,*APT] #ag 

#baba 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,BOB ,BLACK 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] #a#g4 ,AN>*I/ ,COMMUNISM V]SUS ,LIB]T>IAN ,MUNICIPALISM 

  

,PREVI\S *APT]S DEMON/RATE ?AT LIB]T>IAN MUNICIPALISM1 AT ! GR\ND LEVEL1 WILL BE OLIG>*IC & PROBABLY OPPRESSIVE T[>D LOCAL M9ORITIES4 ,AT ! LEVEL ( ! WID] SOCIETY1 ITS F$]ATIONS & MULTIPLES ( F$]ATIONS WILL BE SL[1 CUMB]SOME1 9T]NALLY UNWORKABLE1 CUMULATIVELY ELITI/1 & EI!R TOO P[]FUL OR NOT P[]FUL 5\<4 ,9EVITABLY ! SY/EM WILL EVOLVE ! FEATURES ( ! SY/EM IT WAS SUPPOS$ TO SUPPLANT4 ,IT IS OBJECTIONABLE1 FIR/1 AS BE+ A BLUEPR9T = ! FUTURE1 & SECOND1 AS A BLUEPR9T ) TOO MANY PAGES MISS+4 ,IT HAS TO BE ! MO/ MUNDANE UTOPIA EV] CONCEIV$.<#a#a#f#i.> -- AT ONCE AN AFFRONT TO S5SE & S5SIBILITY4 

,BUT IS IT AN>*I/8 

,( C\RSE NOT1 BUT H]E IS A DIRECT DEMON/RATION4 ,ASIDE FROM ! F$]ALI/ FRILLS1 ! IDEOLOGY CALLS = A SOV]EIGN1 SELF-GOV]N+ LOCAL ASSEMBLY1 ! ,COMMUNE4 ,EM95T AN>*I/S1 AS WE SAW 9 ,*APT] #a#f1 CONSID] IT A /ATE4 ,IF IT IS A /ATE1 !N IT IS NOT AN>*Y1 & LIB]T>IAN MUNICIPALISM IS NOT AN>*I/4 ,APOLOGIES TO ANY READ] :O ?9KS ,I'M BELABOR+ ! OBVI\S4 ,I KN[ ,I AM4 ,?IS :OLE BOOK BELABORS ! OBVI\S4 ,!RE >E /ILL SOME CR$UL\S AN>*I/S AB\T1 EV5 AFT] MY LA/ BOOK1 & IT IS SAF] NOT TO TAKE TOO MU* = GRANT$4 ,! AN>*I/S :O ?9K ?AT ,NOAM ,*OMSKY IS ! =EMO/ AN>*I/ ?9K]1.<#a#a#g.> = 9/ANCE1 >E FULLY CAPABLE ( ACCEPT+ ,BOOK*9 AS AN AN>*I/ TOO4 

,!RE >E MANY DEF9ITIONS ( ! /ATE1 & ,I %ALL RUN ! ,COMMUNE PA/ A FEW ( !M1 BUT G5]ALLY !Y APPROXIMATE ONE ( ! ?REE DEF9ITIONS ID5TIFI$ BY ,MALATE/A4 ,AS WE SAW 9 ,*APT] #a#e1 TWO ?AT HE REJECTS >E 7#a7 ! /ATE AS SOCIETY1 OR A SPECIAL =M ( SOCIETY1 & 7#b7 ! /ATE AS A C5TRALIZ$ ADM9I/RATION AS OPPOS$ TO DEC5TRALIZ$ P[]1 I4E41 ! ,COMMUNE -- 9 HIS S5SE AS 9 ,BOOK*9'S4 ,RA!R1 7#c7 ! /ATE MEANS GOV]NM5T1 P]IOD -- ! SUM TOTAL ( POLITICAL1 LEGISLATIVE1 JUDICI>Y1 MILIT>Y & FISCAL 9/ITUTIONS4.<#a#a#g#a.> ,A!NS HAD SU* 9/ITUTIONS1 & ! ,COMMUNE W\LD TOO4 

,A CRUCIAL ELEM5T -- ! CRUCIAL ELEM5T1 AT LEA/ = AN>*I/S1 IMPLICIT 9 ,MALATE/A'S DEF9ITION1 IS CO]CION4 ,AN>*I/S ,MI*AEL ,TAYLOR & ,H[>D ,EHRLI* ID5TIFY CONC5TRAT$ P[] AS A NECESS>Y CONDITION = ! /ATE4 ,IF ?OSE 9 :OSE H&S ! P[] IS CONC5TRAT$ TRY TO MONOPOLIZE IT BY DET]M9+ :5 O!RS CAN USE =CE1 = ,TAYLOR ! SUFFICI5T CONDITIONS ( ! /ATE >E PRES5T4.<#a#a#g#b.> ,IT IS CLE> ?AT 9 ! ,COMMUNE P[] IS CONC5TRAT$1 NOT DIFFUSE4 ,9DE$1 IT IS MORE CONC5TRAT$ ?AN 9 AN ,AM]ICAN CITY TODAY1 OR 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES G5]ALLY1 :]E P[] IS DISP]S$ AMONG DISCRETE LOCAL1 /ATE & NATIONAL AU?ORITIES4 ,! ASSEMBLY HAS F> MORE P[] ?AN ! 9DIVIDUAL CITIZ5S1 EV5 ! CITIZ5S 9 ATT5DANCE1 AT ANY GIV5 TIME & AT EV]Y GIV5 TIME2 9 O!R WORDS1 ALL ! TIME4 ,! *ANG+ COMPOSITION ( ! ASSEMBLY NO MORE R5D]S ITS POSSESSION ( P[] AN>*IC ?AN ! 7MORE SL[LY7 *ANG+ COMPOSITION ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ,CONGRESS R5D]S ITS POSSESSION ( P[] AN>*IC4 

,= ,MAX ,WEB]1 A 0/ATE IS A HUMAN COMMUNITY ?AT 7SUCCESSFULLY7 CLAIMS ! MONOPOLY ( ! LEGITIMATE USE ( PHYSICAL =CE )9 A GIV5 T]RITORY40 ,DEF9ITIONS 9 ! ,WEB]IAN TRADITION DEF9E ! /ATE AS AN ORGANIZATION CLAIM+ & TO SOME SIGNIFICANT EXT5T 5=C+ A MONOPOLY ( VIOL5CE OV] A T]RITORY4.<#a#a#g#c.> ,AL?\< HE NEV] USES WORDS LIKE CO]CION & VIOL5CE1 ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S AFFIRMATION ( MAJORITY RULE IMPLIES CO]CION1 O!RWISE ! MAJORITY IS JU/ ONE GR\P ( PEOPLE DECID+ TO DO SOME?+ ?AT O!RS1 LIKE ,B>TLEBY1 W\LD PREF] NOT TO4 ,! ,COMMUNE IS TO HAVE A MILITIA1 0A FREE1 & >M$1 CITIZ5RY40.<#a#a#g#d.> ,ONE SUSPECTS ?AT1 LIKE ANCI5T ,A!NS & REVOLUTION>Y ,P>IS1 IT WILL HAVE POLICE4 ,?US ! ,COMMUNE IS CO]CIVE4 ,IT IS ALSO CLE> ?AT ! ,COMMUNES OCCUPY DELIMIT$ T]RITORIES1 S9CE !Y CONSI/ ( VILLAGES1 NEI<BORHOODS1 CITY BLOCKS1 ETC4 ,?US ! ,COMMUNE IS T]RITORIAL4 ,! DEF9ITION IS SATISFI$4 

,CONSID] TWO MOD]N DEF9ITIONS ( ! /ATE BY S*OL>S 9 ! ,WEB]IAN TRADITION :O /UDY ITS E>LIE/ =MS4 ,RONALD ,COH53 0,! CRIT]ION MO/ (T5 US$ AS A R\< & READY FEATURE TO DI/+UI% /ATE FROM NON/ATE IS ?AT ( ! C5TRALIZ$ GOV]NM5TAL /RUCTURE1 OP]AT+ USUALLY AT A LEVEL ABOVE LOCAL AU?ORITIES4 ,?IS C5TRAL AU?ORITY HAS A MONOPOLY OV] LEGITIMATE CO]CIVE P[]1 & IT S]VES AS A C5TRAL PO9T = TRIBUTE & REV5UE COLLECTION & R$I/RIBUTION40.<#a#a#g#e.> ,! ,COMMUNE HAS A C5TRALIZ$ GOV]NM5TAL /RUCTURE BECAUSE IT HAS ! ONLY GOV]NM5TAL /RUCTURE1 & IT IS ! LOCAL AU?ORITY4 ,! FISCAL POLICY ( ! ,COMMUNE IS SOME?+ ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS DOES NOT DISCUSS1 NOT EV5 TO 9DICATE IF ! USE ( MONEY WILL CONT9UE4 ,BUT WE >E TOLD ?AT ! ,COMMUNE CONTROLS ! DI/RIBUTION ( CONSUM] GOODS1 :I* IT MU/ GET FROM SOME:]E4 ,?US WE HAVE ! COLLECTION & R$I/RIBUTION ( WEAL?1 :E!R OR NOT IT ASSUMES A MONET>Y =M4 ,!N !RE IS ! DEF9ITION ( ,MOG5S ,H]MAN ,HANS5 7! EXP]T ON ! ,A!NIAN ASSEMBLY73 ! /ATE IS 0A C5TRAL GOV]NM5T 9 POSSESSION ( ! NECESS>Y MEANS ( CO]CION BY :I* ! LEGAL ORD] CAN BE 5=C$ 9 A T]RITORY OV] A POPULATION40.<#a#a#g#f.> ,WE HAVE ALREADY F\ND A 0C5TRAL GOV]NM5T0 & ! 0MEANS ( CO]CION0 9 ! ,COMMUNE4 ,& WE MAY 9F] ! PRES5CE ( A LEGAL ORD] FROM ,BOOK*9'S O!RWISE IRRELEVANT 5DORSEM5T ( WRITT5 LAW 7,*APT] #a74 ,F9ALLY1 ! ,COMMUNE ( C\RSE HAS A B\ND$ T]RITORY & ITS [N POPULATION ( CITIZ5-UNITS4 

,! ONLY WAY = ,BOOK*9 TO EXON]ATE ! ,COMMUNE ( ! *>GE ( /ATISM IS TO TAMP] ) ! DEF9ITION ( ! /ATE4 ,HE'S HAD PL5TY ( PRACTICE AT ?AT SORT ( ?+4 ,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS NE$S TO ADD A REQUIREM5T MET BY CONV5TIONAL /ATES SU* AS NATION-/ATES BUT NOT BY ! ,COMMUNE4 ,HE ADDS TWO CLOSELY RELAT$1 POSSIBLY ID5TICAL FEATURES3 PR(ESSIONALISM & BUREAUCRACY4 ,9 ! MO/ SUCC9CT =MULATION1 0! /ATE IS A PR(ESSIONAL SY/EM ( SOCIAL CO]CION40.<#a#a#g#g.> ,ELSE:]E1 9 AN OBVI\S REF]5CE TO ! /ATE1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS /ATES ?AT 0! PR(ESSIONAL 9/ITUTIONALIZATION ( P[] & ! MONOPOLIZATION ( VIOL5CE BY DI/9CT ADM9I/RATIVE1 JUDICIAL1 MILIT>Y1 & POLICE AG5CIES OCCURR$ FAIRLY E>LY 9 HI/ORY40.<#a#a#g#h.> ,FUR!RMORE1 0/ATECRAFT CONSI/S ( OP]ATIONS ?AT 5GAGE ! /ATE3 ! EX]CISE ( ! 5TIRE REGULATIVE APP>ATUS ( ! SOCIETY 9 ! =M ( LEGAL & ORD9ANCE-MAK+ BODIES1 ITS GOV]NANCE ( SOCIETY BY MEANS ( PR(ESSIONAL LEGISLATORS1 >MIES1 POLICE =CES1 BUREAUCRACIES1 & ! ANCILL>Y PR(ESSIONALS :O S]VICE ITS OP]ATIONS SU* AS LAWY]S1 $UCATORS1 TE*NICIANS1 & ! LIKE40.<#a#a#g#i.> ,?IS DEF9ITION FAILS BECAUSE /ATES CAN & DO FULFILL FUNCTIONS :I* >E NOT DI/9CTLY GOV]NM5TAL1 0PROPRIET>Y FUNCTIONS0 9 ! LANGUAGE ( CON/ITUTIONAL LAW4 ,MAIL DELIV]Y1 TRA% COLLECTION &1 9 ! ,T5NESSEE ,VALLEY1 ! PRODUCTION & SALE ( HYDROELECTRIC P[] 05GAGE ! /ATE0 AS SURELY AS KEEP+ UP ! ,>MY DOES1 BUT !Y FALL \TSIDE ! F9AL DEF9ITION4 ,! QUE/ION IS :AT >E ! DI/9CTIVE /ATE OP]ATIONS4 

,MAX ,WEB] PROVIDES MORE DETAIL$ CRIT]IA = A BUREAUCRATIC ADM9I/RATIVE /AFF3 7#a7 A CLE>LY DEF9$ SPH]E ( COMPET5CE SUBJECT TO IMP]SONAL RULES2 7#b7 A RATIONALLY E/ABLI%$ HI]>*Y2 7#c7 A REGUL> SY/EM ( APPO9TM5T ON ! BASIS ( FREE CONTRACT2 7#d7 TE*NICAL TRA9+ AS A REGUL> REQUIREM5T2 7#e7 7FREQU5TLY7 FIX$ SAL>IES1 TYPICALLY PAID 9 MONEY4 ,!SE1 ?\<1 >E NOT ! CRIT]IA = ! /ATE1 BUT RA!R = ! ADM9I/RATIVE ASPECT ( ! MOD]N BUREAUCRATIC /ATE2 IT IS ?AT TYPE ( /ATE :I* HAS AN ADM9I/RATIVE & LEGAL ORD]4 ,9 FACT ,WEB] LI/$ !SE CRIT]IA TO %[ :AT WAS ABS5T FROM EV5 ! PATRIMONIAL /ATE4.<#a#a#h.> 

,AS ,WEB] W\LD AGREE1 ,BOOK*9'S REQUIREM5TS >E F> TOO EXCLUSIVE4 ,AS ,MI*AEL ,TAYLOR MA9TA9S1 POLITICAL SPECIALIZATION IS NOT DEF9ITIVE1 AL?\< IT T5DS TO DEVELOP TOGE!R ) ! MONOPOLIZATION ( VIOL5CE4.<#a#a#h#a.> ,! *IEFTA91 ESPECIALLY 9 A RANK SOCIETY1 OCCUPIES A SPECIALIZ$ POLITICAL ROLE1 BUT 9 ! ABS5CE ( A MONOPOLY ( VIOL5CE1 ! SOCIETY IS AN>*IC4.<#a#a#h#b.> ,! ?OR\<GO+ PR(ESSIONALIZATION ( GOV]NM5T IS A RELATIVELY REC5T 7&1 SOME W\LD SAY1 9COMPLETE7 DEVELOPM5T 9 ,WE/]N POLITIES4 ,9 PREMOD]N ,AM]ICA1 PUBLIC & PRIVATE AU?ORITY W]E CONJO9$ TO P]=M 0UNDIFF]5TIAT$ LEAD]%IP ROLES40 ,LEAD]S W]E SELECT$ = !IR SOCIAL POSITION 9 !IR COMMUNITIES1 NOT = SPECIALIZ$ EXP]TIZE4.<#a#a#h#c.> ,SURELY ! ABS5CE ( PR(ESSIONAL JUDGES & LEGISLATORS DOES NOT MAKE A SY/EM AN>*IC4 ,!RE W]E NONE ( EI!R 9 COLONIAL ,AM]ICA1 :]E !SE POSITIONS W]E FILL$ 5TIRELY BY P>T-TIME AMATEURS4 ,! ,U4,S4 ,SUPREME ,C\RT WAS ! FIR/ C\RT 9 ,AM]ICA ON :I* ALL ! JUDGES W]E LAWY]S4 ,!IRS W]E P>T-TIME JOBS 7AS W]E ?OSE ( ,CONGRESSM5 = MANY DECADES72 9 ITS FIR/ TWELVE YE>S1 ! ,SUPREME ,C\RT HE>D NO MORE ?AN #hg CASES4 ,! ,BRITI% ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS WAS COMPOS$ MA9LY ( AMATEURS AT LEA/ UNTIL ! #a#i?1 & ,I SUSPECT UNTIL ! #b? C5TURY4 ,! FIR/ PR(ESSIONAL POLICE =CES 9 ,5GL& & ,AM]ICA W]E NOT CREAT$ UNTIL ! #a#i? C5TURY4.<#a#a#h#d.> 

,! REQUIREM5T ( PR(ESSIONALISM MAY ALSO NOT BE EXCLUSIVE 5\<4 ,!RE IS NO REASON :Y ! ,COMMUNE C\LD NOT SPAWN A CADRE ( PR(ESSIONAL POLITICIANS1 SU* AS ! ,A!NIAN RHETORES & ! LEAD+ ,P>ISIAN SECTIONNAIRES4 ,BRIAN ,M>T9 SUGGE/S ?AT ! DELEGATES TO F$]ATIONS >E LIKELY TO TURN PRO3  
  

,DELEGATES >E NORMALLY ELECT$1 & ?IS LEADS TO ! FAMILI> PROBLEMS ( REPRES5TATION4 ,C]TA9 9DIVIDUALS DOM9ATE4 ,P>TICIPATION 9 DECISION-MAK+ IS UNEQUAL1 ) ! DELEGATES BE+ HEAVILY 9VOLV$ & O!RS NOT4 ,TO ! DEGREE ?AT DECISIONS >E ACTUALLY MADE AT HI<] LEVELS1 !RE IS GREAT POT5TIAL = DEVELOPM5T ( FACTIONS1 VOTE TRAD+ & MANIPULATION ( ! ELECTORATE4 

,?IS IS :]E ! DELEGATE SY/EM IS SUPPOS$ TO BE DIFF]5T3 IF ! DELEGATES />T TO S]VE !MSELVES RA!R ?AN ?OSE !Y REPRES5T1 !Y CAN BE RECALL$4 ,BUT 9 PRACTICE ?IS IS H>D TO A*IEVE4 ,DELEGATES T5D TO 0H>D50 9TO =MAL REPRES5TATIVES4 ,?OSE *OS5 AS DELEGATES >E LIKELY TO HAVE MU* MORE EXP]I5CE & KN[L$GE ?AN ! ORD9>Y P]SON4 ,ONCE *OS51 ! DELEGATES GA9 EV5 MORE EXP]I5CE & KN[L$GE1 :I* CAN BE PRES5T$ AS ( HI< VALUE TO ! VOT]S4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 RECALL+ ! DELEGATE WILL BE AT ! CO/ ( LOS+ AN EXP]I5C$ & 9FLU5TIAL P]SON4.<#a#a#h#e.>  
  

,O!R S\RCES ( OLIG>*Y W]E DISCUSS$ ABOVE 7,*APT] #a#f74 

,IT MAY WELL BE ?AT = ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS1 PR(ESSIONALIZATION & BUREAUCRACY REF] TO ! SAME ?+ -- !Y =M ANO!R ( HIS R$UNDANT DYADS1 LIKE 0RULE & DOM9ATION40 ,IF BY PR(ESSIONALIZATION HE MEANS GOV]NM5T BY A HI]>*Y ( PAID C>E] FUNCTION>IES1 !N IT IS JU/ ANO!R NAME = BUREAUCRACY4 ,ASSIGN$ ITS DI/9CT MEAN+1 PR(ESSIONALIZATION REF]S TO ! SALI5CE ( PR(ESSIONALS 9 L>GE-SCALE ORGANIZATIONS4 ,A PR(ESSION IS SIGNIFI$ BY 7#a7 A !ORETICAL BODY ( KN[L$GE1 7#b7 A SET ( PR(ESSIONAL NORMS1 7#c7 C>E]S SUPPORT$ BY AN ASSOCIATION ( COLLEAGUES1 & 7#d7 COMMUNITY RECOGNITION4 ,BUREAUCRATIC & PR(ESSIONAL CULTURES T5D TO CLA%4.<#a#a#h#f.> ,I D\BT ,BOOK*9 HAS EV] GIV5 A ?\<T TO ANY ( ?IS4 

,9 A DEF9ITION ( ! /ATE1 ! 9VOLVEM5T ( PR(ESSIONALS IS AN EV5 MORE EXTRANE\S ELEM5T ?AN BUREAUCRACY4 ,/ATE =MATION CAN PROCE$ QUITE F> )\T PR(ESSIONALIZATION4 ,! PR(ESSION CLOSE/ TO ! /ATE IS ( C\RSE ! LEGAL PR(ESSION1 AL?\< ! WORK ( MO/ LAWY]S IS NOT1 & NEV] HAS BE5 0ANCILL>Y0 TO ! /ATE AS ,BOOK*9 ASSUMES4 ,9 #a#g? C5TURY ,AM]ICA1 LAWY]S PLAY$ ALMO/ NO ROLE 9 GOV]NM5T BECAUSE !Y PLAY$ ALMO/ NO ROLE ANY:]E1 NOT EV5 9 ! C\RTROOM4.<#a#a#h#g.> ,!N !IR NUMB]S & ACTIVITIES 9CREAS$1 BUT /ILL ALMO/ 5TIRELY \TSIDE ( GOV]NM5T4 ,:AT'S MORE1 !Y W]E NOT PR(ESSIONALS BY MOD]N /&>DS BECAUSE !Y (T5 LACK$ TE*NICAL TRA9+1 !RE WAS NO RECOGNIZ$ BODY ( PR(ESSIONAL NORMS 70LEGAL E?ICS071 & !RE W]E NO B> ASSOCIATIONS4 ,9 E>LY NATIONAL ,AM]ICA1 ! ,ATTORNEY ,G5]AL WAS ! ONLY ,F$]AL ,GOV]NM5T LAWY]1 & HIS WAS A P>T-TIME JOB1 & HE HAD NO /AFF1 NO CL]K1 & NO (FICE4.<#a#a#h#h.> ,LAWY]S W]E CONSPICU\S 9 E>LY LEGISLATURES1 BUT ONLY AS P>T-TIME AMATEURS LIKE EV]YBODY ELSE4 ,! ROLE ( LAWY]S QUA LAWY]S 9 GOV]NM5T WAS SO NEGLIGIBLE ?AT IT W\LD BE RIDICUL\S TO PR$ICATE A PR(ESSIONALIZ$ GOV]NM5T UPON !IR PRES5CE4 ,UNLESS WE >E TO *>ACT]IZE #a#i? C5TURY ,AM]ICA AS AN>*I/1 ! PR(ESSIONALIZATION REQUIREM5T = A /ATE MU/ BE DISMISS$4 

,IT F9ALLY COMES D[N TO :AT C\NTS AS A /ATE = AN>*I/ PURPOSES4 ,S9CE ! MOD]N BUREAUCRATIC NATION-/ATE IS ! ONLY K9D ( /ATE N[ EXI/+1 ?AT IS ! /ATE :I* AN>*I/S >E ACCU/OM$ TO OPPOSE4 ,!RE IS NORMALLY NO REASON TO MUSE ON ! /ATE'S ESS5TIAL V]SUS 9CID5TAL ATTRIBUTES1 BECAUSE CONTEMPOR>Y /ATES HAVE !M ALL4 ,AN>*I/S LIKE NONE ( ITS ATTRIBUTES1 AT LEA/ :5 !Y BELONG TO A /ATE4 ,BUT PR(ESSIONALIZATION IS ONLY AN ANNOYANCE COMP>$ TO CO]CION1 & ! /ATE W\LD LOSE ITS P[] TO ANNOY IF NOT BACK$ BY CO]CION4 ,IT IS DIFFICULT TO IMAG9E BUREAUCRACY )\T CO]CION1 BUT IT IS EASY TO IMAG9E CO]CION )\T BUREAUCRACY4 

,:AT AN>*I/S FUNDAM5TALLY REJECT IS CONC5TRAT$ CO]CIVE P[]4.<#a#a#h#i.> ,!Y ACCEPT1 AT MO/1 ONLY M9IMAL CO]CIVE P[]1 MAXIMALLY DISP]S$4 ,:5 ! FEUDAL LEVIES ( ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR UND]TOOK ! SCOR*$-E>? 0H>RY+ ( ! NOR?0 ( ,5GL&1 OR AN ,A!NIAN JURY CONDEMN$ ,SOCRATES1 !Y W]E DO+ ! SORTS ( ?+S /ATES DO :I* MAKE AN>*I/S WANT TO DEPRIVE !M ( ! P[] TO DO ANY?+4 ,FROM ! AN>*I/ PO9T ( VIEW1 IT MAKES NO DIFF]5CE ?AT ,WILLIAM ! ,BA/>D HAD NO PR(ESSIONAL >MY1 OR ?AT ,SOCRATES' JUDGES & JURORS W]E P>T-TIME AMATEURS *OS5 BY LOT4 ,! SOLDI]S & JURORS NONE!LESS ACT$ AS AG5TS ( ! /ATE4 ,!Y >E ! 5EMY4 

,IT IS REALLY A/\ND+ ?AT ,BOOK*9 DOES NOT BO!R TO JU/IFY RULE1 MU* LESS MAJORITY RULE1 AT ALL4 ,EV5 ,HOBBES DID ?AT MU*6 ,EXCEPT = !OCRATS1 MOD]N /ATI/S -- EV5 ,HOBBES -- F9D JU/IFICATION 9 ! CONS5T ( ! GOV]N$4 ,EV5 9 ! #a#g? C5TURY1 ,SIR ,MAT!W ,HALE FELT CON/RA9$ TO >GUE1 IMPLAUSIBLY1 ?AT ! ,5GLI% ,CR[N1 ?\< IT ORIG9AT$ 9 CONQUE/1 HAD GRADUALLY SECUR$ ! 0IMPLI$ ,CONS5T0 ( ! PEOPLE TO A 0,PACT OR ,CONV5TION0 ) IT4 ,MA9/REAM /ATI/ PHILOSOPH]S CONT5D ?AT !RE IS AT LEA/ A PRESUMPTIVE CASE = LIB]TY1 & !RE=E ?AT CO]CION REQUIRES JU/IFICATION4.<#a#a#i.> ,SOME ( !M ADMIT ?AT1 S9CE CONS5T PRESUPPOSES *OICE1 H>DLY ANY MOD]N CITIZ5S REALLY CONS5T1 OR EV] HAD ! OPPORTUNITY TO CONS5T1 TO BE GOV]N$4 ,ONE ( !SE PHILOSOPH]S1 ,A4 ,JOHN ,SIMMONS1 ADMITS ?AT ?IS IS ! HI/ORIC AN>*I/ POSITION4.<#a#a#i#a.> ,= ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS1 9 CONTRA/1 ! /ATE IS A GIV54 ,= ,OSC> ,WILDE1 A MU* MORE ACUTE POLITICAL PHILOSOPH]1 0DEMOCRACY MEANS SIMPLY ! BLUDGEON+ ( ! PEOPLE BY ! PEOPLE = ! PEOPLE4 ,IT HAS BE5 F\ND \T40.<#a#a#i#b.> 

,HAV+ TAK5 RULE = GRANT$1 ,BOOK*9 REACTS TO REJECTIONS ( MAJORITY RULE ) HURT FEEL+S3  
  

,:AT IS /RIK+ AB\T !SE ASS]TIONS IS !IR HI<LY PEJORATIVE LANGUAGE4 ,MAJORITIES1 IT W\LD SEEM1 NEI!R DECIDE NOR DEBATE3 RA!R1 !Y 0RULE0 & 0DICTATE10 & P]HAPS .<8.> COMM& & CO]CE4 ,BUT A FREE SOCIETY W\LD BE ONE ?AT NOT ONLY P]MITT$ BUT FO/]$ ! FULLE/ DEGREE ( DISS5T2 ITS PODIUMS AT ASSEMBLIES & ITS M$IA W\LD BE OP5 TO ! FULLE/ EXPRESSION ( ALL VIEWS1 & ITS 9/ITUTIONS W\LD BE TRUE =UMS ( DISCUSSION4 ,:5 SU* A SOCIETY HAD TO >RIVE AT A DECISION ?AT CONC]N$ ! PUBLIC WELF>E1 IT C\LD H>DLY 0DICTATE0 TO ANYONE4 ,! M9ORITY :O OPPOS$ A MAJORITY DECISION W\LD HAVE EV]Y OPPORTUNITY TO DISS5T1 TO WORK TO REV]SE ?AT DECISION ?R\< UNIMPAIR$ DISCUSSION & ADVOCACY4.<#a#a#i#c.>  
  

,! IRRELEVANCE IS BREA?TAK+4 ,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS JU/ *ANGES ! SUBJECT TO ONE :]E HE MI<T HAVE AN >GUM5T -- FROM MAJORITY RULE TO FRE$OM ( SPEE*1 AS IF ! ONLY MAJORITY CO]CION ?AT ANYONE MI<T POSSIBLY OBJECT TO IS ! 9FR+EM5T ( SPEE*4 ,S9CE WORDS >E ! HI<E/ VALUE = HIM1 HE ASSUMES !Y >E ! HI<E/ VALUE = EV]YBODY4 ,BUT SOME PEOPLE MI<T HAVE NO?+ TO SAY TO ! ASSEMBLY BUT 0DON'T TREAD ON ME60 ,I JU/ MI<T WANT TO IGNORE ! /ATE1 NOT DISS5T FROM IT4 ,LIKE MO/ PEOPLE1 ,I MI<T SOMETIMES RA!R TALK AB\T SOME?+ ELSE ?AN POLITICS4 ,:E!R ! ASSEMBLY CAN OR CANNOT 0DICTATE0 TO ANYONE HAS NO?+ TO DO ) ! YAMM] LEAD+ UP TO ITS DECISIONS4 ,IF 0RULE0 IS PEJORATIVE1 !RE MI<T BE A REASON = ?AT4 

,! ONLY ?+ ,BOOK*9 SAYS ?AT'S TO ! PO9T IS ?AT 0?OSE :O DECIDE TO 5T] ! ASSEMBLY DOORS1 SIT D[N1 LI/5 TO DISCUSSIONS1 & P>TICIPATE 9 !M >E1 E?ICALLY AS WELL AS POLITICALLY1 QUALIFI$ TO P>TICIPATE 9 ! DECISION-MAK+ PROCESS444 ,?OSE :O *OOSE NOT TO 5T] ! DOORS 7ALL[+ = DIFFICULTIES PRODUC$ BY ADV]SE CIRCUM/ANCES7 C]TA9LY HAVE A RI<T TO ABJURE ! EX]CISE ( !IR CITIZ5%IP1 BUT BY !IR [N VOLITION !Y HAVE ALSO DISQUALIFI$ !MSELVES FROM DECISION-MAK+4 ,NOR DO !Y HAVE ! E?ICAL RI<T TO REFUSE TO ABIDE BY ! ASSEMBLY'S DECISIONS1 S9CE !Y C\LD HAVE 9FLU5C$ ?OSE DECISIONS M]ELY BY ATT5D+ ! ASSEMBLY40.<#a#a#i#d.> 

,DAMN$ IF Y\ DO1 DAMN$ IF Y\ DON'T6 ,Y\ >E B\ND BY ASSEMBLY DECISIONS IF Y\ P>TICIPATE & Y\ >E B\ND BY !M IF Y\ DO NOT4 ,H]B]T ,SP5C] REM>K$ UPON ?IS 0RA!R AWKW>D DOCTR9E0 7AS ,I HAVE73  
  

,SUPPOSE ?AT ! CITIZ5 IS UND]/OOD TO HAVE ASS5T$ TO EV]Y?+ HIS REPRES5TATIVE MAY DO :5 HE VOT$ = HIM4 ,BUT SUPPOSE HE DID NOT VOTE = HIM1 & ON ! CONTR>Y DID ALL 9 HIS P[] TO GET ELECT$ SOMEONE HOLD+ OPPOSITE VIEWS -- :AT !N8 ,! REPLY WILL PROBABLY BE ?AT1 BY TAK+ P>T 9 SU* AN ELECTION1 HE TACITLY AGRE$ TO ABIDE BY ! DECISION ( ! MAJORITY4 ,& H[ IF HE DID NOT VOTE AT ALL8 ,:Y1 !N HE CANNOT JU/LY COMPLA9 ( ANY TAX .<OR :ATEV].>1 SEE+ ?AT HE MADE NO PROTE/ AGA9/ ITS IMPOSITION4 ,SO1 CURI\SLY 5\<1 IT SEEMS ?AT HE GAVE HIS CONS5T 9 :ATEV] WAY HE ACT$ -- :E!R HE SAID YES1 :E!R HE SAID NO1 OR :E!R HE REMA9$ NEUT]6.<#a#a#i#e.>  
  

,:AT'S ! BASIS ( !SE SUPPOS$ OBLIGATIONS8 ,?OSE :O *OOSE NOT TO P>TICIPATE HAVE NOT CONS5T$ TO BE GOV]N$1 9 FACT1 !Y HAVE CLE>LY COMMUNICAT$ BY CONDUCT !IR REFUSAL TO BE GOV]N$4 

,EV5 ?OSE :O P>TICIPATE HAVE NOT NECESS>ILY CONS5T$ TO ABIDE BY ! DECISIONS4 ,ONE :O VOTES AGA9/ A MEASURE OBVI\SLY DOES NOT CONS5T TO IT1 OR HE W\LD HAVE VOT$ ! O!R WAY4.<#a#a#i#f.> ,VOT+ DOES NOT SIGNIFY CONS5T1 9 FACT1 EXPRESS+ CONS5T TO BE GOV]N$ IS R>ELY IF EV] :Y PEOPLE VOTE4 ,ONE MI<T P>TICIPATE1 = 9/ANCE1 PRECISELY BECAUSE !SE PEOPLE >E GO+ TO RULE Y\ :E!R Y\ LIKE IT OR NOT1 SO Y\ MI<T AS WELL TRY TO 9FLU5CE !IR RULE -- UND] DURESS4 ,DURESS DOES NOT SIGNIFY CONS5T1 IT NEGATES IT4 ,SO >GU$ ,LYS&] ,SPOON]3  
  

,9 TRU?1 9 ! CASE ( 9DIVIDUALS1 !IR ACTUAL VOT+ IS NOT TO BE TAK5 AS PRO( ( CONS5T1 EV5 = ! TIME BE+4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 IT IS TO BE CONSID]$ ?AT1 )\T HIS CONS5T HAV+ EV5 BE5 ASK$ A MAN F9DS HIMSELF 5VIRON$ BY A GOV]NM5T ?AT HE CANNOT RESI/2 444 ,HE SEES1 TOO1 ?AT O!R M5 PRACTICE ?IS TYRANNY OV] HIM BY ! USE ( ! BALLOT4 ,HE SEES FUR!R1 ?AT1 IF HE WILL BUT USE ! BALLOT HIMSELF1 HE HAS SOME *ANCE ( RELIEV+ HIMSELF ( ?IS TYRANNY ( O!RS1 BY SUBJECT+ !M TO HIS [N4 ,9 %ORT1 HE F9DS HIMSELF1 )\T HIS CONS5T1 SO SITUAT$ ?AT1 IF HE USE ! BALLOT1 HE MAY BECOME A MA/]2 IF HE DOES NOT USE IT1 HE MU/ BECOME A SLAVE4 ,& HE HAS NO O!R ALT]NATIVE ?AN !SE TWO4 ,9 SELF-DEF5SE1 HE ATTEMPTS ! =M]4 ,HIS CASE IS ANALOG\S TO ?AT ( A MAN :O HAS BE5 =C$ 9TO BATTLE1 :]E HE MU/ EI!R KILL O!RS1 OR BE KILL$ HIMSELF4 ,BECAUSE1 TO SAVE HIS [N LIFE 9 BATTLE1 A MAN ATTEMPTS TO TAKE ! LIVES ( HIS OPPON5TS1 IT IS NOT TO BE 9F]R$ ?AT ! BATTLE IS ONE ( HIS [N *OOS+4.<#a#a#i#g.>  
  

,NOR IS !RE ANY REASON :Y EV5 TRULY VOLUNT>Y P>TICIPATION IS B9D+4 ,I MI<T HAVE NO MORE 9FLU5CE ON :O W9S BY 5T]+ ! ASSEMBLY DOORS & ATT5D+ ! MEET+ ?AN ,I HAVE 5T]+ A BASEBALL /ADIUM & ATT5D+ ! GAME4 ,:5 ,I CA/ A LOS+ VOTE1 BY DEF9ITION MY P>TICIPATION & MY VOTE HAD NO 9FLU5CE ON ! DECISION4 ,9 FACT1 IT IS ! SAME IF ,I CA/ A W9N+ VOTE1 UNLESS M9E WAS ! DECID+ VOTE1 :I* IT R>ELY IS4 ,?US1 ! NORMAL SITUATION UND] DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS ?AT NOBODY HAS CONS5T$ TO ANY GOV]NM5TAL MEASURE1 NOT EV5 IF HE VOT$1 & NOT EV5 IF HE VOT$ ) ! MAJORITY4 

,IS CONS5T TO BE RUL$ TO BE 9F]R$ FROM RESID5CE 9 ! ,COMMUNE8 ,NOT AS TO ?OSE RESID5TS :O HAVE MADE CLE> ?AT !Y DO NOT 9T5D = !IR RESID5CE TO CONF] CONS5T4 ,AFT] ALL1 Y\ HAVE TO LIVE SOME:]E1 & IF ,BOOK*9 HAS HIS WAY1 ,COMMUNES WILL OCCUPY ! :OLE WORLD4.<#a#a#i#h.> ,QUITE POSSIBLY MY RESID5CE WILL HAVE ANT$AT$ ! =MATION ( ! ,COMMUNE4 ,IF MY NEW NEI<BORS LAT] =M AN ASSOCIATION1 :Y AM ,I SUDD5LY SUBJECT TO ITS RULE8 ,:AT IF MY AN>*I/ NEI<BORS & ,I PO/ SIGNS ANN\NC+ A 0,POLITICS-,FREE ,ZONE0 OR 0,P]MAN5T ,AUTONOM\S ,ZONE0 -- DOES ?AT MEAN ?AT NEWCOM]S CONS5T TO \R AN>*Y8 ,I AM NOT UND] ANY OBLIGATION JU/ BECAUSE A FEW O!R PEOPLE HAVE PR9T$ UP SOME /ATION]Y4 ,! RESID5CE >GUM5T PROVES TOO MU*4 ,IF RESID5CE CONF]S MY CONS5T TO BE RUL$ BY ! ,COMMUNE -- EV5 IF ,I 9SI/ ?AT IT DOES NOT -- !N RESID5CE CONF]S CONS5T TO BE RUL$ BY ANY GOV]NM5T4.<#a#a#i#i.> ,! >GUM5T IMPLIES ?AT ! LIB]T>IAN MUNICIPALI/S MU/ OBEY \R EXI/+ GOV]NM5TS TODAY1 S9CE !Y RESIDE 9 !IR T]RITORIES1 AL?\< AT SOME PO9T !IR REVOLUTION WILL HAVE TO 9CLUDE ILLEGAL ACTION 9CLUD+ AN UNPR$ICTABLE DEGREE ( VIOL5CE1 AS ! EX-,DIRECTOR ADMITS4.<#a#b.> ,!RE=E1 IF ! RESID5CE >GUM5T IS VALID1 ,BOOK*9 IS LEGALLY & MORALLY OBLIGAT$ TO R5\NCE LIB]T>IAN MUNICIPALISM4 

,AS ,BOOK*9 ADMITS1 0SCORES ( LIB]T>IANS0 -- ACTUALLY1 ALL ( !M -- 0HAVE MADE ?IS OBJECTION TO DEMOCRACY TIME & AGA940 ,EXACTLY3 AN>*ISM IS AV[$LY ANTI-DEMOCRATIC4 ,?IS IS ,MALATE/A'S V]SION ( ! OBJECTION3  
  

,WE DO NOT RECOGNIZE ! RI<T ( ! MAJORITY TO IMPOSE ! LAW ON ! M9ORITY1 EV5 IF ! WILL ( ! MAJORITY 9 SOME:AT COMPLICAT$ ISSUES C\LD REALLY BE ASC]TA9$4 ,! FACT ( HAV+ ! MAJORITY ON ONE'S SIDE DOES NOT 9 ANY WAY PROVE ?AT ONE MU/ BE RI<T4 ,9DE$1 HUMANITY HAS ALWAYS ADVANC$ ?R\< ! 9ITIATIVE & EF=TS ( 9DIVIDUALS & M9ORITIES1 :]EAS ! MAJORITY1 BY ITS V]Y NATURE1 IS SL[1 CONS]VATIVE1 SUBMISSIVE TO SUP]IOR =CE & TO E/ABLI%$ PRIVILEGES4.<#a#b#a.>  
  

,DAVID ,MILL] SUMM>IZES ! POSITION 9 AN 5CYCLOP$IA >TICLE ON AN>*ISM3 0,NO AN>*I/ W\LD ALL[ ! M9ORITY TO BE =C$ TO COMPLY ) ! MAJORITY DECISION4 ,TO =CE COMPLIANCE W\LD BE TO RE9TRODUCE CO]CIVE AU?ORITY1 ! HALLM>K ( ! /ATE40.<#a#b#b.> ,ALB]T ,P>SONS PUT IT MORE COLORFULLY3 0,:E!R GOV]NM5T CONSI/S ( ONE OV] ! MILLION1 OR ! MILLION OV] ! ONE1 AN AN>*I/ IS OPPOS$ TO ! RULE ( MAJORITIES AS WELL AS M9ORITIES40.<#a#b#c.> ,MAJORITY RULE COMES D[N TO MI<T-MAKES-RI<T4.<#a#b#d.> 

,CO]CION IS ! QUE/ION4 ,! MAJORITY CAN DO :ATEV] IT PLEASES -- ) ITSELF4 ,9 A FUR!R IRRELEVANCE1 ,BOOK*9 DEM&S TO KN[ H[ TO MAKE DECISIONS IF NOT BY MAJORITY -- ! /&>D /ATI/ QU]Y1 AS NOT$ BY ,ROB]T ,PAUL ,WOLFF4.<#a#b#e.> ,NOT T>RY+ = AN ANSW]1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS LAUN*ES 9TO A LONG ,!RSITICAL TIRADE AGA9/ CONS5SUS DECISION-MAK+1 AS ILLU/RAT$ BY :AT MU/ BE A P]SONALI/IC1 SELF-S]V+ ACC\NT ( ! ,CLAM%ELL ,ALLIANCE4.<#a#b#f.> ,CONS5SUS MU/ HAVE BE5 FRU/RAT+ = SOMEONE ) ,BOOK*9'S WILL TO P[]1 BUT AN >GUM5T AGA9/ CONS5SUS IS NOT AN >GUM5T = MAJORITY RULE4 ,HE HATES IT SO MU* ?AT HE CALLS IT 0DEGRAD+1 NOT 'DEMOCRATIC'0 767 BECAUSE IT ELEVATES QUANTITY OV] QUALITY4.<#a#b#g.> ,PLATO OR ,NIETZS*E -- ,I WAS AB\T TO WRITE1 0C\LDN'T HAVE SAID IT ANY BETT]10 BUT1 ( C\RSE1 !Y DID4 

,!RE >E O!R POSSIBILITIES1 9CLUD+ TEMPOR>Y 9ACTION.<#a#b#h.> & TEMPOR>Y SEP>ATION4 ,BRIAN ,M>T9 ADVOCATES DEM>*Y1 ! R&OM SELECTION FROM VOLUNTE]S ( ! MEMB]S ( FUNCTIONAL DECISION-MAK+ GR\PS4 ,B>B>A ,GOODW9 PROPOSES SELECTION BY LOTT]Y = A WIDE RANGE ( POSITIONS BESIDES JUROR4.<#a#b#i.> ,! DECISION-RULE MI<T NOT BE ?AT IMPORTANT 9 /RUCTURES LIKE ?OSE PROPOS$ BY ,VACLAV ,HAVEL1 :I* >E 0OP51 DYNAMIC1 & SMALL0 -- & TEMPOR>Y4.<#a#b#a.> ,! BE/ ME?OD IS1 0:5EV] POSSIBLE A SOLUTION IS TO BE F\ND :]EBY MAJORITY & M9ORITY CAN EA* FOLL[ !IR [N POLICY & COMB9E ONLY TO AVOID CLA%ES & MUTUAL 9T]F]5CE0 7,GIOVANNI ,BALDELLI74.<#a#b#a#a.> 

,MALATE/A PO9TS \T ! OBVI\S3 0,9 \R OP9ION1 !RE=E1 IT IS NECESS>Y ?AT MAJORITY & M9ORITY %\LD SUCCE$ 9 LIV+ TOGE!R PEACEABLY & PR(ITABLY BY MUTUAL AGREEM5T & COMPROMISE1 BY ! 9TELLIG5T RECOGNITION ( ! PRACTICAL NECESSITIES ( COMMUNAL LIFE & ( ! USEFULNESS ( CONCESSIONS :I* CIRCUM/ANCES MAKE NECESS>Y40 ,HE ALSO SUGGE/$ >BITRATION1 BUT EXPECT$ IT TO BE AS OCCASIONAL AS =MAL VOT+4 ,IF SEP>ATE OPTIONS >E IMPOSSIBLE2 IF DIFF]5CES 9 OP9ION >5'T WOR? SPLITT+ UP OV]2 IF 0! DUTY ( SOLID>ITY0 >GUES = UNITY2 !N ! M9ORITY %\LD REC$E1 BUT EV5 !N1 ONLY VOLUNT>ILY4.<#a#b#a#b.> ,/ILL ANO!R POSSIBILITY IS TAK+ TURNS4 ,9 CONTRA/1 0DEMOCRACY1 AS USUALLY UND]/OOD1 DOES NOT 9CLUDE SU* A NOTION40.<#a#b#a#c.> 

,IRONICALLY1 MAJORITY RULE WAS NOT REALLY EV5 ! ,A!NIAN IDEAL1 ONLY ! PRACTICE4 ,! IDEAL WAS CONS5SUS2 IT IS NOT CLE> IF EV5 A MAJORITY ( ISSUES WAS PUT TO A VOTE4 ,& AS A MATT] ( FACT1 ACCORD+ TO ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS1 UNTIL ! LATE #a#i#fS1 ,V]MONT 0T[N-MEET+ DISCUSSIONS FAVOR$ A DEC5T MEASURE ( PUBLIC CONS5SUS06.<#a#b#a#d.> 

,AN>*I/S RECOGNIZE CONS5SUS DECISION-MAK+ TO BE CONSI/5T ) -- NOT NECESS>ILY ORDA9$ BY -- !IR PR9CIPLES :]EAS MAJORITY RULE IS NOT4 ,SOME MAY BE SURPRIS$ TO LE>N ?AT IT IS ALSO ! ONLY DECISION RULE :I* IS ,P>ETO-OPTIMAL4.<#a#b#a#e.> ,! EX-,DIRECTOR'S EGO ASIDE1 ! UTILITY ( CONS5SUS DEP5DS ON ! SOCIAL SETT+4 ,IF ! ,COMMUNE IS AS ORGANIC AS PROMIS$1 ! CITIZ5S1 9 MAK+ DECISIONS1 WILL DECIDE NOT M]ELY ON ! M]ITS ( A PROPOSAL BUT GIVE DUE CONSID]ATION TO ! EFFECTS ( A DECISION ON !IR CONT9U+ RELATION%IPS ) ONE ANO!R4.<#a#b#a#f.> ,9 SMALL COMMUNITIES )\T MU* SOCIOECONOMIC DIFF]5TIATION1 RELATION%IPS >E COMMONLY1 US+ ,MAX ,GLUCKMAN'S T]M1 0MULTIPLEX10 MULTIPURPOSE -- ! GUY NEXT DOOR IS NOT JU/ A NEI<BOR1 HE IS A FELL[ P>I%ION]1 AN OCCASIONAL HIR$ H&1 A CR$ITOR1 P]HAPS A SECOND C\S91 ETC4.<#a#b#a#g.> ,?US ! ,NEW ,5GL& T[N MEET+S W]E NOT1 9 PRACTICE1 DIRECT DEMOCRACIES3 9 !IR 0DISDA9 = DIRECT DEMOCRACY10 !Y ASPIR$ TO1 & 9 L>GE MEASURE A*IEV$1 CONS5SUS4 ,DEBATE & DIVISION W]E R>E4.<#a#b#a#h.> 

,9 A G5U9ELY ORGANIC SOCIETY1 CONS5SUS NE$ NOT BE DIFFICULT TO >RIVE AT4 ,AMONG ! ,BASS]I TRIBESM5 ( S\!RN ,IRAN1 :O >E PA/ORAL NOMADS1 CAMPS ( #a-#d T5TS >E = MO/ ( ! YE> ! PRIM>Y COMMUNITIES4 ,EV]Y DAY1 ! ALL-IMPORTANT DECISION H[ F> TO MOVE1 & :]E1 IS MADE UNANIM\SLY BY ! H\SEHOLD HEADS4 ,ANNUAL ASSEMBLIES ( ?\S&S ( ,MONT5EGR9 TRIBESM5 MADE G5]ALLY REALI/IC POLITICAL DECISIONS BY CONS5SUS4.<#a#b#a#i.> ,UND\BT$LY ! ,CLAM%ELL ,ALLIANCE PR(ESS$ A COMMUNAL IDEOLOGY1 BUT 9 REALITY IT WAS A S+LE-PURPOSE 9T]E/ GR\P :OSE MEMB]S ASSOCIAT$ 9/RUM5TALLY = A RELATIVELY N>R[ POLITICAL PURPOSE4 ,CONS5SUS 9 SU* AN ORGANIZATION IS LIKELY TO BECOME A =MALITY4 

,AL?\< ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS HAS NO >GUM5T = MAJORITY RULE1 HE QUOTES ! MO/ FAM\S >GUM5T = DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 FROM ,R\SSEAU1 0! TRUE F\ND] ( MOD]N REACTION10 AS ,BAKUN9 CALL$ HIM3  
  

,SOV]EIGNTY1 = ! SAME REASON AS MAKES IT 9ALI5ABLE1 CANNOT BE REPRES5T$2 IT LIES ESS5TIALLY 9 ! G5]AL WILL1 & WILL DOES NOT ADMIT ( REPRES5TATION3 IT IS EI!R ! SAME1 OR O!R2 !RE IS NO 9T]M$IATE POSSIBILITY4 ,! DEPUTIES ( ! PEOPLE1 !RE=E1 >E NOT & CANNOT BE ITS REPRES5TATIVES3 !Y >E M]ELY ITS /EW>DS1 & CAN C>RY ?R\< NO DEF9ITIVE ACTS4 ,EV]Y LAW ! PEOPLE HAS NOT RATIFI$ 9 P]SON IS NULL & VOID -- IS1 9 FACT1 NOT A LAW4 ,! PEOPLE ( ,5GL& REG>DS ITSELF AS FREE3 BUT IT IS GROSSLY MI/AK53 IT IS FREE ONLY DUR+ ! ELECTION ( MEMB]S ( P>LIAM5T4 ,AS SOON AS !Y >E ELECT$1 SLAV]Y OV]TAKES IT1 & IT IS NO?+4.<#a#b#b.>  
  

,R\SSEAU'S FAM\S >GUM5T IS NO >GUM5T AT ALL4 ,IT BEGS ! QUE/ION4 ,SOV]EIGNTY CANNOT BE REPRES5T$ = ! SAME REASON ?AT IT CANNOT BE ALI5AT$4 ,:Y NOT8 ,BECAUSE 0IT CONSI/S ESS5TIALLY ( ! G5]AL WILL1 & WILL CANNOT BE REPRES5T$40 ,:Y NOT8 ,NEV] M9D AB\T 0SOV]EIGNTY10 :E!R WILL CAN BE REPRES5T$ IS PRECISELY ! QUE/ION4 ,TO SAY ?AT LAWS PASS$ BY REPRES5TATIVES >E VOID IS A D$UCTION FROM A CONCLUSION1 NOT AN >GUM5T 9 ITS SUPPORT4 0,G5]AL0 MEANS 0UNIV]SAL10 UNANIM\S1 SO1 AS ,J]EMY ,B5?AM SAYS1 BY ?IS REASON+1 ALL LAWS HAVE ALWAYS BE5 VOID4.<#a#b#b#a.> ,IF IT MEANS SOME?+ ELSE1 AS IT SEEMS TO1 0G5]AL WILL0 MU/ BE 0METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE10 SOME?+ ,BOOK*9 DETE/S1 BECAUSE WILL IS AN ATTRIBUTE ( 9DIVIDUALS4 ,J4,P4 ,PLAM5ATZ PO9TS \T ?AT ,R\SSEAU TREATS AS ! G5]AL WILL ! COMMON GOOD1 :I* IS NOT REALLY WILL AT ALL4 ,EV5 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS H9TS ?AT ! CONCEPT IS DUBI\S4.<#a#b#b#b.> 

,N[ Y\ CAN MAKE A CASE1 9 MY OP9ION A V]Y GOOD ONE1 ?AT WILL WILL NOT BE REPRES5T$1 = ALL ! REASONS DISCUSS$ 9 MY CRITIQUE ( DELEGATION BY DIRECT DEMOCRACIES1 >GU+ = ! T5D5CY ( DELEGATES TO EVOLVE 9TO REPRES5TATIVES4 ,EV5 IF !Y DID NOT1 ?\<1 ,R\SSEAU'S >GUM5T1 SU* AS IT IS1 APPLIES 9 BO? SITUATIONS4 ,IF ,5GLI% SUBJECTS >E ONLY FREE :5 !Y VOTE = A REPRES5TATIVE1 ,COMMUNAL CITIZ5S >E ONLY FREE :5 !Y VOTE = A DELEGATE1 OR = A POLICY3 0,ONCE ! ELECTION HAS BE5 COMPLET$1 !Y REV]T TO A CONDITION ( SLAV]Y3 !Y >E NO?+40 ,DELEGATES MAY HAVE LESS OPPORTUNITY TO SUB/ITUTE !IR [N WILLS ?AN REPRES5TATIVES1 BUT ! DIFF]5CE IS ONLY 9 DEGREE1 & !RE IS NO O!R DIFF]5CE4 ,BO? FACE A POSSIBLE FUTURE RECKON+ IF !Y BETRAY !IR TRU/1 BUT BETWE5 N[ & ! FUTURE1 !Y >E SOV]EIGN & ! VOT]S >E SLAVES4 ,BOOK*91 :O IS ABSURDLY LACK+ 9 A S5SE ( ! ABSURD1 DOES NOT APPRECIATE ?AT ,R\SSEAU IS PRES5T+ AN >GUM5T AD ABSURDEM AGA9/ DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 AS IS QUITE OBVI\S FROM HIS 5DORSEM5T ( ELECTIVE >I/OCRACY ELSE:]E 9 ! SAME ESSAY4 ,DEMOCRACY1 = HIM1 IS SIMPLY IMPOSSIBLE3  
  

,IF WE TAKE ! T]M 9 ! /RICT S5SE1 !RE NEV] HAS BE5 A REAL DEMOCRACY1 & !RE NEV] WILL BE4 ,IT IS AGA9/ ! NATURAL ORD] = ! MANY TO GOV]N & ! FEW TO BE GOV]N$4 ,IT IS UNIMAG9ABLE ?AT ! PEOPLE %\LD REMA9 CONT9UALLY ASSEMBL$ TO DEVOTE !IR TIME TO PUBLIC AFFAIRS1 & IT IS CLE> ?AT !Y CANNOT SET UP COMMISSIONS = ?AT PURPOSE )\T ! =M ( ADM9I/RATION BE+ *ANG$4.<#a#b#b#c.>  
  

,NOT ONLY DOES ,R\SSEAU'S >GUM5T AGA9/ REPRES5TATION ALSO REFUTE DELEGATION1 IT REFUTES DIRECT DEMOCRACY TOO 7IF IT REFUTES ANY?+74 ,JU/ AS LAWS :I* 0! ,PEOPLE0 HAVE NOT RATIFI$ 9 P]SON >E NULL & VOID1 LAWS :I* PEOPLE HAVE NOT RATIFI$ 9 P]SON >E NULL & VOID4 ,! LATT] IS1 9 FACT1 ! BETT] >GUM5T1 BECAUSE ID5TIFIABLE PEOPLE EXI/ 9 ! SAME /RAI<T=W>D WAY ?AT TABLES & *AIRS EXI/2 BUT IF ! ,PEOPLE MEANS SOME?+ ELSE ?AN ! 9DIVIDUAL PEOPLE1 IT IS SOME SORT ( METAPHYSICAL IF NOT MY/ICAL 9TELLECTUAL CON/RUCT REQUIR+ 9DEP5D5T DEMON/RATION4 ,ONLY ! 9DIVIDUAL CAN CONS5T TO BE GOV]N$ BECAUSE1 AS AN>*I/S CONT5D1 NO AM\NT ( EXPATIATION UPON MAN'S SOCIAL NATURE ALT]S ! REALITY ?AT ! 9DIVIDUAL IS REAL 9 A WAY ?AT AN AB/RACTION LIKE SOCIETY IS NOT4.<#a#b#b#d.> ,WILLIAM ,GODW9 SAW ! IMPLICATIONS ( ,R\SSEAU'S POSITION3  
  

,IF GOV]NM5T BE F\ND$ 9 ! CONS5T ( ! PEOPLE1 !N IT CAN HAVE NO P[] OV] ANY 9DIVIDUAL BY :OM ?AT CONS5T IS REFUS$4 ,IF A TACIT CONS5T BE NOT SUFFICI5T1 /ILL LESS CAN ,I BE DEEM$ TO HAVE CONS5T$ TO A MEASURE UPON :I* ,I PUT AN EXPRESS NEGATIVE4 ,?IS IMM$IATELY FOLL[S FROM ! OBS]VATIONS ( ,R\SSEAU4 ,IF ! PEOPLE1 OR ! 9DIVIDUALS ( :I* ! PEOPLE IS CON/ITUT$1 CANNOT DELEGATE !IR AU?ORITY TO A REPRES5TATIVE1 NEI!R CAN ANY 9DIVIDUAL DELEGATE HIS AU?ORITY TO A MAJORITY1 9 AN ASSEMBLY ( :I* HE HIMSELF IS A MEMB]4.<#a#b#b#e.>  
  

,IF ,R\SSEAU IS RI<T1 NO ONE CAN RI<TFULLY SUBMIT TO MAJORITY RULE EV5 IF HE WANTS TO4 ,BECAUSE HE NEV] UND]/OOD ,R\SSEAU'S >GUM5T 9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 REC\RSE TO ,R\SSEAU HAS LEFT ,BOOK*9 WORSE (F ?AN BE=E4 

,CONSID] ! >GUM5TS AGA9/ DEMOCRACY4  

,! MAJORITY ISN'T ALWAYS RI<T4 ,AS ,?OREAU1 ,BAKUN91 ,TUCK]1 ,MALATE/A & ,GOLDMAN SAID1 DEMOCRACY DOES NOT ASSURE CORRECT DECISIONS4 ,!RE'S NO EVID5CE = ! CLAIM1 HE>D S9CE ,>I/OTLE1 ?AT A MULTIPLICITY ( DECISION-MAK]S MAKES BETT] DECISIONS4 ,CLE>LY CORPORATIONS1 UNIONS1 P>TIES1 FAMILIES1 & MANY O!R VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATIONS DON'T ?9K SO3 9 ! PRIVATE SECTOR1 OLIG>*Y IS ! NORM4 ,IT IS EV5 MA!MATICALLY DEMON/RABLE 7BUT NOT BY ME7 ?AT MAJORITY DECISION-MAK+ G5]ATES 9EFFICI5T1 SOCIALLY WA/EFUL1 MORE OR LESS SELF-DEFEAT+ DECISIONS4.<#a#b#b#f.> ,BESIDES1 :Y %\LD ANYONE ACCEPT A DECISION HE KN[S HIS WRONG8  

,DEMOCRACY DOES NOT1 AS IS SOMETIMES PROMIS$1 GIVE EV]YONE ! RI<T TO 9FLU5CE ! DECISIONS AFFECT+ HIM1 BECAUSE A P]SON :O VOT$ ON ! LOS+ SIDE HAD NO 9FLU5CE ON ?AT DECISION4 ,AS ,?OREAU SAYS1 0A M9ORITY IS P[]LESS :ILE IT CON=MS TO ! MAJORITY2 IT IS NOT EV5 A M9ORITY !N40.<#a#b#b#g.> ,HOBBES ANTICIPAT$ HIM3 0,& IF ! ,REPRES5TATIVE CONSI/ ( MANY M51 ! VOYCE ( ! GREAT] NUMB]1 MU/ BE CONSID]$ ! VOYCE ( !M ALL4 ,= IF ! LESS] NUMB] PRON\NCE 7= EXAMPLE7 9 ! ,NEGATIVE1 !RE WILL BE ,NEGATIVES MORE ?AN 5\< TO DE/ROY ! ,AFFIRMATIVES2 & !REBY ! EXCESSE ( ,NEGATIVES1 /&+ UNCONTRADICT$1 >E ! ONELY VOYCE ! ,REPRES5TATIVE HA?40.<#a#b#b#h.> 0,! NUM]ICAL MAJORITY10 WROTE ,JOHN ,C4 ,CALH\N1 0IS AS TRULY A S+LE P[] -- & EXCLUDES ! NEGATIVE AS COMPLETELY AS ! ABSOLUTE GOV]NM5T ( ONE OR A FEW40.<#a#b#b#i.>  

,DEMOCRACY1 ESPECIALLY 9 SMALL CON/ITU5CIES1 L5DS ITSELF TO ! DISEMP[]M5T ( P]MAN5T M9ORITIES1 :O OCCUPY ! SAME POSITION 9 ! DEMOCRACY AS !Y W\LD 9 A DESPOTISM4 ,%IFT+ MAJORITIES ONLY MAKE IT LESS LIKELY1 NOT UNLIKELY1 = SOME GR\P TO BE ALWAYS OPPOS$ TO ! W9N+ GANG4.<#a#b#c.> ,9 ! ,AM]ICAN DEMOCRACY1 IT HAS LONG BE5 WELL-KN[N1 EV5 TO ! ,SUPREME ,C\RT 9 #a#i#c#h1 ?AT 0DISCRETE & 9SUL> M9ORITIES0 >E AT A POLITICAL DISADVANTAGE BEYOND ! M]E FACT 7:I* IS DISADVANTAGE 5\<7 ?AT !Y >E M9ORITIES4 ,& ! SMALL] ! CON/ITU5CY1 ! MORE LIKELY ?AT MANY 9T]E/S MAY BE REPRES5T$ 0BY NUMB]S SO SMALL AS TO BE LESS ?AN ! M9IMUM NECESS>Y = DEF5SE ( ?OSE 9T]E/S 9 ANY SETT+40 .<#a#b#c#a.>  

,MAJORITY RULE IGNORES ! URG5CY ( PREF]5CES4 ,PREF]5CE V>IES 9 9T5SITY1 BUT IT IS NOT AT ALL CLE> ?AT CONS5T V>IES 9 9T5SITY4 ,! VOTE ( A P]SON :O HAS ONLY A SLI<T PREF]5CE = A MAN OR MEASURE C\NTS ! SAME AS ! VOTE ( SOMEONE PASSIONATELY OPPOS$3 0,A MAJORITY ) SLI<T PREF]5CES ONE WAY MAY \TVOTE ALMO/ AS MANY /RONG PREF]5CES ! O!R WAY40 ,!RE C\LD EV5 BE1 AS NOT$1 A P]MAN5TLY FRU/RAT$ M9ORITY1 :I* IS A S\RCE ( 9/ABILITY4 ,TO PUT IT ANO!R WAY1 ! OPPORTUNITY TO 9FLU5CE A DECISION IS NOT PROPORTIONATE TO ONE'S LEGITIMATE 9T]E/ 9 ! \TCOME4.<#a#b#c#b.> ,DEMOCRATIC !ORI/S USUALLY IGNORE ! ISSUE OR1 LIKE ,JOHN ,RAWLS1 WAVE IT AWAY BY DOGMATIZ+ ?AT 0?IS CRITICISM RE/S UPON ! MI/AK5 VIEW ?AT ! 9T5SITY ( DESIRE IS A RELEVANT CONSID]ATION 9 5ACT+ LEGISLATION40 ,HIS ,HOL9ESS NOT)/&+1 0! 9T5SITY QUE/ION IS ABSOLUTELY VITAL TO ! /ABILITY ( DEMOCRATIC SY/EMS40 -- & A QUE/ION TO :I* PURE MAJORIT>IAN DEMOCRACY HAS NO ANSW]4.<#a#b#c#c.> 

,R\SSEAU AT LEA/ ADDRESS$ A RELAT$ ISSUE3 HE ?\<T ?AT 0! MORE GRAVE & IMPORTANT ! QUE/IONS DISCUSS$1 ! NE>] %\LD ! OP9ION ?AT IS TO PREVAIL APPROA* UNANIMITY40.<#a#b#c#d.> ,BUT !RE IS NO WAY 9 :I* A PRIORI TO DECIDE ! IMPORTANCE ( FUTURE QUE/IONS4 ,! QUE/ION H[ IMPORTANT ! QUE/ION IS HAS TO BE DECID$ FIR/1 & ! MAJORITY MAY WELL RULE A QUE/ION TO BE UNIMPORTANT TO MAKE SURE IT WILL BE ANSW]$ AS ! MAJORITY WI%ES3 0,IF ! P>TICIPANTS DISAGREE ON ! VOT+ RULES1 !Y MAY FIR/ HAVE TO VOTE ON !SE RULES4 ,BUT !Y MAY DISAGREE ON H[ TO VOTE ON ! VOT+ RULES1 :I* MAY MAKE VOT+ IMPOSSIBLE AS ! DECISION ON H[ TO VOTE IS PU%$ FUR!R & FUR!R BACK40 ,ELSE:]E 9 ! SAME ESSAY1 ,R\SSEAU 9CONSI/5TLY ASS]TS ?AT 0IT IS CONSEQU5TLY AGA9/ ! NATURE ( ! BODY POLITIC = A ,SOV]EIGN TO IMPOSE ON ITSELF A LAW :I* IT CANNOT 9FR+E40 ,BY DEF9ITION ! SOV]EIGN P[] IS ABSOLUTE4.<#a#b#c#e.>  

,COLLECTIVE ALL-OR-NO?+ BALLOT+ IS IRRATIONAL4 ,A DECISION MADE ON A MOM5T\S MATT] BY A S+LE VOTE IS AS VALID AS A UNANIM\S VOTE ON A TRIFLE4 ,?AT EXTREME R>ITY1 ! ONE TIME ONE'S VOTE MAKES A DIFF]5CE1 IS ! V]Y SAME SITUATION -- MON>*Y1 AUTOCRACY1 ONE-MAN RULE -- ?AT DEMOCRACY IS SUPPOS$ TO BE AN IMPROVEM5T ON6  

,MAJORITY RULE IS NOT USUALLY EV5 :AT IT PURPORTS TO BE2 IT R>ELY MEANS LIT]ALLY ! MAJORITY ( ! CITIZ5S4.<#a#b#c#f.> ,USUALLY ! MAJORITY ( A MAJORITY MEANS PLURALITY RULE1.<#a#b#c#g.> 9 O!R WORDS1 ! RULE ( ! MOM5T>ILY L>GE/ M9ORITY1 :I* MI<T BE RA!R SMALL4 ,AS ,R\SSEAU1 *AMPION ( DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 /AT$1 0H[EV] SMALL ANY ,/ATE MAY BE1 CIVIL SOCIETIES >E ALWAYS TOO POPUL\S TO BE UND] ! IMM$IATE GOV]NM5T ( ALL !IR MEMB]S40.<#a#b#c#h.>  

,:]E VOT+ IS BY ELECTORAL DI/RICTS1 \TCOMES >E >BITR>Y BECAUSE ! B\ND>IES ( ! DI/RICTS DET]M9E ! COMPOSITION ( !IR ELECTORATES4 ,R$RAW ! B\ND>IES & TODAY'S MAJORITY MAY BECOME TOMORR['S M9ORITY & VISE V]SA1 AL?\< NO ONE HAS *ANG$ HIS M9D AB\T ANY POLICY4 ,9 A DEMOCRACY1 0! DEF9ITION ( ! CON/ITU5CY )9 :I* ! C\NT IS TAK5 IS A MATT] ( PRIM>Y IMPORTANCE10 BUT DEMOCRATIC !ORY IS UNABLE TO SAY :O %\LD BE 9CLUD$ 9 AN ELECTORATE4.<#a#b#c#i.> ,! SMALL] & MORE NUM]\S ! DI/RICTS >E1 ! GREAT] ! >BITR>9ESS ( MAJORITY RULE4 ,?US ,BOOK*9'S ,COMMUNES >E EXTREMELY >BITR>Y4 ,!Y MAY EV5 FALL PREY TO ! ABSURDITY ( NEI<BORHOOD IRR$5TISM4  

,!N !RE IS ! ,VOT]'S ,P>ADOX1 A TE*NICAL BUT V]Y REAL CONTRADICTION 9 DEMOCRACY DISCOV]$ BY ,CONDORCET BE=E ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 ,9 EV]Y SITUATION :]E TWO OR MORE VOT]S *OOSE FROM ?REE OR MORE ALT]NATIVES1 IF ! VOT]S *OOSE CONSI/5TLY1 ! MAJORITY PREF]5CE MAY BE DET]M9$ SOLELY BY ! ORD] 9 :I* ! ALT]NATIVES >E VOT$ ON4 ,IT CAN HAPP5 ?AT ,A IS PREF]R$ TO ,B1 ,B IS PREF]R$ TO ,C1 YET ,C IS PREF]R$ TO ,A6.<#a#b#d.> ,?IS IS NO M]E !ORETICAL POSSIBILITY3 IT HAS HAPP5$ 9 REAL VOTES4 ,!RE >E1 9 FACT1 A NUMB] ( !SE VOT+ P>ADOXES4 ,UND] IDEAL CONDITIONS1 MAJORITY RULE ALMO/ ALWAYS PRODUCES !SE CYCLICAL PREF]5CE ORD]S4 ,9 FACT1 0! V>I\S EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS = MAJORITY RULE >E 9COMPATIBLE ) EV5 A V]Y MODE/ DEGREE ( HET]OG5EITY ( TA/ES1 & = MO/ PURPOSES >E NOT SIGNIFICANTLY LESS RE/RICTIVE ?AN ! EXTREME CONDITION ( COMPLETE UNANIMITY ( 9DIVIDUAL PREF]5CES40.<#a#b#d#a.> ,:AT ?AT MEANS IS ?AT :OEV] CONTROLS ! AG5DA CONTROLS ! VOTE1 OR1 AT LEA/1 0?AT MAK+ AG5DAS SEEMS JU/ AB\T AS SIGNIFICANT AS ACTUALLY PASS+ LEGISLATION40.<#a#b#d#b.> ,BOOK*9 NEV] TALKS AB\T ?IS4 ,IT IS FITT+ ?AT A #a#i? C5TURY MA!MATICIAN :O WROTE ON ! PH5OM5ON HE CALL$ CYCLICAL MAJORITIES ALSO WROTE UND] ! NAME ,LEWIS ,C>ROLL4.<#a#b#d#c.> ,HE CAME BY HIS S5SE ( ! ABSURD HONE/LY4  

,ANO!R WELL-KN[N ME?OD = ?W>T+ MAJORITY RULE ) VOT+ IS LOGROLL+4 ,IT REPRES5TS AN EX*ANGE ( VOTES BETWE5 FACTIONS4 ,EA* GR\P VOTES = ! O!R GR\P'S MEASURE1 A MEASURE :I* W\LD O!RWISE BE DEFEAT$ BECAUSE EA* GR\P IS 9 ! M9ORITY4 7,NOTE ?AT ?IS IS NOT A COMPROMISE BECAUSE ! MEASURES >E UNRELAT$47.<#a#b#d#d.> ,9 A S5SE1 LOGROLL+ FACILITATES SOME ACCOMMODATION ( ! URG5CY ( PREF]5CES1 S9CE A FACTION ONLY TRADES ITS VOTES = VOTES IT VALUES MORE HI<LY1 BUT IT DOES SO ?R\< BRIB]Y & TO ! DETRIM5T ( DELIB]ATIVE DEMOCRACY4 ,& ?OSE :OSE VOTES >E UNNECESS>Y MAY BE EXCLUD$ FROM ! LOGROLL+ PROCESS4.<#a#b#d#e.> ,! 9T]/ATE HI<WAY SY/EM 9 ,BOOK*9'S HALL[$ ,SWITZ]L& WAS BUILT BY EXPLICIT LOGROLL+ AMONG CANTONS1.<#a#b#d#f.> SO ! PRACTICE OCCURS 9 DIRECT AS WELL AS REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACIES4  

,9 ! UNLIKELY EV5T A LEGISLATIVE BODY ES*EWS LOGROLL+1 IT WILL PROBABLY SUCCUMB TO GRIDLOCK4 ,TAKE ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S FAVORITE EXAMPLE1 ! BUILD+ ( A ROAD4 ,IF ?REE GR\PS WANT A ROAD BUT NOT 9 !IR BACK Y>DS1 !Y WILL GANG UP TO SCOT* ! PROJECT4.<#a#b#d#g.> ,?AT IS AN EV5 WORSE \TCOME ?AN ) LOGROLL+1 :]E AT LEA/ ! ROAD GETS BUILT SOME:]E4  

,DEMOCRACY1 ESPECIALLY DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 PROMOTES DI%>MONI\S1 ANTISOCIAL ATTITUDES4 ,! PSY*OLOGY ( ! EKKLESIA 7ASSEMBLY7 IS ! PSY*OLOGY ( ! AGORA 7M>KETPLACE73 0,VOT]S & CU/OM]S >E ESS5TIALLY ! SAME PEOPLE4 ,MR4 ,SMI? BUYS & VOTES2 HE IS ! SAME MAN 9 ! SUP]M>KET & ! VOT+ BOO?40.<#a#b#d#h.> ,CAPITALISM & DEMOCRACY ROSE TOGE!R AS ! GOALS ( ! SAME CLASS1 ! B\RGEOISIE1 :I* MADE A COMMON WORLD ( SELFI% 9DIVIDUALISM -- AN >5A ( COMPETITION1 NOT A FIELD ( COOP]ATION4 ,FUR!RMORE1 DEMOCRACY1 LIKE LITIGATION1 IS AN ADV]S>IAL DECISION ME?OD3 0,MAJORITY RULE BELONGS TO A COMBAT !ORY ( POLITICS4 ,IT IS A CONTE/ BETWE5 OPPOS+ =CES1 & ! \TCOME IS VICTORY = ONE SIDE & DEFEAT = ! O!R40 ,9DE$1 9 ONE ASPECT1 AS ,GEORG ,SIMMEL NOTIC$1 MAJORITY RULE IS REALLY ! SUB/ITUT$ EQUIVAL5T ( =CE4 ,LIT]ALLY HAV+ TO FACE AN OPPON5T PUBLICLY MAY PROVOKE AGGRESSION1 ANG] & COMPETITIVE FEEL+S4.<#a#b#d#i.> ,9 A W9N]-TAKE-ALL SY/EM !RE IS NO 9C5TIVE TO COMP5SATE OR CONCILIATE DEFEAT$ M9ORITIES1 :O HAVE BE5 TOLD1 9 EFFECT1 ?AT NOT ONLY DO !Y NOT GET !IR WAY1 !Y >E WRONG4 ,! UNACC\NTABLE MAJORITY IS >ROGANT2 ! DEFEAT$ M9ORITY IS RES5TFUL4.<#a#b#e.> ,CO]CIVE VOT+ PROMOTES POL>IZATION & H>D5S POSITIONS2 DELIB]ATION 0CAN BR+ DIFF]5CES TO ! SURFACE1 WID5+ RA!R ?AN N>R[+ !M40.<#a#b#e#a.> ,!SE CONSEQU5CES1 MUT$ 9 SY/EMS ( L>GE-SCALE1 SECRET VOT+ 9 NOT-TOO-FREQU5T ELECTIONS1 >E ACC5TUAT$ BY ! ,COMMUNAL COMB9ATION ( V]Y SMALL ELECTORATES1 EXTREMELY FREQU5T ELECTIONS1 & PUBLIC VOT+4 ,CITIZ5S WILL TAKE !IR ANIMOSITIES & ULC]S HOME ) !M & \T 9TO EV]YDAY LIFE4 ,ELECTIONS >E UNDESIRABLE EV]Y:]E1 BUT NO:]E W\LD !Y BE MORE DE/RUCTIVE ( COMMUNITY ?AN 9 ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S LITTLE FACE-TO-FACE ,COMMUNES4  

,EV5 :]E VOT+ IS VOLUNT>Y1 ELECTIONS EI!R CO]CE NONVOT]S OR D5Y !M EQUALITY4 ,! VALIDITY ( ?IS APP>5T P>ADOX IS ILLU/RAT$ BY AN ANECDOTE AB\T ELECTIONS 9 ,PRUSSIA4 ,BISM>CK TOY$ ) ! IDEA ( C\NT+ ALL NONVOT]S AS VOT+ = ! GOV]NM5T C&IDATES4.<#a#b#e#b.> ,\TRAGE\S8 ,IS IT ALL ?AT DIFF]5T FROM ! ELECTIONS WE HAVE N[8 ,9 EFFECT1 ! MAJORITY VOTES ! PROXIES ( ! NONVOT]S4 ,! NONVOT] CANNOT OPPOSE ! SY/EM )\T BECOM+ A P>T ( :AT HE IS OPPOS$ TO4 ,!RE CAN BE NO EQUALITY = AN>*I/S1 = 9/ANCE1 9 A DEMOCRACY4  

,ANO!R S\RCE ( MAJORITY IRRESPONSIBILITY IS ! FELT FRIVOLITY ( VOT+1 ITS ELEM5T ( *ANCE & >BITR>9ESS4 ,AS ,?OREAU 7QUOT$ BY ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN7 PUT IT1 0,ALL VOT+ IS A SORT ( GAM+1 LIKE *ECQU]S OR BACKGAMMON1 ) A SLI<T MORAL T+E TO IT1 A PLAY+ ) RI<T & WRONG1 ) MORAL QUE/IONS2 & BETT+ NATURALLY ACCOMPANIES IT40.<#a#b#e#c.> ,! POPUL>ITY ( /UD5T GOV]NM5T & ,MODEL ,U,N CONFIRMS ?AT !RE IS A LUDIC ELEM5T TO DELIB]ATIVE DECISION-MAK+ :I* IS 9DEP5D5T ( CONSEQU5CES4 ,H]E IS ANO!R 9T]E/ ! DELEGATES %>E ) EA* O!R1 BUT NOT ) !IR CON/ITU5TS4 ,VOT+ IS A CONTE/ UMPIR$ BY ! MAJORITY ) SOMETIMES HI< /AKES4 ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT ! ASSEMBL$ CITIZ5S >E PLAY+ GAMES ) EA* O!R1 ?AT W9N+ = ITS [N SAKE 7OR = H[ Y\ PLAY ! GAME1 = ?AT MATT]7 IS ANY P>T ( !IR MOTIVATION1 ! QUALITY ( DECISION-MAK+ IS R$UC$ /ILL FUR!R & ! HUMILIATION ( SUBMISSION TO MAJORITY RULE IS ?AT MU* DEEP5$4  

,TO !SE OBJECTIONS1 G5]IC TO DEMOCRACY1 DIRECT DEMOCRACY ADDS ITS SPECIAL DEFECTS4 ,ONE :I* IS NOT PECULI> TO DIRECT DEMOCRACY BUT IS C>RI$ TO EXTREMES !RE IS MALAPPORTIONM5T OR1 :5 IT IS 9T5TIONAL1 G]RYM&]+4 ,BECAUSE ,BOOK*9 IMAG9ES ! BUILD+ BLOCKS ( SOCIETY TO BE 0ORGANIC0 NEI<BORHOODS & SO =?1 !SE FACE-TO-FACE UNITS WILL NOT BE ( EQUAL POPULATION4 ,?AT ,BOOK*9 EMPHATICALLY PRIORITIZES ! 9TEGRITY ( !SE UNITS OV] ONE-MAN1 ONE-VOTE IS APP>5T FROM HIS DISCUSSION ( ! L[] H\SE ( ! ,V]MONT LEGISLATURE4 ,UNTIL ! #a#i#fS1 LEGISLATORS W]E ELECT$ FROM T[N%IPS 7EFFECTIVELY1 HE CLAIMS1 FROM MUNICIPALITIES71 NOT FROM ELECTORAL DI/RICTS BAS$ ON POPULATION4 ,?IS MEANT ?AT LEGISLATORS REPRES5T$ UNEQUAL NUMB]S ( CON/ITU5TS &1 9 P>TICUL>1 ?AT RURAL POPULATIONS W]E OV]REPRES5T$1 BUT ?AT'S OKAY1 0POLITICS WAS CONDUCT$ 9 A MORE ORGANIC FA%ION ?AN IT IS TODAY40 ,! ,U4,S4 ,SUPREME ,C\RT DECISION 9 ,BAK] V4 ,C>R 7#a#i#f#b7 ELIM9AT$ ! SY/EM1 M&AT+ EQUALITY4 ,BOOK*9 PREF]S ! OLD SY/EM4.<#a#b#e#d.>  

,IF ! FACE-TO-FACE UNITS W]E AUT>*IC1 IT W\LD BE NOBODY'S BUS9ESS BUT !IRS H[ MANY PEOPLE !Y 9CLUD$4 ,BUT !IR DELEGATES TO ! LEVEL ( ! MUNICIPAL C\NCIL & BEYOND WILL SPEAK = MORE OR LESS CITIZ5S ?AN O!RS BUT CA/ EQUAL VOTES4 ,9 A F$]AL SY/EM ( UNITS ( UNEQUAL POPULATION1 VOT+ EQUALITY = ! UNITS MEANS VOT+ 9EQUALITY = 9DIVIDUALS4 ,BOOK*9 DOESN'T C>E1 BUT AS ,M5CK5 WROTE1 0IT MU/ BE PLA9 ?AT A COMMUNITY :OSE VOTES1 MAN = MAN1 C\NT = ONLY HALF AS MU* AS ! VOTES ( ANO!R COMMUNITY IS ONE 9 :I* HALF ( ! CITIZ5S >E1 TO EV]Y PRACTICAL 9T5T1 UNABLE TO VOTE AT ALL40.<#a#b#e#e.> ,! S+LE-MEMB]1 SIMPLE-PLURALITY SY/EM EVID5TLY CONTEMPLAT$ BY ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS IS ! LEA/ PROPORTIONATE ( ALL VOT+ SY/EMS4.<#a#b#e#f.> ,! 9EQUALITY WILL BE COMP\ND$ AT EV]Y HI<] LEVEL4 ,9 CLAIM+ ?AT ! 5TIRE CONF$]AL SY/EM PRODUCES MAJORITY DECISIONS1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS AFFIRMS ! IMPOSSIBLE AS AN >TICLE ( FAI?4.<#a#b#e#g.>  

,DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 TO AN EV5 GREAT] DEGREE ?AN REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY1 5C\RAGES EMOTIONAL1 IRRATIONAL DECISION-MAK+4 ,! FACE-TO-FACE CONTEXT 5G5D]S /RONG 9T]P]SONAL PSY*OLOGICAL 9FLU5CES :I* >E1 AT BE/1 EXTRANE\S TO DECISION-MAK+ ON ! M]ITS4 ,! CR[D IS SUSCEPTIBLE TO ORATORS & />S1 & 9TOL]ANT ( CONTRADICTION4.<#a#b#e#h.> ,! SPEAK]S1 9 ! LIMIT$ TIME ALLOTT$ TO !M1 SACRIFICE REASON+ TO P]SUASION :5EV] !Y HAVE TO *OOSE4 ,AS ,HOBBES WROTE1 ! SPEAK]S BEG9 NOT FROM TRUE PR9CIPLES BUT FROM 0COMMONLY ACCEPT$ OP9IONS1 :I* >E = ! MO/ P>T USUALLY FALSE1 & !Y DO NOT TRY TO MAKE !IR DISC\RSE CORRESPOND TO ! NATURE ( ?+S BUT TO ! PASSIONS ( M5'S HE>TS4 ,! RESULT IS ?AT VOTES >E CA/ NOT ON ! BASIS ( CORRECT REASON+ BUT ON EMOTIONAL IMPULSE40.<#a#b#e#i.> ,DISS5T]S FEEL 9TIMIDAT$1 AS !Y W]E1 = 9/ANCE1 :5 ! ,A!NIAN ASSEMBLY VOT$ = ! ,SICILIAN EXP$ITION3 0,! RESULT ( ?IS EXCESSIVE 5?USIASM ( ! MAJORITY WAS ?AT ! FEW :O W]E ACTUALLY OPPOS$ TO ! EXP$ITION W]E AFRAID ( BE+ ?\<T UNPATRIOTIC IF !Y VOT$ AGA9/ IT1 & !RE=E KEPT QUIET0 7,?UCYDIDES74.<#a#b#f.> ,DEMOCRACY IS ! SAME TODAY1 AS ,I AM REM9D$ :5 ,I NOTICE ,I AM WRIT+ ?IS PASSAGE 9 ! E>LY H\RS ( ,SEPTEMB] #a#a1 #b#b4  

,A SPECIFIC1 EXP]IM5TALLY VALIDAT$ EMOTIONAL 9FLU5CE VITIAT+ DEMOCRACY IS GR\P PRESSURE TO CON=M4 ,IT WAS /RIK+LY DEMON/RAT$ 9 A FAM\S EXP]IM5T BY ,SOLOMON ,AS*4 ,EA* ( SEV5 TO N9E SUBJECTS WAS ASK$ TO COMP>E A S]IES ( L9ES & 9 EA* CASE ID5TIFY ! TWO ?AT W]E EQUAL 9 L5G?4 ,= EA* COMP>ISON IT WAS OBVI\S1 EV5 EXTREMELY OBVI\S1 :I* L9ES MAT*$ -- BUT TIME AFT] TIME EV]Y MEMB] ( ! GR\P GAVE ! SAME WRONG ANSW] EXCEPT ! ONLY SUBJECT :O WAS UNAW>E ( ! REAL PURPOSE ( ! EXP]IM5T4 ,9 !SE CIRCUM/ANCES1 FIFTY-EI<T P]C5T ( ! TE/ SUBJECTS *ANG$ !IR ANSW] TO AGREE ) ! UNAMIM\S MAJORITY4 ,EV5 :5 SUBJECTS W]E EA* GIV5 ONE ALLY1 ?IRTE5 P]C5T ( ! SUBJECTS AGRE$ ) ! GR\P 9/EAD ( ! EVID5CE ( !IR S5SES4.<#a#b#f#a.> ,SOME ( ! CON=MI/S ACTUALLY *ANG$ !IR P]CEPTIONS1 BUT MO/ SIMPLY DECID$ ?AT ! GR\P MU/ BE RI<T1 NO MATT] H[ /RONG WAS ! EVID5CE ?AT IT WAS WRONG4 ,Y\ MI<T SAY ! CON=MI/S EMPHATICALLY PRIORITIZ$ ! SOCIAL OV] ! 9DIVIDUAL4  

,ANO!R 9H]5T FLAW 9 DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 REM>K$ UPON BY ,HEGEL & 9 P>T A CONSEQU5CE ( ! PREVI\S ONE1 IS ! 9CON/ANCY ( POLICY4 ,?IS COV]S REALLY TWO >GUM5TS AGA9/ DEMOCRACY4 ,:AT ! ASSEMBLY DOES AT ONE MEET+ IT MAY UNDO AT ! NEXT1 :E!R BECAUSE CITIZ5S HAVE *ANG$ !IR M9DS OR BECAUSE A DIFF]5T MIX ( PEOPLE %[S UP4 ,?IS (T5 HAPP5$ AT ,A!NS4 ,= EXAMPLE1 ! ASSEMBLY VOT$ TO GIVE ! ,MYTIL5IANS1 :OSE REVOLT HAD BE5 CRU%$1 ! ,MELIAN TREATM5T3 DEA? = ! M51 SLAV]Y = ! WOM5 & *ILDR54 ,! JUDGM5T WAS REV]S$ ! NEXT DAY1 & SO ONLY ! ,MYTIL5IANS HELD MA9LY RESPONSIBLE -- OV] #a1 ( !M -- W]E EXECUT$4.<#a#b#f#b.>  
  

,IT IS BAD 5\< IF ! COMPOSITION ( ! ASSEMBLY FLUCTUATES R&OMLY OR BECAUSE ( POLITICALLY EXTRANE\S FACTORS1 AS ! WEA!R1 = 9/ANCE1 9FLU5CES ,AM]ICAN ELECTION \TCOMES BY 9FLU5C+ VOT] TURN\T.<#a#b#f#c.> 7HI<] PROPORTIONS ( ,DEMOCRATS TURN \T 9 GOOD WEA!R74 ,BUT IT MI<T WELL TURN ON DELIB]ATE MOBILIZATION BY A DISSATISFI$ FACTION4 ,?IS1 TOO1 HAPP5$ 9 ,A!NS4 ,! G5]AL ,NICIAS1 ADDRESS+ ! ASSEMBLY 9 OPPOSITION TO ! PROPOS$ ,SICILIAN EXP$ITION1 /AT$3 0,IT IS ) REAL AL>M ?AT ,I SEE ?IS Y\NG MAN'S .<,ALCIBIADES'.> P>TY SITT+ AT HIS SIDE 9 ?IS ASSEMBLY ALL CALL$ 9 TO SUPPORT HIM1 & ,I1 ON MY SIDE1 CALL = ! SUPPORT ( ! OLD] M5 AMONG Y\40 ,A L9E 9 ,>I/OPHANES ALSO ATTE/S TO BLOC VOT+ 9 ! ASSEMBLY4.<#a#b#f#d.> ,HOBBES OBS]V$ ?AT 0:5 ! VOTES >E SUFFICI5TLY CLOSE = ! DEFEAT$ TO HAVE HOPES ( W9N+ A MAJORITY AT A SUBSEQU5T MEET+ IF A FEW M5 SW+ R\ND TO !IR WAY ( ?9K+1 !IR LEAD]S GET !M ALL TOGE!R1 & !Y HOLD A PRIVATE DISCUSSION ON H[ TO REVOKE ! MEASURE ?AT HAS JU/ BE5 PASS$4 ,!Y RESOLVE AMONG !MSELVES TO ATT5D ! NEXT MEET+ 9 L>GE NUMB]S & TO BE !RE FIR/2 !Y >RANGE :AT EA* %\LD SAY & 9 :AT ORD]1 SO ?AT ! QUE/ION MAY BE BR\<T UP AGA91 & ! DECISION ?AT WAS MADE :5 !IR OPPON5TS !RE 9 /R5G? MAY BE REV]S$ :5 !Y FAIL TO %[40.<#a#b#f#e.> 

,HOBBES EXACTLY DESCRIBES H[ ,SAMUEL ,ADAMS MANIPULAT$ ANO!R ASSEMBLY1 ! ,BO/ON T[N MEET+1 AT PRIOR PRIVATE MEET+S ( HIS FACTION AT ! ,CAUCUS ,CLUB3 0,CAUCUS+ 9VOLV$ ! WIDE/ PREVISION ( PROBLEMS ?AT MI<T >ISE & ! N>R[E/ *OICE ( RESPONSE TO EA* POSSIBILITY2 :O W\LD SPEAK TO ANY ISSUE1 & :AT HE W\LD SAY2 ) ! CLUBM5'S G5]AL CONS5T GU>ANTE$1 AHEAD ( TIME1 TO BO? *OICE ( SPEAK] & :AT ! SPEAK]'S MESSAGE W\LD BE40 ,C\S9 ,JOHN ,ADAMS WAS A/ONI%$1 AFT] MANY YE>S ( ATT5D+ T[N MEET+S1 TO LE>N ( ?IS3 0,!RE !Y DR9K FLIP1 ,I SUPPOSE1 & !RE !Y *OOSE A MOD]ATOR :O PUTS QUE/IONS TO ! VOTE REGUL>LY1 & SELECTM51 ASSESSORS1 W>D5S1 FIRE W>DS1 & REPRES5TATIVES >E REGUL>LY *OS5 BE=E !Y >E *OS5 BY ! T[N40.<#a#b#f#f.> ,EXACTLY ! SAME ME?ODS ( MANIPULATION W]E PRACTIC$ 9 ! ,A!NIAN ASSEMBLY4.<#a#b#f#g.> ,*>ACT]IZ+ ! ,ADAMS CAUCUS AS A POLITICAL MA*9E IS NOT ORIG9AL TO ME4 ,DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS WELL SUIT$ TO MA*9E POLITICS3 0,! P[]FUL T[N MEET+ NAM$ ! MANY MUNICIPAL (FICIALS1 DET]M9$ TAXES & ASSESSM5TS1 & ADOPT$ PUBLIC S]VICE PROJECTS ?AT W]E A RI* S\RCE ( JOBS & ECONOMIC L>GESSE4 ,= YE>S ! ORIG9AL ,CAUCUS & ITS ALLIES 9 ! ,M]*ANTS ,CLUB HAD ACT$ AS ! UN(FICIAL DIRECT+ BODY ( ! T[N MEET+ 9 :I* ,CAUCUS /ALW>T ,SAM ,ADAMS PLAY$ A KEY ROLE40.<#a#b#f#h.> ,?IS IS DEMOCRACY 9 ACTION4 

,:AT ,HOBBES IS TALK+ AB\T1 AS HE PROCE$S TO SAY1 IS FACTION1 :I* HE DEF9ES AS 0A SORT ( EF=T & H>D WORK1 :I* !Y USE TO FA%ION PEOPLE40.<#a#b#f#i.> ,HIS ACC\NT COMPLEM5TS ,JAMES ,MADISON'S /ATEM5T1 PREVI\SLY QUOT$1 ?AT DIRECT DEMOCRACY PROMOTES FACTIONALISM4 ,BOOK*9 PR(ESSES TO LOA! POLITICAL P>TIES1 & HE TAKES = GRANT$ !IR ABS5CE FROM ! ,COMMUNE4 ,:Y8 ,AN ORGANIZATION ( ORGANIZ]S ( VOTES S]VES A PURPOSE 7ITS [N7 9 ANY LEGISLATURE4 ,P>TIES C\LD PLAY C5TRAL ROLES 9 A DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 MAYBE GREAT] ROLES ?AN 9 REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY4.<#a#b#g.> ,ALMO/ EV]Y ,COMMUNE WILL COMM5CE OP]ATIONS ) AT LEA/ ONE FACTION3 ! ,ORGANIZATION4 ,FUR!R FACTIONS MAY =M BY SPLITS )9 ! ,ORGANIZATION OR MAY >ISE \TSIDE ( & OPPOS$ TO IT4 ,BOOK*9 HIMSELF SAYS SO AT ONE PO9T4.<#a#b#g#a.> ,BUT ! ,ORGANIZATION WILL 5JOY A TREM5D\S HOME C\RT ADVANTAGE4 ,ONLY ! NAIVE WILL SIMPLY WALK 9TO ! ASSEMBLY ) A PROPOSAL4 ,! MORE SOPHI/ICAT$ WILL FIR/ APPROA* ,ORGANIZATION RHETORES TO SECURE !IR SUPPORT &1 IF POSSIBLE1 !IR SPONSOR%IP1 JU/ AS 9 ! #b? C5TURY PEOPLE TOOK !IR PROBLEMS FIR/ TO ! URBAN POLITICAL MA*9ES LIKE ,TAMMANY ,HALL OR ! ,DALEY MA*9E 9 ,*ICAGO4.<#a#b#g#b.> ,! ASSEMBLY WILL BE ! VANGU>D P>TY'S TOGA P>TY4 

,ONLY REGUL> HI< TURN\TS W\LD M9IMIZE !SE >BITR>Y OR MANIPULAT$ REV]SALS1 S9CE IF MO/ CITIZ5S ATT5D EV]Y MEET+1 MO/ ( !M :O ATT5D ONE MEET+ WILL ATT5D ANO!R4 ,BUT ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS HAS REPEAT$LY ASSUR$ US ( NORMALLY L[ TURN\TS4 ,! POL> POSSIBILITIES >E ?AT ALL ! SAME PEOPLE1 OR ALL DIFF]5T PEOPLE1 ATT5D ! NEXT MEET+4 ,IF IT IS ALL ! SAME PEOPLE1 IT IS DE FACTO OLIG>*Y4 ,IF IT IS ALL DIFF]5T PEOPLE1 IT IS *AOS1 ! ONLY K9D ( 0AN>*Y0 CONSI/5T ) DIRECT DEMOCRACY4 ,AS PREVI\SLY EXPLA9$1 ! \TCOME WILL PROBABLY BE CLOS] -- MU* CLOS] -- TO OLIG>*Y4 

,9 CONCLUSION1 MAJORITY RULE IS AS >BITR>Y AS R&OM DECISION1 BUT NOT NE>LY AS FAIR4.<#a#b#g#c.> ,= A VOT]1 ! ONLY DIF]5CE BETWE5 ! LOTT]Y & AN ELECTION IS ?AT HE MI<T W9 ! LOTT]Y4 ,BETT] PURE *ANCE ?AN 0PURE DEMOCRACY1 OR ! IMM$IATE AUTOCRACY ( ! PEOPLE10 AS ,JOEL ,B>L[ DESCRIB$ IT4.<#a#b#g#d.> ,A *AMPION ( ,SWISS DIRECT DEMOCRACY ADMITS3 0,CORRUPTION1 FACTIONALIZATION1 >BITR>9ESS1 VIOL5CE1 DISREG>D = LAW1 & AN OBDURATE CONS]VATISM ?AT OPPOS$ ALL SOCIAL & ECONOMIC PROGRESS W]E PA?OLOGIES TO SOME EXT5T 5DEMIC TO ! PURE DEMOCRATIC LIFE =M40.<#a#b#g#e.> 

,DEMOCRACY PRODUCES A P>TICUL> HUMAN TYPE1 ,DEMOCRATIC ,MAN 7& HE USUALLY IS A MAN74 ,HE IS EASY TO SPOT AMONG ,AM]ICAN POLITICIANS & AMONG ! ORGANIZ]S ( AN>*I/ F$]ATIONS4 ,HE IS A GREG>I\S BULLY & AN ELITI/ DEMAGOGUE4 ,HE TALKS TOO MU*4 ,HE HASN'T GOT A REAL LIFE & DOESN'T KN[ :AT HE'S MISS+4 ,HE POLITICIZES EV]Y?+ EXCEPT ?OSE F9] ?+S :OSE EXI/5CE HE CANNOT IMAG9E4 ,HE HAS :EELS 9 HIS HEAD4 ,HIS V]Y PSY*IC PROCESSES1 SU* AS P]CEPTION & MEMORY1 >E ! DI/ORT$ & DI/ORT+ 9/RUM5TS ( HIS WILL TO P[]4 ,?US HE MI<T REMEMB] HIS *ILDHOOD AS PEOPL$ BY OBSESSIVES LIKE HIMSELF -- HALCYON DAYS :51 AS ,BOOK*9 FANTASIZES1 0EV]YONE LIV$ ON A RI* DIET ( PUBLIC LECTURES & MEET+S40.<#a#b#g#f.> ,! PR9CIPLE DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ,DEMOCRATIC ,MAN & A S*IZOPHR5IC IS ?AT ! =M]'S FANTASIES EXHIBIT LESS BEAUTY & +5UITY4 ,HE'S (T5 A GEEK & ALWAYS A FREAK4 ,HE MAY BE A LIKABLE FELL[ 7!RE >E CONSPICU\S EXCEPTIONS7 IF Y\ LIKE US$-C> SALESM51 BUT HE GETS CROSS :5 CROSS$4 ,ANO!R K9D ( P]SON MAY ADMIT ?AT HIS ADV]S>Y1 TOO1 IS HONE/1 EV5 ?AT HE MI<T SOMETIMES BE RI<T1 BUT -- WRITES ,M5CK5 -- 0SU* AN ATTITUDE IS PALPABLY IMPOSSIBLE TO A DEMOCRAT4 ,HIS DI/+UI%+ M>K IS ! FACT ?AT HE ALWAYS ATTACKS HIS OPPON5TS1 NOT ONLY ) ALL >MS1 BUT ALSO ) SNORTS & OBJURGATIONS -- ?AT HE IS ALWAYS FILL$ ) MORAL 9DIGNATION -- ?AT HE IS 9CAPABLE ( IMAG9+ HONOR 9 AN ANTAGONI/1 & H5CE 9CAPABLE ( HONOR HIMSELF4 0.<#a#b#g#g.> 

,& YET ONE F9DS /ATEM5TS ?AT AN>*ISM IS DEMOCRACY1 & NOT ONLY FROM ! LIKES ( ,BOOK*94 ,= ?IS WE HAVE MA9LY TO ?ANK1 AS = TOO MU* ELSE1 ! CONS]VATIVE AN>*I/ PUBLI%]S4 ,IGNORANT AN>*I/S MAY EV5 BELIEVE1 BECAUSE IT'S BE5 DRON$ 9TO !M1 ?AT ,NOAM ,*OMSKY & ,H[>D ,Z9N >E AN>*I/S -- NOT ONLY ?AT1 !Y >E SAID TO BE 9FLU5TIAL AN>*I/S4 ,BUT TO HIS L>G] 7IF NOT V]Y MU* L>G]7 PROGRESSIVE PUBLIC1 ,*OMSKY KEEPS HIS AN>*ISM A SECRET -- AN EASY SECRET TO KEEP1 S9CE ONE W\LD NEV] SUSPECT IT FROM HE>+ HIS SPEE*ES OR READ+ HIS BOOKS ( ! LA/ #de YE>S4 ,AS AN AN>*I/1 ,*OMSKY IS A GREAT L+UI/4 ,BUT AS ,GEORGE ,WOODCOCK WROTE1 0,NO CONCEPTION ( AN>*ISM IS FUR!R FROM ! TRU? ?AN ?AT :I* REG>DS IT AS AN EXTREME =M ( DEMOCRACY40 ,) ALL DUE RESPECT TO ,B5JAM9 ,TUCK]1 AN AN>*I/ IS NOT 0AN UNT]RIFI$ ,JEFF]SONIAN DEMOCRAT40.<#a#b#g#h.> ,C>ELESS FL\RI%ES LIKE !SE MAKE AB]RATIONS LIKE ,BOOK*9 & ,*OMSKY POSSIBLE4 

,NE>LY ALL AN>*I/S LIVE UND] DEMOCRATIC REGIMES4 ,!Y NE$ NOT LEAVE = ! ,?IRD ,WORLD TO F9D A /ATE TO SMA% -- & :5 !Y F9D ONE !RE1 *ANCES >E ?AT ,NOAM ,*OMSKY SUPPORTS IT4 ,>E Y\ ANTI-IMP]IALI/8 ,! ,IMP]IUM IS UND] Y\R FEET1 FROM SEA TO %9+ SEA4 ,! WORLD'S ONLY SUP]P[] IS A DEMOCRACY4 ,ITS DEMOCRACY IS ONE S\RCE ( ITS /R5G?4 ,DEMOCRACY IS NO ?REAT TO ! /ATUS QUO ANY:]E AS IT IS ! IDEOLOGY ( ! /ATUS QUO EV]Y:]E4 ,AS ,JOHN ,HELD SAYS1 0NE>LY EV]YONE TODAY PR(ESSES TO BE A DEMOCRAT40.<#a#b#g#i.> ,& ( ALL !SE PR(ESSORS1 AN>*I/S >E ! LEA/ LIKELY TO BE BELIEV$4 ,:Y %\LD A SMALL MISUND]/OOD MOVEM5T TRY TO LOSE ITSELF 9 ! CR[D8 ,ESPECIALLY IF ! CR[D'S E*OES ( ! HEGEMONIC DEMOCRATIC IDEOLOGY T5D TO BE FA9T3 0,HAS !RE EV] BE5 SO MU* 9CESSANT YAMM] AB\T DEMOCRACY1 & LESS REAL 9T]E/ 9 IT80 7,JOHN ,Z]ZAN74 ,I /ILL BELIEVE ?AT DEVOTION TO DEMOCRACY IS A MILE WIDE & AN 9* DEEP1 0?AT AFT] ALL !SE YE>S A /IFL$ & SUFF]+ POPULACE IS WE>Y ( ! DEMOCRATIC LIE40.<#a#b#h.> 

,& DON'T TELL ME ?AT ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 ! DEF9+ DEMOCRACY ( MOD]N TIMES1 IS NOT A 0REAL0 DEMOCRACY4 ,Y\ SC(F :5 ! FREE-M>KET AN>*I/S SAY ?AT :AT WE HAVE ISN'T 0REAL0 CAPITALISM S9CE A FEW ECONOMIC REGULATIONS REMA9 9 PLACE4 ,H[ MU* MORE REAL DOES CAPITALISM HAVE TO BE8 ,H[ MU* MORE REAL DOES DEMOCRACY HAVE TO BE8 ,IF DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS DIFF]5T1 AS (T5 AS NOT ! DIFF]5CE IS = ! WORSE4 ,BESIDES1 EXAM9ATION ( ! F9E/ SPECIM5S ( DIRECT DEMOCRACY 9 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9'S BE/I>Y CONFIRMS1 AS ,I HAVE SAID BE=E1 ?AT 0!RE IS NO REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT !RE HAS EV] BE5 AN URBAN1 PURELY DIRECT DEMOCRACY OR EV5 A REASONABLE APPROXIMATION ( ONE4 ,EV]Y KN[N 9/ANCE HAS 9VOLV$ A CONSID]ABLE ADMIXTURE ( REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY :I* SOON] OR LAT] USUALLY SUBORD9AT$ DIRECT DEMOCRACY :]E IT DIDN'T ELIM9ATE IT ALTOGE!R40.<#a#b#h#a.> ,! CRITIC WAS C]TA9LY RI<T.<#a#b#h#b.> :O NOTIC$ BE=E ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS DID ?AT 0A CLOSE ANALYSIS ( ! SOCIAL ECOLOGY POSITION IS COMPATIBLE ) ! DEMOCRATIZATION & DEC5TRALIZATION ( ! /ATE40 

,BOOK*9 ID5TIFIES HIS IDEOLOGY AS A =M ( ,AN>*O-,COMMUNISM4 ,! ,AN>*O- P>T WE HAVE SE5 TO BE BOGUS4 ,! -,COMMUNISM CLAIM IS ALSO UNT5ABLE4 

,! BASIS ( ,BOOK*9'S ECONOMICS IS MUNICIPAL [N]%IP ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION3  
  

,:AT WE W\LD TRY TO A*IEVE 9/EAD .<( PRIVATE OR /ATE [N]%IP.> IS A MUNICIPALIZ$ ECONOMY2 ONE 9 :I* ! CITIZ5S' ASSEMBLY 9 EA* COMMUNITY W\LD CONTROL ECONOMIC LIFE &1 ?R\< CITY C\NCILS & CONF$]ATIONS1 DECIDE ON ECONOMIC POLICY = AN 5TIRE REGION4 ,CONF$]AL C\NCILS W\LD HELP WORK \T H[ BE/ TO COORD9ATE ! PRODUCTION & DI/RIBUTION ( ECONOMIC LIFE ?AT EXT5DS BEYOND ! CONF9ES ( A GIV5 COMMUNITY &1 ) ! CONS5T ( ! OV]ALL MAJORITY ( ! POPULATION 9 A CONF$]AL NETWORK1 SEE TO IT ?AT GOODS & >E PRODUC$ & DI/RIBUT$ ACCORD+ TO ! NE$S ( ! CITIZ5S 9 ! CONF$]ATION4  

,PRODUCTION & DI/RIBUTION W\LD BE ADM9I/]$ M]ELY AS PRACTICAL MATT]S1 BAS$ ON AN E?ICS ( 0FROM EA* ACCORD+ TO ABILITY1 & TO EA* ACCORD+ TO NE$10 ! E?IC 9TEGRAL TO COMMUNISM4 ,! COMMUNITY W\LD =MULATE ! DI/RIBUTION ( GOODS ACCORD+ TO :AT IS AVAILABLE & :AT 9DIVIDUALS & FAMILIES REQUIRE4.<#a#b#h#c.>  
  

,BE=E WAD+ 9TO ?IS MORASS1 NOTICE :AT IT IS NOT4 ,IT IS NOT POLITICAL ECONOMY1 0:I* DEALS ) HUMAN WORK+ ACTIVITY1 NOT FROM ! /&PO9T ( ITS TE*NICAL ME?ODS & 9/RUM5TS ( LABOR1 BUT FROM ! /&PO9T ( ITS SOCIAL =M4 ,IT DEALS ) PRODUCTION RELATIONS :I* >E E/ABLI%$ AMONG PEOPLE 9 ! PROCESS ( PRODUCTION40.<#a#b#h#d.> ,!RE IS SOME?+ SAID H]E AB\T [N]%IP & DI/RIBUTION1 BUT NO?+ AB\T SOCIAL RELATIONS1 PRODUCTION RELATIONS4 ,TO PUT IT ANO!R WAY1 !RE IS NO?+ AB\T WORK4 ,AS ,JOHN ,Z]ZAN E>N$ ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S IRE BY SAY+1 0,NO:]E DOES HE F9D FAULT ) ! MO/ FUNDAM5TAL DIM5SION ( MOD]N LIV+1 ?AT ( WAGE-LABOR & ! COMMODITY40.<#a#b#h#e.> ,MUNICIPAL [N]%IP -- ! ,VICTORIANS CALL$ IT 0GASLI<T SOCIALISM0 -- DOES NO MORE TO TRANS=M SOCIAL ROLES 9 ! PRODUCTION PROCESS ?AN /ATE [N]%IP DOES4 ,9 HIS ESSAY 0,COMMUNISM10 ,WILLIAM ,MORRIS SPOKE ( ! RESULTS ( GASLI<T SOCIALISM -- AMONG !M ?AT 09DU/RIES MAY BE WORK$ BY MUNICIPALITIES = ! B5EFIT ( BO? PRODUC]S & CONSUM]S0 -- AS DESIRABLE RE=MS1 0BUT )\T HAV+ MADE ANY PROGRESS ON ! DIRECT ROAD TO ,COMMUNISM40.<#a#b#h#f.> 

,= ! WORK]1 MUNICIPAL [N]%IP IS CONSI/5T ) WAGE-LABOR1 AU?ORIT>IAN MANAGEM5T1 LONG H\RS1 TIME-DISCIPL9E1 & >DU\S TOIL4 ,= ! EMPLOYEE ( ! ,COMMUNE1 IT WILL /ILL BE TRUE 0?AT ! OBJECT ?AT LABOR PRODUCES1 ITS PRODUCT1 /&S OPPOS$ TO IT AS SOME?+ ALI51 AS A P[] 9DEP5D5T ( ! PRODUC]40.<#a#b#h#g.> ,IT WILL /ILL BE TRUE 0?AT LABOR IS EXT]NAL TO ! WORK]1 I4E4 DOES NOT BELONG TO HIS ESS5TIAL BE+2 ?AT HE !RE=E DOES NOT CONFIRM HIMSELF 9 HIS WORK1 BUT D5IES HIMSELF1 FEELS MIS]ABLE & NOT HAPPY1 DOES NOT DEVELOP FREE PHYSICAL & M5TAL 5]GY1 BUT MORTIFIES HIS FLE% & RU9S HIS M9D4 ,H5CE ! WORK] FEELS HIMSELF :5 HE IS NOT WORK+2 :5 HE IS WORK+ HE DOES NOT FEEL HIMSELF40.<#a#b#h#h.> ,! WORK] IS /ILL ALI5AT$ 9 ! PROCESS & FROM ! PRODUCT ( HIS LABOR4 ,MAK+ ALI5ATION MORE CONCRETE1 ,BOOK*9 F9ALLY REVEALS :AT ?AT BUS9ESS ( NEGATIVE VS4 POSITIVE FRE$OM IS REALLY AB\T3 0,H5CE1 'FRE$OM' IS /ILL CONCEIV$ AS FRE$OM FROM LABOR1 NOT FRE$OM = WORK40.<#a#b#h#i.> 

,EV5 IF ! PROMISE ( FREE DI/RIBUTION IS KEPT1 ONLY CONSUMPTION IS COMMUNIZ$4 ,COMMUNISM 9VOLVES ! TRANS=MATION ( WORK 9TO FREE1 CREATIVE ACTIVITY1 0! TRANS=MATION ( CONSCI\SNESS & REALITY ON EV]Y LEVEL1 HI/ORICAL & EV]YDAY1 CONSCI\S & UNCONSCI\S40.<#a#b#i.> ,F> FROM REALIZ+ !MSELVES ?R\< UNALI5AT$ LABOR1 MUNICIPAL EMPLOYES >E M]ELY 0H&S03 0,POPUL> ASSEMBLIES >E ! M9DS ( A FREE SOCIETY2 ! ADM9I/RATORS ( !IR POLICIES >E ! H&S40.<#a#b#i#a.> ,BOOK*9 WROTE ?AT6 ,BUT1 AS NOT$ 9 DISCUSS+ HIS FAVORITE EXAMPLE1 ! BUILD+ ( A ROAD 7,*APT] -- 71 AFT] ALL ! POLICYMAK+1 COORD9ATION1 ADM9I/RATION1 ETC41 IT /ILL REMA9S = SOMEBODY ELSE TO DO ! ACTUAL WORK4 

,BUT EV5 ! PROMISE ( FREE DI/RIBUTION ACCORD+ TO ! FAM\S =MULA IS =SWORN IMM$IATELY4 0,! COMMUNITY0 W\LD DI/RIBUTE GOODS ACCORD+ TO :AT V>I\S PEOPLE >E DEEM$ BY O!RS TO 0REQUIRE10 NOT :AT !Y WANT4 ,IF ! 9DIVIDUAL IS NOT FREE TO DET]M9E HIS [N REQUIREM5TS1 ! >RANGEM5T IS RATION+1 NOT FREE COMMUNISM4 ,9 FACT1 HE IS WORSE (F ?AN UND] CAPITALISM1 S9CE N[ HE CANNOT BY ANY EF=T ( HIS [N 9CREASE HIS %>E ( ! SOCIAL PRODUCT4 ,IF HE WANTS MORE1 HE WILL HAVE TO BEG = IT LIKE A ,DICK5S UR*9 -- 0,PLEASE1 SIR1 CAN ,I HAVE SOME MORE80 0,! DI/RIBUT+ BO>D ( EQUITY10 SAYS ,/IRN]1 0LETS ME HAVE ONLY :AT ! S5SE ( EQUITY1 ITS LOV+ C>E = ALL PRESCRIBES03 COLLECTIVE WEAL? IS AS MU* A *ECK TO ! 9DIVIDUAL AS ! PRIVATE WEAL? ( O!RS4 ,COMMUNISM 7SO CONCEIV$71 0L\DLY AS IT ALWAYS ATTACKS ! '/ATE1' :AT IT 9T5DS IS ITSELF AGA9 A /ATE1 A /ATUS1 A CONDITION H9D]+ MY FREE MOVEM5T1 A SOV]EIGN P[] OV] ME40.<#a#b#i#b.> ,REM>KABLY1 ,M>X TOO REJECT$ ?IS CRUDE COMMUNISM AS NOT ! NEGATION BUT ! G5]ALIZATION & COMPLETION ( PRIVATE PROP]TY1 A COMMUNITY ( LABOR & AN EQUALITY ( WAGES PAID BY 0! COMMUNITY AS UNIV]SAL CAPITALI/40.<#a#b#i#c.> 

,ACTUALLY1 9 ADDITION TO ! COMMUNITY AS UNIV]SAL CAPITALI/1 ! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS CONTEMPLATES COEXI/5CE ) PRIVATE CAPITALI/S3 0,NOR DOES LIB]T>IAN MUNICIPALISM 9T5D TO ELIM9ATE PRIVATE ASSOCIATION AS SU* .<SIC.> -- )\T ! FAMILIAL & ECONOMIC ASPECTS ( LIFE1 HUMAN EXI/5CE W\LD BE IMPOSSIBLE 9 ANY SOCIETY40.<#a#b#i#d.> ,TO SAY ?AT ! ECONOMIC ASPECTS ( LIFE WILL REMA9 9 ! H&S ( PRIVATE ASSOCIATIONS 7I4E41 CORPORATIONS7 ( C\RSE COMPLETELY CONTRADICTS MUNICIPAL CONTROL ( ECONOMIC DECISION-MAK+4 ,IT'S EASY TO SEE ?AT PRIVATE BUS9ESS W\LD CONTROL MORE & MORE ( ! ECONOMY4 ,! ,COMMUNE BY FREE DI/RIBUTION ( NECESSITIES W\LD BE PAY+ P>T ( ! WAGE BILL ( BUS9ESS1 :I* C\LD !N \TBID ! ,COMMUNE = EMPLOYES4 ,! UP%OT W\LD BE :AT WE HAVE N[3 A MIX$ ECONOMY ( PRIVATE & /ATE CAPITAL4 ,MUNICIPALIZATION W\LD HAVE TO TAKE PLACE GRADUALLY 09 SU* A WAY AS NOT TO 9FR+E ON ! PROPRIET>Y RI<TS ( SMALL RETAIL \TLETS1 S]VICE E/ABLI%M5TS1 >TISAN %OPS1 SMALL F>MS1 LOCAL MANUFACTUR+ 5T]PRISES1 & ! LIKE0.<#a#b#i#e.> -- 9 O!R WORDS1 NO MUNICIPALIZATION ( ! ONLY 5T]PRISES OP]AT+ ON A SMALL 5\< SCALE = MUNICIPALIZATION TO BE FEASIBLE4 

,I DON'T D5Y ?AT AN>*I/ EXPLICATIONS ( COMMUNISM ALSO T5D TO BE BRIEF1 9FREQU5T & VAGUE4 ,I AM NOT FAULT+ ,BOOK*9 = NOT IMPROV+ ON !M4 ,I AM FAULT+ HIM = EXPLICATIONS :I*1 9 ADDITION TO BE+ BRIEF & 9FREQU5T1 >E NOT VAGUE BUT RA!R ALL TOO DI/9CT 9 REPUDIAT+ SU* PR9CIPLES ( COMMUNISM AS >E CLE>4 ,LUIGI ,GALLEANI1 AN AN>*O-COMMUNI/ ( UNIMPEA*ABLE OR?ODOXY1 AGRE$ ?AT COMMUNISM WAS AB\T ! UNM$IAT$ SATISFACTION ( NE$S4 ,BUT HE PO9T$ \T ?AT NE$S W]E NOT ONLY V>IABLE AMONG 9DIVIDUALS1 ) ! SATISFACTION ( EA* LEVEL ( NE$S />T+ ) 0! URG5CY ( PURELY ANIMAL1 PURELY PHYSIOLOGICAL NE$S10 NEW LEVELS ( NEWLY POSSIBLE EXP]I5CES 5G5D] MORE COMPLICAT$ & EXT5SIVE NE$S1 & BR+ MORE CAPACITIES 9TO PLAY1 9 A CONT9U+ S]IES4 ,FROM !SE NOT T]RIBLY CONTROV]SIAL PSY*OLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS ,GALLEANI 9F]S ?AT ONLY ! 9DIVIDUAL CAN JUDGE HIS [N NE$S3 0,S9CE !SE NE$S V>Y1 NOT ONLY ACCORD+ TO TIME & PLACE1 BUT ALSO ACCORD+ TO ! TEMP]AM5T1 DISPOSITION & DEVELOPM5T ( EA* 9DIVIDUAL1 IT IS CLE> ?AT ONLY HE OR %E :O EXP]I5CES & FEELS !M IS 9 A POSITION TO APPRECIATE !M & TO MEASURE ADEQUATELY ! SATISFACTION !Y MAY GIVE40.<#a#b#i#f.> 

,?US COMMUNISM IS ! F9AL FULFILLM5T ( 9DIVIDUALISM.<#a#b#i#g.> & ! F9AL CONF\ND+ ( ,BOOK*9'S MY/IFI$ /RAW-MAN IDEOLOGY ( AB/RACT 9DIVIDUALISM4 ,IT TURNS \T ?AT AFT] ALL ! H&-WAV+ AB\T ! AB/RACT1 SOV]EIGN1 B\RGEOIS1 SELFI%1 BLAH BLAH BLAH 9DIVIDUAL1 AFT] ! FOG LIFTS1 ! CONCRETE1 REAL 9DIVIDUAL /ILL /&S4 ,HE -- EA* ONE ( H] -- IS ! MEASURE ( ALL VALUE1 = ALL VALUE IS RELATIVE TO HIM & SO UNIQUE TO H]4 ,! APP>5T CONTRADICTION BETWE5 9DIVIDUALISM & COMMUNISM RE/S ON A MISUND]/&+ ( BO?4.<#a#b#i#h.> ,SUBJECTIVITY IS ALSO OBJECTIVE3 ! 9DIVIDUAL REALLY IS SUBJECTIVE4 ,IT IS NONS5SE TO SPEAK ( 0EMPHATICALLY PRIORITIZ+ ! SOCIAL OV] ! 9DIVIDUAL10 AS ,BOOK*9 DOES4.<#a#b#i#i.> ,Y\ MAY AS WELL SPEAK ( PRIORITIZ+ ! *ICK5 OV] ! EGG4 ,AN>*Y IS A 0ME?OD ( 9DIVIDUALIZATION40.<#a#c.> ,IT AIMS TO COMB9E ! GREATE/ 9DIVIDUAL DEVELOPM5T ) ! GREATE/ COMMUNAL UNITY4.<#a#c#a.> 

,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS HAS BE5 D[NPLAY+ & DISP>AG+ ! WORK+ CLASS S9CE #a#i#d#g4 ,! CLASS IS B\RGEOISIFI$4.<#a#c#b.> 0,! CLASSICAL 9DU/RIAL PROLET>IAT0 HAS WAN$ 9 NUMB]S1 CLASS CONSCI\SNESS & POLITICAL CONSCI\SNESS4.<#a#c#c.> ,WORK]S QUA WORK]S >E NOT DRIV5 TO ATTACK HI]>*IC SOCIETY4.<#a#c#d.> ,= REVOLUTION>Y PURPOSES1 ! PROLET>IAT IS PASSE4 ,TRANSCLASS POLITICAL MOVEM5TS >E :]E ! ACTION IS3 0,?IS AM\NTS TO SAY+ ?AT WORK]S MU/ SEE !MSELVES AS HUMAN BE+S1 NOT AS CLASS BE+S40.<#a#c#e.> ,SO SURE IS ,BOOK*9 ( ?IS ?AT HE D5I$ ANY CLASS CONT5T TO ! ,FR5* EV5TS ( #a#i#f#h1 AL?\< !IR MAJOR FEATURE BY F> WAS ! G5]AL /RIKE & ! FACTORY OCCUPATIONS 7SEE ,APP5DIX74.<#a#c#f.> 

,N[ ,I AM WELL-KN[N AS A CRITIC ( PRODUCTIVISM & WORK]ISM4 ,I REJECT CLASS-BAS$ SOCIAL SY/EMS LIKE SYNDICALISM & C\NCIL COMMUNISM BECAUSE !Y C>ICATURE CLASS SOCIETY )\T ABOLI%+ ! SOCIAL DIVISION ( LABOR ON :I* IT RE/S4 ,!Y DON'T ABOLI% ! COMMODITY =M1 !Y ONLY VEIL IT4 ,I REJECT ATTEMPTS TO R$UCE ! CRITIQUE ( CIVILIZATION TO OBSOLETE1 N>R[ CLASS ANALYZES 9 AN EPO* :5 ! S\RCES & MANIFE/ATIONS ( ALI5ATION & ITS REJO9D]1 RESI/ANCE1 P]VADE ALL 9/ITUTIONS ( SOCIETY1 NOT JU/ ECONOMIC 9/ITUTIONS :I* >E 9CREAS+LY DIFFICULT TO DI/+UI% FROM POLITICAL & IDEOLOGICAL 9/ITUTIONS ANYWAY4 ,BUT SO LONG AS \RS IS 7AMONG O!R ?+S7 A CLASS SOCIETY1 CLASS /RUGGLE HAS TO BE P>T1 ?\< NOT A PRIVILEG$ P>T1 ( REVOLUTION>Y /RUGGLE4 ,WORK]S :O WANT TO BE FREE HAVE NO *OICE BUT TO RESI/ -- TO EMPLOY ! EX-,DIRECTOR'S PIG ,LAT9 -- QUA WORK]S4 ,EV]YONE1 :ATEV] HIS CURR5T RELATION TO ! MODE ( PRODUCTION 7OR LACK !RE(71 HAS A /AKE 9 ?AT /RUGGLE4 

,IT IS EASY 5\<1 LOOK+ D[N FROM ! LECT]N1 TO TELL WORK]S 0TO SEE !MSELVES AS HUMAN BE+S1 NOT AS CLASS BE+S2 AS CREATIVE P]SONALITIES1 NOT AS 'PROLET>IANS'2 AS SELF-AFFIRM+ 9DIVIDUALS1 NOT AS 'MASSES4'0 ,IT IS EASY 5\<1 LOOK+ D[N FROM ! ,ACROPOLIS1 TO TELL WORK]S TO *ECK !IR CLASS 9T]E/S AT ! DOOR ( ! ASSEMBLY & 5T] 0)\T BE+ BURD5$ BY !IR OCCUPATIONAL /ATUS40.<#a#c#g.> ,AS IF !Y C\LD UNBURD5 !MSELVES ( !IR CLASS /ATUS )\T ABOLI%+ IT6 0,! PRIMACY GIV5 TO ECONOMICS1 AN EMPHASIS UNIQUELY *>ACT]I/IC ( A M>KET-ECONOMY M5TALITY -- & MO/ EVID5T1 IRONICALLY1 9 SOCIALI/ & SYNDICALI/ IDEOLOGIES0 IS NOT A P]V]SE MI/AKE4 ,IT REFLECTS A REALITY1 ! PRIMACY ( ! M>KET ECONOMY4 ,?AT MAY NOT BE CLE> TO SOMEONE :O'S BE5 SAY+ = YE>S ?AT ONLY N[1 P]HAPS1 DO WE HAVE A FULLY CAPITALI/ ECONOMY4.<#a#c#h.> 

,TO EXPLA9 AWAY ! HI/ORIC FAILURE ( EV5 ! HI<E/ =MS ( ,COMMUNALISM1 ,BOOK*9 BLAMES EXOG5\S FACTORS3  
  

,WE CANNOT 9T]PRET ! DECL9E ( ! ,A!NIAN ,ECCLESIA1 ! ULTIMATE FAILURE ( ! ,P>ISIAN SECTIONS1 & ! WAN+ ( ! ,NEW ,5GL& T[N MEET+S AS D5Y+ ! POPUL> ASSEMBLY'S FEASIBILITY = A FUTURE SOCIETY4 ,!SE =MS ( DIRECT DEMOCRACY W]E RIDDL$ BY CLASS CONFLICTS & OPPOS+ SOCIAL 9T]E/S2 !Y W]E NOT 9/ITUTIONS FREE ( HI]>*Y1 DOM9ATION1 & EGOTISM4.<#a#c#i.>  
  

,9 O!R WORDS1 DEMOCRATIC =MS >E COMPATIBLE ) HI]>*Y1 DOM9ATION & EGOTISM4 ,?US !Y >E NOT ! MEANS = OV]COM+ HI]>*Y1 DOM9ATION & EGOTISM4 ,RA!R1 HI]>*Y DOM9ATION & EGOTISM >E ! MEANS = OV]COM+ DIRECT DEMOCRACY4 ,REVOLUTION IS NOT AB\T P]SUAD+ PEOPLE TO IGNORE !IR 9T]E/S1 IT IS AB\T ! TRANS=MATION & SATISFACTION ( !IR 9T]E/S4 ,9 A SOCIETY O!RWISE ORGANIZ$ ON ! BASIS ( SELF-9T]E/1 POLITICS WILL BE BAS$ ON SELF-9T]E/1 REG>DLESS ( ! =M ( GOV]NM5T4 ,CAPITALISM HAS FL\RI%$ UND] CLASSICAL LIB]ALISM1 CORPORATE LIB]ALISM1 FASCISM & ,M>XISM1 UND] RUL+ IDEOLOGIES ( EGOTISM & UND] RUL+ IDEOLOGIES ( SACRIFICE4 ,IT C]TA9LY FL\RI%$ UND] :AT ,BOOK*9 CONSID]S DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 SU* AS ! ,HANSEATIC ,LEAGUE 7:OSE :OLE PURPOSE WAS TRADE7 & ! COMM]CIALLIZ$ ,NEW ,5GL& T[NS 9 ! #a#h? C5TURY4 

,! ,DIRECTOR ,EM]ITUS HAS MADE CLE> ?AT ! ,COMMUNE ACCEPTS ! FUNDAM5TAL 9/ITUTIONS ( CAPITALISM1 SU* AS WAGE-LABOR & ! M>KET1 REJECT+ LITTLE MORE ?AN ! E?OS ( EGOTISM4 ,IT WAS AN HI/ORIC IF LIMIT$ A*IEVEM5T :5 PROLET>IAN 9T]E/S1 :5 PROLET>IAN 0EGOTISM0 WAS ACCORD$ A MEASURE ( LEGITIMACY4 ,N[ ! PUBLIC PHILOSOPHY WILL CONDEMN PROLET>IAN SELFI%NESS4 ,! ONLY LEGITIMATE 9T]E/ IS ! PUBLIC 9T]E/1 :I* -- S9CE 0PUBLIC0 IS AN AB/RACTION -- REF]S TO ! /ATE4 ,FRE$OM IS N[ 0POSITIVE0 -- FRE$OM TO S]VE ! /ATE 7& FRE$OM TO WORK74 ,& ! /ATE1 ACCORD+ TO ,BOOK*91 IS AN 5D 9 ITSELF4.<#a#c#a.> 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

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