEE ,R4 ,WILMAN'S 0,DIE L&LI*5 ,S*UTZGILD5 ,WE/PHALI5S10 9 ,ZEITS*RIFT FUR ,KULTURGES*I*TE1 NEUE ,FOLGE1 ,BD4 III41 QUOT$ 9 ,H5NE-AM-,RHYN'S ,KULTURGES*I*TE1 III4 #b#d#i4 

#bf ,LU*AIRE1 P4 #a#d#i4 

#bg ,TWO IMPORTANT CITIES1 LIKE ,MA9Z & ,WORMS1 W\LD SETTLE A POLITICAL CONTE/ BY MEANS ( >BITRATION4 ,AFT] A CIVIL W> BROK5 \T 9 ,ABBEVILLE1 ,AMI5S W\LD ACT1 9 #a#b#c#a1 AS >BIT] 7,LU*AIRE1 #a#d#i72 & SO ON4 

#bh ,SEE1 = 9/ANCE1 ,W4 ,/I$A1 ,HANSIS*E ,V]E9B>UNG51 L4C41 P4#a#a#d4 

#bi ,COSMO ,9NES'S ,E>LY ,SCOTTI% ,HI/ORY & ,SCOTL& 9 ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 QUOT$ BY ,REV4 ,D5TON1 L4C41 PP4 #f#h1 #f#i2 ,LAMPRE*T'S ,DEUTS*ES WIR?S*AFTLI*E ,LEB5 IM ,MITTELALT]1 REVIEW BY ,S*MOLL] 9 HIS ,JAHRBU*1 ,BD4 XII42 ,SISMONDI'S ,TABLEAU DE L'AGRICULTURE TOSCANE1 PP4 #bbf SEQ4 ,! DOM9IONS ( ,FLOR5CE C\LD BE RECOGNIZ$ AT A GLANCE ?R\< !IR PROSP]ITY4 

#c ,MR4 ,JOHN ,J4 ,5NETT 7,SIX ,ESSAYS1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#i#a7 HAS EXCELL5T PAGES ON ?IS ASPECT ( M$IAEVAL >*ITECTURE4 ,MR4 ,WILLIS1 9 HIS APP5DIX TO ,:EWELL'S ,HI/ORY ( ,9DUCTIVE ,SCI5CES 7I4 #b#f#a-#b#f#b71 HAS PO9T$ \T ! BEAUTY ( ! ME*ANICAL RELATIONS 9 M$IAEVAL BUILD+S4 0,A NEW DECORATIVE CON/RUCTION WAS MATUR$10 HE WRITES1 0NOT ?W>T+ & CONTROLL+1 BUT ASSI/+ & H>MONIZ+ ) ! ME*ANICAL CON/RUCTION4 ,EV]Y MEMB]1 EV]Y MOLD+1 BECOMES A SU/A9] ( WEI<T2 & BY ! MULTIPLICITY ( PROPS ASSI/+ EA* O!R1 & ! CONSEQU5T SUBDIVISION ( WEI<T1 ! EYE WAS SATISFI$ ( ! /ABILITY ( ! /RUCTURE1 NOT)/&+ CURI\SLY SL5D] ASPECTS ( ! SEP>ATE P>TS40 ,AN >T :I* SPRANG \T ( ! SOCIAL LIFE ( ! CITY C\LD NOT BE BETT] *>ACT]IZ$4 

#ca ,DR4 ,L4 ,5N51 ,D] ,DOM ZU ,KOLN1 SE9E ,CON/RUCTION UND ,AN/ALTUNG1 ,KOLN1 #a#h#g#a4 

#cb ,! ?REE /ATUES >E AMONG ! \T] DECORATIONS ( ,NOTRE ,DAME DE ,P>IS4 

#cc ,M$IAEVAL >T1 LIKE ,GREEK >T1 DID NOT KN[ ?OSE CURIOSITY %OPS :I* WE CALL A ,NATIONAL ,GALL]Y OR A ,MUSEUM4 ,A PICTURE WAS PA9T$1 A /ATUE WAS C>V$1 A BRONZE DECORATION WAS CA/ TO /& 9 ITS PROP] PLACE 9 A MONUM5T ( COMMUNAL >T4 ,IT LIV$ !RE1 IT WAS P>T ( A :OLE1 & IT CONTRIBUT$ TO GIVE UNITY TO ! IMPRESSION PRODUC$ BY ! :OLE4 

#cd ,CF4 ,J4 ,T4 ,5NETT'S 0,SECOND ,ESSAY10 P4 #c#f4 

#ce ,SISMONDI1 IV4 #a#g#b2 XVI4 #c#e#f4 ,! GREAT CANAL1 ,NAVIGLIO ,GR&E1 :I* BR+S ! WAT] FROM ! ,TESS9O1 WAS BEGUN 9 #a#a#g#i1 I4E4 AFT] ! CONQUE/ ( 9DEP5D5CE1 & IT WAS 5D$ 9 ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY4 ,ON ! SUBSEQU5T DECAY1 SEE XVI4 #c#e#e4 

#cf ,9 #accf IT HAD #h1 TO #a1 BOYS & GIRLS 9 ITS PRIM>Y S*OOLS1 #a1 TO #a1#b BOYS 9 ITS SEV5 MIDDLE S*OOLS1 & FROM #ee TO #f /UD5TS 9 ITS F\R UNIV]SITIES4 ,! ?IRTY COMMUNAL HOSPITALS CONTA9$ OV] #a1 B$S = A POPULATION ( #i1 9HABITANTS 7,CAPPONI1 II4 #bdi SEQ474 ,IT HAS MORE ?AN ONCE BE5 SUGGE/$ BY AU?ORITATIVE WRIT]S ?AT $UCATION /OOD1 AS A RULE1 AT A MU* HI<] LEVEL ?AN IS G5]ALLY SUPPOS$4 ,C]TA9LY SO 9 DEMOCRATIC ,NUREMB]G4 

#cg ,CF4 ,L4 ,RANKE'S EXCELL5T CONSID]ATIONS UPON ! ESS5CE ( ,ROMAN ,LAW 9 HIS ,WELTGES*I*TE1 ,BD4 IV4 ,AB?4 #b1 PP4 #b-#c#a4 ,ALSO ,SISMONDI'S REM>KS UPON ! P>T PLAY$ BY ! LEGI/ES 9 ! CON/ITUTION ( ROYAL AU?ORITY1 ,HI/OIRE DES ,FRANCAIS1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#b#f1 VIII4 #h#e-#i#i4 ,! POPUL> HATR$ AGA9/ !SE 0WEIZE ,DOKTOR5 UND ,BEUTELS*NEID] DES ,VOLKS0 BROKE \T ) FULL =CE 9 ! FIR/ YE>S ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY 9 ! S]MONS ( ! E>LY ,RE=M MOVEM5T4 

#* ,BR5TANO FULLY UND]/OOD ! FATAL EFFECTS ( ! /RUGGLE BETWE5 ! 0OLD BUR<]S0 & ! NEW-COM]S4 ,MIASK[SKI1 9 HIS WORK ON ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES ( ,SWITZ]L&1 HAS 9DICAT$ ! SAME = VILLAGE COMMUNITIES4 

#ci ,! TRADE 9 SLAVES KIDNAPP$ 9 ! ,EA/ WAS NEV] DISCONT9U$ 9 ! ,ITALIAN REPUBLICS TILL ! FIFTE5? C5TURY4 ,FEEBLE TRACES ( IT >E F\ND ALSO 9 ,G]MANY & ELSE:]E4 ,SEE ,CIBR>IO4 ,DELLA S*IAVITU E DEL S]VAGGIO1 #b VOLS4 ,MILAN1 #a#h#f#h2 ,PR(ESSOR ,LU*ITZKIY1 0,SLAV]Y & ,RUSSIAN ,SLAVES 9 ,FLOR5CE 9 ! ,F\RTE5? & ,FIFTE5? ,C5TURIES10 9 ,IZVE/IA ( ! ,KIEFF ,UNIV]SITY1 #a#h#h#e4 

#d ,J4,R4 ,GRE5'S ,HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI% ,PEOPLE1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#g#h1 I4 #d#e#e4 

#da ,SEE ! !ORIES EXPRESS$ BY ! ,BOLOGNA LAWY]S1 ALREADY AT ! ,CONGRESS ( ,RONCAGLIA 9 #a#a#e#h4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #b#a1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #f -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #a#a1 #bbb 3 ,*APT] #f -- ,UPDAT$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/