,*APT] #ac 

#baba 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,BOB ,BLACK 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] #a#c4 ,! ,COMMUNALI/ ,HALLUC9ATION 

  

,! EX-,DIRECTOR'S EMPHATICALLY PRIORITIZ+ ! SOCIAL OV] ! 9DIVIDUAL DOES NOT APPLY :5 HE IS ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,:5 IT COMES TO ,5GLI% USAGE1 HE IS1 9 ! RUGG$ 9DIVIDUALI/ TRADITION ( ,?OREAU1 A MAJORITY ( ONE4.<#g#e#a.> ,BOOK*9 EXPRESSES HIS SOV]EIGNTY 9 MANY WAYS4 ,R$UNDANCY MAKES = A VIGOR\S1 EMPHATIC /YLE3 ?US1 0AIRLESS VACUUM10 0FLY AP>T 9 OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS10 0ETYMOLOGICAL ROOTS10 0PRESUMABLY ON ! ASSUMPTION10 0DET]M9+ CAUSE10 0>DU\S TOIL10 0UNIQUE1 9DE$ UNPREC$5T$10 0DOM9ATION & RULE10 0ME*ANICAL ROBOTS10 & 0DIRECT FACE-TO-FACE40 ,SUP]FLU\S TICS LIKE 0AS SU*0 & 09 EFFECT0 ADD /YLE IF NOT SUB/ANCE4 ,LIKE RAIS+ ONE'S VOICE1 ITALICS PROMOTE UND]/&+4 ,BOOK*9 IS AT LIB]TY TO REV]SE A WORD'S MEAN+1 SU* AS US+ 0EXPLICITLY0 TO MEAN 0IMPLICITLY10 AS :]E ! RI<T TO BE> >MS 0EXPLICITLY GOES F> BEYOND ! RETIC5T WORD+ ( ! ,SECOND ,AM5DM5T40.<#g#e#b.> 7,ONE WI%ES HE W]E EXPLICIT1 9 HIS S5SE1 MORE (T547 ,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS D5\NCES METAPHORS EXCEPT :5 !Y >E MIX$1 LIKE HIS3 0TO LIFT ONESELF UP BY ONE'S BOOT/RAPS FROM ! RI* WEAL? ( HI/ORICAL FACTS10 AS HIS (T5 >E4 

,9 A DEP>TURE FROM NORMATIVE PUNCTUATION PRACTICE1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS DOES NOT CONF9E QUOTATION M>KS TO QUOTATIONS1 HE MORE (T5 EMPLOYS !M TO 9DICATE DISAGREEM5T OR DISAPPROVAL1 AS HIS REVIEW] ,K>5 ,FIELD DOES :5 %E REF]S TO 0,MURRAY ,BOOK*91 'SOCIAL ECOLOGI/4'0 ,BOOK*9 FREELY CO9S WORDS EV5 ?\< CORRESPOND+ T]MS >E AVAILABLE 9 /&>D ,5GLI%3 0PRECIVILIZATORY10 0UTOPI/IC10 0EVID5TIALITY10 0CIVICISM10 0RESPIRITIZATION10 0DEC5TRALI/IC10 0MATRIC5TRICITY10 0EXI/5TIALITY10 0SPIRITIZ$10 0FOLKDOM10 0EQUIVOCABLE10 0ANTISCI5TISM10 0CIVICALLY10 0M5TALIZ+10 0PROGRESSIVI/IC10 0BUREAUCRATISM10 0CYCLICITY10 0SECTORIALITY10 0CLANNIC10 05TELE*IAL10 & 0/ATIFI$0 7HE COMPLA9S ( HAV+ HAD TO CO9 ?IS F9AL WORD1 SO HE MU/ ?9K ! RE/ ( !M REALLY EXI/74.<#g#e#c.> ,SOMETIMES1 WRE/L+ ) ,BOOK*9'S MUSCUL> PROSE1 ,I ?\<T ,I WAS READ+ ,5GLI% AS A SECOND LANGUAGE4 ,IT TURNS \T ?AT ,I WAS4.<#g#e#d.> 

,MO/ IMPORTANT -- YEA1 ESS5TIAL -- TO ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S DISC\RSE IS ! R$EF9ITION ( KEY WORDS LIKE 0/ATE10 0POLITICS10 & 0AN>*ISM10 ASSIGN+ !M MEAN+S NOT ONLY DIFF]5T FROM BUT CONTR>Y TO !IR USE 9 ORD9>Y LANGUAGE & 9 /&>D AN>*I/ USAGE4 ,GIV5 !SE 9V]SIONS1 IT FOLL[S ?AT ,BOOK*9 & HIS LIB]T>IAN MUNICIPALISM >E AN>*I/ BY DEF9ITION 7UNTIL YE/]DAY71 & HIS CRITICS >E UNIMAG9ATIVE1 OBTUSE CONTR>IANS4 

,! DICTION>Y B$EVILS ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS AT EV]Y TURN4 ,POLIS1 HE GRUMBLES1 0IS COMMONLY MI/RANSLAT$ AS ! 'CITY-/ATE1'0 & SO IT IS4.<#g#e#e.> ,?IS IS A P>TICUL>LY EGREGI\S FAIL+3 0,DEF9$ 9 T]MS ( ITS ETYMOLOGICAL ROOTS .<AS OPPOS$ TO ITS ETYMOLOGICAL BRAN*ES8.>1 POLITICS MEANS ! MANAGEM5T ( ! COMMUNITY OR POLIS BY ITS MEMB]S1 ! CITIZ5S4 ,POLITICS ALSO MEANT ! RECOGNITION ( CIVIC RI<TS = /RANG]S OR '\TSID]S' :O W]E NOT L9K$ TO ! POPULATION BY BLOOD TIES4 ,?AT IS1 IT MEANT ! IDEA ( A UNIV]SAL HUMANITAS1 AS DI/+UI%$ FROM ! G5EALOGICALLY RELAT$ 'FOLK4'0.<#g#e#f.> ,:O W\LD HAVE ?\<T ONE WORD C\LD MEAN SO MU*8 ,NOT ! ANCI5T ,GREEKS4 ,!RE'S A :OLE CIVICS LESSON 9 ?IS ONE WORD4 

,ETYMOLOGICALLY -- 9 O!R WORDS1 = ! ,GREEKS !MSELVES -- 0POLIS0 MEANT 0CITY03 0,9 NORMAL USAGE1 POLIS MEANT 'CITY-/ATE4'0.<#g#e#g.> ,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS SPEAKS ,GREEK BETT] ?AN ! ,GREEKS1 JU/ AS HE SPEAKS ,5GLI% BETT] ?AN ! ,ANGLO-,AM]ICANS4 ,BY DEF9ITION -- HIS DEF9ITION -- ! POLIS IS A DEMOCRACY1 AL?\< MO/ ,GREEK CITY-/ATES W]E OLIG>*IES4.<#g#e#h.> ,:]E ,BOOK*9 DRAWS A CRUCIAL DI/9CTION BETWE5 0POLITICS0 & 0/ATECRAFT10 ! DICTION>Y DEF9ES !M TO BE SYNONYM\S4.<#g#e#i.> ,EV5 ! DICTION>Y DEF9ITION ( 0COMMUNALISM10 :I*1 HE SAYS1 IS NOT AS DEFECTIVE AS SOME O!RS1 IS RIDDL$ ) ]RORS3 0A !ORY & SY/EM ( GOV]NM5T .<SIC -- HIS SIC1 NOT M9E.> 9 :I* VIRTUALLY AUTONOM\S .<SIC -- HIM AGA9.> LOCAL COMMUNITIES >E LOOSELY 9 A F$]ATION40.<#g#f.> ,= ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS1 !RE IS SOME?+ SIC AB\T ! DICTION>Y DEF9+ WORDS AS :AT !Y CONT+5TLY1 SUP]FICIALLY MEAN & NOT :AT !Y ESS5TIALLY1 PROCESSUALLY MEAN4 

,= ,HOBBES1 09 WRONG1 OR NO ,DEF9ITIONS1 LYES ! FIR/ ABUSE .<( ,SPEE*.>3 FROM :I* PROCE$ ALL FALSE & S5SLESSE ,T5ETS40.<#g#f#a.> ,! EX-,DIRECTOR'S RELIANCE ON A PRIVATE LANGUAGE DISC\RAGES DISPUTATION1 S9CE ! CRITIC HAS TO FI<T TO RECOV] HIS VOCABUL>Y BE=E HE CAN EV5 BEG9 TO >GUE4 ,BUT ! MY/]I\S T]M9OLOGY ALSO HAS A DIRECT REPRESSIVE EFFECT4 ,POS+ ! POLITICAL ALT]NATIVES AS 0POLITICS0 & 0/ATECRAFT10 ,BOOK*9 =ECLOSES AN ALT]NATIVE :I* REJECTS BO? BECAUSE ( :AT !Y HAVE 9 COMMON4 ,PRIOR TO ,BOOK*91 ?AT ALT]NATIVE WAS KN[N AS AN>*ISM4 ,IF HE HAS HIS WAY1 IT WILL LOSE ITS NAME -- HE WILL EXPROPRIATE IT -- & :AT CANNOT BE NAM$ CANNOT EV5 BE SPOK5 (1 AS HE APPRECIATES3 0SOME?+ ?AT CANNOT BE NAM$ IS SOME?+ ?AT IS 9EFFABLE & CANNOT BE DISCUSS$40.<#g#f#b.> ,= ! EX-,DIRECTOR1 0LIFE/YLE AN>*ISM0 IS LIT]ALLY UNSPEAKABLE 9 EV]Y WAY4 

,LIKE A SOV]EIGN LIFE/YLE ,/IRN]I/1 ,BOOK*9 WIELDS A P[] ,ROMAN ,EMP]ORS REFUS$1 ACCORD+ TO ,JOHN ,LOCKE3 0,& !RE=E ! GREAT ,AUGU/US HIMSELF 9 ! POSSESSION ( ?AT ,P[] :I* RUL$ ! ,WORLD1 ACKN[L$G$1 HE C\LD NOT MAKE A NEW ,LAT9 ,WORD3 :I* WAS AS MU* TO SAY1 ?AT HE C\LD NOT >BITR>ILY APPO9T1 :AT ,IDEA ANY ,S\ND %\LD BE A SIGN (1 9 ! ,M\?S & ,COMMON ,LANGUAGE ( HIS ,SUBJECTS40.<#g#f#c.> ,! AN>*I/S W]E NOT ! FIR/ B5EFICI>IES ( ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S CREATIVITY3 0',ECOLOGICAL' IS A T]M ( DI/9CTION = ,BOOK*91 ONE ?AT APPLIES ONLY TO APPROA*ES CONGRU5T ) HIS [N 'SOCIAL ECOLOGY4'0.<#g#f#d.> ,WE MU/ P]=CE REVIEW ,BOOK*9'S VOCABUL>Y4 ,9 #a#i#h#b1 9 SOME MOODS HE DESPAIR$ ( REHABILITAT+ SO RU9$ A WORD AS 0FRE$OM03 0,?US1 0TO M]ELY 'DEF9E' SO MAIM$ & TORTUR$ A WORD W\LD BE UTT]LY NAIVE40.<#g#f#e.> 7,:Y ! QUOTATION M>KS87 

,9 ?IS DESP]ATE H\R1 HE ?R[S CAUTION TO ! W9DS4 0,AUTONOMY0 & 0FRE$OM0 >E NOT1 HE 9SI/S1 SYNONYM\S1 AL?\< ! DICTION>Y SAYS !Y >E4.<#g#f#f.> ,AUTONOMY IS 7ONLY7 9DIVIDUAL1 & BAD2 FRE$OM IS 7ONLY7 SOCIAL1 & GOOD1 0DESPITE LOOS] USAGES40.<#g#f#g.> ,H]E IS A CLE> EXAMPLE ( ELIM9ATION BY DEF9ITION4 ,AS WE HAVE SE5 7,*APT] #c71.<#g#f#h.> ,SIR ,ISAIAH ,B]L9 ANALYZ$1 NOT FRE$OM VS4 AUTONOMY1 BUT 0TWO CONCEPTS ( LIB]TY10 POSITIVE FRE$OM 7,BOOK*9'S 0FRE$OM07 VS4 NEGATIVE FRE$OM 7,BOOK*9'S 0AUTONOMY074 ,HE TOO HAD A DEF9ITE PREF]5CE -- = NEGATIVE FRE$OM -- BUT HE DID NOT TRY TO EXPROPRIATE & MONOPOLIZE ! WORD FRE$OM4 ,HE REF9$ ! ORD9>Y MEAN+1 HE DID NOT REPLACE IT4 ,NO?+ IS LO/4 ,9 CONTRA/1 ,BOOK*9 COVETS ! WORD = ITS FAVORABLE CONNOTATION1 :I* HE W\LD D5Y TO DISS5T]S FROM HIS NEW OR?ODOXY4 ,HE HAS N>R[$ ITS MEAN+ TO SUIT HIS PROGRAM4 ,IF !RE >E ONE OR TWO CONCEPTS ( FRE$OM1 !RE MI<T BE A ?IRD1 OR MAYBE TWO O!R ONES1.<#g#f#i.> & !Y MI<T ALL BE VALU$ & CONCEIVABLY EV5 SYN!SIZ$4 ,BUT AUTONOMY & FRE$OM1 S9CE !Y >E NOT SYNONYM\S1 MU/ REF] TO TWO DIFF]5T ?+S1 NEI!R ( :I* ADMITS ( SUBDIVISION 7A S+LE MEAN+ IS 9DIVISIBLE74 ,:AT IS MORE1 !Y >E EXHAU/IVE BY DEF9ITION1 & BETWE5 !M /RET*ES AN UNBRIDGEABLE *ASM4 

0,DEMOCRACY0 IS AN EV5 MORE /RAI<T=W>D CASE ( ELIM9ATION BY DEF9ITION1 & ! DEP>TURE FROM NORMAL USAGE IS /ILL MORE EXTREME3 0,BY DEMOCRACY1 ,I DO NOT MEAN A TYPE ( REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T BUT RA!R FACE-TO-FACE1 DIRECT DEMOCRACY40.<#g#g.> ,( ! TWO TYPES ( DEMOCRACY -- DIRECT & REPRES5TATIVE -- ,BOOK*9 D5IES ! DEF9ITION TO ! ONLY K9D ?AT PRES5TLY EXI/S1 ! K9D TO :I* ! WORD1 SANS ADJECTIVE1 ALWAYS REF]S 9 COMMON P>LANCE4.<#g#g#a.> ,FIR/ HE ASSIGNS TO ! WORD AN UNFAMILI> 7BUT ADMISSIBLE7 MEAN+1 !N HE D5IES ! WORD ITS FAMILI> MEAN+4 ,! GAMBIT IS SOME?+ LIKE :AT ,IM] ,LAKATOS *>G$ ,RUDOLPH ,C>NAP ) DO+3 0,SO ,C>NAP FIR/ WID5S ! CLASSICAL PROBLEM ( 9DUCTIVE JU/IFICATION & !N OMITS ! ORIG9AL P>T40 ,BUT 0IT HAS NO MEAN+ TO SAY ?AT A GAME HAS ALWAYS BE5 PLAY$ WRONG0 7,WITTG5/E974.<#g#g#b.> ,AS ,J]EMY ,B5?AM EXCLAIM$1 0,H[ *ILDI%1 H[ REPUGNANT TO ! 5DS ( LANGUAGE1 IS ?IS P]V]SION ( LANGUAGE6 -- TO ATTEMPT TO CONF9E A WORD 9 COMMON & P]PETUAL USE1 TO AN IMPORT TO :I* NOBODY EV] CONF9$ IT BE=E1 OR WILL CONT9UE TO CONF9E IT60 ,AS ,WITT5/E9 SAYS1 0IT IS %OCK+ TO USE WORDS ) A MEAN+ !Y NEV] HAVE 9 NORMAL LIFE & IS ! S\RCE ( SOME CONFUSION40.<#g#g#c.> ,NO KIDD+4 

,! DICTION>Y DEF9ES 0POLITICS0 9 SEV]AL WAYS4 ,ALL 9CLUDE ! /ATE EXPLICITLY OR IMPLICITLY1 EXCEPT = A CLE>LY ANALOG\S & D]IVATIVE S5SE 9 :I* !RE CAN BE (FICE POLITICS1 ETC4.<#g#g#d.> ,9 ! CASE ( ?IS CRUCIAL WORD1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS DISMISSES ! ORD9>Y MEAN+4 ,HIS DEF9ITION 0RES]VES ! WORD POLITICS = ! SELF-ADM9I/RATION ( A COMMUNITY BY ITS CITIZ5S 9 FACE-TO-FACE ASSEMBLIES1 :I* 9 CITIES ) RELATIVELY L>GE POPULATIONS W\LD COORD9ATE ! ADM9I/RATIVE WORK ( ! CITY C\NCILS1 COMPOS$ ( M&AT$ & RECALLABLE ASSEMBLY DEPUTIES40 ,9 %ORT1 0POLITICS0 MEANS ,BOOK*9'S POLITICS4 ,! ANTI!SIS ( POLITICS IS 0/ATECRAFT1 ! TOP-D[N SY/EM ( PR(ESSIONAL REPRES5TATION ?AT IS ULTIMATELY BAS$ ON ! /ATE'S MONOPOLY ( VIOL5CE40.<#g#g#e.> ,= ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS1 POLITICS IS :AT IT IS NOT1 & IT IS NOT :AT IT IS4 ,GEORGE ,ORWELL ANTICIPAT$ ,BOOK*9'S ME?OD3 0.<,NEWSPEAK'S.> VOCABUL>Y WAS SO CON/RUCT$ AS TO GIVE EXACT & (T5 V]Y SUBTLE EXPRESSION TO EV]Y MEAN+ ?AT A ,P>TY MEMB] C\LD PROP]LY WI% TO EXPRESS1 :ILE EXCLUD+ ALL O!R MEAN+S & ALSO ! POSSIBILITY ( >RIV+ AT !M BY 9DIRECT ME?ODS40.<#g#g#f.> 

,AS = :E!R ,COMMUNALISM IS AN>*ISM OR NOT1 AN>*ISM BY DEF9ITION SEEKS ! ABOLITION ( ! /ATE4 ,DEF9ITIONS ( ! /ATE V>Y1 BUT ONE WIDELY FAVOR$ BY SOCIAL SCI5TI/S1 HI/ORIANS & 7,I HAD SUPPOS$7 AN>*I/S GOES SOME?+ LIKE ?IS 7FROM ,*>LES ,TILLY73 0,LET US DEF9E /ATES AS CO]CION-WIELD+ ORGANIZATIONS ?AT >E DI/9CT FROM H\SEHOLDS & K9%IP GR\PS & EX]CISE CLE> PRIORITY 9 SOME RESPECTS OV] ALL O!R ORGANIZATIONS )9 SUB/ANTIAL T]RITORIES40.<#g#g#g.> ,9 ! NE>-ABS5CE ( ANY /ATEM5T BY ,BOOK*9 ON ?IS VITAL MATT]1 WE HAVE TO RESOLVE IT 9DIRECTLY1 BY EXAM9+ CITIES HE CONSID]S COMMUNES TO SEE IF !Y >E /ATES4 ,WE NE$ ALSO EXAM9E :E!R !Y >E ,COMMUNES1 I4E41 :E!R !Y >E -- RUL$8 MANAG$8 OR :ATEV] Y\ CALL ?AT ?+ !Y DO -- BY A FACE-TO-FACE CITIZ5 ASSEMBLY4 ,WE HAVE TO ASSUME ?AT ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS 9 SELECT+ EXAMPLES IS PUTT+ =W>D ! CLE>E/ CASES ( ,COMMUNAL POLITICS4 

,ABOVE ALL !RE IS ,A!NS4 ,DESPITE HIS %[ ( 9DIGNATION ?AT ANYONE %\LD CLAIM ?AT HE REG>DS ,A!NS AS AN IDEAL OR A MODEL1.<#g#g#h.> ?AT'S EXACTLY :AT ,BOOK*9 HAS SAID ?AT IT IS3 0,MY CONC]N ) ! WAY PEOPLE COMMUNE -- ?AT IS1 ACTIVELY ASSOCIATE ) EA* O!R1 NOT M]ELY =M COMMUNITIES -- IS AN E?ICAL CONC]N ( ! HI<E/ PRIORITY 9 ?IS WORK444 ,TO A GREAT EXT5T1 ?IS IS ! ,GREEK1 MORE PRECISELY1 ! ,A!NIAN1 IDEAL ( CIVICISM .<SIC.>1 CITIZ5%IP1 & POLITICS1 AN IDEAL ?AT HAS SURFAC$ REPEAT$LY ?R\<\T HI/ORY40.<#g#g#i.> ,AGA93 0,A!NS & ,ROME ULTIMATELY BECAME LEG5D>Y MODELS = TWO TYPES ( 'POPUL>' GOV]NM5T3 A DEMOCRACY & A REPUBLIC40 7,ACTUALLY1 !SE WORDS HAVE ALWAYS MEANT ! SAME ?+4.<#g#h.>7 

,A!NS MU/ BE \R PRIM>Y FOCUS BECAUSE IT IS ! MODEL = ALL LAT] SELF-GOV]N+ CITIES1 ! FIR/ & ! MO/ FULLY REALIZ$3 0,9 CONTRA/1 LAT] IDEALS ( CITIZ5%IP1 EV5 9S(> AS !Y W]E MODEL$ ON ! ,A!NIANS1 SEEM MORE UNF9I%$ & IMMATURE ?AN ! ORIG9AL -- H5CE ! V]Y CONSID]ABLE DISCUSSION ,I HAVE GIV5 TO ! ,A!NIAN CITIZ5 & HIS CONTEXT40 ,! DECL5SION IS SURPRIS+ S9CE1 AS ,>I/OTLE SAYS1 0MO/ ANCI5T ?+S >E LESS FULLY >TICULAT$ ?AN MOD]N ?+S40 ,IT SUITS ME F9E TO REG>D ,A!NS1 AS O!RS 9CLUD+ ,ROB]T ,A4 ,DAHL REG>D IT1 AS ! CLOSE/ AS WELL AS ! BE/-KN[N APPROXIMATION TO DIRECT DEMOCRACY4.<#g#h#a.> ,WE %ALL JUDGE ,A!NS 9 ! NEXT *APT]4 ,FIR/ WE CONSID] ! MORE UNF9I%$1 IMMATURE EXAMPLES4 ,9 ! ABS5CE ( ANY SY/EMATIC DEF9ITION FROM ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS1 ,I %ALL USE ! FOLL[+ AS REQUISITES = A FULL-FL$G$ URBAN ,COMMUNE3 7#a7 MO/ OR ALL POLICY-MAK+ P[] BELONGS TO A CITIZ5 ASSEMBLY :I* 7#b7 MEETS FACE-TO-FACE & 7#c7 FREQU5TLY4 7#d7 ,!RE >E FEW IF ANY ELECT$ OR APPO9T$ (FICIALS & !Y >E )\T 9DEP5D5T AU?ORITY & ANSW] TO ! ASSEMBLY4 7#e7 ,AT LEA/ A SUB/ANTIAL M9ORITY ( ADULT MALES IS 5FRAN*IS$ & 7#f7 AT LEA/ A SUB/ANTIAL M9ORITY ( ?OSE ELIGIBLE TO ATT5D ! ASSEMBLY ACTUALLY DO4 7#g7 ,! MILIT>Y CONSI/S ( A NONPR(ESSIONAL CITIZ5 >MY OR MILITIA4 7#h7 ,! CITY OR T[N IS F$]AT$ ) O!RS4 7,IF IT W]E UP TO ME1 ,I W\LD NOT 9CORPORATE 7#h7 9TO ! DEF9ITION ( A COMMUNE1 BUT IT'S A P>T ( ! DICTION>Y DEF9ITION :I* MEETS ) ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S APPROVAL47 

,9 P>TS ( ,SWITZ]L&1 OP5-AIR POPUL> ASSEMBLIES HAVE FUNCTION$ = C5TURIES1 BUT !RE IS NO?+ 9 ! CONTEMPOR>Y SITUATION TO SUPPORT ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS4 ,ONLY A FEW ( ! SMALL] CANTONS1 ! LEA/ URBANIZ$ ONES1 /ILL PRACTICE ASSEMBLY DEMOCRACY1 :]E ! CITIZ5S ASSEMBLE JU/ ONCE A YE> TO ELECT REPRES5TATIVES TO PUBLIC (FICE1 :I* IS NOT DIRECT DEMOCRACY4.<#g#h#b.> ,BOOK*9'S S\RCE1 ,B5JAM9 ,B>B]1 HYMNS ! E>LY MOD]N ASSEMBLY 9 ,GRAUB9D5 BUT DOES NOT DESCRIBE ITS WORK+S4 ,IT W\LD NOT BE AN EXAMPLE ( ,BOOK*9'S URBAN ,COMMUNE ANYWAY BECAUSE IT IS NOT URBAN1 AL?\< ,BOOK*9 HIMSELF SEEMS CONFUS$ ON ?IS PO9T4.<#g#h#c.> 7,IF ! EX-,DIRECTOR KNEW ?AT ! URBAN ,SWISS CANTONS W]E ALL C5TRALIZ$ OLIG>*IES1.<#g#h#d.> ! IRONY W\LD BE LO/ ON HIM4 ,HE ?9KS !Y W]E ,COMMUNES4.<#g#h#e.>7 ,!SE RURAL ,L&SGEME9D5 ONLY ASSEMBL$ ANNUALLY4.<#g#h#f.> ,& :5 !Y DID1 IT WAS TO ELECT A C\NCIL TO CONDUCT EV]YDAY BUS9ESS4 ,!Y W]E REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACIES ) PUBLIC VOT+1 NOT DIRECT DEMOCRACIES4.<#g#h#g.> ,BOOK*9 GRATEFULLY QUOTES ,ALEXIS DE ,TOCQUEVILLE'S 5COMIUM ON ! ,NEW ,5GL& T[N MEET+4 ,HE IGNORES ! SAME AU?OR'S /ATEM5T ?AT FROM AN E>LY TIME ! ,SWISS CANTONS W]E SMALL >I/OCRACIES1 CLOS$ OR SELF-RECRUIT+1 & 9 MO/ ( !M1 ?REE-QU>T]S ( ! POPULATION WAS EXCLUD$ FROM EV5 9DIRECT P>TICIPATION1 NOT TO M5TION ?AT EA* CANTON HAD A SUBJECT POPULATION4 ,ONLY ONE-?IRTE5? ( ! POPULATION WAS GOV]N$ BY DIRECT DEMOCRACY4.<#g#h#h.> ,SO MU* = ,COMMUNES 9 ,SWITZ]L&4 

,SPANI% CITIES >E BE/ KN[N TO HI/ORY = ! REVOLT1 9 #a#e#b-#a#e#b#a1 ( ! COMUN]OS1 ?RILL+LY REC\NT$ BY ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS1 ALBEIT )\T S\RCE REF]5CES4.<#g#h#i.> ,WE >E PRESUMABLY TO ASSUME ?AT ! 9SURG5T CITIES W]E DEMOCRATIC4 ,!Y W]E NOT4 ,!Y REVOLT$ \T ( RES5TM5T ( =EIGN 9FLU5CE OV] ! NEW K+1 ,*>LES ,V1 & AGA9/ TAXATION1 & P]HAPS = GREAT] AUTONOMY FROM ! /ATE1 BUT NOT TO DEF5D OR CREATE DEMOCRATIC 9/ITUTIONS4 ,IT WAS 0MEMB]S ( ! URBAN OLIG>*IES & L[] NOBILITY 9 ,CA/ILE .<:O.> ROSE UP 9 >MS 9 :AT IS KN[N AS ! ,COMUN]O MOVEM5T 7FROM COMMUNITY OR COMMUNAL740 ,9 ! MORE RADICAL ,VAL5CIA UPRIS+1 ! VIOL5CE WAS DIRECT$ AGA9/ 0CITY (FICIALS & LOCAL NOBILITY02 ?US IT IS REASONABLE TO ASSUME ! ABS5CE ( SOV]EIGN POPUL> ASSEMBLIES4 ,CONTR>Y TO ,BOOK*91 0! CITIES NEV] TRI$ TO CREATE A =M ( POLITICAL ORGANIZATION ?AT C\LD HAVE BE5 A ,CA/ILIAN V]SION ( ! URBAN REPUBLICS40.<#g#i.> 

,A MONOGRAPH ON ! REVOLT BY ,/EPH5 ,HALICZ] DISPELLS ! MY? -- NOT ?AT !RE EV5 IS ONE \TSIDE ( ,BOOK*9'S HEAD -- ( AN URBAN DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION4 ,PRIOR TO ! UPRIS+1 ,SPANI% CITIES W]E GOV]N$ BY ROYALLY APPO9T$ CORREGIDORES :O PRESID$ OV] CITY C\NCILS ( REGIDORES1 :O W]E ROYAL APPO9TEES = LIFE4 ,! UPRIS+ WAS AS MU* A REVOLT BY AS AGA9/ !SE (FICIALS4 ,9 ,VAL5CIA1 = EXAMPLE1 ! RUL+ REVOLUTION>Y ,JUNTA WAS 0DOM9AT$ BY ! MEMB]S ( ! CITY C\NCIL & BY DELEGATES FROM ! CA!DRAL *APT] & P>I%ES40 ,ONLY ! P>I% DELEGATES1 A M9ORITY1 W]E ELECT$ DEMOCRATICALLY BY ASSEMBLIES4 

,:]E ! ,COMUN]O MOVEM5T DEP>TS MO/ DRA/ICALLY FROM ! MODEL IS AT ! LEVEL FEW ( ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S O!R EXAMPLES EV5 GET TO1 ! F$]AT$ COMMUNES OR1 WE MI<T SAY1 ! ,JUNTA ( ,JUNTAS1 OR1 (FICIALLY1 ! ,CORTES4 ,9 SOME CITIES ?IS ,JUNTA APPO9T$ CORREGIDORES & JUDGES AS ! ,CR[N HAD DONE4 ,IT ALSO DEM&$ PAYM5T1 TO IT1 ( ! V]Y ROYAL TAXES :I* W]E A MAJOR CAUSE ( ! REVOLUTION4 ,! ,JUNTA REA*$ ALL ! WAY D[N TO ! P>I%ES1 APPO9T+ SEV]AL MEMB]S TO BE RESPONSIBLE = COLLECTIONS4 ,AT ! DEA? ( ! >*BI%OP ( ,TOL$O1 IT =C$ ! CANONS TO ELECT ITS NOM9EE AS SUCCESSOR4 ,DISSATISFI$ ) ! P]=MANCE ( ! LOCAL MILITIAS 7ANO!R ,BOOK*9 FAVORITE7 -- :I* LOOT$ VILLAGES REG>DLESS :I* SIDE !Y W]E ON -- ! ,JUNTA RAIS$ A /&+ >MY RECRUIT$ FROM =M] ROYAL GU>DS4.<#g#i#a.> ,9 ITS 9T]NAL >RANGEM5TS1 ! ,CORTES WAS AS ANTI-F$]AL AS 9 ITS TAX POLICIES3 0,9 ORD] TO PROVIDE = EFFICI5T DECISION-MAK+1 ! ,JUNTA OP]AT$ BY MAJORITY VOTE & TOOK POLICY DECISIONS ON ! SPOT1 )\T WAIT+ = DELEGATES TO ASK !IR CITIES = FUR!R 9/RUCTIONS40.<#g#i#b.> ,ONLY 9 ITS F9AL FAIL+ PHASE DID RADICALS DISPLACE =M] C\NCIL MEMB]S & HIDALGOS 7M9OR NOBILITY7 & TAKE P[] 9 A FEW ( ! LOCAL ,JUNTAS1 & BY !N ! MOVEM5T HAD LO/ SO MU* POPUL> SUPPORT ?AT !SE TRANSI5T TAKEOV]S CANNOT BE CONSID]$ DEMOCRATIC4 

,O!RWISE1 ,I F\ND ONLY SCATT]$ SCRAPS ( 9=MATION ON ! GOV]NANCE ( ,SPANI% CITIES1 BUT ALL CON=M TO ! /&>D MODEL ( PRE-9DU/RIAL URBAN OLIG>*Y1 ITS COMPOSITION V>Y+ SOME:AT AT DIFF]5T TIMES & PLACES4 ,9 ! #a#c? C5TURY ! MON>*Y SANCTION$ ! REGIMI5TO1 AN OLIG>*Y ( ! URBAN G5TRY4.<#g#i#c.> ,BY ! 5D ( ! #a#b? C5TURY1 NON-NOBLE 0KNI<TS0 CONTROLL$ URBAN GOV]NM5T2 9 ! #a#e? C5TURIES ! RICS HOM5S CIUTANS1 0RI* CITIZ5S10 A SMALL NUMB] ( V]Y RI* M51 CONTROLL$ CITY GOV]NM5T4.<#g#i#d.> ,9 M$IEVAL ,>AGON1 9CLUD+ ,CATALONIA1 MUNICIPAL GOV]NM5T WAS 9 ! H&S ( PATRICIANS 70HONOR$ CITIZ5S071 JURATS ELECT$ BY ! CITIZ5S OR1 9 SOME CASES1 *OOS+ !IR [N SUCCESSORS 7COOPTATION74 ,!Y W]E EXPECT$ TO CONSULT ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY ( T[NSM5 ON IMPORTANT MATT]S4.<#g#i#e.> ,9 ,B>CELONA SPECIFICALLY1 GOV]NM5T WAS BY A ,C\NCIL ( ! ,ONE ,HUNDR$ PRESID$ OV] BY FIVE OR SIX ( ! C\NCILORS4 ,! ,C\NCIL HAD ! SOLE LEGISLATIVE 9ITIATIVE & AU?ORITY OV] EXP5DITURES4 ,BY ,CR[N DIRECTIVE1 0HONOR$ CITIZ5S0 7:O W]E R5TI]S7 MONOPOLIZ$ ! ,C\NCIL & COOPT$ !IR SUCCESSORS4.<#g#i#f.> ,9 ,GALICIA 9 #a#f#c#c1 POSITIONS W]E RES]V$ = A H&FUL ( M5 PICK$ BY !IR COLLEAGUES = LIFE2 LAT] ! URBAN G5TRY W]E ADMITT$ TO %>E P[]4.<#g#i#g.> ,!RE IS NO H9T ( A GOV]N+ POPUL> ASSEMBLY ANY:]E4 

,9 ,ITALY ! ,R5AISSANCE CITY-/ATES W]E JU/ ?AT1 /ATES4 ,ONLY A H&FUL ( ,ITALIAN CITIES W]E 9DEP5D5T1 & !Y ALL RE/$ ON ! EXPLOITATION ( !IR CONTADOS -- EXT5SIVE RURAL H9T]L&S ADM9I/]$ BY (FICIALS FROM ! CITY1 AS EV5 ,KROPOTK9 ADMITS4.<#g#i#h.> ,EXPLOITATION ( P[]LESS PEASANTS SEEMS TO BE A UNIV]SAL FEATURE ( SOV]EIGN CITIES 7EXCEPT = ,A!NS1 :I* EXPLOIT$ ITS EMPIRE & ITS SLAVES 9/EAD ( ITS H9T]L&74 ,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS AV]S ?AT ! ,ITALIAN COMMUNE WAS MORE ?AN A T[N1 0IT WAS ABOVE ALL AN ASSOCIATION ( BUR<]S :O W]E SOLEMNLY UNIT$ BY AN OA? OR CONJURATIO0 :I* COMMITT$ !M TO SUBORD9ATE P]SONAL 9T]E/ TO ! COMMON GOOD & EV5 0TO ORD]LY & BROADLY CONS5SUAL WAYS ( GOV]N+ !MSELVES ) A DEC5T RESPECT = 9DIVIDUAL LIB]TY & A PL$GE TO !IR MUTUAL DEF5SE40.<#g#i#i.> ,! WORD 0BUR<]S0 IS C>EFULLY *OS5 TO MISLEAD4 ,IT CAN MEAN M]ELY A T[NSMAN1 BUT ?AT MEAN+ IS OBSOLETE4.<#h.> ,IT SUGGE/S ! COMMON PEOPLE1 OR P]HAPS ALL ! PEOPLE ( A T[N4 ,! COMMON PEOPLE W]E NEV] 9VIT$ 9TO !SE SWORN BRO!RHOODS4 ,! P>TIES TO ! CONJURATIO W]E >I/OCRATS & LAT]1 ALSO RI* COMMON]S4 ,A *APT] TITLE FROM A S\RCE ,BOOK*9 QUOTES SAYS IT ALL3 0,! ,E>LY ,COMMUNE & ,ITS ,NOBILITY40 ,5TIRELY EXCLUD$ W]E ! POOR1 SELF-EMPLOY$ CRAFTSM51 WAGE WORK]S1 & EV5 M]*ANTS ( ! MIDDL+ SORT4 ,EV5 AT !IR MO/ DEMOCRATIC1 UND] ! RULE ( ! POPOL9I1 ! ACTIVE CITIZ5RY /ILL EXCLUD$ UNSKILL$ & F>M WORK]S1 REC5T IMMIGRANTS -- ! ,/RANG]6 -- & MANY >TISANS4 ,:5 !IR GUILDS CAME TO P[]1 !Y =BID NEW GUILDS FROM =M+4.<#h#a.> 

,IT REQUIR$ A LOT ( CUTT+ & PA/+ TO TURN ?IS S\RCE1 ,LAURO ,M>T9ES1 9TO A SUPPORT = ,BOOK*9'S !SIS3 0,WE KN[ ?AT ITS MEMB]S .<! CONSULATE.> W]E *OS5 AT A G5]AL ASSEMBLY ( ! COMMUNE ITSELF1 A POPUL> ASSEMBLY ?AT 'WAS QUITE LIKELY CONV5$ ) SOME REGUL>ITY1 & 9 TIMES ( TR\BLE EV5 MORE (T51' ,LAURO ,M>T9ES TELLS US4 ',H]E ! VIEWS ( LEAD+ M5 W]E HE>D & IMPORTANT DECISIONS TAK51 USUALLY BY ACCLAMATION4 ,WE KN[1 TOO1 ?AT ?IS G5]AL ASSEMBLY '( ALL ! MEMB]S ( ! COMMUNE' WAS ! 'OLDE/ COMMUNAL 9/ITUTION' ( !SE ,ITALIAN CITIES1 & FUR!R1 ?AT ! CONSULS USUALLY 'S\ND$ \T' ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY' BE=E !Y MADE ANY MAJOR DECISIONS AB\T SU* ISSUES AS W> & PEACE1 TAXES1 & LAWS40.<#h#b.> ,EV5 AFT] SP9N+ HIS S\RCE LIKE A TOP1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS (F]S AN ACC\NT :I* %[S ?AT ! COMMUNE ( HI/ORY IS NOT ! ,COMMUNE AS HE HAS R$EF9$ IT4 ,! ASSEMBLY ELECTS ! CONSULS BUT1 HAV+ DONE SO1 ITS ROLE IS R$UC$ TO CONSULTATION AT ! OPTION ( ! CONSULS1 :O DECIDE W> & PEACE1 TAXES1 LAWS -- 9 %ORT1 EV]Y?+4 

,IT PROVES 9T]E/+ TO RE/ORE !SE FRAGM5TS ( QUOTATION 7ITALICIZ$7 TO !IR CONTEXT3 ,! OLDE/ COMMUNAL 9/ITUTION WAS ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY ( ALL ! MEMB]S ( ! COMMUNE4  
  

,!SE W]E ! F\ND+ MEMB]S & !IR DESC5DANTS1 9 ADDITION TO ALL ?OSE :O W]E TAK5 9TO ! COMMUNE FROM TIME TO TIME4 ,! CONSULS W]E ALWAYS DRAWN FROM ?IS CORPS4 ,DUR+ ! FIR/ G5]ATION OR SO ( ! COMMUNE'S EXI/5CE1 ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY WAS QUITE LIKELY CONV5$ ) SOME REGUL>ITY1 & 9 TIMES ( TR\BLE EV5 MORE (T54 ,H]E ! VIEWS ( LEAD+ M5 W]E HE>D & IMPORTANT DECISIONS TAK51 USUALLY BY ACCLAMATION4 ,LAT]1 AS ! COMMUNE EXP&$ & ASSEMBLY MEET+S BECAME MORE DIFFICULT TO MANAGE1 ! 0P>LIAM5T ( ! :OLE0 WAS CALL$ LESS (T5 -- ON ,SUNDAYS1 SAY1 OR EV5 ONCE A YE> -- & IT C>RI$ LESS WEI<T1 SAVE 9 EM]G5CY SESSIONS4  

,VOT+ 9 ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY WAS DONE BY FIAT3 M5 %\T$ YES OR NO4 ,ALL REAL COMMUNAL AU?ORITY ISSU$ FROM ?IS BODY & C\LD RETURN TO IT4 ,A P>LIAM5T WAS ! SUPREME AU?ORITY1 ! FNAL DECISION-MAK+ BODY4 ,BUT ! LEGISLATIVE 9ITIATIVE1 ! P[] TO MOVE *ANGE1 LAY ) ! CONSULS2 & HI/ORIANS SUSPECT ?AT NO TRUE DISCUSSION WAS P]MITT$ 9 ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY4 ,! CONSULS 9TRODUC$ ALL PROPOSALS4 ,ONE ( ! LEAD+ CONSULS DEF5D$ ! MOTION BE=E ! ASSEMBL$ COMMUNE2 !N1 POSSIBLY1 TWO OR ?REE ( ! MORE EXP]I5C$ NOTABLES W]E 9VIT$ TO SPEAK & ! ASSEMBLY MOV$ DIRECTLY TO A VOTE BY ACCLAMATION4  

,! CONSULATE1 ! ASSEMBL$ BODY ( CONSULS1 WAS ! COMMUNE'S HI<E/ EXECUTIVE & JUDICIAL MAGI/RACY4 ,ALL IMPORTANT DAILY MATT]S W]E DISCUSS$ & DECID$ H]E4 ,HAV+ S\ND$ \T ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY1 ! CONSULS MADE W> & PEACE1 L$ ! COMMUNAL >MIES1 W]E RESPONSIBLE = ! DEF5SE ( ! CITY1 LEVI$ TAXES1 SIR$ LEGISLATION1 & S]V$ AS ! F9AL APPELLATE C\RT4 ,! CONSULATE WAS ! FOCUS ( P[] 9 ! E>LY COMMUNE3 IT WAS ALWAYS COVET$1 ALWAYS PRIZ$ BY ! AMBITI\S4 ,! NUMB] ( CONSULS V>I$ ACCORD+ TO TIME & PLACE4 ,A RANGE ( FROM F\R TO TW5TY CONSULS WAS NOT UNCOMMON2 MORE (T5 !Y NUMB]$ FROM F\R TO TWELVE4 ,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 A T]M ( (FICE WAS = ONE YE> -- 9ITIALLY AT ,G5OA = ?REE YE>S -- & AN 9CUMB5T C\LD NOT RETURN TO ! CONSULATE UNTIL AFT] ! ELAPSE ( ONE OR TWO ADDITIONAL T]MS4 ,BUT ?IS PRACTICE WAS ABOLI%$4 ,! COMMUNE %ELT]$ GR\PS 9 FAVOR ( A TI<T] HOLD OV] ELECTIONS & OV] ! SORT+ \T ( P[]4 ,TRIUMPH+1 !SE GR\PS EVOLV$ ! PRACTICE :]EBY CONSULS ELECT$ !IR [N SUCCESSORS DIRECTLY OR 9DIRECTLY4 ,TO BE EFFECTIVE1 CONSULATES D\BTLESS S\<T TO HAVE AMICABLE RELATIONS ) ! COMMUNE'S COLLECTIVE MANIFE/ATION1 ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY4 ,BUT IT IS CLE>1 TOO1 ?AT SOME LIMIT+ PR9CIPLE1 ATTA*+ MO/ LIKELY TO QUALITY .<,M>T9ES' ITALICS.> AS A FUNCTION ( PROP]TY & /ATUS1 S]V$ TO RE/RICT EFFECTIVE P[] TO A SELECT NUMB] ( M5 & FAMILIES4.<#h#c.>  
  

,& H]E IS SOME?+ ELSE ! EX-,DIRECTOR DID NOT QUOTE3 0,! NOBILITY DOM9AT$ ! CONSULATE1 MANIPULAT$ ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY1 & RUL$ ! CITY 444 0.<#h#d.> ,SO CYNICAL AN 9/ANCE ( DECEIT BY SELECTIVE QUOTATION DOES NOT COME ALONG (T5 UNLESS ONE (T5 READS ,BOOK*94 

,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS MU/ ?9K HIS READ]S HAVE ! ATT5TION SPAN ( A HYP]ACTIVE TODDL]4 ,AT ONE PO9T HE ADMITS ! REAL IMPORT ( ! S\RCES3 0,:AT IS 9SUFFICI5TLY KN[N AB\T ! ,ITALIAN COMMUNE IS ! EXT5T TO :I* IT BECAME A /AGE = A WORK+ DEMOCRACY & ITS ACTORS A NEW EXPRESSION = .<SIC.> AN ACTIVE CITIZ5RY40 ,TRANSLATION3 WE DON'T KN[ IF ! ,ITALIAN COMMUNES W]E DEMOCRATIC4 ,HE \<T NOT TO BE EV5 TALK+ AB\T !M4 ,BUT TWO S5T5CES LAT] HIS KN[L$GE IS N[ SUFFICI5T & ! F9D+S >E GRATIFY+3 0,DEMOCRACY CLE>LY EM]G$ 9 ! E>LY ,ITALIAN CITIES1 NOT ONLY REPRES5TATIVE =MS ( GOV]NANCE & OLIG>*IES ( V>I\S K9DS1 ONLY TO SUBM]GE & !N REAPPE> AGA9 = A %ORT TIME 9 RI*LY >TICULAT$ =MS40.<#h#e.> 

,ONLY A T9Y FRACTION ( ! 0BUR<]S0 C\LD HOLD (FICE -- ELITES NUMB]+ 9 ! HUNDR$S RUL+ CITY POPULATIONS NUMB]+ 9 ! T5S ( ?\S&S4.<#h#f.> ,9 ,V5ICE1 ) A POPULATION ( #a#b1 9 #ac & #a#a#e1 9 #a#e#i1 #b PATRICIAN FAMILIES BELONG$ TO ! ,GREAT ,C\NCIL4 ,9 ,FLOR5CE AT ITS MO/ DEMOCRATIC 7#a#d#i#d-#a#e#a#b71 #c1#e MALES \T ( A POPULATION ( #f1 BELONG$ TO ! (FICEHOLD+ CLASS4 ,G5]ALLY1 9 ! #a#d? & #a#e? C5TURIES ! (FICEHOLD+ CLASS WAS AB\T #a.0 ( ! POPULATION4.<#h#g.> ,BOOK*9 REPEATS ! OLD CLI*E ?AT 0URBAN AIR MAKES = FRE$OM10 BUT V]Y (T5 IT DID NOT3  
  

,B5EFIT+ FROM ?IS COLLECTIVE SOLID>ITY SUPPOS$ A CITIZ5%IP ?AT WAS 9 REALITY DIFFICULT TO ACQUIRE4 ,IT IMPLI$ ADMISSION1 SPONSOR%IP1 & 9CLUSION 9 A TRADE OR ! PUR*ASE ( PROP]TY4 ,BECOM+ A P>T ( ! PEOPLE WAS NOT AN EASY MATT]1 & MO/ 9HABITANTS )\T MEANS PROV$ 9CAPABLE ( P5ETRAT+ ! 9T]NAL WALLS ]ECT$ BY JEAL\S M9ORITIES4  
  

0,! ELUSIVE CITIZ50 ?AT ,BOOK*9 /ALKS ?R\< HI/ORY IS ELUSIVE BECAUSE HE IS ONE AMONG A SMALL SELECT ELITE4.<#h#h.> 

,9 MO/ CITIES1 ASSEMBLIES MET ONLY ANNUALLY & W]E PASSIVE1 0( A =MAL *>ACT]10 & W]E LAT] R$UC$ TO AN ANNUAL EX*ANGE ( OA?S ( S]VICE & OB$I5CE ) ! CONSULS :O HELD ! REAL P[]4 ,! TR5D WAS T[>D TI<T] OLIG>*Y4 0,! TRUE CORE ( ! CITY-/ATE WAS =M$ BY ! MAGI/RACY ( ! CONSULS0 :O *OSE !IR [N SUCCESSORS & :OSE (FICES W]E FAMILY MONOPOLIES4 ,AS ANO!R HI/ORIAN PUTS IT -- ANO!R IRONY = ,BOOK*9 ! AN>*I/ -- 0VIRTUALLY ALL ,ITALIAN CITIES DEVELOP$ TRUE GOV]NM5TS ) CONSULS40.<#h#i.> ,ALL !SE SO-CALL$ ,COMMUNES W]E OLIG>*IES4.<#h#a.> ,TALK ( !IR 0RI*LY >TICULAT$ =MS0 IS MOON%9E4 ,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS IS NO D\BT CORRECT ?AT ! ,ITALIAN COMMUNES W]E 9F]IOR TO ,A!NS 9 !IR REALIZATION ( ! IDEAL4 ,!Y SELECT$ !IR RUL]S BY 9DIRECT ELECTION OR BY COOPTATION OR BY LOT1 BUT NEV] BY DIRECT ELECTION4 ,AS ,PET] ,BURKE WRITES1 0!RE WAS NO TRUE ,ITALIAN P>ALLEL TO ! ,A!NIAN ASSEMBLY40.<#h#a#a.> ,NO ASSEMBLY1 NO DEMOCRACY4 

,BE=E WE DEP>T SUNNY ,ITALY = ! /ONY FIELDS ( ,NEW ,5GL&1 LET US PAY A C\RTESY CALL ON ,NICCOLO ,MA*IAVELLI1 :O HAS FALL5 9TO BAD COMPANY3 ,BOOK*9'S4 ,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS CLAIMS ?AT 0,MA*IAVELLI'S >GUM5T CLE>LY TIPS T[>D A REPUBLIC & AN >M$ CITIZ5RY RA!R ?AN A PR9CE & A PR(ESSIONAL >MY40.<#h#a#b.> ,NEV] M9D ?AT HE TITL$ HIS BOOK ,! ,PR9CE & D$ICAT$ IT TO ,LOR5ZO DI ,M$ICI6 ,AS ,I HAVE REM>K$1 HIS 0,IL ,PR9CIPE WAS CLE>LY NOT DIRECT$ TO A M&AT$ & REVOCABLE DELEGATE RESPONSIBLE TO ! BASE1 BUT RA!R TO A MAN ON HORSEBACK1 SOMEBODY LIKE ,CAES>E ,BORGIA40.<#h#a#c.> ,MA*IAVELLI (F]$ NO >GUM5T ?AT EV5 TIPP$ T[>D A REPUBLIC4 ,HIS PREF]5CE = MILITIA OV] M]C5>IES IS EXPLICITLY ADDRESS$ TO PR9CES & REPUBLICS ALIKE3 ONE *APT] TITLE IS 0,PR9CES & ,REPUBLICS ,:O ,FAIL TO ,HAVE ,NATIONAL ,>MIES >E ,MU* TO ,BE ,BLAM$40 ,MA*IAVELLI1 LIKE O!R ,FLOR5T9E 9TELLECTUALS1 REJECT$ ,A!NS & FAVOR$ ,SP>TA AS A MODEL4 ,HE HAD IDEOLOGUES LIKE ! EX-,DIRECTOR 9 M9D :5 HE WROTE ?AT 0IT APPE>S TO ME MORE PROP] TO GO TO ! REAL TRU? ( ! MATT] ?AN TO ITS IMAG9ATION2 & MANY HAVE IMAG9$ REPUBLICS & PR9CIPALITIES :I* HAVE NEV] BE5 SE5 OR KN[N TO EXI/ 9 REALITY40.<#h#a#d.> ,IT US$ TO BE ?AT ,BOOK*9 GROSSLY DI/ORT$ :AT HIS S\RCES SAY4 ,AS N[ HE SOON FATIGUES1 HE TAKES IT EASY & JU/ MAKES IT ALL UP4 

,CITIES 9 ! RE/ ( M$IEVAL ,EUROPE L5D NOT EV5 A %AD[ ( SUPPORT TO ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S L9E4 ,EMP]ORS & K+S HELD A %>E ( P[]2 AS ,PTOLEMY ( ,LUCCA OBS]V$ AT ! TIME1 0CITIES LIVE POLITICALLY .<I4E41 !Y >E SELF-GOV]N+.> 9 ALL REGIONS1 :E!R 9 ,G]MANY1 ,SCY?IA OR ,GAUL1 AL?\< !Y MAY BE CIRCUMSCRIB$ BY ! MI<T ( ! K+S OR EMP]ORS1 TO :OM !Y >E B\ND BY E/ABLI%$ LAWS40 ,! ,S\? ,G]MAN FREE CITIES 0NEV] ATTA9$ ! FULL AUTONOMY ( CITY-/ATES40 ,!Y W]E USUALLY RUL$ BY OLIG>*IES ( MIX$ M]*ANTS & R5TI]S4 ,BOOK*9 CLAIMS ! ,HANSEATIC ,LEAGUE = DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 BUT1 0AL?\< ! ,HANSE (T5 =C$ K+S & PR9CES TO CAPITULATE1 NO ONE HAD ! IDEA ( F\ND+ A 'MOD]N' CITY-/ATE40.<#h#a#e.> 

,CONTR>Y TO ,BOOK*91.<#h#a#f.> ! ,FLEMI% CITIES W]E REPRES5TATIVE1 NOT DIRECT DEMOCRACIES4 ,!RE W]E NO ASSEMBLIES4 ,EV5 AFT] REVOLUTIONS MADE ! GUILDS P>TICIPANTS 9 POLITICAL P[]1 0! ADM9I/RATION ( ! T[N REMA9$ 9 ! H&S ( ! E*EV9S .<MAGI/RATES.> & ! C\NCIL1 & NO ESS5TIAL MODIFICATION TOOK PLACE40.<#h#a#g.> ,9 ! ,NE!RL&S1 0A /ATE ( #ee CITIES10 ! VRO$S*AP1 A C\NCIL *OS5 = LIFE BY COOPTATION1 ELECT$ TWO TO F\R BURGOMA/]S & SEV5 OR MORE ALD]M54 ,BY ! #a#g? C5TURY1 ! SIZE ( ! C\NCIL WAS R$UC$1 & SO WAS ! NUMB] ( FAMILIES ADMITT$ TO GOV]NM5T4.<#h#a#h.> ,CONTR>Y TO ,BOOK*91.<#h#a#i.> ,G]MAN T[NS W]E RUL$ BY 0ELECT$ B\RGEOIS CITY C\NCILS0 :I* W]E ALWAYS OLIG>*ICAL4 ,FROM ! #a#c? C5TURY1 !Y 9CREAS+LY ADOPT$ ! 0LAW ( ,LUBECK0 :]EBY ! C\NCILS R5EW$ !IR MEMB]%IPS BY COOPTATION4.<#h#b.> ,FR5* COMMUNES ( ! #a#a? & #a#b? C5TURIES ELECT$ MAYORS & JURES 7MAGI/RATES71 BUT !Y W\LD LOSE EV5 ?AT MU* AUTONOMY TO ! C5TRALIZATION ( ! ,FR5* /ATE4.<#h#b#a.> ,9 ! #a#f? C5TURY1 T[NS W]E GOV]N$ BY CORPORATIONS ( MUNICIPAL MAGI/RATES4.<#h#b#b.> 

,BOOK*9 SPEAKS VAGUELY ( A 0,EUROPEAN0 COMMUNAL MOVEM5T1 BUT ! GREAT CITIES ( ,EUROPE -- ,P>IS1 ,LONDON1 ,MADRID1 ,LISBON1 ,PAL]MO1 ,ROME1 ,NAPLES1 ,VI5NA1 ,MOSC[1 ,CON/ANT9OPLE -- W]E UND] DIRECT ROYAL CONTROL1 & SO W]E ! CITIES & T[NS ( 5TIRE C\NTRIES4 ,9 LATE M$IEVAL & E>LY MOD]N TIMES1 OLIG>*Y WAS UNIV]SAL ALONG ! ,DALMATIAN COA/1 9 ,AU/RIA1 ,5GL&1 ,S]BIA & ,BOSNIA1 ,POL&1 ,HUNG>Y1 ,PORTUGAL & ?R\<\T NOR!RN ,EUROPE4.<#h#b#c.> ,?IS %\LD SURPRISE NO ONE BUT LIB]T>IAN MUNICIPALI/S4 

,ONLY ,BOOK*9 BELIEVES ?AT ! ,NEW ,5GL& T[N MEET+ IS N[ MORE ?AN A REMNANT ( :AT IT WAS1 & IT WAS NEV] AS ROBU/ AS ITS CELEBRANTS BELIEVE4 ,A CREATURE ( /ATE LEGISLATION1 IT SP5DS CONSID]ABLE TIME EXECUT+ /ATE M&ATES4 ,IT MEETS ANNUALLY1 & ! (FICIALS IT ELECTS >E NOT ANSW]ABLE TO ANYONE BETWE5 T[N MEET+S4 ,MO/ T[NSPEOPLE /AY HOME RA!R ?AN BO!R ) ADM9I/RATIVE TE*NICALITIES4 ,9 ,MASSA*USETTS IT IS NOT UNUSUAL = ATT5DANCE TO FALL BEL[ #a.02 9 ONE ,V]MONT T[N 9 ! E>LY #fS1 ATT5DANCE WAS B>ELY #a#e.02 9 ANO!R1 9 #a#i#g1 IT WAS #b#e.02 9 O!RS1 H>DLY ANYONE IS PRES5T EXCEPT (FICIALS :O >E REQUIR$ TO BE4.<#h#b#d.> ,JAMES ,?URB]1 ATT5D+ HIS FIR/ T[N MEET+ 9 #aid 7) ONE-SEV5? ( ! POPULATION PRES5T71 SUMM$ IT UP ?USLY3 0,IT HAD ! HEAT & TURMOIL ( ! FIR/ ,CONT95TAL ,CONGRESS )\T ITS NOBILITY ( PURPOSE & PURITY ( DESIGN40 ,T[N MEET+S N>R[$ CONSID]ABLY 9 ! #b? C5TURY4.<#h#b#e.> ,BUT H[ VITAL WAS ! T[N MEET+ 9 ITS PRIME8 ,W]E ,COMMUNES SCATT]$ ACROSS ! /ONY ,NEW ,5GL& L&SCAPE8 

,! GOV]NM5T ( ,MASSA*USETTS ,BAY CREAT$ ! T[N MEET+ SY/EM = ITS [N ADM9I/RATIVE CONV5I5CE4 ,9 ! E>LY YE>S1 ! ,G5]AL ,C\RT 7! LEGISLATURE7 LEGISLAT$ 9 REF]5CE TO ! MO/ IMPORTANT 9T]NAL AFFAIRS ( ! T[NS4 ,AT ALL TIMES 0NO ONE WAS ALL[$ TO TREAT ! ORD]S ( ! ,G5]AL ,C\RT ) DISRESPECT40 ,! C\RTS1 AN IMPORTANT 9/ITUTION ( GOV]NANCE1 W]E AT ALL TIMES CONTROLL$ BY ! ,G5]AL ,C\RT4.<#h#b#f.> ,AT ! T[N MEET+1 ATT5DANCE WAS COMPULSORY1 :I* IS PROBABLY :Y ATT5DANCE WAS NOT RECORD$4 7,9 #a#h? C5TURY ,RHODE ,ISL&1 :]E ATT5DANCE WAS VOLUNT>Y1 IT NEV] EXCE$$ #c.01 & WAS USUALLY MU* LESS -- MU* LIKE ,A!NS .<SEE ,*APT] #a#d.>47 ,L[ ATT5DANCE WAS ALSO *RONIC 9 ,CONNECTICUT4.<#h#b#g.>7 ,9 ! #a#g? C5TURY ! T[N MEET+ MET1 ON AV]AGE1 TWICE A YE>2 9 ! #a#h?1 ITS MODE/ APOGEE1 F\R OR FIVE TIMES A YE>4 ,AL?\< ITS AU?ORITY EXT5D$1 9 PR9CIPLE1 TO ALMO/ ANY?+1 9 PRACTICE1 MO/ MATT]S W]E DECID$ BY ! 0SELECTM50 -- ANNUALLY ELECT$ MAGI/RATES4 

,A #afci RESOLUTION REVEALS TO :AT EXT5T ! T[NSPEOPLE RESEMBLE ,BOOK*9'S CIVIC-M9D$ YEOM53 0:]EAS IT HAS BE5 F\ND BY G5]AL EXP]I5CE ?AT ! G5]AL MEET+ ( SO MANY M5 9 ONE .<ASSEMBLY TO CONSID].> ( ! COMMON AFFAIRS !RE( HAS WA/$ MU* TIME TO NO SMALL DAMAGE1 & BUS9ESS IS NO?+ FUR!R$ !REBY1 IT IS !RE=E N[ AGRE$ BY G5]AL CONS5T ?AT !SE SEV5 M5 H]EUND] NAM$ WE DO MAKE *OICE ( & GIVE !M FULL P[] TO CONTRIVE1 EXECUTE1 & P]=M ALL ! BUS9ESS & AFFAIRS ( ?IS :OLE T[N -- UNTO ! FIR/ ( ! T5? MON? NEXT40.<#h#b#h.> ,9 #a#g? C5TURY ,D$HAM1 ,MASSA*USETTS1 SELECTM5 S]V$ AN AV]AGE ( T5 T]MS EA*1 9 EFFECT = LIFE2 9 ! #a#h? C5TURY1 = HALF ?AT LONG4.<#h#b#i.> ,9 ANO!R ,PURITAN COLONY1 ,CONNECTICUT1 ! T[N MEET+ TRANSF]R$ ADM9I/RATIVE AU?ORITY TO SIX OR SEV5 SELECTM5 FROM AMONG ! T[N'S MO/ PROM95T CITIZ5S4.<#h#c.> ,9 ,RHODE ,ISL&1 ! MO/ RADICALLY DEMOCRATIC COLONY1 LEGISLATION REQUIR$ T[N MEET+S ONLY QU>T]LY1 & SOMETIMES T[NS MET LESS (T51 AL?\< ! #a#h? C5TURY AV]AGE -- ! HI<E/ ANY:]E -- WAS OV] FIVE MEET+S A YE>4.<#h#c#a.> 

,! ,MASSA*USETTS 7& ,CONNECTICUT7 T[NS FAIL TO BE ,COMMUNES BY /ILL ANO!R TE/3 !Y W]E NOT F$]AT$4 ,!RE IS NO?+ TO ,BOOK*9'S CLAIM ?AT !Y 0W]E NETWORK$ 9TO .<SIC.> ! 9T]IOR ( ! ,NEW ,5GL& COLONIES & /ATES40.<#h#c#b.> ,!Y HAD NO POLITICAL TIES TO ONE ANO!R2 EA* WAS SUBORD9AT$ TO ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T4 

,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS1 SUPPOS+ IT CONFIRMS HIS VISION ( ,NEW ,5GL& T[NS AS PLACES = 0! ACTIVE 9VOLVEM5T ( ! CITIZ5 9 P>TICIPATORY POLITICS1 PUBLIC SECURITY1 & ! DIRECT FACE-TO-FACE .<AS OPPOS$ TO ! 9DIRECT FACE-TO-FACE8.> RESOLUTION ( COMMUNITY PROBLEMS10 QUOTES HI/ORIAN ,ROB]T ,A4 ,GROSS3 0,:5 ! EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,YANKEE REFLECT$ ON GOV]NM5T1 HE ?\<T FIR/ ( HIS T[N4 ,?R\< T[N MEET+S1 HE ELECT$ HIS (FICIALS1 VOT$ HIS TAXES1 & PROVID$ = ! WELL-ORD]+ ( COMMUNITY AFFAIRS4 ,! MA9 BUS9ESS ( ! T[N CONC]N$ ROADS & BRIDGES1 S*OOLS1 & ! POOR -- ! /APLES ( LOCAL GOV]NM5T EV5 TODAY4 ,BUT ! COLONIAL ,NEW ,5GL& T[N CLAIM$ AU?ORITY OV] ANY?+ ?AT HAPP5$ )9 ITS BORD]S4 .<,EXAMPLES FOLL[4.>0 ,BOOK*9 FAILS TO NOTICE ?AT ONLY ! SECOND S5T5CE REF]S TO ! T[N MEET+4 ,! RE/ ( IT REF]S TO ! T[N1 :I* ACTS ?R\< SELECTM5 & O!R (FICIALS AS WELL AS1 & MU* MORE (T5 ?AN1 ! T[N MEET+4 ,) *>ACT]I/IC DI%ONE/Y1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS =BE>S TO QUOTE ! NEXT PAGE3 0,DEMOCRACY & EQUALITY PLAY$ NO P>T 9 !IR VIEW ( ! WORLD40.<#h#c#c.> 

,! REAL SOCIAL CONTEXT IS MISS+ FROM ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S S5TIM5TAL 9VOCATION ( 0! /RONG-M9D$ YEOMANRY0 ( ! 9T]IOR T[NS -- #g.0 ( ! COLONIAL POPULATION -- BE>]S ( ! DEMOCRATIC LEGACY1 :OSE F>M+ = SUBSI/5CE RA!R ?AN TRADE WAS 0A *ALL5G+ MORAL /ATEM5T0 ?AT !IRS WAS 0A VIRTU\S LIFE1 NOT A B\NTIFUL ONE40.<#h#c#d.> ,ACTUALLY1 0NEV] A PURELY SUBSI/5CE SOCIETY1 ! ,NEW ,5GL& COLONIES W]E ?US FROM E>LY 9 !IR HI/ORIES .<BE=E #a#f#f.> & 9CREAS+LY DUR+ ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY HEAVILY 9VOLV$ 9 TRADE40.<#h#c#e.> ,IT GOES )\T SAY+ ?AT ! F>M]S />T$ \T1 AS A MATT] ( SURVIVAL1 PRODUC+ = SUBSI/5CE4 ,BUT1 0E>LY 9 ! COLONIAL ]A1 ,NEW ,5GL& DEVELOP$ A DIV]SE & TI<TLY 9TEGRAT$ ECONOMY40.<#h#c#f.> ,AFT] #a#g1 DUR+ ! ,GOLD5 ,AGE ( ! T[N MEET+1 0MORE & MORE ( ! MIGRANTS BEGAN TO PRODUCE :EAT1 CATTLE1 & HORSES = SALE 9 ! COA/AL CITIES & 9 ! ,WE/ ,9DIES .<TO SU/A9 PLANTATION SLAV]Y.>40 ,COMM]CIAL AGRICULTURE UND]P9N$ ! T[NS ) !IR PECULI> POLITICAL SY/EMS4 ,! COMM]CIAL ORI5TATION ( COLONIAL ,NEW ,5GL&]S1 AS ( ,AM]ICANS G5]ALLY1 WAS EXPRESS$ 9 !IR 9T5SE 9VOLVEM5T 9 L& SPECULATION4.<#h#c#g.> 

,BY ! E>LY #a#h? C5TURY1 ,AM]ICANS G5]ALLY VIEW$ VIRTUE & SELF-9T]E/ AS COMPATIBLE1 EV5 MUTUALLY RE9=C+4 ,!Y HAD NEV] %[N A LOT ( PUBLIC SPIRIT1 & N[ !Y %[$ LESS4 ,COLONIAL POLITICS (F]$ LITTLE PROSPECT ( FAME & =TUNE1 09DE$1 ?R\<\T ! C\RSE ( ! E>LY EI<TE5? C5TURY1 !RE SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 A SIGNIFICANT DEVALUATION ( ! PUBLIC REALM 444 EV]Y SOCIETY 9 COLONIAL ,BRITI% ,AM]ICA1 9CLUD+ ,NEW ,5GL& AFT] AB\T #a#g1 EXHIBIT$ A BASICALLY PRIVATE ORI5TATION1 A P[]FUL UND]LY+ PR$ISPOSITION AMONG ! MEMB]S ( ITS FREE POPULATION TO PREOCCUPY !MSELVES ) ! PURSUIT ( P]SONAL & FAMILY 9DEP5D5CE40.<#h#c#h.> 

,ACCORD+ TO ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S P>AM\R ,BIEHL1  
  

.<444.> !IR T[N-PLANN+ PRACTICES REFLECT$ ?IS ORI5TATION T[>D DEMOCRATIC COMMUNITY4 ,! ORIG9AL GR\P :O F\ND$ A T[N W\LD COLLECTIVELY RECEIVE FROM ! COLONY ITSELF A DE$ TO ! L&1 :I* !Y DIVID$ AMONG !MSELVES4 ,EA* MALE 9HABITANT WAS GIV5 A ONE-TO-T5 ACRE PLOT ( L& AS A FREEHOLD1 ON :I* HE C\LD SUPPORT HIMSELF & HIS FAMILY4 ,L& [N]%IP WAS ?US KEPT R\<LY EGALIT>IAN 444 .<#h#c#i.>  
  

,! SIZE ( ! ALLOTM5TS IS GROSSLY UND]/AT$ TO SUB/ANTIATE ! EGALIT>IAN MY?4 ,!Y CORRESPOND$ TO ! SOCIAL HI]>*Y4 ,9 ,SUDBURY1 ! L>GE/ ALLOTM5T1 #ge ACRES1 W5T TO ! M9I/]2 ! SMALLE/ WAS ONE ACRE4 ,! T[N 0RANK$ ALL ( !SE M5 9 AN ECONOMIC HI]>*Y :I* WAS TO BE FIX$ & F9AL10 AS REFLECT$ BY !IR PREVI\S HOLD+S 9 ,WAT]T[N1 !IR PREVI\S PLACE ( RESID5CE2 9 ,SUDBURY1 ALLOTM5TS RANG$ FROM Z]O ACRES ( UPL& 7#a \T ( #e SETTL]S7 TO #abd ACRES1 ) JU/ #g M5 RECEIV+ #c ACRES OR MORE4 ,SIMIL>LY1 A MAN'S 0RANK & QUALITY10 9 ,D$HAM1 WAS A MAJOR CRIT]ION = ALLOTM5T3 0A CLE>LY DEF9$ SOCIAL HI]>*Y WAS ALSO A P>T ( ! IDEAL ( ! F\ND]S1 & ! T[N'S L& POLICIES W]E SET ACCORD+LY40.<#h#d.> ,:ILE T[N F\ND]S W]E RELIGI\S COMMUNICANTS1 0AT ! \TSET1 ?OSE ATT5D+ ! T[N MEET+ CONSI/$ ( ! PROPRIETORS TO :OM ALLOTM5TS ( L& HAD BE5 MADE40 ,! T[NS W]E F\ND$ BY PR(IT-SEEK+ 5TREPR5EURS :O OBTA9$ GRANTS1 NEGOTIAT$ ) ! ,9DIANS1 CREAT$ A L&HOLD+ CORPORATION1 ADMITT$ %>EHOLD]S1 ETC43 0EV]Y T[N REFLECT$ ! *>ACT] ( A BUS9ESS 9 EI!R ! /RUCTURE ( ITS 9/ITUTIONS OR ! APPORTIONM5T ( RI<TS40 ,I QUOTE FROM A /UDY ) ! WITTY TITLE ,PR(ITS 9 ! ,WILD]NESS4.<#h#d#a.> ,BOOK*9 HAS ELABORAT$ \T ( ! E!R A ,NEW ,5GL& ) NEI!R ,PURITANS NOR ,YANKEES4 

,9VOK+ ! AID ( YET ANO!R DISCR$IT$ OLD !ORY1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS EVOKES 7)\T CR$IT7 ,FR$]ICK ,JACKSON ,TURN]'S HO>Y !ORY ?AT ! FRONTI] PROMOT$ ,AM]ICAN DEMOCRACY3 0,AN 9CR$IBLY LOOSE DEMOCRACY & MUTUALISM .<SIC.> PREVAIL$ ALONG A FRONTI] ?AT WAS (T5 BEYOND ! REA* ( ! COMP>ATIVELY WEAK NATIONAL GOV]NM5T40.<#h#d#b.> 7,BUT USUALLY )9 REA* ( ! COMP>ATIVELY /RONG /ATE GOV]NM5TS4.<#h#d#c.>7 ,! FRONTI] WAS NO MORE DEMOCRATIC ?AN ! OLD] SETTL$ >EAS4 ,! #a#h? C5TURY ,CONNECTICUT T[N ( ,K5T1 = 9/ANCE1 HAD A T[N MEET+ SY/EM JU/ LIKE ! ONE WE HAVE SE5 9 EA/]N ,MASSA*USETTS1 :I* WAS NOT A FRONTI] >EA4 ,?AT IS1 ! ASSEMBLY MET ANNUALLY TO ELECT SELECTM5 & O!R (FICIALS 7CON/ABLES1 GR& JURORS1 TAX LI/]S1 TAX COLLECTORS1 TI?+ M5 & F5CE VIEW]S74 ,JU/ICES ( ! PEACE W]E *OS5 BY ! COLONIAL GOV]NM5T4.<#h#d#d.> ,QUITE DEMOCRATIC = ITS TIME 444 BUT NOT BY ,BOOK*9'S DEF9ITION4 ,A V]Y ?OR\<1 QUANTIFI$ /UDY ( ! FRONTI] P]IOD 9 ,TREMPEALEAU ,C\NTY1 ,WISCONS9 -- :I*1 LIKE ,K5T1 HAD ANNUAL T[N MEET+S -- F\ND T[N & C\NTY GOV]NM5TS V]Y DEMOCRATIC1 BUT LESS SO AT ITS FRONTI] BEG9N+S ?AN AFT] TWO DECADES ( DEVELOPM5T4.<#h#d#e.> ,& EV5 ,TURN] DISMISS$ ! CLI*E ( ! WEAK & DI/ANT NATIONAL GOV]NM5T3 0,! FRONTI] REA*$ BY ! ,PACIFIC ,RAILROAD1 SURVEY$ 9TO RECTANGLES1 GU>D$ BY ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ,>MY1 & RECRUIT$ BY ! DAILY IMMIGRANT %IP1 MOVES =W>D AT A SWIFT] PACE & 9 A DIFF]5T WAY ?AN ! FRONTI] REA*$ BY ! BIR* CANOE & ! PACK HORSE40.<#h#d#f.> 

,! FRONTI] WAS NEV] MU* DIFF]5T POLITICALLY FROM ! RE/ ( ! C\NTRY1 & IT WAS ALWAYS AS MU* LIKE ! RE/ ( ! C\NTRY AS ! SETTL]S C\LD MAKE IT4 ,?US1 AS ,RI*>D ,H(/ADT] CONCLUDES1 0:ILE IT IS PROBABLY TRUE ?AT LIFE WAS FREQU5TLY MORE EGALIT>IAN 9 FRONTI] COMMUNITIES ?AN 9 SETTL$ >EAS1 ! TRULY SIGNIFICANT FACTS >E ! BREVITY ( ! FRONTI] EXP]I5CE1 ! SMALL NUMB]S ( PEOPLE :O >E 9VOLV$ 9 & DIRECTLY AFFECT$ BY IT1 & ! READ9ESS ) :I*1 ONCE ! PRIMITIVE /AGE ( SETTLEM5T IS PA/1 ! VILLAGES & CITIES ONLY REC5TLY REMOV$ FROM !IR FRONTI] LIFE REPRODUCE ! SOCIAL /RATIFICATION1 POLITICAL =MS1 & PATT]NS ( LEAD]%IP & CONTROL ?AT EXI/ 9 SIMIL> COMMUNITIES F> TO ! EA/40 ,NEW T[NS QUICKLY FELL UND] ! CONTROL ( P[]FUL LOCAL ELITES4.<#h#d#g.> 

,! TRADITIONS ( ! ,PURITANS W]E HI]>*IC1 DEF]5TIAL & ?OR\<LY UNDEMOCRATIC2 CIVIL AU?ORITY WAS ( ,GOD4.<#h#d#h.> ,DEMOCRACY WAS A DIRTY WORD 9 #a#g? C5TURY ,AM]ICA AS IT WAS EV]Y:]E ELSE4 ,! EM]G5CE ( ! T[N MEET+ WAS UN9T5D$1 =TUIT\S & ADV5TITI\S4 ,CLE>LY IT WAS NEV] AUTONOM\S OR DIRECT-DEMOCRATIC 5\< TO QUALIFY AS A ,COMMUNE4 ,! T[NS REVEAL A DYSJUNCTURE BETWE5 ,BOOK*9'S POLITICAL & SOCIAL IDEALS TO :I* HE IS OBLIVI\S4 ,9 HIS USUAL DUALI/IC WAY1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS ASSIGNS EV]Y?+ TO CATEGORIES ( GOOD & EVIL & !N AFFIRMS ! CONNECTION OR COH]5CE ( ! ITEMS 9 EA* CATEGORY4 ,= ,BOOK*91 ! POLITICALLY GOOD IS ! ,COMMUNE1 & ! SOCIALLY & ECONOMICALLY GOOD IS ! 0MORAL ECONOMY0 7I4E41 SUBSI/5CE F>M+ CONSCI\SLY *OS5 9/EAD ( COMM]CE71 COMMUNIT>IAN SOLID>ITY1 & ! PURSUIT ( VIRTUE RA!R ?AN PROSP]ITY4 

,ANTICIPAT+ ! OBVI\S EMPIRICAL OBJECTIONS TO ?IS IDEOLOGICAL CON/RUCT1 ! EX-,DIRECTOR PULLS A DIALECTICAL RABBIT \T ( HIS B]ET1 9SI/+ ON CONSID]+ ! ,PURITAN T[NS 0NOT SIMPLY AS !Y EXI/$ AT ANY GIV5 MOM5T ( TIME1 BUT AS !Y EVOLV$1 EV5TUALLY TO BECOME C5T]S ( SOCIAL REBELLION1 CIVIC AUTONOMY1 & COLLECTIVE LIB]TY40.<#h#d#i.> ,F9E1 LET'S ?9K DEVELOPM5TAL4 ,EVOLV+ POLITICAL & SOCIAL TR5DS DID MOVE -- 9 OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS4 ,AS ! POLITICAL SY/EM MOV$ T[>D A BROAD] FRAN*ISE1 MORE FREQU5T & VIGOR\S T[N MEET+S1 & GREAT] T[N P[] RELATIVE TO ! COLONIAL GOV]NM5T1 !RE WAS SIMULTANE\SLY ECONOMIC DIV]SIFICATION1 9CREAS+ PRODUCTION = SALE 9/EAD ( USE1 CONT9U$ L& SPECULATION ON AN EV] WID] SCALE1 MOVEM5T \T ( ! C\NTRY T[NS TO ! COMM]CIAL C5T]S OR ! FRONTI]1 DISP]SAL \T ( ! ORIG9AL NUCLEAT$ SETTLEM5TS 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE1 9CREAS+ LITIGATION1 RELIGI\S DIV]SITY1 ! BREAKD[N ( CONGREGATIONAL DISCIPL9E1 & 9 G5]AL1 ! ASC5DANCY ( 9DIVIDUALISM & MAT]IAL SELF-9T]E/4 ,! T[N MEET+ BECAME MORE ACTIVE PRECISELY BECAUSE COMMUNAL CONS5SUS WAS GIV+ WAY TO CONT5TION PREMIS$ ON HET]OG5EITY4.<#h#e.> ,! OLIG>*IC COMMUNALLY-ORI5T$ ,PURITAN MUTAT$ 9TO ! ACQUISITIVE DEMOCRATIC ,YANKEE4 ,! EX-,DIRECTOR'S ANALYSIS C\LD NOT BE MORE WRONG4 

,9 ANY CASE1 AT NO TIME DUR+ !SE DEVELOPM5TS WAS ! T[N MEET+ TRULY DEMOCRATIC4 ,IF ONLY BECAUSE ( /R+5T CONTROL OV] ACCESS TO ELIGIBILITY1 0! T[N MEET+S ( ,MASSA*USETTS FALL %ORT ( ANY DEC5T DEMOCRATIC /&>D40.<#h#e#a.> ,/ILL LESS WAS IT EV] EV5 SLI<TLY LIB]T>IAN4 ,HI/ORIANS 0EMPHASIZE ! DEGREE TO :I* NE>LY EV]Y ASPECT ( T[N LIFE WAS M9UTELY REGULAT$ BY T[N (FICIALS1 F> BEYOND :AT MI<T BE SUPPOS$ TO HAVE BE5 ! NE$S ( LOCAL GOV]NM5T40.<#h#e#b.> ,:ILE !RE IS SOME D\BT AB\T H[ DEMOCRATIC ANY ( ,BOOK*9'S %[CASE DIRECT DEMOCRACIES W]E -- NOT ONLY ! ,PURITAN T[NS BUT ALSO ,A!NS & REVOLUTION>Y ,P>IS -- !RE IS NO D\BT AB\T !IR EXTREMELY 9TRUSIVE PAT]NALISM BORD]+ ON TOTALIT>IANISM4 ,! REGIMES HE COMM5DS TO AN>*I/S >5'T M]ELY NON-AN>*I/1 !Y /& \T AS EXCEPTIONALLY AU?ORIT>IAN4 

,AT LA/ WE COME TO ,BOOK*9'S PRIZE EXHIBIT1 ! ,P>ISIAN SECTIONS DUR+ ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 ,HE HAS MORE TO SAY AB\T !M ?AN AB\T ANY?+ S9CE ! POLIS1 AL?\< HIS LE>N+ RE/S ON A SL5D] S*OL>LY BASE4 ,HE DOES NOT CITE ! =EMO/ EXP]T ON ! 0SECTIONS10 ,ALB]T ,SOB\L1 BUT ,I WILL4 ,! SECTIONS1 ORIG9ALLY ELECTORAL DI/RICTS1 W]E LAT] US$ AS GOV]N+ BODIES 7NOTE !IR /ATI/ ORIG974 ,! ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY R$UC$ !IR NUMB] FROM #f TO #d#h1 BUT ! SECTIONS 0L>GELY IGNOR$ ! ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY'S DECREES0 -- EXCEPT ?AT ONE4 ,9 ,JULY #a#g#i#b1 ! SECTIONS ABOLI%$ ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 0ACTIVE0 & 0PASSIVE0 CITIZ5S -- ELIM9AT+ A PROP]TY QUALIFICATION -- & WELCOM$ ! SANS-CULOTTES ( ! L[] CLASSES4 ,A YE> LAT]1 ! ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY VOT$ TO PAY ! POOR #d S\S TO ATT5D ASSEMBLY MEET+S1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME R$UC$ ! MEET+S TO TWICE A WEEK4 ,EA* SECTION HAD A PRESID5T1 R5EW$ MON?LY1 & A COMMITTEE TO ASSI/ HIM2 DRAWN FROM A SMALL NUMB] ( MILITANTS1 !Y W]E R\T9ELY REELECT$ EV]Y MON?4.<#h#e#c.> 

,ACCORD+ TO ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS1 0ATT5DANCE FLUCTUAT$ WIDELY FROM A HUNDR$ OR LESS :5 ! AG5DA WAS R\T9E TO OV]FL[+ HALLS 7USUALLY 9 /ATE-COMM&E]$ *UR*ES & *APELS7 :5 S]I\S ISSUES CONFRONT$ ! REVOLUTION>Y PEOPLE40.<#h#e#d.> ,BUT HE ALSO SAYS ?AT 0!Y W]E (T5 ATT5D$ BY ONLY FIFTE5 OR TW5TY PEOPLE \T ( ONE OR TWO ?\S&40 ,ACTUALLY1 ATT5DANCE WAS USUALLY SMALL EV5 = IMPORTANT MEET+S4 ,9 ! MILITANT ,DROITS DE L',HOMME1 ! SECTION ( 5RAGE ,JEAN ,V>LET1 OV] #c1 CITIZ5S W]E ELIGIBLE TO VOTE1 BUT ON ,JUNE #a#g1 #a#g#i#c1 ONLY #bab VOT$ 9 ! CRITICAL ELECTION = COMM&]-9-*IEF ( ! ,P>IS ,NATIONAL ,GU>D4.<#h#e#e.> 

,F9ALLY ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS TELLS US :AT ! SECTIONS DO4 ,!Y APPO9T COMMITTEES3 CIVIC COMMITTEES1 POLICE COMMISSIONS1 VIGILANCE COMMITTEES1 MILIT>Y COMMITTEES1 AGRICULTURE COMMITTEES1 ETC4 ,EA* SECTION HAD A C\RT SY/EM & JU/ICES ( ! PEACE4 ,AMONG ! ASSEMBLY'S 05ORM\S P[]S0 W]E SPY+ 70S\RCES ( 9=MATION ON C\NT]REVOLUTION>IES & GRA9 SPECULATORS071 VIGILANTISM 70DISP5S]S ( A R\<-&-READY JU/ICE071 SOCIAL WORK 7POOR RELIEF1 REFUGEE RELIEF71 & RELIEV+ ! PEASANTS ( !IR CROPS4.<#h#e#f.> ,IT'S UNUSUAL = AN AN>*I/ TO CELEBRATE A GOV]NM5T'S POSSESSION ( 5ORM\S P[]S1 BUT ,BOOK*9 IS NO?+ IF NOT AN UNUSUAL AN>*I/4 

,BOOK*9 IS MORE COM=TABLE ) /RUCTURE ?AN FUNCTION3 0,! =TY-EI<T SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES1 9 TURN1 W]E COORD9AT$ BY ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE TO :I* EA* SECTION ELECT$ ?REE DEPUTIES AT AN ASSEMBLEE PRIMAIRE40 ,?AT 0SPECIAL ASSEMBLY0 ELECT$ ! ,BUREAU ( ! ,COMMUNE1 :I* WAS ! MAYOR & SEV]AL EXECUTIVE (FICIALS ASSOCIAT$ ) HIM4 ,! ,COMMUNAL ,ASSEMBLY ELECT$ FROM ITS MEMB]S #af ADM9I/RATEURS :OSE DUTIES >E NOT SPECIFI$1 BUT HAVE SOME?+ TO DO ) ! EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE4 ,) ! ADDITION ( #cb MORE MEMB]S ! ,BUREAU BECOMES ! #d#h-MEMB] ,G5]AL ,C\NCIL ( ! ,COMMUNE4.<#h#e#g.> ,! DIVISION ( RESPONSIBILITIES AMONG !SE BUREAUCRATS1 :I* IS RA!R 9VOLV$1 IS NOT DESCRIB$4 ,BUT IT'S CLE> ?AT ! ,COMMUNE ( ,P>IS ACT$ AS A SEP>ATE P[] FROM ! SECTIONS.<#h#e#h.> -- A VIOLATION ( ,BOOK*9'S CONF$]AL REQUIREM5TS4 

,EV5 FROM ?IS V]SION1 IT'S OBVI\S ?AT SECTIONAL SOV]EIGNTY WAS SEV]ELY COMPROMIS$ BY ! EXI/5CE ( O!R LEVELS ( GOV]NM5T4 ,BOOK*9 SC(FS AT ! NATIONAL LEGISLATURE 7IT W5T ?R\< SEV]AL NAMES71 BUT ALMO/ ANYTIME IT FELT LIKE 9TRUD+ 9TO ! SECTIONAL SY/EM1 IT DID SO4 ,IT R$UC$ ! NUMB] ( SECTIONS1 R$UC$ ! NUMB] ( MEET+S1 & PUT ! POOR ON ITS [N PAYROLL4 ,AL?\< !RE W]E SEV]AL POPUL> IRRUPTIONS 9TO ! ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY1 IT WAS NONE!LESS ALWAYS ! CASE ?AT ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T COMM&$ ! >MY & AT LEA/ P>T ( ! ,NATIONAL ,GU>D4 ,! GOV]NM5T TOL]AT$ ! SECTIONS BECAUSE EA* SUCCESSIVE REGIME US$ !M AS ITS POPUL> BASE1 UNTIL ! DAY CAME :5 ! NEW REGIME 7! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,GOV]NM5T ( ! ,JACOB9S7 DECID$ ?AT IT C\LD DISP5SE ) ! SECTIONS1 & !N IT PUT !M \T ( BUS9ESS )9 A FEW MON?S3 0,! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,GOV]NM5T HAD DECID$ TO GOV]N2 AS SOON AS IT DID ?AT1 !RE WAS AN 5D TO ! 'POPUL> MOVEM5T4'0.<#h#e#i.> ,9 #a#g#i#e1 ,NAPOLEON ) HIS 0:IFF ( GRAPE%OT0 PROV$ ?AT ! PEOPLE 9 >MS FELT NO QUALMS AB\T FIR+ ON ! PEOPLE 9 ! /REETS4 

,BOOK*9 IS W>Y ( ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE & RI<TLY SO3 IT DIDN'T 0COORD9ATE0 ! SECTIONS1 IT GOV]N$ ! CITY AS A REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY 9VE/$1 SAYS ,KROPOTK91 ) EXT5SIVE & DIV]SE P[]S4 ,9 COMPOSITION IT WAS MU* LESS REPRES5TATIVE ?AN ! SECTIONS2 ONLY A ?IRD ( ITS MEMB]S W]E PLEBEIANS 7SMALL MA/]S1 >TISANS1 %OPKEEP]S1 & TWO WORK]S74 ,IF1 AS ,BOOK*9 SAYS1 ! ,COMMUNE WAS CONSI/5TLY LESS RADICAL ?AN ! SECTIONS1.<#h#f.> :AT DOES ?IS SAY AB\T HIS S*EME ( F$]AT$ SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES8 ,W\LD ! ,COMMUNE ( ,COMMUNES BE LESS RADICAL /ILL8 

,! ,SECTIONS W]E NOT ! EXCLUSIVE VANGU>D ( ! ,REVOLUTION4 ,! POLITICAL CLUBS & POPUL> SOCIETIES -- 9 #agic !RE W]E OV] #a1#e ( !M 9 ,FRANCE -- LIKEWISE PLAY$ MAJOR MOBILIZ+ ROLES4 ,MANY W]E AFFILIAT$ ) ! ,JACOB9 ,SOCIETY1 MANY O!RS ) ! ,CORDELI]S ,CLUB1 A FEW ) BO?4 ,CLUBS & SECTIONS BO? S5T =? EMISS>IES TO RADICALIZE ! ,>MY4 ,AFT] ,SEPTEMB] #i1 #a#g#i#c1 :5 DAILY MEET+S ( ! SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES W]E BANN$1 ! MILITANTS CONT9U$ TO MEET AS SOCIETIES :OSE MEMB]%IP WAS A FRACTION ( ! CITIZ5 BODY2 !Y S]V$ MORE OR LESS AS ! ASSEMBLIES' RADICAL CAUCUSES4 ,9 ! FOLL[+ MON?S ( SANS-CULOTTE ASC5DANCY1 ! SOCIETIES CONTROLL$ SECTIONAL (FICES4 ,BY !IR P[] TO ISSUE OR )HOLD C]TIFICATES DE CIVISME1 !Y C\LD CONTROL ! APPO9TM5TS TO MUNICIPAL GOV]NM5T & EV5 REMOVE (FICEHOLD]S4.<#h#f#a.> ,T]RITORIAL UNITS >E NOT UNIQUELY REVOLUTION>Y =MS2 9 ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 NON-T]RITORIAL ASSOCIATIONS W]E MORE CONSI/5TLY RADICAL4 

,& N[ TO CONSID] :AT ELSE ! EX-,DIRECTOR LEFT \T4 ,HE HAS REPEAT$LY SAID ?AT ! ,P>ISIAN SECTIONS REFUTE ! CRITICS :O SAY ?AT A MAJOR CITY IS TOO BIG = DIRECT DEMOCRACY4.<#h#f#b.> ,! SMALLE/ SECTION HAD #a#a1#g#g#e 9HABITANTS2 ! L>GE/1 #b#d1#i#g#g4.<#h#f#c.> ,AFT] ! PROP]TY QUALIFICATION WAS DROPP$1 A FEW ?\S& M5 7& 9 A FEW CASES WOM57 W\LD BE ELIGIBLE TO ATT5D ! ASSEMBLY 9 EV5 ! SMALLE/ SECTION4 ,?AT'S NOT A FACE-TO-FACE GR\P2 EV5 A SUB/ANTIAL M9ORITY ( ?AT W\LD NOT BE A FACE-TO-FACE GR\P2 NOT EV5 ,NOT] ,DAME C\LD HOLD !M4 ,! EXAMPLE PROVES ?AT ! CRITICS >E RI<T4 

,EXCEPT ?AT A SUB/ANTIAL MAJORITY ( CITIZ5S DID NOT ATT5D -- AT ANY TIME4 ,BY ONE E/IMATE1 ATT5DANCE WAS NEV] MORE ?AN #a.02 BY ANO!R1 ! RANGE WAS #d-#a#i.04 ,!RE EXI/$ A RA!R SMALL ELITE ( POLITICALLY CONSCI\S SECTIONNAIRES1 #c1 TO #d1 9 A POPULATION ( #f#e1 TO #g11 OR #ab TO #b M5 P] SECTION AT ! MO/4.<#h#f#d.> ,! 5TRY ( ! SANS-CULOTTES1 IMPORTANT MUNICIPAL ELECTIONS1 0CRISES0 -- NO?+ EV] PRODUC$ MORE ?AN A SMALL SPIKE 9 ATT5DANCE4 ,9 A C>ELESS 9T]VIEW1 ,BOOK*9 HIMSELF ADMITS ?AT ! ASSEMBLIES 0W]E (T5 ATT5D$ BY ONLY FIFTE5 OR TW5TY PEOPLE \T ( ONE OR TWO ?\S&40 7,NO SECTION WAS AS SMALL AS #a147 ,!Y W]E ! BE/ ( TIMES1 !Y W]E ! WOR/ ( TIMES1 BUT MO/ PEOPLE DIDN'T HAVE ! TIME = ! TIMES4 ,OR ! 9CL9ATION4 ,! ASSEMBLIES DID NOT FULFILL ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S DREAM ( M5TALLY MUSCUL> DELIB]ATION3 0,AS A RULE1 MEET+S APPE> TO HAVE BE5 DISORD]LY1 ) MANY HEAT$ >GUM5TS EV5 :5 ! SANS-CULOTTES W]E 9 COMPLETE CONTROL2 FREQU5TLY1 NO DISCUSSION AT ALL WAS POSSIBLE40 .<#h#f#e.> ,AS AT ,A!NS1 MASS CITIZ5 AB/5TION WAS ! PR]EQUISITE = SELF-APPO9T$ ELITES TO RULE 9 ! NAME ( ! PEOPLE4 

,! REM>KABLE UNITY ( ! SECTIONS D]IVES FROM MORE ?AN MASS SOLID>ITY4 ,:5 ! SANS-CULOTTES 5T]$ ! ASSEMBLIES1 MOD]ATES LEFT4 ,MILITANTS FROM A RADICAL SECTION W\LD DRIVE \T ! 0>I/OCRACY0 .<SIC.> 9 CONTROL ( ANO!R SECTION 7?IS WAS CALL$ 0FRAT]NIZATION074 0,!RE WAS NO?+ DEMOCRATIC 9 ?IS TYPE ( ACTION1 ( C\RSE10 NOTES ,MORRIS ,SLAV94 ,OR MILITANT 0H>D BOTTOMS0 MI<T JU/ \TSIT ! MAJORITY1 UNTIL TW5TY-ODD DET]M9$ MILITANTS REMA9$ TO ACT 9 ! NAME ( ! ASSEMBLY4.<#h#f#f.> ,)9 ! ASSEMBLIES1 9 ! MO/ RADICAL PHASE VOT+ WAS BY ACCLAMATION1 9TIMIDAT+ DISS5T]S1 AS IT WAS 9T5D$ TO DO4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,JANET ,BIEHL1 0DUR+ EV5 ! MO/ MILITANT P]IODS ( ! REVOLUTION1 ROYALI/S & MOD]ATES /ILL TURN$ \T = MEET+S1 AS WELL AS EXTREME RADICALS40.<#h#f#g.> ,ACCORD+ TO HI/ORY1 !Y /AY$ AWAY 9 DROVES1 BUT ?IS WAS NOT ALWAYS 5\< TO SAVE !M FROM >RE/ OR EV5 EXECUTION4 ,IT IS NO ACCID5T ?AT SUMM] & AUTUMN #a#g#i#c1 0! HI< TIDE ( ! SANS CULOTTE MOVEM5T10 CORRESPONDS TO ! ,REIGN ( ,T]ROR1 :I* WAS LAUN*$ ON ,SEPTEMB] #e4 ,MILITANTS S\<T \T ! C\NT]REVOLUTION>IES :O1 !Y SUPPOS$1 LURK$ EV]Y:]E4 ,!RE W]E M5 :O W]E >RE/$ ONLY BECAUSE !Y DID NOT ATT5D ! ASSEMBLY OR DID NOT HAVE A RECORD ( ACTIVE SUPPORT ( ! REVOLUTION4 ,IT WAS 9 ?IS SPIRIT ?AT ,/4 ,JU/ D5\NC$ ,DANTON3 0,>E Y\ NOT A CRIM9AL & RESPONSIBLE = NOT HAV+ HAT$ ! 5EMIES ( ! FA!RL&80.<#h#f#h.> ,FAILURE TO WE> ! TRICOLOR COCKADE 9 ONE'S HAT WAS GR\NDS = >RE/4 ,!RE WAS EV]Y REASON TO /AY AWAY3 0,TO ! 'SIL5T MAJORITY1' AFT] F\R YE>S ( UPRO> /ILL TOO BOR$ OR TOO BUSY TO 9VOLVE !MSELVES 9 9T]M9ABLE ASSEMBLY DEBATES & COMMITTEE BUS9ESS1 ! V9DICTIV5ESS & POT5TIALLY LE?AL VIOL5CE ( FACTIONAL P[] /RUGGLES ADD$ FRE% RE9=CEM5TS40.<#h#f#i.> ,TO SPEAK \T AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T 9 ! ASSEMBLY W\LD BE SUICIDE4 ,EV5 TO MUTT] AGA9/ IT ON ! /REET 9VIT$ >RE/4 ,UND] !SE CIRCUM/ANCES1 DEMOCRACY1 DIRECT OR O!RWISE1 IS A %AM4 

,9 LI/+ ! ADM9I/RATIVE P]SONNEL ELECT$ BY ! SECTIONS1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS FAIL$ TO M5TION ?AT !Y W]E DETAIL$ TO ! ,COMMUNE -- !Y W]E CITY EMPLOYES -- & ?US NOT EXCLUSIVELY ANSW]ABLE TO !IR APPO9T+ BODIES4 ,9CREAS+LY !Y ID5TIFI$ ) !IR EMPLOY]1 :O PAID !M3 0,! CIVIC COMMITTEES1 DEVELOP$ 9 ! SAME FA%ION AS ! AUTONOM\S SECTIONAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,AT FIR/1 AG5TS ( !IR FELL[ CITIZ5S1 ! /ATUS ( ! COMMISS>S *ANG$ AS ! REVOLUTION>Y GOV]NM5T 9CREAS$ ITS CONTROL BY CREAT+ A CADRE ( L[-GRADE (FICIALS1 SOON TO BE NOM9AT$ BY COMMITTEES1 F9ALLY SAL>I$ BY ! MUNICIPALITY40 ,LIKEWISE ! ,COMMUNE 9DEMNIFI$ ! MEMB]S ( ! REVOLUTION>Y COMMITTEES 79 *>GE ( SECURITY71 TRANS=M+ !M 9TO ITS SAL>I$ EMPLOYES4.<#h#g.> ,! ,COMMUNE DRA9$ (F ! MO/ ACTIVE MILITANTS1 TURN+ !M 9TO BUREAUCRATS1 LO/ TO !IR SECTIONS4 ,AFT] FIVE YE>S ( ACTIVISM1 O!R MILITANTS W]E BURNT \T -- /ILL A COMMON PH5OM5ON ON ! LEFT4 ,ONE /UDY F\ND ?AT \T ( #d ,REVOLUTION>Y ,COMMITTEE MEMB]S1 #ae W5T 9TO ! /ATE BUREAUCRACY1 (T5 ! POLICE DEP>TM5T4 ,A PAID JOB 9 ! ,W> ,M9I/RY OR ! POLICE1 SAYS ,COBB1 (F]$ CONSOLATION TO DISAPPO9T$ DEMOCRATS3 0,! GOV]NM5T B\<T (F SOME ( ! BE/ MILITANTS1 'BUREAUCRATIZ$' SOME ( ! MO/ EFFECTIVE POPUL> 9/ITUTIONS -- !RE WAS NO D\BT AN AGREEABLE IRONY 9 GETT+ ! MILITANTS TO DO ! GOV]NM5T'S DIRTY WORK & 9 TRANS=M+ =M] TRIBUNES 9TO POLICEM540.<#h#g#a.> 

,9 A F9AL IRONY1 ! SECTIONS FELL VICTIM TO !IR [N BELLICOSITY4 ,!Y HAD ALWAYS BE5 ! W> HAWKS1 FL\RI%+ 9 ! W>TIME ATMOSPH]E ( #a#g#i#c1 & SUPPORT+ ! LEVEE 5 MASSE ( ,AUGU/ #b#c4 ,9 ! >MY !RE W]E PROMOTIONS = SOME 0:O HAD S]V$ !IR APPR5TICE%IP 9 ! ,P>IS SECTIONS40 ,! MAJORITY ( ! MILITANTS W]E N[ CONSCRIPT$ !MSELVES4 ,EV5 ! >MY RECRUIT$ 9 ,P>IS1 ) MANY SANS-CULOTTES1 WAS UNSW]V+LY LOYAL TO ! REVOLUTION>Y GOV]NM5T & ! ,CONV5TION1 ) NO DESIRE TO REPLACE !M ) DIRECT DEMOCRACY OR A NEW HI]>*Y ( SECTIONAL SOCIETIES4.<#h#g#b.> 

,! DOM9ATION ( ! SECTIONS BY SEV]AL ?\S& IDEOLOGICALLY SUP]*>G$ MILITANTS1 MANY ( !M COMM5C+ C>E]S 9 GOV]NM5T1 CALLS = QUALIFICATION ( ,BOOK*9'S CLAIM 0?AT ?IS COMPLEX ( EXTREMELY IMPORTANT ACTIVITIES WAS UND]TAK5 NOT BY PR(ESSIONAL BUREAUCRATS BUT1 = ! MO/ P>T1 BY ORD9>Y %OPKEEP]S & CRAFTSM540.<#h#g#c.> ,9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 !Y W]E NOT QUITE SO 0ORD9>Y40 ,! SANS-CULOTTES1 :O W]E NOT A CLASS1 W]E RA!R A SOCIALLY HET]OG5E\S POLITICAL COALITION :OSE ONLY COMMON MAT]IAL 9T]E/ WAS AS CONSUM]S 7H5CE ! PRIMACY ( ! PRICE ( BREAD AS AN ISSUE74 ,!Y W]E MO/LY SELF-EMPLOY$ >TISANS & CRAFTSM51 ALONG ) !IR J\RNEYM5 & APPR5TICES :O EXPECT$ TO BECOME SELF-EMPLOY$ SOM$AY4 ,! BETT]-(F [N]S & MA/]S %AD$ 9TO ! B\RGEOISIE4 ,! L[] REA*ES ( ! B\RGEOISIE1 SOMETIMES 9CLUD+ M]*ANTS1 FACTORY [N]S & LAWY]S1 SUPPLI$ MO/ ( ! SECTIONAL MILITANTS & (FICIALS4 ,(FICES REQUIR+ LIT]ACY W]E CLOS$ TO MO/ SANS-CULOTTES4 ,JU/ICES ( ! PEACE W]E MO/LY DRAWN FROM ! =M] LEGAL PR(ESSIONS 7:I* HAD BE5 TE*NICALLY ABOLI%$ 9 #a#g#i#a.<#h#g#d.>74 ,YE>S ( ACTIVISM TURN$ ! MILITANTS 9TO POLITICAL PR(ESSIONALS :O 9 MANY CASES BR\<T !IR SKILLS 9TO GOV]NM5T 7ESPECIALLY ! POLICE & ! MILIT>Y74 ,9 EXP]I5CE1 TEMP]AM5T & EMPLOYM5T PROSPECTS1 !Y W]E DIFF]5T FROM ! MASSES1 & SO W]E !IR 9T]E/S4 ,:AT WAS SUPPOS$ TO BE A %9+ EXAMPLE ( DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS ACTUALLY A /RIK+ EXAMPLE ( ! ,IRON ,LAW ( ,OLIG>*Y4 

,SUP]FICIALLY -- ?AT IS TO SAY1 ON ,BOOK*9'S LEVEL -- ! REVOLUTION>Y SECTIONS MI<T LOOK LIKE 0! MO/ DAZZL+1 ALMO/ METEORIC EXAMPLE ( CIVIC LIB]TY & DIRECT DEMOCRACY 9 MOD]N TIMES40 ,IF SO1 IT IS ONLY BECAUSE !RE >E NO O!R EXAMPLES4 ,9 REALITY1 ! SECTIONS HAD EV5 LESS P[] ?AN ! ,NEW ,5GL& T[N MEET+S4 ,! T[N MEET+ HAD ! P[] TO TAX & MONEY TO SP5D4 ,! ,P>ISIAN SECTION1 :I* HAD NEI!R1 HAD MA9LY A POPULATION1 & IT EV5 LO/ SOME ( ?AT TO NATIONAL CONSCRIPTION4 ,NEW ,5GL& HAD LOCALLY BAS$ MILITIAS 9 A COLONY LACK+ A /&+ >MY4 ,! SECTIONNAIRES GA9$ P>TIAL CONTROL ( ! ,NATIONAL ,GU>D1 BUT ! RE/ ( IT ALONG ) ! 5ORM\S >MY WAS UND] C5TRAL GOV]NM5T CONTROL1 & SANS-CULOTTE ,NATIONAL ,GU>DSM5 NEV] CAME TO ! DEF5SE ( ! SECTIONS4 ,!IR SUPPORT]S W]E >M$ BUT NOT ORGANIZABLE = ANY?+ EXCEPT CR[D ACTION4 ,NEW ,5GL& T[NS CONTROLL$ LOCAL ADM9I/RATION4 ,! APP>5TLY EXT5SIVE ADM9I/RATIVE P[]S ( SECTIONAL (FICIALS ACTUALLY BELONG$ TO ! MUNICIPAL GOV]NM5T4 ,! SECTIONS W]E NOT F$]AT$2 ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE WAS NOT A ,COMMUNE ( ,COMMUNES4 ,! FUNDAM5TAL CONTRADICTION WAS !IR SUPPORT = POLICIES1 FROM W> TO PRICE CONTROLS1 :I* /R5G!N$ ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T4 ,FROM ! P9NACLE ( !IR 9FLU5CE !Y PLUMMET$ TO NO?+3 0,AFT] ! DECREE ( #e FRIMAIRE .<,NOVEMB] #b#f1 #a#g#i#d.>1 ! SECTIONS PLAY$ NO P>T AT ALL 9 ! REVOLUTION>Y GOV]NM5T40.<#h#g#e.> 

,! SANS-CULOTTES W]E NOT 0PU%$ FROM ! /AGE ( HI/ORY & %OT D[N BY ! ?\S&S 9 ! REACTION ?AT FOLL[$ ! T5? ( ,!RMIDOR 7,JULY #b#h1 #a#g#i#d71 :5 ,ROBESPI]RE & HIS FOLL[]S W]E GUILLOT9$40.<#h#g#f.> ,ROBESPI]RE & HIS COLLEAGUES & FOLL[]S 7#a#d ( !M7 W]E 9DE$ GUILLOT9$1.<#h#g#g.> BUT !Y W]E NOT SANS-CULOTTES4 ,SOME SANS-CULOTTES W]E EV5 RELEAS$ FROM PRISON !N4 ,! SECTIONS W]E QUIET DUR+ ! C\P4 ,!RE WAS NO WIDESPREAD REPRESSION ( SANS-CULOTTE MILITANTS UNTIL AFT] ! LAT] FAIL$ 9SURRECTION ( ,PRAIRIAL 7,MAY #b-#b#c1 #a#g#i#e74 ,!N SOME #ab W]E >RE/$1 & O!RS W]E DIS>M$4 ,:ILE ?IS GAVE A /RONG IMPETUS TO ! NASC5T ,:ITE ,T]ROR1 IT WAS \TSIDE ,P>IS1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! S\? ( ,FRANCE1 ?AT PATRIOTS W]E SLAU<T]$ 9 L>GE NUMB]S3 0,BUT1 9 ,P>IS AT LEA/1 !RE W]E NO MASSACRES0 7,ALB]T ,MA?IEZ74 ,!RMIDOR WAS NOT P>TICUL>LY BLOODY EV5 = ,SECTION ,DROITS-DE-L',HOMME1 :]E1 09 NUM]\S 9DIVIDUAL CASES1 .<! ,!RMIDORIANS.> RELEAS$ !IR POLITICAL OPPON5TS & ALL[$ !M TO RETURN TO NORMAL LIFE40.<#h#g#h.> 

,ACTUALLY1 ,BOOK*9 ALSO TELLS ANO!R /ORY ( ! DEMISE ( ! SECTIONS3 0,! MOVEM5T = SECTIONAL DEMOCRACY MET DEFEAT DUR+ ! 9SURRECTION ( ,JUNE #b1 #agic -- NOT AT ! H&S ( ! MON>*Y1 BUT BY ! TREA*]Y ( ! ,JACOB9S40.<#h#g#i.> ,! 9SURRECTION ( ,JUNE #b WAS 9 SUPPORT ( A ,JACOB9 C\P DIRECT$ AT ! MAJORITY ,GIROND9S 9 ! ,CONV5TION1 US+ MUSCLE FROM ! SECTIONS4 ,! ,GIROND9 DEBUTIES W]E EXPELL$ & TWO DOZ5 W]E GUILLOT9$4 ,! ,GIROND9S DID NOT SUPPORT1 & W]E NOT SUPPORT$ BY1 ! SANS-CULOTTES1 :OM !Y HELD 9 0OP5 CONTEMPT40 ,IT'S LUDICR\S TO SAY1 AS DOES ,BIEHL1 ?AT 0.<! SANS-CULOTTES'.> LEAD]S W]E AMONG ! FIR/ TO BE >RE/$ BY ! ,JACOB9 REGIME :5 IT CAME TO P[] 9 ,JUNE #a#g#i#c40.<#h#h.> ,IF DIRECT DEMOCRACY DIDN'T FL\RI% 9 ,JUNE-,DECEMB] #a#g#i#c1 IT NEV] DID4 ,! SECTIONS REG>D$ ! PUTS* AS !IR VICTORY4 ,!Y SUPPORT$ ! NEW REGIME'S POLICIES ( W>1 CONSCRIPTION1 & PRICE CONTROLS ON /APLES4 

,! MON?S FOLL[+ ,JUNE #b & PREC$+ ,!RMIDOR W]E ! 0HI< TIDE ( ! SANS-CULOTTE MOVEM5T10 9 ,BOOK*9'S WORDS4 ,H[EV]1 ! SECTIONS CAME TO SEE ?AT ! C5TRALIZATION & REGIM5TATION IMPOS$ BY ! REVOLUTION>Y GOV]NM5T UND]M9$ !IR P[] 7:]EAS ! ,REIGN ( ,T]ROR TAK+ PLACE AT ! SAME TIME NEI!R ?REAT5$ NOR DISPLEAS$ !M -- 9DE$1 !Y W]E ITS FOOT SOLDI]S74 ,! SANS-CULOTTES W]E SUFFICI5TLY DIS5*ANT$ ) ! ,JACOB9S AS TO MAKE NO MOVE TO DEF5D !M AT ,!RMIDOR2 SOME EV5 P>TICIPAT$ 9 ! ANTI-,JACOB9 C\P4 ,BUT ! NEW REGIME CORRECTLY CONCLUD$ ?AT ) ! NEWLY /R5G!N$ MILIT>Y & POLICE APP>ATUS AT ITS DISPOSAL 79CLUD+ SANS-CULOTTES FROM ! SECTIONS71 ! SECTIONS W]E IRRELEVANT2 SOON !Y W]E NONEXI/5T4.<#h#h#a.> ,! %ORT LIFE ( SECTIONAL DIRECT DEMOCRACY CORRESPONDS TO ! ,REIGN ( ,T]ROR1 :I* WAS 9H]5TLY ANTI-DEMOCRATIC4 ,IT HOLDS NO LESSONS1 EXCEPT AU?ORIT>IAN ONES1 = \R TIME4 

,! ,P>ISIAN ,SECTIONS W]E REM>KABLE IF %ORT-LIV$ 9/ITUTIONS1 BUT !Y W]E NOT ,COMMUNES1 NOR WAS ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE A ,COMMUNE ( ,COMMUNES4 ,BOOK*9 CLAIMS ! SECTIONS W]E 0COORD9AT$ BY A COMMUNE ?AT1 AT ITS REVOLUTION>Y HI<LI<T .<SIC.>1 CALL$ = A COMPLETE RE/RUCTUR+ ( ,FRANCE 9TO A CONF$]ATION ( FREE COMMUNES40 ,! SECTIONS W]5'T 0COORD9AT$0 BY ANYONE4 ,! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE NEV] MADE A LUDICR\S APPEAL TO F$]ATE #d#d1 ,FR5* COMMUNES4 ,! PAMPHLETE] ,JEAN ,V>LET1 ! =EMO/ IDEOLOGUE ( SECTIONAL DEMOCRACY1 C\LD NOT EV5 GET HIS [N ULTRA-RADICAL ,DROIT L',HOMME SECTION TO M&ATE ITS ,CONV5TION DELEGATES TO SUPPORT DIRECT DEMOCRACY4.<#h#h#b.> 

,AS A ,M>XI/1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS HAS TO CLAIM ?AT HI/ORY IS BEH9D HIM AS WELL AS AHEAD ( HIM4 ,HE EXCORIATES ,NIETZS*E1 BUT BORR[S HIS MO/ PREPO/]\S IDEA1 ,ET]NAL ,RECURR5CE4 ,COMMUNES1 :I* NEV] EXI/$ ANY:]E1 HE SEES EV]Y:]E3 0,! HI/ORICAL EVID5CE ( !IR EFFICACY & !IR CONT9UAL REAPPE>ANCE 9 TIMES ( RAPID SOCIAL *ANGE IS CONSID]ABLE & P]SUASIVE40.<#h#h#c.> ,TO OBTA9 SU* 0HI/ORICAL EVID5CE10 ,BOOK*9 HAS 9V5T$ IT OR 7AS ) RESPECT TO ,R5AISSANCE CITY-/ATES7 SELECTIVELY C5SOR$ S\RCES SO \TRAGE\SLY ?AT IT IS TANTAM\NT TO =G]Y4 ,HIS !ORY ?AT COMMUNES APPE> 9 TIMES ( RAPID SOCIAL *ANGE IS EASILY FALSIFI$3 ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION1 = 9/ANCE1 PRODUC$ NO ,COMMUNES1 :]EAS ! DEMOCRACY ( ,A!NS WAS ! RESULT ( POLITICAL MANEUV]1 NOT SOCIAL *ANGE4 ,WE LIVE 9 A TIME ( RAPID SOCIAL *ANGE1 & ,BOOK*9 HAS BE5 PR$ICT+ ,COMMUNES = DECADES1 BUT !RE >E NONE4 ,9 REVOLUTION>Y ,P>IS1 9 COLONIAL ,AM]ICA1 & ?R\<\T PRE9DU/RIAL ,EUROPE -- ?R\<\T ! CIVILIZ$ WORLD6 -- SOCIETY1 ESPECIALLY URBAN SOCIETY1 WAS HI]>*IC & DEF]5TIAL4 

,TO SUM UP3 SU* ,EUROPEAN CITIES AS ESCAP$ ROYAL CONTROL = ANY P]IOD ( TIME W]E SOMETIMES R$EF9$ AS SELF-GOV]N+ BY EXCLUSIVE ORGANIZATIONS ( ! WEAL?Y :O DOM9AT$ ! G5]AL ASSEMBLIES1 9 ! M9ORITY ( CITIES :]E !Y EV] EXI/$1 & SOON 9/ITUT$ RUL+ MAGI/RACIES ELECT$ OR COOPT$ BY1 & FROM1 !IR [N RANKS4 ,! COMMUNAL MOVEM5T WAS AB\T URBAN AUTONOMY FROM K+S1 BI%OPS & FEUDAL LORDS1 & NO?+ ELSE4 ,TO EMPLOY ,C>L ,BECK]'S DI/9CTION1 IT WAS AB\T HOME RULE1 NOT :O WAS TO RULE AT HOME1 MU* LESS H[4 ,C]TA9LY !RE NEV] EXI/$1 NOT EV5 BRIEFLY1 UND] NORMAL CONDITIONS ( LIFE1 A BROAD-BAS$ URBAN G5]AL ASSEMBLY :I* MET FREQU5TLY & :I* ELECT$ & CONTROLL$ ALL FUNCTION>IES4 ,BY ,BOOK*9'S [N CRIT]IA1 ! URBAN ,COMMUNE NEV] EXI/$ 9 M$IEVAL OR MOD]N ,EUROPE4 ,DID IT EV5 EXI/ AT ,A!NS8 

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