,P>T #b1 ,*APT] #h 
,OPPRESSION 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 

,TEXT 3 

#h -- ,OPPRESSION 

  

,9 ,MALAGASY !RE IS A WORD1 TS9DRIANA1 ?AT MEANS 0OPPRESS$40 ,! LIT]AL DEF9ITION IS 0TO BE PRESS$ D[N1 CRU%$ BY A HEAVY WEI<T40 ,US$ 9 A POLITICAL CONTEXT1 IT MEANS TO SUFF] UND] SOME K9D ( UNJU/ P[] OR AU?ORITY4 

,MALAGASY IS H>DLY ALONE 9 HAV+ SU* A WORD4 ,ACTUALLY1 MO/ LANGUAGES DO4 ,! ,5GLI% S5T5CE 0! PEOPLE >E OPPRESS$0 7OR ! ,MALAGASY EQUIVAL5T1 TS9DRIANA NY VAHOAKA7 C\LD BE TRANSLAT$ DIRECTLY 9TO ! LANGUAGES SPOK5 BY A MAJORITY ( HUMAN BE+S1 US+ ! SAME METAPHOR1 ) NO NE$ = EXEGESIS OR ELABORATION4 ,EV5 9 ?OSE LANGUAGES ?AT DO NOT HAVE AN EXPLICIT T]M = 0OPPRESSION10 ,I W\LD HAZ>D TO SAY ?AT IF A COMPET5T SPEAK] W]E TO IMPROVISE SU* A METAPHOR1 NO ONE W\LD F9D IT 9 ANY WAY DIFFICULT TO UND]/& :AT HE WAS TALK+ AB\T4.<#a#f#d.> 

,IT'S EASY TO SEE :Y ! METAPHOR MI<T SEEM OBVI\S4 ,P[] IS ALMO/ 9V>IABLY FIGUR$ AS SOME?+ PLAC$ OV] PEOPLE3 :AT BETT] WAY TO EXPRESS ABUSIVE P[] ?AN BY SOME?+ ABOVE Y\ PRESS+ D[N8 ,H]E1 ?\<1 ,I WANT TO ASK3 ,:AT W\LD AN AN?ROPOLOGI/ HAVE TO SAY AB\T ?IS8 ,BECAUSE1 IF ONE IS SPEAK+ ( MO/ CONTEMPOR>Y AN?ROPOLOGI/S1 IT'S PRETTY OBVI\S ! ANSW] W\LD HAVE TO BE3 NO?+4 ,PRES5T$ ) SU* A G5]ALIZATION1 ! FIR/ REACTION ( MO/ AN?ROPOLOGI/S W\LD BE TO TRY TO %[ IT ISN'T TRUE4 ,IF ?IS PROV$ IMPOSSIBLE1 !Y W\LD TRY TO DISMISS ITS SIGNIFICANCE4 

,IT SEEMS TO ME1 ?\<1 ?AT SU* CONNECTIONS >E POT5TIALLY EXTREMELY SIGNIFICANT3 MA9LY1 BECAUSE !Y PO9T A WAY \T ( C]TA9 POLITICAL DILEMMAS BORN ( CULTURAL RELATIVISM4 ,LET ME /ATE ! DILEMMA AS SIMPLY AS ,I CAN4 

,MO/ AN?ROPOLOGICAL FIELDWORK HAS BE5 CONDUCT$ AMONG SUBSI/5CE F>M]S1 SLUM DWELL]S1 OR 9DIG5\S PEOPLES1 ! VA/ MAJORITY ( !M M>G9AL EV5 )9 ! RELATIVELY POOR C\NTRIES 9 :I* !Y LIVE4 ,MO/ HAVE BE51 AT ONE TIME OR ANO!R1 VICTIMS ( CONQUE/1 EXPLOITATION1 /ATE T]ROR1 OR \TRI<T G5OCIDE4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 AN?ROPOLOGY1 MORE ?AN ANY O!R DISCIPL9E1 HAS T5D$ TO FOCUS ON PEOPLE :O MI<T BY MO/ DEF9ITIONS--9CLUD+ !IR [N--BE CONSID]$ OPPRESS$4 ,POLITICALLY1 WE AN?ROPOLOGI/S T5D TO ID5TIFY QUITE /RONGLY ) ?OSE WE /UDY4 ,(T51 WE ACT AS ADVOCATES4 ,YET1 UNLIKE ACTIVI/S 9VOLV$ 9 RADICAL SOCIAL MOVEM5TS1 AN?ROPOLOGI/S ALMO/ NEV] SPEAK ( SU* PEOPLE AS BE+ 0OPPRESS$40 

,:Y8 ,MA9LY BECAUSE AN?ROPOLOGI/S T5D TO BE KE5LY AW>E ?AT ONE CAN ONLY CREATE ! MA*9]Y ( OPPRESSION ONCE ONE HAS FIR/ DEHUMANIZ$ OR 9FANTILIZ$ ONE'S VICTIMS1 :I* 9 PRACTICE MEANS1 FIR/ & =EMO/1 DELEGITIMIZ+ !IR PO9T ( VIEW4 ,:AT'S MORE1 ?AT DEHUMANIZATION1 & ITS ATT5DANT HUMILIATION1 IS ONE ( ! MO/ DAMAG+ =MS ?AT OPPRESSION ITSELF T5DS TO TAKE4 ,H5CE1 WE T5D TO BE V]Y SUSPICI\S ( ANY SORT ( >GUM5T ?AT ASSUMES ?AT C]TA9 PEOPLE'S P]SPECTIVES >E MORE LEGITIMATE ?AN O!RS1 LET ALONE1 UNIV]SALLY TRUE4 ,! OBVI\S PROBLEM ) ?IS POSITION IS ?AT1 IF Y\ TAKE IT TO ITS LOGICAL CONCLUSION1 IT W\LD MEAN !RE W\LD BE NO BASIS ON :I* TO CLAIM ANYONE WAS BE+ OPPRESS$ 7OR EV5 TREAT$ UNFAIRLY7 TO BEG9 )4 ,NO ONE REALLY WANTS TO >GUE ?AT A RAPI/'S P]SPECTIVE IS JU/ AS LEGITIMATE AS HIS VICTIM'S1 OR A MA/]'S JU/ AS LEGITIMATE AS HIS SLAVE'S4 ,SO ! USUAL SOLUTION IS TO APPEAL TO SOME NOTION ( CULTURAL RELATIVISM3 YES1 WE HAVE A CATEGORY 0RAPE0 OR 0SLAV]Y0 BY :I* WE CAN MAKE MORAL JUDGM5TS1 ! >GUM5T GOES2 ! ,NU]1 OR ,NAMBIKW>A1 HAVE DIFF]5T ONES4 ,!Y LIVE 9 A DIFF]5T MORAL & CONCEPTUAL UNIV]SE1 & :O >E WE TO SAY \RS IS MORE 9TR9SICALLY LEGITIMATE8 ,POLITICALLY1 ?IS G5]ALLY LEADS TO A K9D ( UNCOM=TABLE COMPROMISE3 :ILE FEW AN?ROPOLOGI/S W\LD D5Y ?AT PH5OM5A WE W\LD NORMALLY DESCRIBE AS 0RAPE0 OR 0SLAV]Y0 >E 9DE$ EVILS1 :]EV] !Y >E PRACTIC$1 !Y ALSO T5D TO 9SI/ ?AT IMPOS+ \R [N DEF9ITIONS 9 ANO!R CULTURAL CONTEXT IS AN EV5 GREAT] EVIL1 ESPECIALLY IF \R JUDGM5TS >E BACK$ UP 7AS SO (T5 ULTIMATELY COMES TO BE ! CASE7 BY =CE ( >MS4.<#a#f#e.> 

,9 PRACTICE1 ?IS SEEMS REASONABLE4 ,S9CE AT LEA/ ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ) ! ,BRITI% ABOLITION ( ! SLAVE TRADE1 COLONIAL EMPIRES HAVE L>GELY BE5 JU/IFI$ BY :AT WE'D N[ CALL 0HUMANIT>IAN 9T]V5TION40 ,?IS IS1 ( C\RSE1 IF ANY?+ EV5 MORE TRUE TODAY4 ,/ILL1 ADOPT+ SU* A POSITION LEADS TO ONE SIGNIFICANT1 IF L>GELY UNNOTIC$1 CONCEPTUAL PROBLEM4 ,9 ORD] TO SAY ?AT 0! ,NU]0 LIVE 9 !IR [N MORAL & CONCEPTUAL UNIV]SE1 WE >E NECESS>ILY ASSUM+ ?AT 0! ,NU]0 ACTUALLY EXI/3 ?AT IS1 ?AT !RE IS A RELATIVELY COH]5T SET ( IDEAS & PR9CIPLES ?AT CAN BE ID5TIFI$ & DESCRIB$ AS BELONG+ TO ! ,NU]1 & SY/EMATICALLY COMP>$ ) \R [N4.<#a#f#f.> ,?IS IMPLIES B\ND$ 5TITIES1 :I* IS A PROBLEM1 BUT EV5 MORE1 IT MEANS EV5 ONCE Y\ HAVE DECID$ :O ! ,NU] >E1 Y\ >E NOT TREAT+ ALL ,NU] P]SPECTIVES AS EQUALLY LEGITIMATE1 S9CE1 AFT] ALL1 IT WILL BE NE>LY IMPOSSIBLE TO F9D ANY /ATEM5T ?AT EV]Y S+LE P]SON Y\ HAVE ID5TIFI$ AS 0,NU]0 WILL AGREE )4 ,AS A RESULT1 ! 5TIRE PROJECT ( CULTURAL RELATIVISM DEP5DS ON BE+ ABLE TO ID5TIFY /RUCTURES ( AU?ORITY1 & ?US C]TA9 9DIVIDUALS :O1 MORE ?AN O!RS1 CAN LEGITIMATELY SPEAK = ! ,NU] AS A :OLE4 ,BUT H]E IS ! LOGICAL DILEMMA4 ,BY :AT CRIT]IA >E !SE AU?ORITIES TO BE ID5TIFI$8 ,ONE CANNOT EMPLOY 0,NU] CONCEPTIONS0 ( AU?ORITY1 BECAUSE1 UNTIL ONE HAS ID5TIFI$ :O ?OSE AU?ORITIES >E1 !RE IS NO WAY TO KN[ :AT ?OSE 0,NU] CONCEPTIONS0 >E4 ,LIKE IT OR NOT1 ! RELATIVI/ HAS TO USE SOME SORT ( EXT]NAL CRIT]IA4 ,! P>ADOXICAL RESULT IS ?AT1 IF ONE IS TO TAKE A CONSI/5T POSITION ( CULTURAL RELATIVISM1 AU?ORITY IS ! ONE ?+ ?AT CANNOT BE TREAT$ RELATIVI/ICALLY4.<#a#f#g.> ,! CLASSIC RELATIVI/ HAS TO ASSUME ?AT ALL CULTURES OR SOCIETIES DO HAVE /RUCTURES ( AU?ORITY SIMIL> 5\< ?AT !Y CAN BE ID5TIFI$ BY AN \TSIDE OBS]V]1 &1 FUR!RMORE1 ?AT !SE /RUCTURES >E 9TR9SICALLY LEGITIMATE4 ,! POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS >E1 TO SAY ! LEA/1 DI/URB+4 

,WE SEEM TO BE CAU<T1 !N1 BETWE5 ?REE ALMO/ EQUALLY BAD *OICES4 ,EI!R WE RELEGATE TO \RSELVES ! AU?ORITY TO DET]M9E :AT'S RI<T & WRONG EV]Y:]E 9 ! WORLD1 OR WE RELEGATE TO \RSELVES ! AU?ORITY TO DET]M9E :O HOLDS LEGITIMATE AU?ORITY EV]Y:]E 9 ! WORLD1 OR WE GIVE UP ON MAK+ MORAL JUDGM5TS 5TIRELY4 

,C\LD ?+S REALLY BE SO BLEAK8 ,IT SEEMS TO ME !RE IS A WAY \T4 ,IT />TS ) ! RECOGNITION ?AT !RE >E TWO PROBLEMS H]E--A CONCEPTUAL PROBLEM & A POLITICAL PROBLEM--?AT WE W\LD DO WELL NOT TO CONFLATE4 ,AFT] ALL1 !RE'S NO?+ 9TR9SICALLY OPPRESSIVE AB\T UNIV]SALISM4 ,IF A ,TIBETAN ,BUDDHI/ LIKE ! ,DALAI ,LAMA CLAIMS ! RI<T TO MAKE JUDGM5TS AB\T ,AM]ICA BAS$ ON PRIVILEG$ ACCESS TO UNIV]SAL SPIRITUAL TRU?S1 ,AM]ICANS R>ELY FEEL !Y >E ?US ! VICTIMS ( A T]RIBLE 9JU/ICE4 ,SOME MI<T F9D IT 9SPIR+1 O!RS MI<T F9D IT RIDICUL\S3 BUT NO ONE IS LIKELY TO FEEL P>TICUL>LY OPPRESS$4 ,?IS IS BECAUSE ! ,DALAI ,LAMA HOLDS NO P[] OV] !M4 ,! REAL PROBLEM1 IT SEEMS TO ME1 IS NOT ) ! M]E FACT ( UNIV]SALI/IC JUDGM5TS1 BUT ) ! EXI/5CE ( A GLOBAL APP>ATUS ( BUREAUCRATIC CONTROL1 BACK$ UP BY A :OLE PANOPLY ( =MS ( PHYSICAL & ECONOMIC VIOL5CE1 ?AT CAN 5=CE ?OSE JUDGM5TS3 :E!R BY IMPOS+ ITSELF DIRECTLY1 OR BY RES]V+ TO ITSELF ! P[] TO RECOGNIZE :AT >E LEGITIMATE GR\PS & :O >E !IR LEGITIMATE REPRES5TATIVES1 ANY:]E 9 ! WORLD4 ,IF ONE ACCEPTS ?AT SOME SU* APP>ATUS IS 9EVITABLE1 !N1 YES1 WE HAVE LITTLE *OICE BUT TO AGONIZE OV] ! MORAL QU&>IES IT CREATES4 ,BUT !RE IS AN ALT]NATIVE3 WE CAN ASK :AT IT W\LD TAKE TO ELIM9ATE SU* CO]CIVE /RUCTURES 5TIRELY4 ,TO DO SO W\LD MEAN ASK+ A V]Y DIFF]5T SET ( QUE/IONS4 ,FIR/ & =EMO/1 ON :AT BASIS CAN ONE HOLD !SE /RUCTURES TO BE 9TR9SICALLY ILLEGITIMATE8 ,IT IS H]E ?AT ! EXI/5CE ( T]MS LIKE TS9DRIANA BECOMES SO IMPORTANT1 BECAUSE !Y DEMON/RATE NOT ONLY ?AT ! AU?ORITY IS ALWAYS CONTE/$1 EV]Y:]E--BUT EV5 MORE1 BECAUSE !Y SUGGE/ ?AT ! WAYS 9 :I* IT IS CONTE/$1 EV5 D[N TO POPUL> METAPHORS & IMAGES1 >E (T5 SURPRIS+LY SIMIL>4 ,!Y HOLD \T ! POSSIBILITY ?AT EV5 IF NO CONS5SUS ON SU* QUE/IONS EXI/S N[--!RE'S PROBABLY NO?+ EV]YONE ON E>? CURR5TLY AGREES ON--!RE IS AT LEA/ ! POSSIBILITY = SU* AN AGREEM5T 9 ! FUTURE4 ,AFT] ALL1 :AT IS MO/ ESS5TIAL AB\T HUMAN BE+S IS NOT :AT !Y >E AT ANY GIV5 MOM5T1 BUT :AT !Y HAVE ! CAPACITY TO BECOME4 

,AT ?IS PO9T WE CAN COME BACK1 ,I ?9K1 TO ! CONCEPTUAL PROBLEM3 EXCEPT N[ ,I ?9K IT LOOKS QUITE DIFF]5T4 ,ONCE WE ALL[ ?AT /RUCTURES ( AU?ORITY >E EV]Y:]E CONTE/$1 & ?AT ! T]MS ( CONTE/ATION >E AT LEA/ CLOSE 5\< ?AT WE CAN ALL BEG9 TALK+ TO EA* O!R1 :AT DO WE DO ) ! FACT ?AT1 9 MO/ WAYS1 A ,MALAGASY T]M LIKE 0TS9DRIANA0 & AN ,5GLI% T]M LIKE 0OPPRESSION0 >E EXTREMELY DIFF]5T8 ,LIKE SIMIL> T]MS ELSE:]E1 !Y DRAW ON C]TA9 APP>5TLY UNIV]SAL--OR UNIV]SALLY COMPREH5SIBLE--METAPHORS3 ! S5SE ( BE+ /IFL$1 CRU%$1 GR\ND D[N1 OV]BURD5$1 /RUGGL+ UND] A HEAVY WEI<T4 ,BUT !Y SPEAK SO P[]FULLY BECAUSE !Y ALSO DRAW ON IMAGES ?AT >E EXTRAORD9>ILY SPECIFIC4 ,= ! TYPICAL ,AM]ICAN1 0OPPRESSION0 MI<T EVOKE IMAGES FROM MOVIES AB\T ,M$IEVAL S]FS OR ! BUILD+ ( ,EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS1 P]SONAL MEMORIES ( BAD JOBS1 GYM TEA*]S1 TAX AUDITORS1 /RID5T & RA!R FOOLI% RADICAL RHETORIC1 OR /IFL+LY HOT SUMM] NI<TS4 ,!SE IMAGES1 9 TURN1 T5D TO OP5 ON A :OLE S]IES ( ASSUMPTIONS AB\T ! NATURE ( FRE$OM1 AUTONOMY1 JU/ICE1 & ! 9DIVIDUAL1 EA* ) 5DLESS CONCRETE ASSOCIATIONS ( !IR [N4 ,A ,MALAGASY US+ ! T]M TS9DRIANA W\LD BE EVOK+ AN 5TIRELY DIFF]5T FAN ( HI/ORICAL & P]SONAL ASSOCIATIONS4 ,IT IS ! VIVIDNESS ( SU* ASSOCIATIONS ?AT GIVES !SE WORDS !IR ALMO/ VISC]AL P[]2 BUT1 AT ! SAME TIME1 !IR SPECIFICITY ?AT MAKES IT SEEM SLI<TLY ABSURD TO EV5 CONSID] US+ !M AS T]MS ( SOCIAL ANALYSIS4 

,:AT ,I WANT TO DO 9 ?IS ESSAY IS TO BEG9 TO BEG9 TO POND] H[ TO ?9K \R WAY \T ( ?IS PROBLEM BY LOOK+ MORE C>EFULLY AT ! ,MALAGASY T]M TS9DRIANA--NOT TO REJECT ANY NOTION ( RELATIVISM1 9CID5TALLY1 BUT RA!R1 9 ORD] TO ?9K AB\T H[ WE MI<T GO AB\T DEVELOP+ ONE )\T ! SAME AU?ORIT>IAN IMPLICATIONS4 ,?IS MEANS UNPACK+ SOME ( ! D5SE CON/ELLATION ( IDEAS1 IMAGES1 & MORAL PRACTICES SURR\ND+ ! BE>+ ( BURD5S1 ! EXP]I5CE ( BE+ CRU%$ BY HEAVY WEI<TS1 & H[ !Y >E SE5 TO BE> ON ! LEGITIMACY ( DIFF]5T =MS ( AU?ORITY4 ,I ?9K ,MADAGASC> IS A P>TICUL>LY APPROPRIATE PLACE TO />T BECAUSE ! NON-,MALAGASY READ] IS LIKELY TO F9D SO MU* ( ! L>G] CULTURAL CONTEXT PR(\NDLY ALI5 & EXOTIC4 ,WE WILL BE LOOK+ AT V]Y DIFF]5T ASSUMPTIONS AB\T ! NATURE ( ! FAMILY1 GOV]NM5T1 & SPIRITUAL PRACTICES ?AT >E1 9 !SE RESPECTS 9 P>TICUL>1 MO/ LIKELY V]Y DIFF]5T FROM \R [N4 ,BUT ?IS1 ( C\RSE1 IS 9 KEEP+ ) ONE ( ! F\ND+ ASSUMPTIONS ( AN?ROPOLOGY3 ?AT IF ONE IS TO TRY TO UND]/& :AT ALL HUMAN BE+S HAVE 9 COMMON1 IT BEHOOVES US TO />T ) ! CASES ?AT SEEM MAXIMALLY UNFAMILI>4 

,I WILL BE US+ MAT]IAL MA9LY DRAWN FROM ! PROV9CE ( ,ANTANAN>IVO 9 ! ,MALAGASY HI<L&S1 AN >EA HI/ORICALLY REF]R$ TO AS ,IM]9A4 ,MO/ ( IT COMES FROM A REGION ( ,>IVONIMAMO :]E ,I LIV$ & WORK$ BETWE5 #aii & #a#i#i#a4 ,?IS WAS NOT1 AT ! TIME1 A PLACE :]E !RE WAS A :OLE LOT ( OPPRESSION GO+ ON4 ,! PEOPLE !RE W]E1 C]TA9LY1 V]Y POOR4 ,BUT ALMO/ NO ADULTS ( EI!R SEX SP5T ANY PROLONG$ P]IOD ( !IR LIVES WORK+ UND] ! DIRECTION ( ANYONE ELSE1 & /ATE CONTROL WAS PRACTICALLY NONEXI/5T4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 IT HAD NOT ALWAYS BE5 ?IS WAY & PEOPLE W]E KE5LY AW>E ( ?AT4 ,! N9ETE5?-C5TURY /ATE HAD BE5 BAS$ ON A COMB9ATION ( =C$ CORVEE LABOR & SLAV]Y ?AT MO/ PEOPLE N[ SAW AS ! V]Y DEF9ITION ( OPPRESSION2 TOK5S ( ?IS /ATE W]E PRES5T EV]Y:]E4 ,! SAME WAS TRUE ( ! ,FR5* COLONIAL REGIME :I* MO/ SAW AS HAV+ BE5 EV5 WORSE4 ,EV]YONE SAW !MSELVES SURR\ND$ EV]Y:]E BY ! TRACES ( OPPRESSIVE REGIMES1 & LIV+ 9 A L&SCAPE ?AT HAD BE5 L>GELY CREAT$ BY !M4 ,AS A RESULT1 AS 9 SO MU* ( ,MADAGASC>1 SOME =MS ( AU?ORITY W]E SE5 AS 9EVITABLE1 BUT ALL =MS ( AU?ORITY W]E SE5 AS 9H]5TLY PROBLEMATIC4 

,! BODY ( ! ESSAY FALLS 9TO ?REE P>TS3 ! FIR/ CONC]N+ ! FAMILY1 ! SECOND CONC]N+ ! N9ETE5?-C5TURY K+DOM1 ! ?IRD AB\T IDIOMS ( PRESS+ & C>RY+ 9 SPIRIT POSSESSION TODAY4 ,ONLY !N WILL ,I RETURN TO ! PROBLEM ( RELATIVISM4 

,P,>,T ,I ,BE>+ ,BURD5S )9 ! ,H\SEHOLD 

  

,9 ,MALAGASY ONE CAN REF] TO A SIBL+ 9 ONE ( TWO WAYS4 ,ONE CAN REF] TO !IR G5D] 7MY BRO!R1 MY SI/]4447 OR TO !IR ORD] ( BIR?3 0MY S5IOR10 OR ZOKY1 0MY JUNIOR10 OR Z&RY4 ,ONE ALMO/ NEV] REF]S TO BO? AT ! SAME TIME4 ,9 P>T1 ?IS IS BECAUSE :5 IT COMES TO MATT]S ( S5IORITY )9 ! H\SEHOLD1 OR AT LEA/ AMONG SIBL+S1 G5D] %\LD NOT1 9 PR9CIPLE1 MAKE A DIFF]5CE4 ,IF P>5TS >E AWAY1 = EXAMPLE1 ! OLDE/ *ILD IS CONSID]$ TO BE 9 *>GE ( ! H\SEHOLD4 ,:E!R ?AT *ILD IS A BOY OR A GIRL %\LD BE IRRELEVANT4 

,9 ,MADAGASC>1 RELATION ( OLD] & Y\NG]1 ZOKY & Z&RY1 IS A RELATION ( SIMPLE HI]>*Y4 ,IT IS P]HAPS ! MO/ ELEM5T>Y =M ( HI]>*ICAL RELATION4 ,IT IS ALSO (T5 DESCRIB$ AS A BAS$ ON A PR9CIPLE ( MUTUAL RESPONSIBILITY3 IT IS ! RESPONSIBILITY ( OLD] SIBL+S TO SPEAK = !IR Y\NG] BRO!RS & SI/]S 9 ANY SITUATION :I* REQUIRES A DEGREE ( TACT1 OR DELICACY4 ,IT IS ! RESPONSIBILITY ( Y\NG] SIBL+S TO C>RY !IR ELD]S' ?+S4 ,H5CE ! WELL KN[N PROV]B1 ,MANAN-J&RY1 DIA AFAK'OLAN'5T9A2 MANAN-JOKEY1 DIA AFAK'OLAN-T5Y3 0,IF Y\ HAVE A Y\NG] SIBL+1 !N Y\'LL HAVE NO PROBLEMS ) C>RY+1 IF Y\ HAVE AN OLD] ONE1 !N Y\'LL HAVE NO PROBLEMS ) SPEE*0 7,H\LD] #a#i#a#e3 _?#a#i#a2 ,C\S9S #a#i#f#c3 #c#g2 ,CAMB\E #a#i#i3 #c#h#e74 

,>\ND ! TURN ( ! C5TURY1 A ,CA?OLIC MISSION>Y PO/$ TO ! >EA NOR? ( ,>IVONIMAMO OBS]V$ ?AT ?IS PR9CIPLE WAS TAK5 SO S]I\SLY IT (T5 L$ TO SC5ES ?AT SEEM$1 TO ! ,EUROPEAN EYE1 QUITE UNREASONABLE4 0,BY ! AGE ( AB\T T510 HE WROTE1 0*ILDR5 BEG9 TO HELP 9 ! G>D5S & RICE-FIELDS BY C>RY+ BURD5S & PACKAGES4 ,:AT IS REM>KABLE AB\T ! PRACTICE IS ?AT3 IT IS TO ! Y\NGE/ ?AT ! HEAVIE/ P>TS USUALLY FALL0 7,CAMB\E #a#i#i3 #c#h#e74 ,ALMO/ A C5TURY LAT]1 ,I OBS]V$ MU* ! SAME ?+3 ONE MI<T (T5 SPOT A SIXTE5-YE>-OLD GIRL /ROLL+ UP ! HILL AFT] A MORN+ ( WE$+ 9 ! RICE FIELDS1 ) H] T5-YE>-OLD SI/] /RUGGL+ ) A BASKET BEH9D H]1 OR A HEAL?Y MIDDLE-AG$ MAN COM+ BACK = LUN* FOLL[$ BY A TWELVE-YE>-OLD SON C>RY+ HIS SPADE4 ,9DE$1 SOME HAVE BE5 KN[N TO GO SO F> AS TO SAY ?AT IT IS TABOO = AN ELD] TO C>RY SU* TOOLS IF A Y\NG] FAMILY MEMB] PHYSICALLY CAPABLE ( C>RY+ IT IS ANY:]E >\ND 7SO ,RUUD #a#i#f3 #b#e7--JU/ AS IT W\LD BE 9APPROPRIATE = A Y\NG MAN TO SPEAK 9 A VILLAGE ASSEMBLY OR C\RT CASE IF HE HAD A FA!R OR ELD] BRO!R AVAILABLE TO /ATE HIS CASE = HIM4 ,NO ONE ,I KNEW 9 ,>IVONIMAMO W\LD GO ?AT F>4 ,MO/1 EV5 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 9SI/$ SU* H>D-&-FA/ RULES W]E L>GELY ?+S ( ! PA/2 ?\< NEI!R DID !Y D5Y ?AT1 9 PRACTICE1 Y\NG] MEMB]S ( ! FAMILY G5]ALLY DID 5D UP DO+ A LOT ( ! C>RY+1 & ?AT IF ONE REALLY NE$$ A SPOKESMAN1 & ASK$ ONE'S FA!R OR ELD] BRO!R1 !Y W\LD NORMALLY FEEL !Y NE$$ A V]Y GOOD EXCUSE TO REFUSE4.<#a#f#h.> 

,ONE CAN ?9K ( ZOKY_/Z&RY RELATIONS AS AN 0ATOM ( HI]>*Y0 9 TWO S5SES1 ACTUALLY4 ,FIR/ ( ALL1 BECAUSE TALK+ AB\T H[ OLD] & Y\NG] SIBL+S %\LD RELATE TO ONE ANO!R HAS ALWAYS BE5 ONE ( ! MA9 WAYS TO TALK AB\T RELATIONS ( SUP]IORITY & 9F]IORITY 9 G5]AL2 SECOND ( ALL1 BECAUSE IT WAS BY GR[+ UP )9 FAMILIES ORGANIZ$ ALONG !SE L9ES ?AT PEOPLE 9 ,IM]9A HAVE1 OV] ! LA/ SEV]AL HUNDR$ YE>S OR SO1 DEVELOP$ !IR MO/ ELEM5T>Y1 DEEPLY EMB$D$1 EXP]I5CES ( :AT BE+ 9SIDE HI]>*ICAL RELATIONS IS LIKE4 

,LET ME GIVE AN EXAMPLE ( EA*4 

,:5EV] PEOPLE TALK AB\T H[ ZOKY & Z&RY %\LD BEHAVE T[>DS ONE ANO!R1 !Y T5D TO PRODUCE IDEALIZ$ /ATEM5TS1 ALMO/ 9V>IABLY PREFAC$ BY SOME /ATEM5T TO ! EFFECT ( 0( C\RSE1 ! KIDS N[ADAYS NO LONG] REALLY DO ?IS1 BUT 9 ANCE/RAL TIMES1 IT WAS LIKE ?IS4440 ,APP>5TLY1 ?IS HAS ALWAYS BE5 ! CASE4 ,! V]Y FIR/ ACC\NT ( H\SEHOLD ETIQUETTE WE HAVE1 WRITT5 9 ! #a#h#fS BY A ,M]9A ,*RI/IAN & ASSEMBL$ BY A ,BRITI% MISSION>Y NAM$ ,C\S9S 9 A BOOK CALL$ ,FOMBA ,GASY OR 0,MALAGASY ,CU/OMS0 7,C\S9S #a#i#f#c3 #a#b#d-#a#b#g71 BEG9S EXACTLY ! SAME WAY3 0!RE'S NO?+ OLD] PEOPLE COMPLA9 AB\T SO MU* AS ! LACK ( RESPECT = ETIQUETTE AMONG ! Y\NG PEOPLE N[ADAYS40 ,! AU?OR !N LAUN*ES 9TO A DETAIL$ ACC\NT ( H[ ZOKY & Z&RY %\LD PROP]LY BEHAVE 9 EA* O!RS' PRES5CE 7LEAV+ IT A BIT AMBIGU\S :E!R HE IS TALK+ JU/ AB\T SIBL+S1 OR OLD] & Y\NG] PEOPLE 9 G5]AL74 ,! ACC\NT ?AT FOLL[S REVOLVES >\ND ?REE C5TRAL PR9CIPLES1 ?AT CAN BE SUMM>IZ$ AS FOLL[S3  

,HEI<T4 

 ,Z&RY %\LD NEV] PLACE !MSELVES PHYSICALLY HI<] ?AN ZOKY1 P>TICUL>LY DUR+ MEALS OR O!R =MAL OCCASIONS2 NEI!R MAY !IR B$S BE PLAC$ HI<] ?AN !IR ELD]S'4  

,PRIORITY4 

 ,AT MEALS1 ! ELDE/ MU/ EAT FIR/4 ,NEI!R CAN Z&RY TAKE ! LEAD :5 WALK+ ON A PA?1 BUT !Y MU/ FOLL[ !IR ZOKY4  

,FET*+ & C>RY+4 

 ,! MO/ EXTREME TABOO 7FADY71 ! AU?OR NOTES1 IS TO S5D ONE'S ZOKY TO FET* SOME?+4 ,GREAT APOLOGIES >E 9 ORD] IF ONE IS TO SO MU* AS ASK !M TO PASS SOME?+ AT TABLE4 ,IF AT ALL POSSIBLE1 ! Y\NG] P]SON %\LD MAKE SURE !IR ZOKY DO NOT HAVE TO C>RY ANY BURD5S AT ALL4 ,%\LD ONE1 SAY1 RUN 9TO ONE'S ELD] BRO!R OR SI/] C>RY+ SOME?+ ON ! ROAD1 ONE \<T TO IMM$IATELY (F] TO TAKE IT4 7,?IS WAS AN OBLIGATION1 NOTES ! AU?OR4 ,A P>5T OR ELD] SIBL+'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SPEAK = !IR JUNIOR1 0IF !RE'S SOME?+ ?AT NE$S TO BE EXPLA9$ TO SOMEONE0 IS DIFF]5T2 S9CE ! ZOKY NE$ ONLY DO IT IF ! Z&RY SPECIFICALLY ASKS47  
  

,! !ME ( BE>+ BURD5S1 H[EV]1 RESONATES ?R\<\T4 ,?IS IS FROM ! ORIG9AL TEXT3  
  

,IT WAS ! CU/OM ( ! ANCI5TS1 TOO1 = BRO!RS1 OR SI/]S1 ETC41 TO EAT FROM ! SAME PLATE4 ,ONCE ! ZOKY HAD EAT5 ! L>G] P>T1 HE W\LD LEAVE ! RE/ TO HIS Z&RY1 & :5 ! Z&RY DEF]R$1 SAY+ 0EAT ON10 HIS ZOKY W\LD REPLY1 0NO1 Y\ EAT1 BECAUSE IT IS Y\ :O WILL BE C>RY+ ! BASKETS0 7,C\S9S #a#i#f3 #a#b#d74  
  

,N[1 AS ,I SAY1 ALL ?IS IS RA!R AN IDEALIZATION4 ,9 PRACTICE1 SU* RULES ALWAYS T5D TO APPLY TO C]TA9 CONTEXTS1 & C]TA9 PEOPLE1 MORE ?AN O!RS4 ,IT'S H>D TO IMAG9E ?AT EV5 ! /RICTE/ FAMILY W\LD HAVE KEPT A CON/ANT EYE ON A FIVE-YE>-OLD *ILD TO 5SURE %E NEV] SAT ) H] HEAD AT A HI<] ELEVATION ?AN H] T5-YE>-OLD SI/]4 ,9 FACT1 IF ,MALAGASY 9 #ahf W]E ANY?+ LIKE ! ONES ,I KNEW1 UND] ORD9>Y CIRCUM/ANCES1 NO ONE PAID MU* ATT5TION TO :]E FIVE-YE>-OLDS SAT AT ALL4 ,RULES ( S5IORITY W]E OBS]V$ MA9LY ON MORE OR LESS =MAL OCCASIONS--9 FACT1 ONE MI<T SAY ?IS IS :AT A 0=MAL0 OCCASION WAS3 ONE 9 :I* RULES ( S5IORITY W]E /RICTLY OBS]V$4 ,& ?IS WAS /ILL TRUE AMONG ! PEOPLE ,I KNEW4 ,PR9CIPLES ( HEI<T & PRIORITY W]E ALMO/ 5TIRELY IGNOR$ 9 EV]YDAY PRACTICE1 BUT W]E C>EFULLY OBS]V$ AT RITUAL MOM5TS4 ,ON MILDLY =MAL OCCASIONS1 !Y T5D$ TO BE OBS]V$ 9 ABBREVIAT$1 ALLUSIVE =M3 = 9/ANCE1 9 ! WAY ?AT1 :5 GUE/S W]E 9 ! H\SE1 ANYONE GETT+ UP TO LEAVE ! ROOM W\LD ALWAYS /OOP D[N SLI<TLY :5 WALK+ PA/ ?OSE /ILL SEAT$1 TO 9DICATE !Y KNEW !Y REALLY %\LDN'T BE ALL[+ !IR HEADS TO BE 9 A POSITION HI<] ?AN ?OSE ( ANYONE OLD] OR MORE EXALT$ ?AN !MSELVES4 

,/ILL1 !SE PR9CIPLES DID HAVE AN EFFECT ON E>LY FAMILY EXP]I5CE4 ,! ISSUE ( FET*+ & C>RY+1 = EXAMPLE1 REMA9$ EXTREMELY IMPORTANT1 EV5 AMONG ! RELATIVELY $UCAT$ & NOT ESPECIALLY TRADITIONALLY-M9D$ FAMILIES ,I KNEW BE/ 9 ,>IVONIMAMO1 & C]TA9LY AMONG F>M]S 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE4 ,*ILDR5'S LIVES1 ONE MI<T SAY1 W5T ?R\< ?REE BROAD /AGES4 ,DUR+ ! FIR/1 BE=E !Y C\LD WALK1 *ILDR5 W]E USUALLY C>RI$ ON !IR MO!R'S BACKS1 OR ON ?AT ( SOME O!R FEMALE RELATIVE4 ,AS SOON AS !Y C\LD GET AB\T !MSELVES1 H[EV]1 !Y W]E LEFT L>GELY TO !IR [N DEVICES4 ,WE CAN CALL ?IS ! /AGE ( AUTONOMY4 ,:5 NOT AT S*OOL1 !Y W]E EXPECT$ TO SP5D !IR TIME ) O!R *ILDR51 :O =M$ A SORT ( AUTONOM\S COMMUNITY ( ! Y\NG1 ROV+ AB\T 9 B&S1 REAPPE>+ ONLY OCCASIONALLY1 MA9LY AT MEALTIMES4 ,DUR+ ?IS P]IOD--:I* LA/S TILL EI<T OR T5--BOYS & GIRLS W]E BO? TREAT$ V]Y 9DULG5TLY1 & NOT EXPECT$ TO DO MU* ( ANY?+ >\ND ! H\SE4 ,BUT AS SOON AS A *ILD C\LD WALK1 !IR ELD] SI/]S & O!R WOM5 ( ! H\SEHOLD W\LD ALSO BEG9 PLAY+ AT S5D+ !M (F TO FET* SMALL ITEMS--(T5 TO MU* AMUSEM5T IF ! *ILD W&]$ (F OR REFUS$4 ,AS TIME W5T ON1 TASKS GREW MORE S]I\S3 IT WAS COMMON 9 T[N TO S5D EV5 *ILDR5 ( SIX OR SEV5 TO BUY ?+S AT ! /ORE1 & ! *ILD W\LD (T5 RETURN TRIUMPHANTLY TO GREAT ADULATION IF HE OR %E HAD COMPLETELY ! MISSION SUCCESSFULLY4 ,! T]M US$ = SU* FET*+1 MANIRAKA1 LIT]ALLY MEANS TO S5D SOMEONE AS AN 5VOY1 AG5T1 OR REPRES5TATIVE 7IRAKA71 & IS ! SAME V]B ?AT'S US$ = MORE S]I\S H\SEHOLD *ORES1 SU* AS S5D+ GIRLS TO FET* WAT]1 OR SPELL !IR MO!RS OR SI/]S FROM C>RY+ BABIES1 S5D+ BOYS TO C>RY !IR P>5T'S TOOLS OR PACKAGES1 ALL ( :I* ALSO BEG9 >\ND ! AGES EI<T TO T54.<#a#f#i.> 

,IT WAS AT ?IS ?IRD /AGE1 :5 A *ILD />T$ HAV+ TO C>RY BURD5S1 ?AT HE OR %E FIR/ BECAME 9TEGRAT$ 9TO ! ADULT WORLD1 ) ITS 5DLESS DI/9CTIONS ( S5IORITY4 ,ONE BECAME P>T ( ! ADULT WORLD1 !N1 NOT ONLY BY SITT+ L[] OR FOLL[+ BEH9D1 BUT ESPECIALLY BY FOLL[+ BEH9D C>RY+ HEAVY ?+S ON ONE'S HEAD OR 9 ONE'S >MS4 ,IT HAPP5$ 9 A WAY ?AT (T5 SEEM$ SEAMLESS1 EV5 NATURAL2 PLAY TASKS TURN$ 9TO REAL DUTIES1 JU/ AS ! 9EVITABLE WAY P>5TS OR OLD] SIBL+S W\LD SPEAK = *ILDR5 BEGAN TO TAKE ON A NEW1 MORE =MAL1 SIGNIFICANCE AS Y\NG PEOPLE SL[LY BECAME MORE CAPABLE ( SPEAK+ = !MSELVES4 ,9 ! 5D1 EV5 \TSIDE ! H\SEHOLD1 C>RY+ BURD5S C\LD BE SE5 BY OBVI\S COMMON S5SE AS AN EMBLEM ( SUBORD9ATION2 & SOME?+ QUITE NATURALLY OPPOS$ TO ! P[] ( SPEE*4 

,( C\RSE1 REAL H\SEHOLDS HAVE ALWAYS BE5 MORE COMPLICAT$ ?AN !SE IDEALIZ$ ACC\NTS SUGGE/4 ,ONE HAS TO TAKE ACC\NT ( G5D] & G5]ATION AS WELL AS BIR? ORD]2 & ON TOP ( ?AT WAS ! FACT ?AT DUR+1 SAY1 ! #a#h#fS1 :5 ,FOMBA ,GASY WAS WRITT51 ! MAJORITY ( ,M]9A H\SEHOLDS [N$ SLAVES4 ,AFT] SEV]AL DECADES ( PR$ATORY W>F>E1 ! ,M]9A K+DOM HAD BECOME ! C5T] ( A /ATE ?AT1 9 !ORY AT LEA/1 CONTROLL$ ! :OLE ( ,MADAGASC>4 ,AB\T A ?IRD ( ! POPULATION CAME TO BE MADE UP ( SLAVES CAPTUR$ 9 !SE W>S1 & [N]%IP ( SLAVES WAS SO WIDESPREAD ?AT PROBABLY ONLY ONE \T ( EV]Y ?REE FAMILIES HAD NO ACCESS TO SLAVE LABOR4 ,?IS BEGAN TO HAPP5 AT ! SAME TIME ?AT MISSION S*OOLS W]E 9TRODUC$1 P>T ( A L>G] GOV]NM5T PLAN TO BUILD ! F\NDATIONS ( A MOD]N1 BUREAUCRATIC /ATE4 

,! L>GE/ SLAVEHOLD+ FAMILIES MADE UP ! /ATE APP>ATUS ITSELF3 MO/ ( ! M5 9 SU* H\SEHOLDS W]E (FIC]S 9 ! ,M]9A >MY1 OR GOV]NM5T (FICIALS 7:O !MSELVES HELD MILIT>Y RANK7--& BECAME /ALW>TS 9 ! ,PROTE/ANT *UR*4 ,!IR WIVES & *ILDR5 =M$ A LEISUR$ CLASS1 :O1 UNLESS !Y BECAME 9VOLV$ 9 ! S*OOLS OR GOV]NM5T1 USUALLY DID NO?+ AT ALL4 0,!Y HAVE ALL !IR NE$S ATT5D$ TO BY SLAVES10 REM>K$ ONE ,QUAK] MISSION>Y1 0!IR B$S MADE1 CLO!S WA%$1 FOOD COOK$ & EV5 CUT UP = !M1 SO !RE IS NO?+ MU* TO DO BUT EAT FOOD & SIT AB\T TALK+ SC&AL0 79 ,RATRIMOH>9OSY #a#i#h#f3 #b#b74 ,?IS WAS ! /RATUM ,EUROPEAN MISSION>IES W]E MO/ FAMILI> )1 FROM :I* ! AU?OR ALMO/ C]TA9LY D]IV$ \R E>LI] PASSAGE ON ETIQUETTE4 

,!SE W]E ! MO/ 5?USIA/IC SUPPORT]S ( ! MISSION>IES1 BUT ! LATT] F\ND MANY ( !IR HABITS DISCONC]T+4 ,MANY REM>K$ ON ! WAY ?AT MEMB]S ( ?IS CLASS W\LD NEV] APPE> 9 PUBLIC BE>+ ANY?+ REMOTELY RESEMBL+ A BURD54 ,JAMES ,SIBREE ( ! ,L,M,S WROTE3  
  

,IT APPE>S /RANGE TO ! ,MALAGASY TO SEE US ,EUROPEANS WALK+ \T = %ORT DI/ANCES UNACCOMPANI$ BY A S]VANT OR SOME ATT5DANT2 = NO FREE ,MALAGASY1 MALE OR FEMALE1 W\LD ?9K ( GO+ ABROAD )\T AT LEA/ ONE FOLL[] AT HIS OR H] HEELS444 ,SO AGA91 NO RESPECTABLE ,MALAGASY W\LD C>RY ) HIM ANY SMALL >TICLE1 SU* AS A ,BIBLE OR HYMN-BOOK2 ?AT MU/ BE TAK5 BY A SLAVE BOY OR GIRL FOLL[+ !M3 & !Y WOND] TO SEE US C>RY+ A MAP OR ROLL ( DRAW+S AS WE GO TO \R S*OOLS OR ,BIBLE-CLASSES 7,SIBREE #a#h#h3 #a#h#c74  
  

,JOSEPH ,SEWELL ( ! ,SOCIETY ( ,FRI5DS SIMIL>LY REM>K$ H[ 0LUDICR\S0 IT WAS1 TO =EIGN OBS]V]S1 TO SEE 0LADIES FOLL[$ 9 ! /REET BY A SLAVE HOLD+ SOME TRIFL+ ?+ LIKE AN UMBRELLA OR A BIBLE444 ,EV5 S*OOL-*ILDR5 WILL HAVE A LITTLE SLAVE TO C>RY !IR BOOKS & SLATES0 7#a#h#f#g3 #a#a74 

,N[1 AS ,I SAY1 !SE AU?ORS >E DESCRIB+ A P>TICUL> SOCIAL MILIEU4.<#a#g.> ,*UR*ES & S*OOLS W]E 7!N AS N[7 PLACES = ! WELL (F TO MAKE A %[ ( AFFLU5CE4 ,BUT ,I SUSPECT !RE IS MORE GO+ ON 9 !SE DESCRIPTIONS ?AN M]E CONSPICU\S DISPLAY4 ,NOTE ! NATURE ( ?+S BE+ C>RI$3 ,BIBLES1 HYMN BOOKS1 MAPS & ROLLS ( DRAW+S1 S*OOL BOOKS & SLATES4 ,!Y W]E ALL OBJECTS :I* EMBODI$1 9 ONE S5SE OR ANO!R1 ! P[] ( WORDS4.<#a#g#a.> ,! ,MALAGASY GOV]NM5T SAW MISSIONS & MISSION S*OOLS MA9LY AS ! MEANS TO ACQUIRE TE*NOLOGIES ( BUREAUCRATIC RULE3 ! LI/S & L$G]S1 REGI/RIES & CORRESPOND5CE ?AT W\LD 5ABLE !M TO MAKE !IR K+DOM AN EFFECTIVE1 0MOD]N0 /ATE4 ,OBJECTS ( V]BAL LE>N+ HAD A P>TICUL> PLACE AS EMBLEMS ( P[]4 ,ONE RA!R SUSPECTS ! ,REV]5D ,SIBREE'S P>I%ION]S W\LD NOT HAVE BE5 SO QUICK TO REM>K ON ! IMPROPRIETY ( C>RY+1 SAY1 A %AV+ BRU%1 A HAMM]1 OR A UKULELE4 

,ONCE AGA91 !N1 WE HAVE AN EXPLICIT OPPOSITION BETWE5 BE>+ BURD5S & ! P[] ( SPEE*4 

,S9CE MO/ M5 9 ?IS P]IOD SP5T ! BULK ( !IR TIME P]=M+ GOV]NM5T S]VICE 7OR TRY+ TO AVOID IT71 ! PRES5CE OR ABS5CE ( SLAVES MA9LY AFFECT$ ! WORKLOADS ( WOM5 & *ILDR51 :O DID ! BULK ( DOME/IC & AGRICULTURAL WORK4 ,9 CONTRA/ ) ! PAMP]$ ,*RI/IAN LADIES :O DID NOT DEIGN TO C>RY !IR [N P>ASOLS1 ANO!R MISSION>Y COMPLA9S ?AT1 09 HEA!N H\SEHOLDS0 7A WORD (T5 US$ AS A SYNONYM = 0POOR071 A WIFE IS (T5 0REG>D$ BY H] HUSB& 9 ! LI<T ( A SUP]IOR SLAVE0 & T]RIBLY OV]BURD5$ 7,HAILE #a#h#i#c3 #h74 ,AFT] ! ABOLITION ( SLAV]Y 9 #a#h#i#e1 MU* ( ! EMPHASIS ONCE PUT ON *ILDR5'S RESPONSIBILITY TO C>RY BURD5S SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 REFOCUS$ ON WOM53 :5 T[NSPEOPLE N[ADAYS ?9K ( BACKW>DS C\NTRY FOLK1 ONE ( ! /]EOTYPICAL IMAGES IS ?AT ( ! DUTIFUL WIFE FOLL[+ BEH9D H] UNBURD5$ HUSB& ) A BASKET ON H] HEAD4 ,I DID1 OCCASIONALLY1 WITNESS SU* SC5ES 9 RURAL ,IM]9A--9 FACT1 EV5 SOME ( MY MORE $UCAT$ FEMALE FRI5DS FROM T[N W\LD1 OCCASIONALLY1 (F] TO C>RY MY BAGS = ME1 9SI/+ ?AT IT WAS PROP]LY WOM5'S WORK 7!Y NEV] 9SI/$ V]Y H>D7--BUT1 9 FACT1 !RE >E SO MANY PR9CIPLES AT PLAY ?AT 9 PRACTICE1 !RE IS A GREAT DEAL ( ROOM = ADJU/M5T & NEGOTIATION4 ,W\LD AN OLD] SI/] EV] C>RY H] BRO!R'S ?+S8 ,C]TA9LY NOT2 HE %\LD C>RY H]S--?AT IS1 IF IT'S ! SORT ( ?+ IT W\LD BE APPROPRIATE = A MALE TO BE C>RY+4 ,:AT IF ! WIFE IS OLD] ?AN ! HUSB&8 ,WELL1 %E %\LDN'T BE OLD] ?AN H] HUSB&4 ,BUT IT HAPP5S SOMETIMES3 :AT IF %E IS8 ,?AT W\LD DEP5D ON ! FAMILY444 

,P,>,T ,I,I ,EMBLEMATIC ,LABOR & ! ,N9ETE5?-,C5TURY ,K+DOM 

  

,! /ATE1 AS HAS (T5 BE5 NOT$1 T5DS TO CON/RUCT ITS [N LEGITIMACY BY DRAW+ ON ! IDIOM ( ! FAMILY1 APPROPRIAT+ BITS & PIECES ( FAMILY RITUAL OR SYMBOLISM4 ,! ,M]9A /ATE WAS NO EXCEPTION 7,BLO* #a#i#h#i74 ,IF ONE LOOKS AT ! /RUCTURE ( TRADITIONAL K+DOMS 9 ! HI<L&S1 & P>TICUL>LY ! ORGANIZATION ( PUBLIC WORKS1 ONE DISCOV]S A METICUL\S ATT5TION TO :AT SORT ( PEOPLE HAVE TO C>RY :AT SORTS ( OBJECTS--?\<1 AS WE'LL SEE1 ON ?IS LEVEL ! BE>+ ( BURD5S WAS CONTRA/$ AS (T5 ) P[]S ( SPEE* AS ) P[]S ( MAT]IAL CREATION4 

,K+DOMS W]E ORGANIZ$ >\ND A FIGURE CALL$ ! ,&RIANA1 :I* MEANS SOV]EIGN OR K+4 ,R\<LY A ?IRD ( ! FREE POPULATION W]E ALSO CONSID]$ &RIANA1 EI!R BECAUSE !Y C\LD CLAIM DESC5T FROM ! ROYAL L9E1 OR BECAUSE !IR ANCE/ORS HAD BE5 RAIS$ TO &RIANA /ATUS BECAUSE ( SOME H]OIC ACT ( DEVOTION OR SELF-SACRIFICE ON BEHALF ( ROYALTY4 ,9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 !RE W]E SEV5 ORD]S ( &RIANA1 ) ! SOV]EIGN'S IMM$IATE FAMILY AT ! TOP2 AT ! BOTTOM W]E LOCAL DESC5T GR\PS H>DLY DI/+UI%ABLE FROM !IR HOVA1 OR 0COMMON]0 EQUIVAL5TS4 ,MAURICE ,BLO* REF]S TO ALL !SE GR\PS AS 0DEMES02 EA* OCCUPI$ !IR [N VALLEY & NETWORK ( T]RAC$ RICE FIELDS AMID ! VA/ ROLL+ C\NTRY ( ,MADAGASC>'S C5TRAL PLATEAU4 ,HOVA W]E DEF9$ AS PEOPLE :O [$ SOME =M ( WORK--FANOMPOANA1 OR 0S]VICE0--TO ! K+4 ,!RE W]E O!R GR\PS1 SU* AS ! ,MA9TY ,59-,DR5Y1 :O W]E SPECIALIZ$ ROYAL W>RIORS4 ,F9ALLY1 SLAVES DID NOT HAVE DESC5T GR\PS ( !IR [N & DID NOT P]=M FANOMPOANA = ! K+ 79 FACT1 ANYONE :O C\LD PROVE !Y HAD P]=M$ ROYAL S]VICE WAS AUTOMATICALLY MANUMITT$71 BUT1 RA!R1 DID ! BIDD+ ( !IR [N]S4 

,! :OLE SY/EM WAS CON/RUCT$ >\ND S]VICE4 ,! /ATUS ( ANY GIV5 DEME WAS L>GELY DET]M9$ BY :AT P>TICUL> TYPE ( S]VICE IT P]=M$ = ! ROYAL FAMILY4 ,?IS WAS P>TICUL>LY TRUE BE=E ,BRITI% MISSION>IES & MILIT>Y ADVIS]S >RIV$ 9 ! #a#h#bS & ,K+ ,RADAMA ,I BEGAN US+ ! PR9CIPLE ( FANOMPOANA AS ! BASIS = CREAT+ A MOD]NIZ+ /ATE4 ,S9CE \R HI/ORICAL S\RCES ALSO BEG9 >\ND ?IS TIME1 IT IS A LITTLE DIFFICULT TO RECON/RUCT EXACTLY :AT 0ROYAL S]VICE0 REALLY MEANT 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 :5 ,IM]9A WAS /ILL BROK5 9TO DOZ5S ( W>R+ PR9CIPALITIES4 ,:ILE1 9 !ORY1 A LOCAL K+ C\LD DEM& MO/ ANY?+ FROM HIS SUBJECTS1 IT SEEMS ?AT A RUL]'S ABILITY TO EXTRACT GOODS & S]VICES FROM GR\PS :O DID NOT HAPP5 TO LIVE 9 ! IMM$IATE VIC9ITY ( A ROYAL RESID5CE WAS QUITE LIMIT$4 ,?OSE S]VICES !Y DID RECEIVE REVOLV$ L>GELY >\ND :AT WE CONSID] C]EMONIAL TASKS1 SU* AS BUILD+ & REBUILD+ ROYAL PALACES & TOMBS1 OR P>TICIPAT+ 9 ! ANNUAL ,NEW ,YE>'S RITUAL4 ,DUR+ SU* EV5TS1 EA* DEME WAS USUALLY ASSIGN$ SOME V]Y SPECIFIC SET ( TASKS1 :I* M>K$ !IR /ATUS1 AS =M+ P>T ( A MORE G5]IC LABOR POOL4 ,IT'S IMPORTANT TO BE> 9 M9D ?AT1 EXCEPT = A H&FUL ( ! V]Y MO/ EXALT$ &RIANA1 ALMO/ ALL ( !SE GR\PS W]E1 9 T]MS ( H[ !Y E>N$ !IR LIVELIHOODS1 REM>KABLY SIMIL>3 ALL DEVOT$ MO/ ( !IR 5]GIES TO F>M+ 9 ! SUMM]1 & TO H&ICRAFTS OR PETTY TRAD+ 9 ! AGRICULTURAL (F-SEASON4 ,IT WAS :AT ONE DID = ?AT K+ ?AT DET]M9$ ONE'S /ATUS 9 ! K+DOM AS A :OLE &1 !RE=E1 SU* TASKS C\LD BE REF]R$ TO AS 0EMBLEMATIC LABOR10 :I* DEF9$ ! NATURE ( EA* GR\P1 :AT K9D ( PEOPLE !Y REALLY W]E4.<#a#g#b.> 

,&RIANA W]E NOT 5TIRELY EXEMPT FROM ROYAL S]VICE2 BUT !IR S]VICES T5D$ TO FOCUS ON A FEW1 RELATIVELY PRIVILEG$ TASKS4 ,TAKE1 = EXAMPLE1 ! BUILD+ & REPAIR ( ROYAL TOMBS1 A TASK SO EXALT$ ONLY &RIANA & C]TA9 V]Y HI<-RANK+ HOVA GR\PS HAD ! PRIVILEGE ( TAK+ P>T4 ,MALAGASY ACC\NTS 7ONCE AGA91 WRITT5 9 ! #a#h#fS3 ,CALLET #a#i#h3 #b#f-#b1 #b#f#g1 #a#b#a#c-#a#d7 BROKE D[N ! TASKS 9TO TWO BROAD CATEGORIES4 ,! FIR/ W]E ACTS ( PRODUCTION3 ! ACTUAL FA%ION+ ( ! TOMB & MANUFACTURE ( ! OBJECTS ?AT W\LD BE PLAC$ 9SIDE4 ,!SE TASKS W]E MONOPOLIZ$ BY &RIANA4 ,! ORD]S ( ! ,&RIAMAS9AVALONA & ,&RIANTOMPOKO9DR9DRA1 = EXAMPLE1 PROVID$ ! /ONE-MASONS & C>P5T]S :O BUILT ! TOMB ITSELF2 ! ,&RIAN&RANADO PROVID$ ! SMI?S :O MADE ! HUGE SILV] C(F9 9 :I* K+S W]E BURI$1 & LAT]1 :O MADE ! TOMB'S T9 RO(2 WOM5 ( ! ,&RIAMAS9AVALONA & ,ZAZAM>OLAHY ORD]S WOVE ! MATS ?AT W\LD BE HUNG ON ! WALLS 9SIDE2 ?REE O!R GR\PS W]E EXPECT$ TO PROVIDE ! SILK %R\DS US$ = WRAPP+ ! DEAD 7,CALLET1 ,IBID474 ,! SECOND SET ( TASKS W]E ALWAYS PHRAS$ AS MATT]S ( 0C>RY+0 ?+S2 ESPECIALLY1 C>RY+ (F ! TATT]$ MATS & O!R RUBBI% FROM 9SIDE A TOMB :5 IT WAS OP5$ OR REPAIR$1 & GA!R+ & CONVEY+ BASKETS FULL ( ! R$ CLAY ?AT WAS US$ TO SEAL IT AFT]W>DS 7,CALLET #a#i#h3 #a#f#d1 #c#g1 #d#i1 #e#c#d-#e1 #h#a#b-#c74 ,!SE TASKS W]E NEV] ASSIGN$ TO &RIANA BUT ALWAYS TO HOVA4.<#a#g#c.> 

,?IS DI/9CTION C>RIES ?R\< ALL SORTS ( O!R TASKS AS WELL4 ,9 SU* RITUAL MOM5TS1 &RIANA W]E DEF9$ AS ! K9D ( PEOPLE :O PRODUCE ?+S2 COMMON]S1 AS ?OSE :O FET* & C>RY !M4 ,AT TIMES1 !SE EMBLEMATIC TASKS LEAK$ OV] 9TO BROAD] CONTEXTS4 ,! ,&RIAN&RANADO1 = 9/ANCE1 ! ORD] ( &RIANA :O PROVID$ ! SMI?S = ROYAL RITUALS1 ALSO PRODUC$ ALL ! GOLD & SILV] OBJECTS US$ AT C\RT4 ,AS A RESULT1 !Y EV5TUALLY MANAG$ TO W9 A =MAL MONOPOLY ON GOLD- & SILV]-WORK+ )9 ! ,M]9A K+DOM AS A :OLE4 ,DUR+ ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 O!R BRAN*ES ( ?IS SAME ORD] PROVID$ ALSO ALMO/ ALL ! T9 SMI?S & A L>GE NUMB] ( ! SKILL$ IRON-WORK]S 9 ! CAPITAL4.<#a#g#d.> ,O!R GR\PS W]E FAM\S = O!R SPECIALTIES4 ,AS A RULE1 &RIANA W]E SE5 AS PRODUC]S1 MAK]S2 IT WAS !IR BASIC ID5TITY 9 ! /RUCTURE ( ! K+DOM1 A FACT :I* WAS P]HAPS MO/ CLE>LY REVEAL$ :51 9 #a#h#a#g1 ,BRITI% 5VOYS ASK$ ,K+ ,RADAMA ,I *OSE A H&FUL ( BOYS FROM HIS K+DOM TO /UDY >TISANAL TRADES 9 ,5GL&4 ,EV]Y Y\NG MAN ! K+ *OSE W]E &RIANA4 

,I AM NOT SURE IF ANY =EIGN S*OL> HAS EV] DRAWN ATT5TION TO ! CONNECTION BETWE5 &RIANA & 9DU/RIAL & CRAFT PRODUCTION BE=E1 PROBABLY BECAUSE IT SEEMS SO ODD TO SEE 0NOBLES0 AS 9DU/RIAL PRODUC]S4.<#a#g#e.> ,?\< P]HAPS IT IS EASI] TO CONCEIVE IF ONE SEES ! PRIVILEG$ /RATUM AS MONOPOLIZ+ ! P[]S ( CREATIVITY4 ,NOBLES SPOKE FIR/ AT C\NCIL & W]E SE5 AS BE+ ! MA/]S ( ORATORY & POETIC SPEE* 7,DOM5I*9I ,RAMI>AMANANA #a#i#h#c74 ,!Y ALSO CREAT$ ! MO/ BEAUTIFUL OBJECTS4 

,K+ ,&RIANAMPO9IM]9A1 :O UNIFI$ ! C\NTRY AT ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 US$ HIS RI<T TO DEM& FANOMPOANA TO M>%AL ! MANP[] TO RECLAIM ?\S&S ( HECT>ES FROM SWAMPS4 ,K+ ,RADAMA & HIS SUCCESSORS 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY EXP&$ IT TO 9CLUDE SU* ?+S AS MILIT>Y S]VICE1 S*OOL ATT5DANCE1 & P>TICIPATION 9 ALL SORTS ( 9DU/RIAL PROJECTS4 ,! VA/ MAJORITY ( !SE NEW TASKS FELL TO COMMON]S4 ,/ILL1 C]TA9 TASKS REMA9$ EMBLEMATIC1 9 ! S5SE ?AT !Y W]E SE5 AS DEF9+ ! ESS5CE ( ! RELATION BETWE5 SUBJECTS 7,HOVA7 & ! ,SOV]EIGN 7,&RIANA74 ,S\RCES SPEAK+ ( FANOMPOANA 9 ! AB/RACT 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY T5D$ TO PRODUCE A REM>KABLY /&>DIZ$ LI/ ( EMBLEMATIC TASKS--& ! SAME LI/ REAPPE>S AS ?OSE TASKS FROM :I* &RIANA DEMES W]E SPECIFICALLY EXEMPT4 ,!SE LI/S ALWAYS EMPHASIZ$ F\R1 TYPICALLY 9 ! FOLL[+ ORD]3  

,MANAO ,HAZOLAVA1 OR 0DRAGG+ TREES40 ,S9CE ,IM]9A PROP] WAS L>GELY DEVOID ( TIMB]1 IT WAS NECESS>Y TO =M CREWS ( WORKM5 TO DRAG ! VA/ TRUNKS NE$$ = ROYAL H\SES & PALISADES FROM ! $GE ( EA/]N =E/S UP TO ! C5T] ( ! C\NTRY4 ,! RI<T TO SET UP ! C5TRAL POLES ( ROYAL H\SES WAS1 AGA91 A HI<LY E/EEM$ PRIVILEGE4  

,MIHADY ,TANY1 OR 0DIGG+ E>?40 ,?IS MA9LY REF]S TO LEVEL+ & ! MAK+ ( EMBANKM5TS = ROYAL BUILD+ PROJECTS4.<#a#g#f.>  

,MANAO ,>I-,MA9TY1 OR 0MAK+ *>COAL40 ,9 PRACTICE1 ?IS MA9LY 9VOLV$ TRANSPORT+ BASKETS ( *>COAL PRODUC$ 9 ! EA/]N =E/S TO ! ROYAL C\RT 9 ! CAPITAL1 ,ANTANAN>IVO4  

,MITONDRA ,5TAN',&RIANA1 OR 0C>RY+ ROYAL BAGGAGE40 ,MO/ (T5 ?IS 9VOLV$ TRANSPORT+ IMPORTS B\ND = ! C\RT FROM ! PORT ( ,TAMATAVE1 BUT IT C\LD 9CLUDE ANY NUMB] ( O!R TRANSPORT DUTIES4.<#a#g#g.>  
  

,! READ] WILL NO D\BT HAVE NOT$ ?AT 9 EV]Y CASE1 !SE W]E TASKS :I*1 ONCE AGA91 C5T]$ ON DRAGG+ OR C>RY+ HEAVY ?+S--USUALLY1 9 BASKETS ON ONE'S HEAD4 7_?#b MI<T SEEM A P>TIAL EXCEPTION1 BUT ANYONE :O HAS EV] TAK5 P>T 9 A L>GE SCALE DIGG+ PROJECT KN[S ! LION'S %>E ( ! LABOR1 & USUALLY ! MO/ ON]\S P>T1 9VOLVES HOI/+ & C>RY+ CONTA9]S ( DISPLAC$ E>?47 

,! EMPHASIS ON BE>+ BURD5S1 ( C\RSE1 DID HAVE SOME?+ TO DO ) EXI/+ PHYSICAL CONDITIONS4 ,IM]9A 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY LACK$ BEA/S ( BURD5 OR :EEL$ VEHICLES4 ,IT WAS ALSO NOTORI\SLY LACK+ 9 DEC5T ROADS4 ,AS A RESULT1 JU/ AB\T EV]Y?+ HAD TO BE MOV$ BY HUMAN BE+S1 & (T5 ) GREAT DIFFICULTY4 ,BUT *OOS+ !SE TASKS AS P>ADIGMS ( FANOMPOANA ALSO CLE>LY DREW ON A BROAD] S5SE ?AT1 9 ! K+DOM AS 9 ! H\SEHOLD1 C>RY+ ?+S = SOMEONE WAS EMBLEMATIC ( SUBORD9ATION4 ,9DE$1 9 ! CASE ( ROYALTY ! PR9CIPLE WAS TAK5 EV5 FUR!R1 BECAUSE ROYALS & (FIC]S ( /ATE DID NOT WALK = LONG DI/ANCES AT ALL4 ,LIKE =EIGN VISITORS1 !Y W]E C>RI$ EV]Y:]E ON PALANQU9S BORNE ON ! %\LD]S ( TRA9$ BE>]S4 ,! ROYAL BE>]S W]E A CLASS ( RELATIVELY E/EEM$ SPECIALI/S1 9 !IR [N RI<T1 ( A /ATUS SIMIL> TO ROYAL W>RIORS4.<#a#g#h.> ,IMPORTANT C\RT FIGURES1 OR LOCAL GR&EES1 T5D$ TO KEEP SPECIALLY TRA9$ BE>]S ( !IR [N1 :O USUALLY =M$ AN ELITE CORPS AMONG !IR SLAVES4 ,ACTUALLY1 !RE WAS SOME?+ ( AN IRONY 9 !IR POSITION3 S9CE FREE PEOPLE W]E DEF9$ AS ?OSE :O S]V$ 7I4E41 C>RI$ ?+S7 = ! K+1 & SLAVES1 AS ?OSE :O DID SO = PRIVATE CITIZ5S1 ,EUROPEAN M]*ANTS F\ND IT ALMO/ IMPOSSIBLE TO RECRUIT FREE-BORN ,MALAGASY AS BE>]S1 EI!R = PALANQU9S1 OR1 MORE IMPORTANTLY1 TO C>RY GOODS ALONG ! DIFFICULT ROADS ?AT LEAD FROM ! CAPITAL TO ! SEAPORTS ( ! COA/4 ,ONLY SLAVES W]E WILL+ TO DO SU* WORK4 ,AS A RESULT1 MANY SLAVES 5D$ UP 9 A SURPRIS+LY ADVANTAGE\S ECONOMIC POSITION1 WORK+ 9DEP5D5TLY ( !IR [N]S 7TO :OM !Y W]E USUALLY OBLIG$ TO TURN OV] ONLY A C]TA9 PORTION ( !IR E>N+S71 =M+ SEMI-CORPORATE GUILDS ?AT 5D$ UP DOM9AT+ ! OV]L& C>RY+ TRADE 9 MU* ( ,MADAGASC> & SECUR+ V]Y HI< WAGES AS A RESULT 7,CAMPBELL #a#i#h#a74 ,?IS PATT]N ( TURN+ EXTREME SUBORD9ATION 9TO PRACTICAL P[] IS ONE WE WILL BE SEE+ AGA9 & AGA94 

,! ,AMBIVAL5CE ( 0,C>RY+0 

  

,SO F>1 ! PICTURE ,I HAVE BE5 PRES5T+ HAS BE5 FAIRLY SIMPLE4 ,M]9A *ILDR5 LE>N AB\T ! NATURE ( HI]>*Y 9 L>GE P>T ?R\< ! EXP]I5CE ( C>RY+ HEAVY BURD5S--BE+ LIT]ALLY 0OPPRESS$10 PRESS$ D[N BY ! WEI<T ( OBJECTS BALANC$ ON !IR HEADS1 OR BACKS1 OR %\LD]S--OBJECTS :I*1 SIGNIFICANTLY BELONG$ TO SOMEONE ELSE4.<#a#g#i.> ,)9 ! /RUCTURE ( ! K+DOM AS A :OLE1 SU* TASKS BECAME EMBLEMATIC ( SUBORD9ATION4 ,9 EI!R CASE1 ! EXP]I5CE ( PHYSICAL COMPRESSION C\LD BE POS$ AGA9/ WAYS 9 :I* ONE MI<T BE SAID TO EXP&1 OR EXT5D ONESELF 9TO ! WORLD3 BY PRODUC+ WORDS 7IF ONE WAS A ZOKY71 OR OBJECTS 7IF ONE WAS AN &RIANA7 :I* CAN !N BE DETA*$ FROM !IR CREATOR & 9FLU5CE O!RS4 

,PROBABLY1 ! DIFF]5CE IS MA9LY ONE ( EMPHASIS4 ,9 H\SEHOLDS1 :5 A MAN IS WORK+ A =GE OR A WOMAN WEAV+1 IT IS G5]ALLY ! MO/ S5IOR P]SON :O ACTUALLY FA%IONS ! OBJECT1 :ILE Y\NG] PEOPLE SCURRY BACK & =? C>RY+ SUPPLIES4 ,& :5 K+S ASSEMBL$ !IR PEOPLE TO PASS D[N RUL+S OR ASK !IR P]MISSION TO BEG9 SOME PROJECT 7= EXAMPLE1 DRAGG+ TREES TO MAKE A NEW PALACE7 IT WAS ! ,&RIAMAS9AVALONA & ,&RIANTOMPOKO9DR9DRA--! SAME ORD]S :O HAD ! PRIVILEGE ( ACTUALLY BUILD+ ROYAL TOMBS--:O HAD ! PRIVILEGE ( BE+ ! FIR/ TO RESPOND TO ! ROYAL WORDS4 ,9 DO+ SO1 !Y W]E SE5 AS ACT+ AS SPOKESM5 = ! K+DOM AS A :OLE1 9 MU* ! SAME WAY AS A ZOKY CAN SPEAK = HIS Z&RY 7,CALLET #a#i#h3 #b#h#h74 ,& ( C\RSE1 AS WE HAVE ALREADY SE51 :E!R OR NOT ! ID5TIFICATION ( ELITE /ATUS ) ! CONTROL ( WORDS WAS SALI5T 9 ! =MAL ORGANIZATION ( ! K+DOM1 IT C]TA9LY EM]G$ ) ! SPREAD ( ,*RI/IANITY & MISSION S*OOLS LAT] 9 ! C5TURY4 

,:AT'S MORE1 ! IMAGE ( BE>+ BURD5S C>RI$ ) IT A C]TA9 AMBIVAL5CE4 ,9 ORD9>Y USAGE1 = EXAMPLE1 0C>RY+0 BY NO MEANS ALWAYS MEANS SUBORD9ATION4 ,SOMETIMES IT MEANS EXACTLY ! OPPOSITE4 ,! WORD MITONDRA MEANS NOT ONLY 0TO BR+0 OR 0TO C>RY02 BUT ALSO 0TO LEAD40 ,ONE CAN SAY A P]SON >RIV$ 0C>RY+ A %OVEL0 OR 0LEAD+ A DETA*M5T ( A HUNDR$ SOLDI]S0--IT'S EXACTLY ! SAME WORD4 ,AU?ORITY ITSELF IS (T5 SPOK5 ( AS A BURD51 SO ?AT ONE 0C>RIES0 A C]TA9 RESPONSIBILITY1 EV5 A C]TA9 (FICE4 ,ACTIVE GOV]NANCE IS A MATT] ( 0C>RY+ ! PEOPLE0 7MITONDRA VAHOAKA7 & ! MO/ COMMON WORD = GOV]NANCE IS 9 FACT AN AB/RACT N\N1 FITONDRANA1 :I* MI<T BE/ BE TRANSLAT$ AS 0! MANN] ( C>RY+40 

,SU* IDIOMS MI<T NOT MEAN MU* 9 !MSELVES1 BUT !Y SEEM TO DRAW ON A MU* BROAD] S5SE ( RECIPROCAL OBLIGATION :I* AGA91 SEEMS TO BE ROOT$ 9 RELATIONS ( HI]>*Y 9 ! FAMILY1 :I* ULTIMATELY BECAME C5TRAL TO ! WAY PEOPLE IMAG9$ !IR RELATIONS TO ! /ATE4 

,9 ! H\SEHOLD1 ! DUTIES ONE [ES TO ONE'S ELD]S >E (T5 FRAM$ 9 T]MS ( A K9D ( RECIPROCITY4 ,9 SPEAK+ ( *ILD-RAIS+1 ! IMAGE ( A WOMAN C>RY+ A BABY ON H] BACK BECAME ITSELF AN EMBLEMATIC =M ( WORK1 AN IMAGE ?AT SUMM$ UP ALL ! WORK ( C>+ =1 FE$+1 CLO?+1 CLEAN+1 TEA*+1 & ATT5D+ TO A *ILD'S NE$S1 :I* P>5TS--&1 ( C\RSE1 P>TICUL>LY MO!RS--PROVIDE4 ,OBLIGATIONS ( SUPPORT :I* ADULT *ILDR5 LAT] [E TO !IR P>5TS & ANCE/ORS1 9 TURN1 C\LD BE COLLECTIVELY REF]R$ TO AS VALIM-BAB5A3 0! ANSW] = HAV+ BE5 C>RI$ ON ! BACK40 ,ALT]NATELY1 !Y CAN BE CALL$ LOLOHA OR LOLOHAV9A1 0?+S C>RI$ ON ONE'S HEAD40 ,! T]M WAS US$ AS WAY ( REF]R+ TO ANY RESPONSIBILITY TO SUPPORT O!RS1 BUT P>TICUL>LY1 ! OBLIGATION TO PROVIDE DEAD ANCE/ORS ) CLO? & O!R GIFTS :5 !IR BODIES >E TAK5 \T ( ! TOMB TO BE REWRAPP$ AT P]IODIC FAMADIHANA C]EMONIES1 & TO BUILD & REPAIR !IR TOMBS4.<#a#h.> 

,SO F>1 !N1 WE HAVE A RECIPROCITY ( C>RY+3 ! LABOR ( *ILD-RE>+ IS PICTUR$ AS A MATT] ( C>RY+ ON ONE'S BACK1 IT IS REPAID BY MA9TA9+ ! P>5TS !MSELVES :5 !Y >E OLD1 & !IR TOMBS & BODIES AFT] !Y HAVE DI$--?AT MA9T5ANCE1 !N1 BECOM+ A FIGURATIVE BURD5 BORNE ON !IR DESC5DANTS HEADS 7SEE ,LAMBEK #b#b2 ,COLE #b3 #c#a#i-#b74.<#a#h#a.> 

,NOT SURPRIS+LY1 SOME N9ETE5?-C5TURY DOCUM5TS ACTUALLY USE ! T]M FILOLOHAV9A1 0?+S C>RI$ ON ! HEAD10 TO REF] BO? TO ONE'S RESPONSIBILITIES TO ONE'S ANCE/ORS1 & ONE'S RESPONSIBILITIES TO PROVIDE TAXES & LABOR TO ! /ATE4 ,:AT IS P>TICUL>LY 9T]E/+ H]E IS ?AT1 AS A RESULT1 RELATIONS BETWE5 ! PEOPLE & RUL] W]E (T5 REPRES5T$ AS NURTUR+ ONES4 ,P]HAPS ! ONE T]M MO/ CON/ANTLY 9VOK$ 9 DISCUSSIONS ( ! PEOPLE'S RELATION TO !IR RUL] IS MITAIZA1 :I* LIT]ALLY MEANS TO BREA/-FE$1 TO TAKE C>E ( A *ILD NOT YET CAPABLE ( TAK+ C>E ( ITS [N NE$S 7,RAJEMISA-,RAOLISON #a#i#h#e3 #i#i74 ,US$ 9 A BROAD] S5SE1 IT CAN MEAN TO NURTURE1 C>E =1 AS WELL AS TO FO/] A *ILD NOT ONE'S [N4 ,9 ! N9ETE5?-C5TURY LIT]ATURE1 ! PEOPLE1 OR !IR REPRES5TATIVES1 >E ALWAYS BE+ REPRES5T$ AS NURTUR+ ! K+4 ,?IS IS ANO!R ASPECT ( ,M]9A ROYAL SYMBOLISM :I* HAS BE5 L>GELY IGNOR$ 9 ! HI/ORICAL & E?NOGRAPHIC LIT]ATURE1 APP>5TLY BECAUSE IT SEEMS SO ODD4 ,SEE+ A K+ AS A SMALL *ILD BE+ NURS$ BY HIS SUBJECTS SO FLIES 9 ! FACE ( \R [N ACCU/OM$ IMAGE ( A RUL] AS ! PATRI>*AL 0FA!R ( HIS PEOPLE0 ?AT1 9 ITS WAY1 IT JANGLES EV5 MORE ODDLY ?AN ! IDEA ( 0NOBLES0 AS 9DU/RIAL PRODUC]S4.<#a#h#b.> 

,COMMON]S :O S]V$ AS ROYAL ADVIS]S1 LIKE ?OSE :O1 BEG9N+ 9 ! REIGN ( ,QUE5 ,RANAVALONA ,I1 TOOK EFFECTIVE CONTROL ( ! K+DOM 9 ! ROLE ( ROYAL 0M9I/]S10 W]E ALWAYS REF]R$ TO 9 ,MALAGASY TEXTS AS 0MPITAIZA &RIANA10 0! K+'S NURSEMAIDS0 AS WELL4 ,AMONG ! MO/ DESIRABLE RITUAL S]VICES [$ TO ROYALTY1 MANY SPECIFICALLY 9VOLV$ ! C>+ = ROYAL *ILDR53 = EXAMPLE1 ! ,ANTEHIROKA1 COMMON]S CONSID]$ ! REAL AUTO*?ON\S POPULATION ( ! PLA9 ( ,ANTANAN>IVO1 HAD ! PRIVILEGE ( BLESS+ Y\NG PR9CES DUR+ !IR CIRCUMCISION C]EMONIES1 & ! ,MAN5DY1 ONE ( ! SPECIALIZ$ W>RIOR CLANS1 W]E ALSO ! PRIVILEG$ PLAYMATES ( Y\NG ,M]9A PR9CESSES 7,DOM5I*9I-,RAMI>AMANANA @& ,DOM5I*9I #a#i#h74.<#a#h#c.> ,ALL ?IS WAS1 9 P>T1 SIMPLY ! RECOGNITION ( A C]TA9 DEP5D5CY3 A P]SON :O IS C>RI$ BY SOMEONE ELSE IS OBVI\SLY DEP5D5T ON !M4 ,K+S :O >E F$ BY ! PEOPLE >E ALSO1 9 A S5SE1 9FANTILIZ$4 

,ONE MAY ASK H[ MU* ( ?IS WAS SIMPLY RHETORIC1 & H[ MU* IT HAD ANY EFFECT ON PRACTICE4 ,! ANSW] IS1 PROBABLY1 ?AT ?IS V>I$4 ,9 ROYAL S]VICE1 = EXAMPLE1 ! TASKS ?AT W]E CONSID]$ P>TICUL>LY LEGITIMATE FOCUS$ ON ! NE$S ( ! ROYAL H\SEHOLD ITSELF4 ,?IS WAS TRUE EV5--9DE$1 P>TICUL>LY--( SU* SPECTACUL> TASKS AS DRAGG+ TREE-TRUNKS ACROSS MILES ( C\NTRYSIDE1 :I* W]E ALWAYS SE5 AS P>T ( BUILD+ OR REBUILD+ ROYAL RESID5CES4 ,O!R TASKS1 SU* AS WORK+ ON NATIONAL 9DU/RIAL PROJECTS OR S]V+ 9 ! >MY1 W]E NOT SE5 AS LEGITIMATE 9 ANY?+ LIKE ! SAME WAY1 & W]E WIDELY RESI/$4 ,DIFF]5T PEOPLE MANAG$ TO MAKE MORE OR LESS EFFECTIVE CLAIMS ON ROYALTY ON ! BASIS ( !IR ROLE AS 0N\RI%+0 & 0C>+ =0 ! K+ OR QUE54 ,= 9/ANCE1 ! 7MA9LY COMMON]7 GU>DIANS ( ! ROYAL SAMPY1 OR NATIONAL 0PALLADIA10 :O =M$ AS CLOSE AS ! ,M]9A K+DOM HAD TO A PRIE/LY CLASS1 ALSO REGUL>LY REPRES5T$ !MSELVES AS MPITAIZA &RIANA 7SEE E4G41 ,JULLY #a#h#i#i3 #c#b#e2 ,DOM5I*9I #a#i#g#g74 ,SO DID ! FAMILIES ( COMMON] POLITICIANS & G5]ALS :O1 AFT] ! REIGN ( ,RADAMA1 BECAME ! EFFECTIVE RUL]S ( ! /ATE4 ,:5 !Y TRI$ TO USE FANOMPOANA TO EXTRACT LABOR = !IR [N P]SONAL PROJECTS H[EV]1 ?IS WAS TREAT$ AS PR(\NDLY ILLEGITIMATE BY ?OSE SUMMON$ TO T5D !IR CATTLE OR C>RY !IR COMM]CIAL W>ES TO PORT4 

,POPUL> FACTIONS C\LD TRY TO PLAY ! MPITAIZA &RIANA C>D AS WELL4 ,ONE ( ! E>LIE/ VISITORS TO ,IM]9A1 A ,FR5* SLAVE TRAD] NAM$ ,NI*OLAS ,MAYEUR1 NOT$ 9 #aggg H[ REPRES5TATIVES ( A K+DOM'S WOM5 W\LD P]IODICALLY ASSEMBLE TO SCOLD ! SAME MON>*--,&RIANAMBOATSIM>(Y--RA!R AS ONE W\LD A DISORD]LY *ILD1 ORD]+ HIM1 = 9/ANCE1 TO /OP DR9K+ RUM & L[] TAXES4 ,:5 ,K+ ,RADAMA ,I 9/ITUT$ A P]MAN5T /&+ >MY 9 #a#h#b#b1 & DECL>$ ?AT HALF ! K+DOM'S Y\NG M5 W]E TO BE MILIT>Y RECRUITS & HAVE !IR HAIR CROPP$ %ORT AS 9DICATION ( /ATUS1 A L>GE NUMB] ( WOM51 CLAIM+ TO BE 0NURSEMAIDS0 ( ! K+ 7,ELLIS #a#h#c#h2 ,L>SON #b3 #b#d-#b#e#c71 ATTEMPT$ A SIMIL> PROTE/4 ,BUT ?+S DIDN'T GO SO WELL4 ,RADAMA WAS NOTORI\S = HIS CONTEMPT = TRADITIONAL 9/ITUTIONS1 & RELIANCE ON BRUTE =CE4 ,HE HAD SOLDI]S P5 !M UP = TWO DAYS )\T FOOD & ! LEAD]S ?RA%$ BE=E S5D+ !M ALL HOME4 

,H[EV]1 EXACTLY ! SAME IMAG]Y APPE>$ 9 :AT WAS C]TA9LY ! MO/ DRAMATIC PROTE/ ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY--9 FACT1 ONE MI<T ?9K ( IT AS A K9D ( UPRIS+--! \TBREAK ( ! ,RAMAN5JANA1 ! 0DANC+ MANIA0 ( #ahfc 7,DAVIDSON #a#h#h#i2 ,RAISON #a#i#g#f74 

,I %\LD EXPLA9 H]E ?AT ONE ( ! MO/ DRAMATIC IMAGES ( ROYAL P[]--ONE :I* APPE>S TO HAVE MADE A PR(\ND IMPACT ON ! POPUL> IMAG9ATION--WAS ! R\ND+ UP ( PEOPLE TO C>RY ROYAL BAGGAGE DUR+ C\RT \T+S4 ,?IS WAS APP>5TLY P>TICUL>LY DISA/R\S DUR+ ! REIGN ( ,QUE5 ,RANAVALONA ,I 7#a#h#b#h-#a#h#f#a74 ,:5EV] ! ,QUE5 TRAVEL$ ABROAD1 %E BR\<T H] 5TIRE C\RT & 5ORM\S QUANTITIES ( FURNITURE & PROVISIONS1 SO ?AT %E HAD TO BE PRECE$$ BY AG5TS SUMMON+ ALMO/ ! 5TIRE POPULATION ( SURR\ND+ VILLAGES = =C$ LABOR4 ,?IS WAS A V]Y AMBIVAL5T DEM&1 S9CE ON ! ONE H& C>RY+ ROYAL BAGGAGE WAS 9DE$ P]SONAL S]VICE TO ! CR[N & H5CE SE5 AS 9H]5TLY LEGITIMATE2 H[EV]1 ! RESULTS W]E USUALLY CATA/ROPHIC4 ,S9CE ! WORK]S W]E NOT F$1 & ! ,QUE5'S P>TY T5D$ TO ABSORB ALL AVAILABLE SUPPLIES1 HUNDR$S IF NOT ?\S&S W\LD P]I% ( A COMB9ATION ( EXHAU/ION1 />VATION1 & DISEASE4 0,NEV]10 WROTE ! ,QUE5'S SECRET>Y ,RAOMBANA1 AFT] ONE ROYAL EXP$ITION TO ,MAN]9]9A 9 #a#h#d#e1 0WAS AN EXCURSION ( PLEASURE MORE PRODUCTIVE ( FAM9E & DEA?0 7#d#h#h74 

,RANAVALONA WAS ,RADAMA ,I'S WIFE &1 LAT]1 SUCCESSOR ON ! ?RONE1 E/ABLI%$ !RE BY SEV]AL PROM95T COMMON] G5]ALS4 ,%E IS FAM\S = EXPELL+ MISSION>IES & O!R =EIGN]S FROM ! C\NTRY1 RE/OR+ ! SAMPY1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME1 MA9TA9+ ! >MY & BUREAUCRATIC APP>ATUS CREAT$ BY ,RADAMA4 ,H] REIGN WAS CONSID]$ ! MO/ OPPRESSIVE 9 POPUL> MEMORY1 BETWE5 ! 5DLESS DEM& ( FANOMPOANA & ! SY/EMATIC USE ( ! POISON ORDEAL TO ROOT \T REBELS & 5EMIES1 REAL & IMAG9$4 

,:5 %E F9ALLY DI$ 9 #ahfa & H] SON1 ,RADAMA ,I,I1 CAME TO P[]1 HE IMM$IATELY ATTEMPT$ TO REV]SE ALMO/ ALL ( H] POLICIES1 AB&ON+ MO/ C\RT RITUAL & ALL[+ =EIGN MISSION>IES & ECONOMIC ADV5TUR]S ( EV]Y /RIPE TO FLOOD BACK 9TO ! C\NTRY4 ,)9 A YE> OR SO1 *UR*ES & PLANTATIONS W]E BE+ SET UP ALL >\ND ! CAPITAL1 & ! RESULT+ POPUL> SUSPICIONS1 APP>5TLY1 SP>K$ ONE ( ! MO/ FAM\S MOM5TS ( POPUL> RESI/ANCE 9 ,MALAGASY HI/ORY4 ,?\S&S ( PEOPLE ALL OV] ,IM]9A--! VA/ MAJORITY WOM51 MANY SLAVES--BEGAN TO BE AFFECT$ BY :AT =EIGN OBS]V]S DESCRIB$ AS A 0DANC+ MANIA10 A 0DISEASE0 REF]R$ TO AS ! ,RAMAN5JANA4 ,IT WAS1 9 FACT1 A =M ( SPIRIT POSSESSION &1 S9CE IT WAS WIDELY HELD ?AT ! ONLY WAY TO CURE SU* A CONDITION WAS TO ALL[ ! SPIRIT TO EM]GE1 TO DANCE ITSELF \T1 MUSICIANS QUICKLY APPE>$ TO HELP VICTIMS--:O SOON BEGAN GA!R+ TOGE!R 9TO B&S & !N DESC5D+ ON ! CAPITAL4 ,?OSE AFFECT$ CLAIM$ TO BE BE>+ ! LUGGAGE ( ! LATE ,QUE51 :O1 !Y SAID WAS RETURN+ TO ! CAPITAL 9 ORD] TO *A/5 H] SON = AB&ON+ H] POLICIES1 OP5+ UP ! C\NTRY TO \TSID]S1 & ESPECIALLY = RE9TRODUC+ ,*RI/IANITY4.<#a#h#d.> ,IT WAS 9 ITS WAY QUITE SIMIL> TO ! REVOLT ( #a#h#b#b1 BUT IT ALSO CAME 9 A =M ?AT ! GOV]NM5T F\ND ALMO/ IMPOSSIBLE TO SUPPRESS4 ,FAC$ ) AN >MY ( 5TRANC$ WOM5 SURR\ND+ ! ROYAL PALACE1 SWIRL+ AB\T & MAK+ P]IODIC =AYS 9TO ITS PREC9CTS1 ,RADAMA ,I,I WAS P>ALYZ$ ) CONFUSION4 ,HE KEPT ASK+ HIS ,*RI/IAN ADVIS]S IF HE WAS WITNESS+ ! APOCALYPSE4 ,9 ! 5D1 MILIT>Y (FIC]S TOOK ! OCCASION TO ASSASS9ATE HIM & ORD]$ HIS MO/ OBJECTIONABLE POLICIES--P>TICUL>LY1 GRANT+ =EIGN]S ! RI<T TO BUY L& & O!R ECONOMIC ASSETS 9 ,MADAGASC>--REV]S$4 

,9 EA* CASE1 NOTE ! SPECIFICALLY MAT]NAL RELATION BETWE5 REPRES5TATIVES ( ! PEOPLE & ! 7MALE7 K+2 MAT]NAL AU?ORITY1 :I*1 AT LEA/ T[>DS MALE *ILDR51 IS ALWAYS ?\<T TO BE A P>TICUL>LY CLOSE & AFFECTIONATE K9D1 WAS ! PROP] M$IUM = REV]S+ P[] RELATIONS4 ,9 ! SECOND CASE1 ?OSE POSSESS$ EV5 REPRES5T$ !MSELVES AS BE>+ ! BURD5S ( ! ,QUE53 9 CLASSICAL POSSESSION FA%ION1 TAK+ AN IMAGE ( TOTAL SUBORD9ATION &1 BY A K9D ( DIALECTICAL JUJITSU1 TURN+ IT 9TO A WAY ( YIELD+ P[]4 ,BUT ?IS 9 TURN ADDS YET ANO!R WR9KLE TO AN ALREADY COMPLICAT$ SET ( PR9CIPLES & IMAGES SURR\ND+ AU?ORITY 9 ,M]9A CULTURE4 ,LET ME TURN1 !N1 9 ! NEXT SECTION1 TO LOOK AT ! PH5OM5ON ( SPIRIT POSSESSION & M$IUM%IP AS ,I 5C\NT]$ IT 9 TW5TIE?-C5TURY ,IM]9A TO SEE H[ ALL !SE PR9CIPLES CONT9UE TO WORK !MSELVES \T 9 ! WAY PEOPLE IMAG9E ! NATURE ( POLITICAL P[]4 

,P,>,T ,I,I,I ,>IVONIMAMO & ,ITS ,SPIRIT ,M$IUMS 

  

,! T[N ( ,>IVONIMAMO HUGS ! HI<WAY ?AT RUNS WE/ FROM ! CAPITAL4 ,MO/ ( IT LIES ON AN EXTREMELY G5TLE SLOPE4 ,AS A RESULT1 ! T[N'S PORT]S HAVE DEVELOP$ A UNIQUE SY/EM = TRANSPORT+ GOODS4 ,ANYONE HANG+ >\ND ! TAXI /ATION NE> ! M>KET1 OR JU/ GAZ+ FROM ! V]&A ( ONE ( ! H\SES ?AT L9E ! HI<WAY1 IS LIKELY TO SEE A WAGON--OR MAYBE IT W\LD BE BETT] DESCRIB$ AS A V]Y L>GE DOLLY--ROLL+ D[N ! HILL EV]Y T5 M9UTES OR SO4 ,ALMO/ ALWAYS1 !SE DOLLIES >E CR[D$ ) BAGS & BOXES & PACKAGES ( COMMODITIES ( ONE SORT OR ANO!R1 ) TWO OR ?REE Y\NG M5 AT ! HELM--ONE /E]+1 O!RS SIMPLY !RE TO 5JOY ! RIDE & TO HELP ) LOAD+ :5 !Y >RIVE4 ,:5 ,I WAS !RE BETWE5 #aihi & #a#i#i#a1 !SE PORT]S W]E ALMO/ 9V>IABLY 0BLACK PEOPLE0 7OLONA MA9TY7--DESC5DANTS ( N9ETE5?-C5TURY SLAVES--EXCEPT = A SMATT]+ ( M5 ( SLI<TLY HI<] BIR? :O >E1 L>GELY = ?AT REASON1 CONSID]$ EV5 MORE ! DETRITUS ( SOCIETY3 DRUNKS1 NE']-DO-WELLS1 LOS]S UNFIT = ANY DEC5T OCCUPATION4 ,= ALL ?AT1 !SE >E ALSO ! ONLY PEOPLE ONE CAN REGUL>LY SEE HAV+ FUN 9 PUBLIC3 ROLL+ D[N ! HILL IS A V]Y PLEASANT JOB1 EV5 IF ! SAME PEOPLE DO HAVE TO DRAG ! DOLLIES BACK UP AFT]W>DS4 ,IT'S NOT REALLY ALL ?AT ON]\S3 AS ,I SAY1 IT'S A V]Y G5TLE SLOPE4 

,! TAXI /& C5T]S ON A LITTLE BOO? NE> ! M>KETPLACE1 V]Y MU* ! FULCRUM ( ! T[N1 ALWAYS FULL ( VANS & /ATION-WAGONS LOAD+ & UNLOAD+4 ,?IS WORK WAS H>DLY LIMIT$ TO DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES4 ,ALMO/ ANYONE C\LD BE A MEMB] ( ! TAXI COOP]ATIVE4 ,IT WAS ! MORE SIMPLE1 PHYSICALLY TAX+ BUS9ESS ( ACTUALLY C>RY+ ?+S >\ND--S9CE ! M5 :O WORK$ ! DOLLIES1 ,I SOON F\ND1 W]E ALSO READILY AVAILABLE TO /R5U\SLY C>RY BURD5S BY H& OV] SIDE ROADS & DIFFICULT RURAL PA?S--:I* WAS A CLASS AP>T4 ,! PREJUDICE AGA9/ C>RY+ ?+S = A LIV+1 !N1 REMA9$ V]Y MU* ALIVE4 

,IT WAS NEXT TO ?IS SAME TAXI-/&1 9 A L9E ( T9Y RE/AURANTS ?AT WAS P>T ( ,>IVONIMAMO'S M>KET1 ?AT1 DUR+ ONE ( MY FIR/ VISITS TO ! T[N1 ,I MET A V]Y PECULI> P]SON :O ,I %ALL CALL ,RAMOSE4 ,! V]Y FIR/ TIME ,I MET HIM1 ,I WAS NOT SURE IF HE WAS 5TIRELY SANE4 ,HE WAS A PALE1 MIDDLE-AG$ MAN :O WORE A PAT*WORK \TFIT RA!R REM9ISC5T ( A ,EUROPEAN C\RT JE/]1 BUT ) A L\D & V]Y SELF-CONFID5T VOICE4 ,BORN TO AN ILLU/RI\S FAMILY 7HIS FA!R HAD BE5 ! ,MALAGASY AMBASSADOR TO ! ,U4,N4 UND] AN E>LI] REGIME71 ,RAMOSE WAS A NOTORI\S ECC5TRIC1 HAV+ FRITT]$ AWAY HIS %>E ( ! FAMILY =TUNE ON AN 5DLESS S]IES ( WIVES & ADV5TURES1 EV5TUALLY EV5 AB&ON+ HIS JOB AS A TEA*] ( ,FR5* & ,MALAGASY 9 ! LOCAL PUBLIC HI< S*OOL 7,C,E,G7 TO TAKE UP WORK AS AN A/ROLOG] & P>T-TIME CUR] ) A SPECIALTY 9 LOCAT+ /OL5 GOODS4 ,HE FIR/ DISCOV]$ HIS TRUE TAL5TS1 ,I WAS TOLD1 :5 HE PROV$ ! ONLY P]SON CAPABLE ( CUR+ AN \TBREAK ( AMBALAVELONA1 A =M ( SPIRIT POSSESSION1 AT ! ,C,E,G4 ,:ILE TALK+ AB\T ! 9CID5T ) HIM & HIS DAU<T]1 ,*ANTAL1 ,I FIR/ BECAME AW>E ( H[ IMPORTANT1 & /RANGELY 5TANGL$1 IDIOMS ( OPPRESSION & C>RY+ ?+S W]E 9 DISCUSSIONS ( SU* PH5OM5A4 

,SPIRIT ,POSSESSION 

  

,!RE >E TWO T]MS 9 ! COLLOQUIAL ,MALAGASY SPOK5 9 ,>IVONIMAMO ONE MI<T USE TO TRANSLATE ! ,5GLI% 0POSSESS$ BY SPIRITS40 ,ONE IS TS9DR9-JAVATRA1 :I* LIT]ALLY MEANS 0PRESS$ D[N BY SOME?+40 ,! O!R1 IS 5T9-JAVATRA1 :I* MEANS 0C>RI$ BY SOME?+40 ,9 G5]AL1 0PRESS$ D[N0 IMPLIES A SOME:AT MILD] /ATE1 9 :I* A P]SON 5T]S 9TO SOME RELATION ) A SPIRIT4 ,IT IS US$1 SAY1 ( ! EXP]I5CE ( BE+ ADDRESS$ BY A SPIRIT 9 DREAMS1 OR FALL+ 9TO A TRANCE 9 :I* A SPIRIT SEEMS TO BE :ISP]+ 9 ONE'S E> OR O!RWISE SPEAK+ TO ONE1 BUT SU* PH5OM5A ALSO SEEM TO %ADE 9TO MORE EXTREME =MS ( TRANCE1 9 :I* ! P]SONALITY ( ! M$IUM BEG9S TO BE EFFAC$4 ,5T9-JAVATRA IS USUALLY ONLY US$ = ! MO/ EXTREME =MS1 9 :I* ! POSSESS$ P]SON HAS LO/ ALL CONSCI\SNESS ( !IR [N ID5TITY1 BUT SIMPLY ACT$ AS AN EXT5SION ( ! SPIRIT'S WILL4 .<#a#h#e.> ,ALMO/ ALWAYS1 SOMEONE 0C>RI$ ALONG0 BY A SPIRIT W\LD BE SAID TO HAVE NO MEMORY ( H[ %E BEHAV$ DUR+ ! 9CID5T4.<#a#h#f.> 

,H[EV]1 ! CONFUS+ ?+ IS ! WAY ?AT1 :5 PEOPLE TRI$ TO EXPLA9 EXACTLY :AT HAPP5$ DUR+ POSSESSION--?AT IS1 ?OSE FEW :O FELT !Y C\LD EV5 MAKE ! ATTEMPT1 S9CE MO/ 9SI/$ !Y HAD NO IDEA--!IR DESCRIPTIONS SLIPP$ BACK & =? BETWE5 ! TWO3 BETWE5 REPRES5T+ PEOPLE AS 9T]ACT+ ) EXT]NAL =CES1 & BE+ 5TIRELY EFFAC$ BY !M4 ,?IS IS :AT BECAME CLE> :5 ,I FIR/ TALK$ TO ,RAMOSE BECAUSE HE WAS PROBABLY ! ONE P]SON BE/ ABLE TO TALK AB\T SU* ISSUES--HE WAS NOT ONLY $UCAT$ 9 ,MALAGASY /UDIES1 BUT WAS AN EXP]I5C$ LECTUR]--& EV5 HIS ACC\NT WAS REM>KABLY CONFUS$4 

,! AMBALAVELONA \TBREAK 9 :I* HE BECAME FAM\S OCCURR$ 9 #a#i#g#g4 ,AN 5TIRE DORM ( TE5AGE GIRLS AT ! LOCAL ,C,E,G FELL PREY TO A CONDITION RA!R LIKE ,RAMAN5JANA1 USUALLY CAUS$ BY AN EVIL-DO] :O EXPOSES HIS VICTIMS TO ! 9FLU5CE ( HO/ILE <O/S4 ,I HE>D MANY ACC\NTS ( ! SPECTACUL> RESULTS4 ,! VICTIMS FIR/ BEGAN TO BE SEIZ$ BY SUDD5 PANICS :I* LEAD !M TO SUDD5LY BOLT FROM ! CLASSROOM2 MATT]S SOON ESCALAT$ TO ! PO9T :]E SOME BEGAN TE>+ (F !IR CLO!S & RUNN+ NAK$ ACROSS CAMPUS1 O!RS RIPP+ !IR CLO!S TO %R$S AS !Y LAY WRI?+ & SCREAM+ ON ! GR\ND4 ,!RE W]E /ORIES ( POSSESS$ GIRLS JUMP+ \T ( SECOND- OR ?IRD-/ORY W9D[S & L&+ UNH>M$1 SUDD5LY DEVELOP+ SU* 5ORM\S /R5G? IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE TO SUBDUE !M4 ,H[8 ,H]E IS ,RAMOSE'S DESCRIPTION ( :AT HAPP5S :5 ONE IS AFFLICT$ BY AMBALAVELONA3  
  

,RAMOSE3 ,! FIR/ ?+ ?AT HAPP5S IS ?AT ! P]SON DEVELOPS A SUDD5 HEADA*E1 !N EV5TUALLY1 !IR M9DS BECOME LO/4 ,!Y />T SPEAK+ 9 WORDS ?AT MAKE NO S5SE1 & IT'S LIKE !RE'S A SECOND P]SON 9SIDE !M4 

,!RE'S SOME?+ FRI<T5+ ! SICK P]SON4 ,IT *OKES !M4 ,IT TORM5TS !M4 ,IT FEELS LIKE !Y'RE /RUGGL+ ) A SNAKE1 OR SOME FI]CE BEA/ 7DEP5D+ ON H[ ! EVIL SPIRIT 7FANAHY RATSY7 MANIFE/S ITSELF74 

,?AT'S :Y ONE SAYS3 !RE'S A 0SECOND P]SON0 ?AT COMES OV] !M4 

,*ANTAL3 ,SO !Y CAN SEE ?IS SECOND P]SON8 

,RAMOSE3 ,!Y CAN SEE IT4 ,! P]SON CAN SEE IT--SEE ! SNAKE :I* IS HURT+ !M & *OK+ !M--& TRIES TO FI<T IT4.<#a#h#g.>  
  

,AT ONE PO9T1 HE WAS CALL$ 9 TO QUE/ION A GIRL :O HAD BE5 AFFLICT$ BUT HAD TEMPOR>ILY COME TO H] S5SES4 ,%E TOLD HIM %E HAD BE5 ATTACK$ BY AN 9VISIBLE BEA/--BUT ALL %E C\LD SEE ( IT WAS ITS H&S1 GRABB+ AT H]4 ,?AT WAS ! REASON %E TORE (F H] CLO!S1 %E SAID1 BECAUSE IT SEEM$ AS IF ! BEA/ HAD ATTA*$ ITSELF TO !M4 ,?AT WAS :Y %E SEEM$ TO BE WRI?+ & SCREAM+ = NO REASON4 ,%E WAS /RUGGL+ TO %AKE IT (F4 

,BUT !N 9 SUMM+ UP1 HE ASS]T$ ! EXACT OPPOSITE4 ,ACTUALLY1 IT WAS ! <O/ ITSELF--! 0SECOND P]SON0--?AT WAS SCREAM+ & /RUGGL+3  
  

,RAMOSE3 ,! FIR/ P]SON NO LONG] HAS ANY CONTROL ( H]SELF3 IT'S ! SECOND P]SON :O RULES OV] H]4 

,DAVID3 ,SO IT'S ! SECOND P]SON :O444 

,RAMOSE3 ,IT'S ! SECOND :O'S ACT+ /RANGELY1 :O'S SPEAK+ )\T MAK+ ANY S5SE1 :O'S RIPP+ !IR CLO!S (F444 

,DAVID3 ,BUT IS ?IS REALLY A SECOND P]SON1 OR IS IT4448 

,RAMOSE3 ,IT'S AN EVIL SPIRIT4 ,! S\L ( SOMEONE :O HAS DI$1 :I* FRI<T5S !M4 ,IT APPE>S AS A SNAKE1 AS A F]OCI\S HUMAN1 AS A HO/ILE <O/444 

,*ANTAL3 ,& IS ?AT :AT MAKES !M SO /RONG8 

,RAMOSE3 ,& ?AT'S :AT MAKES !M SO /RONG--BECAUSE A GIRL ) AMBALAVELONA HAS ! /R5G? ( FIVE M54 ,H] /R5G? IS TRULY REM>KABLE4.<#a#h#h.>  
  

,I WAS COMPLETELY CONFUS$4 ,AT FIR/ ,I ASSUM$ IT MU/ BE A LANGUAGE PROBLEM4 ,I MU/ HAVE BE5 MISS+ SOME?+4 ,IT WAS ONLY ! NEXT DAY1 AFT] HAV+ TRANSCRIB$ ! TAPE & SATISFI$ MYSELF ?AT :AT HE WAS SAY+ WAS REALLY AS CONTRADICTORY AS IT S\ND$1 ?AT ,I BR\<T UP ! MATT] AGA94 ,IT'S CONFUS+1 ,I SAID4 ,SOMETIMES1 IT S\NDS AS IF !SE VICTIMS W]E CONSCI\S1 /RUGGL+ ) ! <O/4 ,AT O!RS1 IT'S AS IF !IR M9DS W]E 5TIRELY EFFAC$ & IT WAS ! <O/ ITSELF SPEAK+ OR ACT+1 MAK+ !M SPEAK NONS5SE1 OR GIV+ !M 5ORM\S /R5G?1 & NOT ! VICTIMS AT ALL4 

,HE REFLECT$ = A MOM5T4 ,WELL1 YES1 HE REPLI$4 ,SOMETIMES !Y W]E MORE POSSESS$ ?AN O!RS4 ,AT ?OSE TIMES1 !IR [N P]SONALITIES W\LD BE 5TIRELY EFFAC$1 & IT WAS ! SPIRIT ?AT WAS ACT+ ?R\< !M4 ,LAT] !Y W\LD BEG9 TO REGA9 CONSCI\SNESS 7TO 0REMEMB] !MSELVES071 & !N IT W\LD SEEM ! SPIRIT WAS \TSIDE1 /RUGGL+ ) !M4 ,!Y W\LD %IFT1 9 O!R WORDS1 FROM BE+ 0C>RI$0 TO BE+ 0PRESS$ D[N40 

,ZANADRANO 

  

,MASS \TBREAKS ( AMBALAVELONA >E R>E4 ,BUT PR(ESSIONAL SPIRIT M$IUMS1 CALL$ ,ZANADRANO1 >E EV]Y:]E--9 EV]Y T[N & MO/ VILLAGES 9 RURAL ,IM]9A--& SEANCES OCCUR ON A DAILY BASIS4 ,EV]YONE HAS BE5 TO SU* A SEANCE AT SOME TIME OR O!R & MO/ PEOPLE ATT5D :5EV] !Y >E S]I\SLY ILL1 EV5 IF !Y NORMALLY SEEK ! S]VICES ( ! LOCAL CL9IC OR HOSPITAL AS WELL4 ,LIKE ! PORT]S1 ,ZANADRANO CONSI/ OV]:ELM+LY ( ! DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES4 ,ONE ( ! DEF9+ FEATURES ( A SLAVE IS ?AT !Y >E PEOPLE 0LO/0 TO !IR [N ANCE/ORS1 P>TICUL>LY TO !IR ANCE/RAL T]RITORIES4 ,TO ?IS DAY1 DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES DON'T REALLY HAVE !IR [N ANCE/RAL T]RITORIES 9 ! SAME S5SE ?AT O!R ,M]9A DO4 ,ZANADRANO1 H[EV]1 CREAT$ A DIFF]5T WAY ( L9K+ UP TO ! ANCE/RAL L&SCAPE BECAUSE !Y RELY ON A PAN!ON ( 0,&RIANA10 ! S\LS ( ANCI5T K+S1 :OSE M\NTA9TOP TOMBS HAVE BECOME PLACES ( PILGRIMAGE4 ,MO/ VISIT !SE COMP\NDS P]IODICALLY1 TO R5EW CONTACT ) ! SPIRITS1 & SOMETIMES 9 DIFFICULT CASES !Y BR+ !IR PATI5TS TO SU* COMP\NDS = CUR+ RITUALS4.<#a#h#i.> 

,N[1 !RE >E A LOT ( ?+S ONE CAN SAY AB\T RITUALS ( CUR+ & ! WORK ( ,ZANADRANO MORE G5]ALLY1 BUT :AT ,I REALLY WANT TO EMPHASIZE H]E IS ! DIVISION ( LABOR BETWE5 SPIRITS 9 !IR PRACTICE4 ,MO/ COMP\NDS CONTA9 SEV]AL TOMBS &1 G5]ALLY1 EA* ROYAL SPIRIT IS ACCOMPANI$ BY AT LEA/ ONE O!R SPIRIT--(T5 BURI$ JU/ \TSIDE ! COMP\ND PROP]--:O IS (T5 REF]R$ TO AS HIS 0SOLDI]0 OR 0WORK]10 OR SOMETIMES1 LESS EUPHEMI/ICALLY1 AS HIS 0S]VANT0 OR HIS 0SLAVE40 ,BO? ! ROYAL SPIRITS & ! SPIRITS ( ! SLAVES POSSESS PEOPLE & TAKE P>T 9 CUR+ C]EMONIES1 BUT !Y PLAY RADICALLY DIFF]5T ROLES4 ,! ROLE ( ! FIR/ C5T]S ON SPEAK+2 ! SECOND1 ON FET*+ & C>RY+4 

,:AT M$IUMS BASICALLY DO IS TREAT PEOPLE :O HAVE BE5 VICTIMS ( ONE OR ANO!R K9D ( MAGICAL ATTACK 7OR WIT*CRAFT2 :ILE !RE W]E MANY DIFF]5T K9DS1 MO/ ,ZANADRANO ,I TALK$ TO 9SI/$ ?AT !IR S+LE MO/ COMMON TASK WAS TO CURE CASES ( AMBALAVELONA74 ,AS SU*1 M$IUMS CAN BE REF]R$ TO G5]ICALLY AS MPITAIZA OLONA1 0NURTUR]S0 ( ?OSE !Y CUR$ & O!RWISE TOOK C>E (4 ,ALMO/ ALWAYS1 A FAMILY WILL COME TO A ,ZANADRANO COMPLA9+ ( SOME MALADY4 ,! FIR/ /AGE ( TREATM5T IS D$ICAT$ TO F9D+ \T :O WAS RESPONSIBLE1 !IR MOTIVES1 & H[ !Y W5T AB\T WORK+ !IR WIT*CRAFT4 ,MUSIC IS PLAY$1 ! M$IUM WILL 5T] 9TO A TRANCE2 (T5 !Y WILL CALL ON A NUMB] ( DIFF]5T 0&RIANA0--H]E MEAN+1 ROYAL SPIRITS--= ADVICE1EA* ( :OM IS (T5 SAID TO HAVE !IR [N SPECIALTY3 = 9/ANCE1 ,&RIANTSIHANIKA IS NOT$ = HIS ABILITY TO DIAGNOSE & CURE CASES ( AMBALAVELONA1 ,RAF>AMAH]Y IS AN EXP]T 9 PROBLEMATIC PREGNANCIES & WOM5'S AILM5TS1 & SO ON4 ,(T5 ! M$IUM WILL BR&I% A MIRROR1 9 :I* HE OR %E IS SAID TO BE ABLE TO SEE ! CULPRIT OR ! PLACE 9 :I* !Y HAVE HIDD5 ODY--?AT IS1 0*>MS10 HORNS1 SACKS1 OR BOXES CONTA9+ DANG]\S M$IC9E--:I* ALMO/ ALWAYS TURN \T TO HAVE BE5 PLANT$ >\ND ! VICTIM'S H\SE OR PROP]TY1 & :I* >E ! PRIME CAUSE ( !IR AFFLICTION4.<#a#i.> 

,?IS FIR/ /AGE1 DIAGNOSIS1 TYPICALLY CONSI/S ( A K9D ( MULTI-SID$ DIALOGUE 9VOLV+ ! M$IUM1 V>I\S SPIRITS1 ! PATI5T1 & V>I\S MEMB]S ( ! PATI5TS' FAMILY4 ,9 A S5SE1 ! M$IUM IS SE5 AS M]ELY CONVEY+ ! SPIRITS' WORDS1 CON/ANTLY 9T]SP]S+ HIS WORDS ) 0HE SAYS10 TO M>K IT AS REPORT$ SPEE*4 ,H[EV]1 ! M$IUM SAYS NO?+ ( HIS [N1 & !RE IS A C]TA9 AMBIGUITY 9 HIS /ATE--HE IS ALMO/ ALWAYS CONSID]$ 9 A /ATE ( :AT WE W\LD CALL TRANCE1 &1 :ILE ONE OR TWO M$IUMS CLAIM$ !Y W]E SIMPLY CONVEY+ WORDS !Y HE>D :ISP]$ 9 !IR E>S1 ! MAJORITY 9SI/$ ?AT1 EV5 AT ?IS /AGE1 !Y NO LONG] 0REMEMB]$ !MSELVES10 ?AT !Y REMEMB]$ NO?+ ( ! EXP]I5CE AFT]W>DS1 OR IF !Y DID1 ?AT IT WAS ONLY 9 ISOLAT$ SNAT*ES & FRAGM5TS ?AT MELT$ AWAY SOON AFT]W>DS1 RA!R AS 9 WAK+ FROM A DREAM4.<#a#i#a.> 

,ONCE ! PROBLEM HAS BE5 ID5TIFI$ ! MO/ DRAMATIC /AGE COMES3 EXTRACT+ ! ODY FROM !IR HID+ PLACES4 ,:ILE ! SPIRITS :O DIAGNOS$ ! PROBLEM W]E ALWAYS REF]R$ TO AS &RIANA1 (T5 AS 0HOLY SPIRITS0 7FANAHY MAS9A71 ! EXTRACTION WAS ALWAYS P]=M$ BY ANO!R CLASS1 BY ! AG5TS ( ! ROYAL SPIRITS1 SLAVE SPIRITS1 :O W]E NOT SO MU* 0HOLY0 7MAS9A7 AS 0P[]FUL0 7MAH]Y74.<#a#i#b.> ,:]E SPIRITS ( ! FIR/ TYPE >E SOMETIMES REF]R$ TO AS MPANAZAVA1 0EXPLA9]S10 ! LATT] >E CALL$ MPAKA ODY1 OR 0ODY TAK]S40 

,?IS /AGE IS USUALLY REF]R$ TO AS 0DRAW+ =?0 7MIS9TONA7 ! EVIL M$IC9E4 ,! IDEA IS ?AT ! ROYAL SPIRITS DISPAT* 7MANIRAKA7 ONE OR MORE P[]FUL SPIRITS TO REMOVE ! V>I\S ODY HIDD5 ON ! VICTIM'S PROP]TY1 & :ISK !M AWAY 9VISIBLY ?R\< ! AIR1 UNTIL !Y >RIVE AT ! C]EMONY4 ,?IS PHASE IS1 AS ONE MI<T SUSPECT1 ! CLIMAX ( ! CUR+ DRAMA1 & (T5 9VOLVES 9T5SE P>TICIPATION BY ALL CONC]N$--! CUR]S & !IR FAMILY1 ! FAMILY & FRI5DS ( ! VICTIM1 O!R ATT5DEES--AS ! MUSIC PICKS UP TO A FEV] PIT*1 ALL CLAP1 UNTIL ! M$IUM RISES1 POSSESS$ BY ! SPIRITS ( ! MPAKA ODY !MSELVES4 

,H]E !RE IS A GREAT DEAL ( ROOM = V>IATION 9 TE*NIQUES4 ,ONE ,ZANADRANO ,I KNEW W\LD /AY SEAT$ UNTIL AT ! V]Y 5D ( ! RITUAL1 !N RISE FROM HIS SEAT TO BEG9 DANC+ 9 A DEEP /ATE ( TRANCE1 ) A HORN FULL ( P[]FUL WOOD 9 ONE H& & A W& 9 ! O!R1 ) :I* TO GUIDE ! ODY 9 ! LA/ /AGES ( ITS FLI<T 9TO ! ANTE*AMB] ( ! H\SE--:]E IT W\LD DESC5D1 9VISIBLE TO ! GA!R$ MULTITUDE1 9TO A BUCKET ( WAT] TREAT$ ) M$IC9ES MEANT TO BREAK ITS P[]4 ,ONE ( HIS DAU<T]S OR O!R ASSI/ANTS W\LD !N RU% 9 TO B9D IT ) V9ES4 ,ANO!R ,ZANADRANO W\LD HOLD TWO MIRRORS1 EA* TREAT$ ) SIGNIFICANT M>KS ( :ITE CLAY1 & /RUGGLE ) ! 9VISIBLE =CES PROTECT+ ! *>M UNTIL IT F9ALLY COMES FLY+ ?R\< ! W9D[ 9TO ! ROOM :]E ! SESSION IS TAK+ PLACE 7USUALLY BREAK+ ONE ( ! MIRRORS 9 ! PROCESS71 :]EUPON HE TOO W\LD PLUNGE ! OBJECT 9TO A BAS9 ( TREAT$ WAT]4 ,9 ALL CASES1 ?\<1 ! /RUGGLE IS CONDUCT$ SIL5TLY2 ! MPAKA ODY NEV] SPEAK4 

,AFT] ! ODY HAS BE5 REMOV$1 ! ROYAL SPIRITS NORMALLY RETURN & PRESCRIBE V>I\S M$IC9ES1 P]HAPS REMOVE SISIKA 7SMALL OBJECTS ?AT A WIT* PLACES UND] ! VICTIM'S SK971 OR PA9T DAUBS ( E>? & WAT] COLLECT$ NE> ! TOMBS ( DIFF]5T ROYAL SPIRITS ON ! PATI5T'S BODY1 TO PROTECT H] FROM FUR!R ATTACKS4.<#a#i#c.> ,BUT1 BY ?IS TIME1 ! REAL CRISIS HAS CLE>LY PASS$4 

,ONCE AGA91 ! SAME PATT]N3 &RIANA :O SPEAK1 & UND]L+S :O S]VE BY SIL5TLY C>RY+4 ,BUT 9 ?IS CASE1 TOO1 ! OPPOSITION BECOMES MAPP$ ON ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 TWO TYPES OR P]HAPS LEVELS OR 9T5SITIES ( 5GAGEM5T ) A SPIRIT3 ! ANCE/RAL1 B5EVOL5T SPIRIT :O 0PRESSES D[N0 ON ONE1 ) :OM ONE CAN AT LEA/ POT5TIALLY 5T] DIALOGUE1 & ! DANG]\S UNRULY SPIRIT :I* CAN ONLY 0C>RY ONE AWAY10 5TIRELY DISPLAC+ ONE'S M9D OR SUBJECTIVITY4.<#a#i#d.> 

,!RE IS1 ( C\RSE1 A V]Y COMPLEX PLAY ( DISPLACEM5TS GO+ ON H]E4 ,ROYAL SPIRITS S5D (F !IR 0SOLDI]S0 OR 0SLAVES0 TO DO ! ACTUAL WORK ( TAK+ ! EVIL M$IC9E--ACCORD+ TO SOME M$IUMS ?IS 9VOLVES ACTUALLY HAV+ TO DO BATTLE ) ! SPIRITS ! WIT* HAS LEFT TO PROTECT IT4 ,!Y >E S5T TO FET* & RETRIEVE ?+S1 LIKE *ILDR5 S5T ON ]R&S1 OR TEAMS ( COMMON]S S5T TO DRAG TREES = ROYAL BUILD+ PROJECTS4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 ! ROLE ( ! M$IUM !MSELVES 9 SOME S5SES REPRODUCES ?AT ( ! MPAKA ODY--!Y ALSO CALL !MSELVES ! ROYAL SPIRITS' 0SOLDI]S0 &1 ( C\RSE1 9 EFFECT >E CONVEY+ OR FOLL[+ !IR ORD]S1 BUT FROM ANO!R P]SPECTIVE1 !Y >E SOME:AT 9 ! POSITION ( OLD] BRO!RS1 :O SPEAK = ! ROYAL SPIRITS--S9CE !Y SPEAK NOT 9 ! VOICE ( ! SPIRIT BUT 9 !IR [N1 M]ELY CONVEY+ ! ROYAL WORDS4.<#a#i#e.> 

,! AMBIGUITY EMPHASIZES H[ MU* ONE IS WITNESS+ PRECISELY ! K9D ( COMPLEX PLAY ( OPPRESSIONS )9 OPPRESSIONS ?AT M>K$ ! 0DANC+ MANIA0 :I* OV]?REW ,K+ ,RADAMA ,I,I A C5TURY & A HALF BE=E4 ,BECAUSE1 AS NOT$ E>LI]1 ! SORT ( PEOPLE :O BECOME ,ZANADRANO >E ALSO OV]:ELM+LY DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES4 ,!Y >E PEOPLE :OSE V]Y PRES5CE 9 ,>IVONIMAMO IS A TE/IMONY TO PA/ ACTS ( 9JU/ICE & OPPRESSION1.<#a#i#f.> & :O REMA9 AN OPPRESS$ M9ORITY--MO/LY POOR1 MO/LY L&LESS1 MO/LY )\T SOCIAL NETWORKS CONNECT+ !M ) GOV]NM5T (FICIALS OR MEMB]S ( O!R P[]FUL 9/ITUTIONS--BUT :OSE 7UNIV]SALLY ACKN[L$G$7 TAL5T = M$IUM%IP ITSELF IS L>GELY AB\T MAK+ EFFECTIVE !ATRICAL DISPLAYS ( OPPRESSION ?AT CAN (T5 W9 SOCIAL PROM95CE & 7SEE ,GRAEB] #b#g7 EV51 :5 ?+S GO V]Y WELL1 A C]TA9 DEGREE ( POLITICAL P[]4 

,P,>,T ,I,V3 ,C,O,N,C,L,U,S,I,O,N,S 

  
,ON ! ,MORALITY ( ,HI]>*Y 

  

,WE >E LEFT ) A PICTURE :I* IS ADMITT$LY PRETTY CONFUS+4 

,:5 ONE WI%ES TO SAY ?AT SOMEONE IS 0OPPRESS$0 9 ,MALAGASY1 ONE USES ! WORD TS9DRIANA1 :I* LIT]ALLY MEANS 0PRESS$ D[N0 AS BY A HEAVY WEI<T4 ,! T]M IS US$ MU* AS IT IS 9 ,5GLI%3 IT IMPLIES HAV+ ONE'S SUBJECTIVITY SQUA%$1 NOT BE+ ABLE TO ACT = ONESELF BECAUSE ONE IS =C$ TO DO ON]\S TASKS = O!RS4 ,OR IT CAN SIMPLY MEAN ?AT ONE IS P>T ( A CLASS ( PEOPLE TREAT$ BADLY BY !IR SUP]IORS4 ,GIV5 ! EVID5T IMPORTANCE ( C>RY+ WEI<TS AS ONE'S FIR/ EXP]I5CE ( HI]>*Y1 ! USAGE MI<T NOT SEEM P>TICUL>LY SURPRIS+4 ,BUT 9 ANO!R WAY IT IS4 ,AFT] ALL1 IT IS NOT AS IF1 EV5 N[1 ONE CAN F9D MANY PEOPLE 9 ,MADAGASC> :O W\LD SAY ?AT HI]>*Y ITSELF IS WRONG4 ,TO ! CONTR>Y1 JU/ AB\T EV]YONE ASSUMES AS A MATT] ( C\RSE ?AT !RE MU/ ALWAYS BE ZOKY & Z&RY1 ELD]S & JUNIORS4 ,!Y NOTE ?AT IT IS ANCE/RAL CU/OM ?AT DICTATES ?AT Y\NG] BRO!RS %\LD C>RY ! OLD] ONE'S BASKETS OR TOOLS4 ,ANCE/RAL CU/OM IS NEV] SE5 AS IMMORAL OR UNFAIR4 ,RA!R1 IT IS USUALLY TREAT$ AS ! V]Y DEF9ITION ( MORALITY4 ,! SAME C\LD BE SAID ( FANOMPOANA 9 ! LATE N9ETE5? C5TURY3 ONE EXAM9ES ! S\RCES 9 VA9 = ANY SUGGE/ION ?AT COMMON]S FELT ?AT IT WAS 9 PR9CIPLE WRONG ?AT !Y %\LD HAVE TO C>RY ?+S = ! ,QUE54 ,9 ! ,MALAGASY LIT]ATURE ?AT HAS COME D[N TO US1 :E!R GOV]NM5T DOCUM5TS1 HI/ORICAL ACC\NTS1 OR TEXTS LIKE ,FOMBA ,GASY1 SU* RESPONSIBILITIES >E SIMPLY ASSUM$4 ,AS 9 SO MANY MON>*IES1 ONE DOES F9D COMPLA9TS AB\T 0EVIL C\NCILORS10 A T5D5CY AMONG ! OPPRESS$ TO 9T]PRET ANY P>TICUL>LY OPPRESSIVE ROYAL DECISION AS ! PRODUCT ( SOME COT]IE ( SELFI% POLITICIANS :O DON'T REALLY REFLECT ! ROYAL WILL4 ,BUT1 AS =EIGN OBS]V]S 9V>IABLY NOT$1 LOYALTY TO ! SOV]EIGN H]SELF WAS UNQUE/ION$4.<#a#i#g.> ,PRESUMABLY1 ?IS WAS TRUE EV5 :5 ,RANAVALONA ,I WAS SWEEP+ UP ?\S&S ( BE>]S = H] PLEASURE T\RS & LEAV+ A TRAIL ( CORPSES BEH9D H]4 ,:5 COMMON PEOPLE DID TRY TO MAKE CLAIMS AGA9/ ROYAL P[]1 !Y DID SO US+ A LANGUAGE ?AT ASSUM$ ITS LEGITIMACY3 = EXAMPLE1 BY REPRES5T+ !MSELVES AS 0NURSEMAIDS ( ! K+40.<#a#i#h.> ,OR1 LIKE ! ,RAMAN5JANA 7OR CONTEMPOR>Y SPIRIT M$IUMS71 !Y WIELD$ IMAGES ( ABSOLUTE SUBS]VI5CE TO MAKE COV]T CLAIMS TO HI<] AU?ORITY4 

,IF ONE W]E TO BASE ONESELF EXCLUSIVELY ON N9ETE5?-C5TURY S\RCES1 IT W\LD BE H>D TO ESCAPE ! CONCLUSION ?AT HI]>*Y WAS UNIV]SALLY ASSUM$ TO BE A NATURAL & 9EVITABLE PR9CIPLE ( ALL HUMAN LIFE1 DEEPLY EMB$D$ 9 ! FAMILY1 ! BASIS ( ALL SOCIAL LIFE 9 ! K+DOM1 & ?AT IT W\LD NEV] HAVE OCCURR$ TO ANYONE TO *ALL5GE ?IS4.<#a#i#i.> ,BUT1 IF SO1 WE >E LEFT ) SOME?+ ( AN HI/ORICAL PUZZLE4 ,BECAUSE ALL ( ?IS *ANG$ REM>KABLY QUICKLY FOLL[+ ! ,FR5* CONQUE/ 9 #a#h#i#e1 & ! ABOLITION ( SLAV]Y & DISMANTL+ ( ! MON>*Y 9 #a#h#i#f4 ,ALMO/ IMM$IATELY1 ONE BEG9S TO SEE SIGNS ! K9D ( MORAL DISC\RSE SO PREVAL5T ACROSS RURAL ,IM]9A TODAY3 ONE 9 :I* K+S & QUE5S >E ALMO/ 9V>IABLY REPRES5T$ AS OPPRESSORS :O TREAT$ !IR SUBJECTS LIKE SLAVES & :OSE DESC5DANTS HAVE S9CE BE5 PUNI%$ BY /]ILITY & DEA? 7,GRAEB] #b#g74 ,:]E DID ?IS SORT ( RHETORIC COME FROM IF SU* IDEAS HAD BE5 LIT]ALLY UN?9KABLE A M]E G5]ATION BE=E8 ,ONE C\LD >GUE1 ( C\RSE1 ?AT !Y W]E 9TRODUC$ BY ! ,FR5* !MSELVES3 PO9T TO ! NEWF\ND IMPORTANCE ( ,*RI/IANITY AS A FOCUS ( NATIONALI/ RESI/ANCE1 OR ( ,WE/]N EGALIT>IAN IDEALS PICK$ UP FROM ! ,FR5* $UCATIONAL SY/EM4 ,BUT ?IS W\LD BE A V]Y DIFFICULT CASE TO MAKE4 ,FIR/ ( ALL1 ONE W\LD HAVE TO EXPLA9 H[ A SET ( ALI5 CONCEPTS MANAG$ TO SO COMPLETELY SUPPLANT TRADITIONAL IDEAS ?AT NO ONE N[ EV5 REMEMB]S :AT ?OSE TRADITIONAL IDEAS W]E4 ,EV5 MORE PUZZL+LY1 ONE W\LD HAVE TO EXPLA9 :Y IT IS ?AT ! WELL-$UCAT$1 DEV\TLY ,*RI/IAN1 ,FRANCOPHILE ELITES ( ! CAPITAL & L>G] T[NS REMA9 TO ?IS DAY ! ONLY SIGNIFICANT GR\P ( PEOPLE 9 ,IM]9A :O DO NOT SUBSCRIBE TO ?IS NEW1 EGALIT>IAN VIEW1 BUT 9/EAD T5D TO 9SI/ ?AT ANCI5T ,MALAGASY K+S & QUE5S W]E NOBLE & JU/1 & ANCI5T ,MALAGASY =MS ( HI]>*Y1 9TR9SICALLY LEGITIMATE4 ,MEAN:ILE1 ! DESC5DANTS ( ! OPPRESS$1 ) ! LEA/ ACCESS TO =EIGN ,5LI<T5M5T IDEAS1 HAVE COME TO SEE ?AT V]Y ELITE AS ! HEIRS ( !IR =M] ROYAL OPPRESSORS4 

,N[1 !RE IS ONE OBVI\S EXPLANATION4 ,P]HAPS \R S\RCES--:I* AFT] ALL MO/LY CONSI/ ( MISSION>Y REPORTS1 GOV]NM5T DOCUM5TS1 & (FICIAL RHETORIC ( ONE SORT OR ANO!R-->E NOT GIV+ US ! FULL PICTURE4 ,JAMES ,SCOTT 7#a#i#i#b7 HAS >GU$ ?AT1 AT LEA/ 9 CASES ( V]Y CLE>-CUT OPPRESSION--SLAVES1 UNT\*ABLES1 S]FS1 ?AT SORT ( ?+--?IS WILL ALWAYS1 NECESS>ILY1 BE ! CASE4 ,P>T ( :AT IT MEANS TO HAVE A SITUATION ( EXTREME 9EQUALITY1 HE >GUES1 IS ?AT !RE WILL ALWAYS BE AN (FICIAL IDEOLOGY :I* CLAIMS ?AT ?IS SITUATION IS JU/ & REASONABLE--AN IDEOLOGY ?AT NO ONE REALLY BELIEVES1 NEI!R ?OSE ON TOP NOR ?OSE ON ! BOTTOM1 BUT ?AT EV]YONE FEELS OBLIG$ TO GO ALONG ) 9 PUBLIC4 ,PLANTATION SLAVES DO NOT REALLY FEEL ?AT !IR MA/]S TAKE A PAT]NAL 9T]E/ 9 !IR WELL-BE+ 7ANY MORE ?AN MA/]S REALLY DO72 RA!R1 IT IS P>T ( ! NATURE ( ANY MA/]S' P[]--ITS FIR/ L9E ( DEF5SE1 ONE MI<T EV5 SAY--TO 9SI/ ?AT SLAVES PLAY ALONG ) ! PRET5SE 9 !IR MA/]S' PRES5CE4 ,! RESULT IS ?AT1 9 SU* SITUATIONS1 PEOPLE ACT ALMO/ EXACTLY AS !Y W\LD IF !Y W]E CONSPIR+ TO FALSIFY ! RECORD = FUTURE HI/ORIANS1 S9CE IT IS1 ( C\RSE1 ! (FICIAL EV5TS & OP9IONS1 & NOT :AT PEOPLE >E SAY+ (F/AGE 7:AT ,SCOTT CALLS ! 0HIDD5 TRANSCRIPT07 ?AT MAKES IT 9TO ! K9D ( DOCUM5TS LIKELY TO COME D[N TO HI/ORIANS4 

,SCOTT IS WRIT+ PRIM>ILY AB\T SITUATIONS :]E ! HI]>*ICAL L9ES >E CLE>LY DRAWN3 :]E !RE >E TWO CLE>LY DEF9$ GR\PS1 ONE OBVI\SLY ON TOP & ! O!R CLE>LY SUBORD9ATE4 ,/ILL1 HE ALSO SUGGE/S ?AT1 EV5 9 MORE COMPLICAT$ SITUATIONS1 :]E ! L9ES >E BLURRI]1 SOME?+ LIKE ?IS WILL T5D TO OCCUR4 ,?IS IS PRECISELY :AT APPE>S TO HAVE HAPP5$ 9 ,IM]9A4 ,H5CE1 ,PI] ,L>SON1 AN HI/ORIAN :O HAS DONE A ?OR\< SURVEY ( S\RCES ON POPUL> ATTITUDES 9 EI<TE5?- & E>LY-N9ETE5?-C5TURY ,IM]9A1 REPORTS TO HAVE F\ND NO EVID5CE = EXPLICITLY EGALIT>IAN S5TIM5TS 9 EXI/+ TEXTS4 0,SOCIAL EQUALITY WAS NEI!R A REALITY NOR A CULTURAL IDEAL 9 C5TRAL ,MADAGASC>10 HE CONCLUDES1 0HI]>*Y WAS A FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE ( HUMAN 9T]ACTION10 NEV] QUE/ION$ 9 ITSELF 7#b3 #h#i74.<#b.> ,9 FACT1 ,SCOTT W\LD >GUE ?IS IS PRECISELY :AT ONE W\LD NORMALLY EXPECT4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 IT DOES SEEMS RA!R UNSATISFY+ JU/ TO 9SI/ ?AT PEOPLE MU/ HAVE BE5 :ISP]+ EGALIT>IAN S5TIM5TS TO ONE ANO!R1 BECAUSE PEOPLE ALWAYS DO4 ,IT SEEMS REASONABLE TO ASSUME ?AT IF EGALIT>IAN PR9CIPLES W]E PRES5T1 !Y MU/ HAVE MANIFE/$ !MSELVES 9 SOME WAY ?AT LEFT TRACES ( SOME SORT OR ANO!R4 ,9 FACT1 IF ONE EXAM9ES ! RECORD C>EFULLY1 ,I ?9K PR9CIPLES ( EQUALITY CAN BE DETECT$--(T51 P]HAPS ESPECIALLY1 9SIDE SOME ( ! MO/ >D5T ASS]TIONS ( HI]>*Y !MSELVES4 ,AT TIMES1 IT IS TRUE1 ,M]9A K+S EMPHASIZ$ ?AT !Y W]E GU>DIANS ( PROP]TY & MA9TA9$ ! RANKS & DIVISIONS ( ! K+DOM2 AT O!RS1 ?\<1 !Y EMPHASIZ$ ?AT1 AS ,&RIANAMPO9IM]9A IS SAID TO HAVE PUT IT1 0Y\ %\LD ALL BE EQUAL BECAUSE Y\ >E ALL EQUALLY MY SUBJECTS40 ,! ABSOLUTE GULF BETWE5 RUL] & RUL$ MADE 9T]NAL DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 SUBJECTS IRRELEVANT 9 COMP>ISON1 EV5 P]HAPS A BIT SUBV]SIVE4 ,SIMIL>LY1 9 ROYAL LABOR PROJECTS3 H]E ONE CAN TURN = EVID5CE TO SOME ( ! V]Y TEXTS 9 :I* =EIGN OBS]V]S EMPHASIZE ABSOLUTE LOYALTY ( SUBJECTS TO ! ,QUE54 ,:]E MANY E>LY ,MALAGASY S\RCES EMPHASIZ$ H[ RANKS & DIVISIONS >E WORK$ \T ?R\< ! ALLOCATION ( DIFF]5T SORTS ( ROYAL LABOR1 =EIGN OBS]V]S W]E (T5 /RUCK BY H[1 :5 ACTUALLY P]=M+ P]SONAL S]VICE TO ! ,QUE51 ALL SU* /ATUS DI/9CTIONS W\LD SIMPLY BE ?R[N ASIDE3  
  

,:5 !RE HAPP5S TO BE SPECIAL WORK REQUIR+ TO BE DONE 9 CONNECTION ) ! ROYAL C\RTY>DS1 SU* AS REBUILD+ OR EXT5D+ ! L(TY RETA9+ WALLS1 ALL RANKS ( ! PEOPLE1 FROM ! HI<E/ TO ! L[E/1 TAKE A PRIDE 9 DO+ ) !IR H&S SOME ( ! ACTUAL LABOR4 ,UND] ! EYE ( !IR ,QUE51 :O SITS ON A RAIS$ SEAT LOOK+ ON1 ! HI<E/ (FIC]S >E SE5 ) !IR LAMBAS .<MANTLES.> GIRD$ R\ND !IR LO9S1 WORK+ H>D] ?AN !IR SLAVES1 C>RY+ /ONE1 DIGG+ OR RAMM+ E>?1 & DO+ :ATEV] MANUAL LABOR MAY BE REQUIR$4 ,MU* ( ! SAME K9D ( FEEL+ EXI/S 9 CLE>+ ! GR\ND = ! ]ECTION ( !IR *APELS1 :5 EV]Y ONE--MALE & FEMALE1 ,&RIANS & SLAVES1 (FIC]S & SOLDI]S--WILL ALL LABOR ) ! GREATE/ ZEAL2 SOME DIGG+1 O!RS BR++ /ONE1 O!RS LAY+ BRICKS1 :ILE !IR WIVES WILL MIX ! MORT> & FET* ! WAT] REQUIR$ = ! WORK 7,SIBREE #a#h#h3 #a#h#i-#i74  
  

,ONE NE$S TO BE C>EFUL ) TEXTS LIKE ?IS4 ,IT'S H>D TO KN[ H[ MU* ! AU?OR REALLY UND]/OOD ( :AT WAS GO+ ON4 ,= 9/ANCE1 ! TEXT IMPLIES 7BUT DOESN'T QUITE SAY7 ?AT FREE PEOPLE & SLAVES WORK$ TOGE!R ON ROYAL PROJECTS4 ,?IS C\LD NOT HAVE BE5 TRUE4 ,SLAVES W]E /RICTLY =BIDD5 TO WORK ON ROYAL PROJECTS1 & ANY SLAVE :O C\LD PROVE 9 C\RT ?AT HE HAD C\LD W9 HIS FRE$OM4 ,BUT ! RE/ SEEMS ACCURATE 5\<4 ,& MA/]S & SLAVES DID 9DE$ WORK SIDE BY SIDE 9 BUILD+ ,PROTE/ANT *UR*ES2 A P]FECT EXAMPLE ( H[ ! LOGIC ( EXI/+ PRACTICES MADE ORD9>Y ,M]9A DISPOS$ TO BE RECEPTIVE TO ! ,*RI/IAN MESSAGE ?AT AT LEA/ 9 RELIGI\S CONTEXTS 7& BY IMPLICATION1 POT5TIALLY1 O!R ONES7 EV]YONE WAS EQUAL BE=E ! ,LORD4.<#b#a.> 

,ONE CAN SEE ?IS AS AN EXAMPLE ( A SOME?+ 9H]5T 9 ! NATURE ( HI]>*Y1 :OSE LOGIC ALWAYS SEEMS TO CREATE IMAGES ( EQUALITY AS A K9D ( SIDE-EFFECT 7,GRAEB] #a#i#i#g74 ,OR ONE CAN SEE IT AS AN EXAMPLE ( A P>TICUL>LY ,MALAGASY V>IATION ON ?IS LOGIC1 :]EBY ONE CREATES FRE$OM & EQUALITY BY EFFECT+ COMMON SUBORD9ATION TO SOME DI/ANT1 ABSOLUTE ,P[] :I*1 9 ANY PRACTICAL S5SE1 DOES NOT REALLY EXI/ 7,AL?ABE #a#i#f#i2 ,GRAEB] #b#g74.<#b#b.> ,BO? W\LD1 ,I ?9K1 BE TRUE4 ,:AT ,I WANT TO DRAW ATT5TION TO H]E1 ?\<1 IS ! WAY ?AT PR9CIPLES LIKE HI]>*Y & EQUALITY >E ALWAYS AVAILABLE TO PEOPLE AS IDEAS BECAUSE !Y >E ALWAYS IMMAN5T 9 =MS ( PRACTICE4 ,!Y T5D TO BECOME ?OR\<LY 5TANGL$ 9 ONE ANO!R AS A RESULT4 ,IT IS ONLY RI<T & ACCORD+ TO ANCE/RAL CU/OM ?AT A T5-YE>-OLD GIRL %\LD C>RY H] F\RTE5-YE>-OLD SI/]'S BASKET2 BUT OBVI\SLY1 ONLY )9 REASON4 ,NO ONE W\LD WANT A *ILD TO BE SO BURD5$ AS TO EXP]I5CE REAL PA91 RISK S]I\S 9JURY1 OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 TO /UMBLE ALONG ) SU* DIFFICULTY ?AT IT TAKES EV]YONE =EV] TO GET HOME4 ,AT SOME PO9T1 ! HI]>*ICAL PR9CIPLE WILL ALWAYS COME UP AGA9/ O!RS3 ?AT ADULTS >E RESPONSIBLE = ! WELF>E ( *ILDR51 OR ?AT1 AMONG PEOPLE P]=M+ A COMMON TASK1 EA* CAN ONLY BE EXPECT$ TO CONTRIBUTE ACCORD+ TO !IR CAPACITY TO CONTRIBUTE1 & EA* \<T TO BE GIV5 ! RES\RCES :I* MAKE IT EASIE/ = !M TO DO SO4 ,AT LEA/1 )9 ! WORK PROCESS ITSELF1 PEOPLE PRACTICE A =M ( UNREFLECTIVE1 PRAGMATIC COMMUNISM--0FROM EA* ACCORD+ TO !IR ABILITIES1 TO EA* ACCORD+ TO !IR NE$S40 ,AS ! QUOTE ABOVE 9DICATES1 EV5 FANOMPOANA SEEMS TO HAVE HAD A T5D5CY TO SLIP 9TO ?IS SORT ( EQUALIZ+ LOGIC \TSIDE ( C]TA9 HI<LY RITUALIZ$ CONTEXTS 7F\NDATIONS1 ROYAL FUN]ALS7 :]E !RE W]E P>TICUL> ISSUES ( /ATUS TO BE WORK$ \T 7:O GETS TO PUT UP ! C5TRAL PILL>8 :O GETS TO PROVIDE ! MATS874 ,!RE WAS A COMMON TASK TO P]=M1 IT WAS 9 ! 9T]E/ ( ALL TO P]=M IT WELL1 !RE=E1 EA* TOOK ON TASKS ACCORD+ TO !IR ABILITIES4 ,ALL =MS ( HI]>*Y1 ,I W\LD V5TURE1 RE/ ON EGALIT>IAN1 EV5 COMMUNI/IC1 PRACTICES :OSE LOGIC CAN ALWAYS BE 9VOK$ TO SUBV]T !M1 S9CE IT IS ! BASIS ( SO MU* EV]YDAY MORALITY4 ,?IS IS1 ,I SUSPECT1 ! REASON = ! /RANGE AMBIVAL5CE ( ! PROV]B ) :I* WE BEGAN3 0,IF Y\ HAVE A Y\NG] SIBL+1 !N Y\'LL HAVE NO PROBLEMS ) C>RY+1 IF Y\ HAVE AN OLD] ONE1 !N Y\'LL HAVE NO PROBLEMS ) SPEE*40 ,EV5 ! MO/ BASIC ATOM ( HI]>*Y HAS TO BE REPRES5T$ AS SOMEH[ EQUAL & RECIPROCAL1 9 ORD] TO SEEM FAIR4.<#b#c.> 

,T]MS ( ,CONV]SATION 

  

,SO :AT IS OPPRESSION1 !N8 ,9 ! ,MALAGASY CONTEXT1 IT APPE>S TO BE ! PO9T :]E AN EXP]I5CE ( SUBORD9ATION 7:I* H]E1 AS ELSE:]E1 T5DS TO BE EXPRESS$ BY BE+ SET UND]NEA? SOME?+ OR SOMEONE7 CLA%ES AGA9/ A BROAD & NOT EV5 NECESS>ILY ALL ?AT CLE>LY >TICULAT$ S5SE ( FAIRNESS1 EQUALITY1 & JU/ICE4 ,= EA* 9DIVIDUAL1 ?IS PROBABLY CALLS UP ALL SORTS ( DEEPLY 9T]NALIZ$ *ILDHOOD MEMORIES--= 9/ANCE1 ! 9DIGNATION :I* ANY *ILD W\LD FEEL UPON DISCOV]+ ?AT1 :]E ONCE IT SEEM$ TO AMUSE ADULTS :5 !Y REFUS$ TO P]=M ORD9>Y TASKS1 & !Y W\LD BE TREAT$ AS CONQU]+ H]OES :5 !Y DID DEIGN TO DO !M1 SUDD5LY !Y W]E BE+ H&$ ! MO/ ON]\S TASKS & ACTUALLY BE+ EXPECT$ TO DO !M1 NOT BECAUSE !IR Y\? MADE !M P>TICUL>LY SPECIAL1 BUT1 RA!R1 BECAUSE IT SUDD5LY MADE !M ! BOTTOM ( ! HEAP4 ,SU* 9DIGNANT MEMORIES W\LD1 = ANY ,MALAGASY ADULT1 BE 9EXTRICABLY B\ND UP ) MEMORIES ( C>RY+ HEAVY BURD5S ON ONE'S %\LD]S OR ONE'S HEAD4 ,! UND]LY+ /RUCTURE ( IDEAS AB\T SPEAK+ & C>RY+ MI<T HAVE BE5 SO DEEPLY EMB$D$ ?AT IT T5D$ TO %APE EV5 DREAM-LIKE1 UNCONSCI\S /ATES 7AS WE'VE SE5 9 ! CASE ( M$IUMS ABOVE74 ,= ANY 9DIVIDUAL1 OPPRESSION WAS A POT5TIALLY UNIV]SAL AB/RACT PR9CIPLE1 A P>TICUL>LY ,MALAGASY SET ( CULTURAL PRACTICES1 & A UNIQUE COLLECTION ( V]Y P]SONAL MEMORIES--ALL AT ! SAME TIME4 

,! 9T]E/+ ?+ IS ?AT ?IS RI*NESS ( S5SU\S EXP]I5CE DOES NOT MAKE SU* CONCEPTS 9COMMUNICABLE ACROSS CULTURES--ANY MORE ?AN ! FACT ?AT ANY TWO ,MALAGASY >E DRAW+ ON A DIFF]5T SET ( P]SONAL EXP]I5CES :5 !Y TALK AB\T OPPRESSION MAKES IT IMPOSSIBLE = !M TO REALLY UND]/& EA* O!R4 ,IF ANY?+1 ,I AM CONV9C$ ! OPPOSITE IS ! CASE4 ,?IS V]Y RI*NESS IS A S\RCE ( 5DLESS CREATIVITY ?AT ULTIMATELY IS AN ESS5TIAL P>T ( :AT MAKES IT POSSIBLE = US TO SPEAK ACROSS APP>5T CULTURAL B\ND>IES TO BEG9 )4 

,P]HAPS ! ORIG9AL 9SPIRATION = ?IS PAP] WAS A CONV]SATION ,I HAD1 9 ,5GLI%1 ) A UNIV]SITY /UD5T FROM ,ANTANAN>IVO1 QUITE SOON AFT] ,I'D >RIV$4 ,I WAS /ILL LIV+ 9 ! CAPITAL1 LE>N+ ! LANGUAGE1 BEG9N+ TO GET A S5SE ( :AT WAS 9 ! >*IVES4 ,I SP5T A LOT ( TIME SITT+ 9 CAFES & RE/AURANTS1 ?9K+ AB\T PO/URE1 GE/URE1 ! MOVEM5T ( BODIES 9 SPACE4 ,MO/ AN?ROPOLOGI/S SP5D A LOT ( TIME ?9K+ AB\T SU* MATT]S1 9 ?AT V]Y E>LY /AGE1 :5 !Y CAN'T REALLY TALK TO ANYONE & MO/ ( TIME HAVE NO IDEA :AT ! PEOPLE >\ND !M ACTUALLY ?9K IS GO+ ON4 ,MO/ ALSO KN[ IT'S A GOOD IDEA TO JOT D[N ! ?\<TS ONE HAS AT ?AT E>LY /AGE BECAUSE ONE IS LIKELY TO NOTICE ?+S ?AT EFFECTIVELY VANI% FROM CONSCI\SNESS SOON AFT]4 ,I BECAME OBSESS$ ) ! POLITICS ( ! GAZE3 SPECIFICALLY1 AT :O D>ES TO LOOK FREELY AB\T 9 PUBLIC PLACES4 ,ON A C\PLE OCCASIONS1 :5 ,I MYSELF FELT 5TIRELY CON/RA9$ & 9HIBIT$ BY ! SURETY ( *ALL5G+ C\NT]-GAZES1 ,I REMEMB] REFLECT+ ?AT ?IS MU/ BE SOME?+ LIKE :AT MO/ ( ! PLANET'S WOM5 LIVE ) CON/ANTLY 9 PUBLIC1 & ?AT ! EFFECT IT PRODUCES--( CON/ANT CONTRACTION 9W>DS1 NEV] KN[+ QUITE :]E TO FIX Y\R EYES1 OR SE>*+ = SAFE EMPTY PLACES NE>BY1 LIV+ 9 A CLAU/ROPHOBIC BOTTLE ( ONESELF--C\LD ONLY HAVE A DEVA/AT+ EFFECT ON ONE'S S5SE ( 9VE/M5T 9 ONE'S SURR\ND+S1 ONE'S WAY ( OCCUPY+ SPACE4 ,I HAD REC5TLY BE5 READ+ ,ELA9E ,SC>RY'S BOOK ,! ,BODY 9 ,PA9 7#a#i#h#e71 SO ,I BEGAN REFLECT+ ON ! ANALOGY BETWE5 ?IS & PA9 & PHYSICAL DISCOM=T :I* ,SC>RY DESCRIBES AS A PROCESS ( DE/ROY+ WORLDS1 AS SOME?+ ?AT COLLAPSES ?AT V]Y S5SE ( 9VE/M5T 9 ! SURR\ND+ WORLD ) ITS NETWORKS ( MEAN+ & OBJECTS1 ?AT SUCKS ! MEAN+ AWAY1 COMPRESS+ IT 9TO ! M9IMAL1 CIRCUMSCRIB$ SPACE ( ! HURT+ BODY4 ,MY NOTEBOOKS W]E FULL ( SPECULATION AB\T H[ ! PLAY ( SURR\ND+ EYES1 FEEL+S ( PA9 OR PA9LESSNESS1 OBJECTIVE POT5TIALS = ACTION OR ! ?REAT ( VIOL5CE1 ALL CONTRIBUTE TO 7& ALSO FL[ \T (7 ONE'S IMM$IATE PHYSICAL BE>+1 C>RIAGE1 GE/URES1 H[ ONE HOLDS ONE'S >MS & LEGS1 T5D5CIES TO CURL UP OR SPLAY ONESELF \T1 SPEAK+ L\DLY OR NOT AT ALL1 & SO ON4 

,! PROBLEM WAS ?AT ,I SOON REALIZ$ ?IS HAD ALMO/ NO?+ TO DO ) H[ ,MALAGASY WOM5 NORMALLY LIV$ OR BEHAV$4 ,?IS BECAME APP>5T ! MOM5T ONE MOV$1 AS ,I SOON DID1 AWAY FROM 9/ITUTIONS DOM9AT$ BY =EIGN]S4 ,IF ANY?+1 ! SITUATION SEEM$ ! REV]SE ( :AT ,I WAS US$ TO4 ,BE=E LONG1 ,I WAS REM>K+ TO A FRI5D--A WOMAN NAM$ ,LALA :O WAS A /UD5T AT ! UNIV]SITY AT ,ANKATSO--H[ REM>KABLE IT WAS ?AT 9 T]MS ( ORD9>Y BODY LANGUAGE1 IT WAS (T5 WOM5 :O SEEM$ MORE APT TO MAKE ! BOLD1 EXPANSIVE GE/URE1 :O /RODE ) GREAT] CONFID5CE 9 PUBLIC4 ,M51 EV5 MANY Y\NG M51 MORE (T5 SEEM$ TO CONTRACT 9 ON !MSELVES 9 PUBLIC1 TO (T5 SEEM %Y & SELF-CONTA9$4 ,:Y WAS ?AT8 7,I WAS EXPRESS+ MYSELF H]E AS MU* BY IMITAT+ PO/URES AS BY ACTUAL WORDS47 

0,WELL10 ,LALA SAID1 0?AT'S BECAUSE !Y >E PRESS$ D[N BY !IR CULTURE10 ACCOMPANY+ ! WORDS BY A GE/URE3 H] H& PRESS+ /EADILY D[NW>D1 AS IF ON SOME?+ 9VISIBLE 9 FRONT ( H]4 ,! 9T]E/+ ?+ IS3 IDIOMS ( OPPRESSION W]E NOT1 G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 US$ :5 SPEAK+ AB\T G5D]1 & C]TA9LY NOT AB\T M54 ,BUT1 EV5 BETWE5 TWO PEOPLE :O W]E JU/ LE>N+ TO SPEAK TO EA* O!R1 PLAY+ >\ND ) SU* IMAG]Y 9 ORIG9AL WAYS SEEM$ ! OBVI\S WAY TO BEG9 A CONV]SATION4 

,OV] TIME1 ) MU* MORE OBS]VATION AFT] MANY MORE CONV]SATIONS1 MY ?\<TS ON G5D] 9 ! ,MALAGASY HI<L&S EVOLV$ & CRY/ALLIZ$4 ,EV5TUALLY !Y TURN$ 9TO AN ESSAY 7,GRAEB] #a#i#i#f74 ,AS IT TURN$ \T1 ,LALA'S COMM5T DIDN'T PROVE ALL ?AT RELEVANT4 ,/ILL1 ! GE/URE /UCK ) ME4 ,IT SEEM$ SOMEH[ IMPORTANT4 ,?IS WAS PROBABLY ! REASON ,I PAID ATT5TION LAT] :5 ,I />T$ HE>+ DIFF]5T USES ( ! T]M TS9DRIANA4 

,ONE MI<T CALL ?AT FIR/1 BASIC LEVEL--BE=E WORDS--! LEVEL ( PH5OM5OLOGY4 ,(T51 ! MO/ PR(\ND CULTURAL 9SI<TS >E A*IEV$ BY 9T5TIONALLY BR++ ?+S D[N TO ?IS SORT ( DEGREE Z]O1 & !N WORK+ BACK UP AGA94 ,?IS WAS 9 FACT PRECISELY :AT ,SC>RY WAS TRY+ TO DO 9 ,! ,BODY 9 ,PA91 A BOOK :I* DRAWS RI*LY NOT JU/ ON ! PH5OM5OLOGICAL TRADITION BUT ON ! HALF-=GOTT5 9SI<TS ( ,EXI/5TIALISM4 ,AS SU*1 IT DID PROVE USEFUL AFT] ALL4 ,SC>RY BEG9S BY PROPOS+ AN OPPOSITION BETWE5 PA9 & LANGUAGE4 ,PHYSICAL PA91 IF SUFFICI5TLY 9T5SE1 DE/ROYS ! V]Y POSSIBILITY ( LANGUAGE2 LANGUAGE BE+ ! MO/ IMPORTANT WAY 9 :I* ! SELF EMB$S & 9VE/S ITSELF 9 ! SURR\ND+ WORLD4 ,H5CE SUFF]+ MAKES ONE COLLAPSE 9TO ONESELF4 ,9 ?IS S5SE1 HAV+ ANO!R P]SON BE>+ Y\R BURD5S1 !N CAPTUR+ !IR RI<T TO SPEE*1 C\LD 9DE$ BE SE5 AS ! MO/ OBVI\S WAY TO EXP& 9TO L>G] WORLDS AT !IR EXP5SE4 ,BUT ,I 5D$ UP US+ ,SC>RY'S WORK NOT JU/ TO UND]/& ,MALAGASY CONCEPTS1 BUT TO B\NCE (F !M--9 FACT1 TO B\NCE EA* (F ! O!R 9 A K9D ( CONCEPTUAL DIALOGUE4 ,! SECOND HALF ( ! BOOK 7#a#i#h#e3 #a#e#i-#c#b#f7 IS SPECIFICALLY CONC]N$ ) PRODUCTION1 OR AS %E PUTS IT1 0MAT]IAL MAK+10 AS A K9D ( MEET+ PO9T BETWE5 LANGUAGE & PA94.<#b#d.> ,LABOR %E >GUES IS NOT EXP]I5C$ AS 9H]5TLY PA9FUL1 AS A =M ( OPPRESSION1 UNLESS IT'S DIVORC$ FROM A S5SE ( AG5CY1 ( MAK+ SOME?+4 ,?IS IS TRUE1 BUT ! ?REE-P>T DIVISION BETWE5 WORDS1 MAK+1 & C>RY+--! LATT] EMBLEMATIC ( ALL SORTS ( O!R =MS ( SUPPORT & MA9T5ANCE WORK1 CLASSIC =MS ( WOM5'S OR M5IAL WORK--SEEM$ A USEFUL CORRECTIVE4 ,IT REM9DS US H[ MU* \R HABITS ( ?\<T HAVE1 AT LEA/ S9CE ! TIME ( ,M>X1 MADE ! WORK ( ! CRAFTSMAN OR FACTORY WORK] EMBLEMATIC ( LABOR 9 G5]AL2 & H[ ?AT FOCUS ITSELF T5DS TO RELEGATE MO/ =MS ( REAL WORK TO ! %AD[S4 

,9 FACT1 NONE ( ! ,MALAGASY CONCEPTIONS ,I'VE DISCUSS$1 H[EV] APP>5TLY EXOTIC1 EM]GE FROM AN 5TIRELY ALI5 CONCEPTUAL UNIV]SE4 ,?IS IS :Y !Y HAVE ! POT5TIAL TO TELL US SOME?+4 ,TO DESCRIBE K+S AS *ILDR5 SEEMS BIZ>RE1 BUT ONLY UNTIL ONE REALLY ?9KS AB\T IT4 ,HEADS ( /ATE 9 G5]AL DO T5D TO BE SELF-IMPORTANT1 PETULANT BE+S1 SURR\ND$ AT EV]Y MOM5T BY PEOPLE TAK+ C>E ( !IR PHYSICAL NECESSITIES & REM9D+ !M H[ TO ACT4 ,WE CONSID] ,HEGEL A GREAT PHILOSOPH] 9 P>T = HAV+ MADE A PO9T ?AT1 = MO/ ,MALAGASY1 SEEMS TO BE A MATT] ( SIMPLE COMMON S5SE4 

,A ,PLEA = ,DIALOGIC ,RELATIVISM 

  

,ONE C\LD EV5 >GUE ?AT COMP>ISONS LIKE ?IS HAVE ALWAYS BE5 :AT AN?ROPOLOGY IS REALLY ALL AB\T4 ,OR %\LD BE3 AT ITS BE/1 AN?ROPOLOGY IS ! BEG9N+ ( A CONV]SATION4 ,IT IS PREMIS$ ON ! ASSUMPTION SU* A CONV]SATION IS POSSIBLE1 EV5 IF IT IS DIFFICULT TO KN[ PRECISELY :Y4 ,EV5 IF1 9 FACT1 :5 AN?ROPOLOGI/S WAX !ORETICAL1 !Y (T5 SEEM DET]M9$ TO D5Y IT IS POSSIBLE4 

,H]E1 ,I CAN F9ALLY RETURN TO QUE/ION ( RELATIVISM4 ,! REASON :Y AN?ROPOLOGI/S >E (T5 SO RELUCTANT TO MAKE CROSS-CULTURAL G5]ALIZATIONS1 IT SEEMS TO ME1 IS BECAUSE1 :5 !Y DO LOOK = COMMON T]MS1 !Y T5D TO LOOK ON PRECISELY ! WRONG LEVEL4.<#b#e.> ,!Y 9V>IABLY LOOK = =MS ( CON/ITUT$ AU?ORITY4 ,IF LOOK+ = SOME SORT ( MORAL UNIV]SAL1 !Y ASSUME ?IS W\LD MEAN PR9CIPLES PRES5T 9 ALL KN[N LEGAL SY/EMS2 IF !Y >E ASK$ TO SE>* = ES!TIC UNIV]SALS1 !Y LOOK = ANY QUALITY ?AT MI<T BE SE5 AS PRES5T 9 EV]Y OBJECT =MALLY RECOGNIZ$ AS 0>T0 7OR :ATEV] !Y DECIDE IS ! CLOSE/ LOCAL EQUIVAL5T74 ,! 9EVITABLE CONCLUSION1 !N1 IS ?AT SU* UNIV]SALS DO NOT EXI/4.<#b#f.> ,:AT ,I AM SUGGE/+ 9/EAD IS ?AT IT W\LD BE BETT] 9 SU* CASES TO LOOK AT COMMON WAYS ( >GU+ AB\T MORALITY1 OR COMMON WAYS ( ?9K+ & TALK+ AB\T ES!TIC PLEASURE1 :I* SEEM F> MORE SIMIL> CROSS-CULTURALLY ?AN ANY P>TICUL> CONCLUSIONS ?AT SU* CONV]SATIONS MAY COME TO 7LET ALONE CONCLUSIONS ?AT >E !N GIV5 SOME K9D ( AU?ORITATIVE /AMP74 ,?IS W\LD BE ! WAY TO TRY TO GET A S5SE ( ! COMMON UND]LY+ T5D5CIES & CAPACITIES--! G5]ATIVE ME*ANISMS IF Y\ WILL4 ,!SE BECOME EASIE/ TO SEE1 P]HAPS1 PRECISELY :5 SOMEONE IS *ALL5G+ :AT IS LOCALLY CONSID]$ RECEIV$ AU?ORITY OR RECEIV$ WISDOM4 

,MY MA9 PO9T H]E IS P]FECTLY OBVI\S1 EV5 IF IT IS A PO9T TO :I* CLASSICAL RELATIVI/S HAVE SEEM$ ODDLY BL9D4 ,QUE/IONS ( CULTURAL DIFF]5CE ONLY BECOME RELEVANT :5 !RE'S ALREADY SOME SORT ( CONV]SATION GO+ ON4 ,!RE IS NO REASON TO ASK ONESELF H[ & :E!R ONE IS TO SIT 9 JUDGM5T ON ANO!R P]SON'S CULTURAL UNIV]SE UNLESS Y\ HAVE SOME IDEA :AT ?AT UNIV]SE IS2 & ?AT MEANS PEOPLE >E1 TO SOME DEGREE AT LEA/1 ALREADY COMMUNICAT+4 

,! FACT ?AT PEOPLE >E COMMUNICAT+1 9 TURN1 PRESUMES TWO ?+S4 ,FIR/ ( ALL IT PRESUMES ?AT !RE IS SOME GR\ND ( SIMIL>ITY BETWE5 !M ?AT MAKES COMMUNICATION POSSIBLE4 ,ALL HUMAN LANGUAGES1 = EXAMPLE1 SEEM TO HAVE ! EQUIVAL5T ( N\NS & V]BS1 SUBJECTS & OBJECTS1 & SO ON4 ,?IS IS :Y ANY ,QUE*UA-SPEAK] IS CAPABLE1 IF %E REALLY PUTS H] M9D TO IT1 ( LE>N+ ,SW$I% & ANY ,SW$I%-SPEAK] CAN LE>N ,QUE*UA1 BUT NO ONE1 EV5 EXP]TS >M$ ) P[]FUL COMPUT]S1 HAVE FIGUR$ \T H[ TO COMMUNICATE ) DOLPH9S OR KILL] :ALES4 ,?IS IS :Y SOME 7E4G41 ,SP]B] #a#i#h#e7 HAVE REM>K$ ?AT AN?ROPOLOGY1 9 EMBRAC+ EXTREME =MS ( RELATIVISM--I4E41 TRY+ TO D5Y ?AT ALL HUMAN LANGUAGES REALLY DO HAVE MEAN+FUL COMMON FEATURES--SOMETIMES SEEMS AS IF IT WI%ES TO D5Y ! POSSIBILITY ( ITS [N EXI/5CE4 

,! SECOND PO9T IS ?AT ! CONV]SATION HAS TO TAKE PLACE )9 SOME L>G] SOCIAL & POLITICAL CONTEXT1 ?AT ?IS CONTEXT IS NOT SIMPLY A PRODUCT ( ! CONV]SATION1 BUT1 RA!R1 PLAYS A SUB/ANTIAL ROLE 9 %AP+ :AT PEOPLE FEEL !Y HAVE TO TALK AB\T4 ,CULTURAL RELATIVISM 9 ! =M WE'RE MO/ FAMILI>--:AT ,I'VE BE5 CALL+ 0CLASSICAL RELATIVISM0--TOOK %APE )9 A V]Y P>TICUL> POLITICAL CONTEXT4 ,ITS HEYDAY WAS ! MID-TW5TIE? C5TURY1 A TIME :5 AN?ROPOLOGY WAS CONSID]$ POLITICALLY RELEVANT L>GELY 9S(> AS IT C\LD CONTRIBUTE TO DESCRIB+ /RUCTURES ( LEGITIMATE AU?ORITY )9 ,9DIAN RES]VATIONS1 COLONIAL SY/EMS ( 9DIRECT RULE1 OR NEWLY 9DEP5D5T NATIONS )9 AN 9T]-/ATE SY/EM /ILL FIRMLY CONTROLL$ BY ! =M] COLONIAL P[]S4 ,9 O!R WORDS IT WAS ALL AB\T HELP+ BUREAUCRATS ID5TIFY LEGITIMATE AU?ORITIES4 0,JU/ TALK TO ! *IEF10 ONE OLD TEA*] ( M9E REPORTS HE WAS TOLD BY HIS ADVIS] 9 ! #a#i#eS1 0HE'S ! ONLY ONE :O REALLY KN[S ANY?+ ANYWAY40 ,IT IS NOT SURPRIS+1 !N1 ?AT IT TOOK ! =M ?AT IT DID3 EV5 IF IT WAS A =M ?AT1 IF TAK5 TO ITS LOGICAL EXTREME1 C\LD ONLY LEAD TO A LOGIC ( AP>!ID4 

,?+S HAVE *ANG$1 BUT !Y PROBABLY HAV5'T *ANG$ AS MU* AS WE LIKE TO ?9K4 ,AN AN?ROPOLOGI/ 9 #a#i#b#e1 CONSULT+ ) ! ,BRITI% GOV]NM5T TO HELP CL>IFY TRIBAL DIVISIONS 9 ! ,ANGLO-,EGYPTIAN ,SUDAN1 WAS NOT DO+ ANY?+ SO V]Y DIFF]5T FROM AN AN?ROPOLOGI/ TODAY1 CONSULT+ ) ! ,UNIT$ ,NATIONS OR ! ,WORLD ,BANK TO DET]M9E :I* ,NEPALI E?NIC GR\PS %\LD BE GRANT$ 09DIG5\S0 /ATUS4 ,BO? FACE V]Y SIMIL> MORAL CONUNDRUMS4 ,!RE IS NO REASON TO BELIEVE ?IS WILL 5TIRELY *ANGE ANY TIME SOON4 ,AS LONG AS !RE >E P[]FUL 9T]NATIONAL BUREAUCRACIES1 !Y WILL BE ASK+ AN?ROPOLOGI/S TO HELP !M ID5TIFY :O TO RECOGNIZE AS LEGITIMATE LOCAL AU?ORITIES1 AT LEA/ 9 ?OSE >EAS !Y F9D ! MO/ M>G9AL & CONFUS+4 ,/ILL1 !RE W]E ALWAYS O!R CONV]SATIONS GO+ ON &1 TODAY1 IT IS AT LEA/ POSSIBLE TO SUGGE/ ?AT !SE >E NO LONG] ! MO/ IMPORTANT ONES4 ,9CREASES 9 MOBILITY & 9DICATIONS ( ! POSSIBLE BEG9N+ ( A MAJOR BREAKD[N ( TRADITIONAL P[] RELATIONS 7,EA/-,WE/1 ,NOR?-,S\?7 MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO CONCEIVE AN AN?ROPOLOGY ?AT W\LD BE1 FIR/ & =EMO/1 A MUTUAL CONV]SATION--BETWE5 EV]YONE1 EQUALLY--AB\T ! NATURE ( AU?ORITY ITSELF4.<#b#g.> ,IF AN?ROPOLOGY IS TO EM]GE AS A POLITICAL =CE ( LIB]ATION1 RA!R ?AN SIMPLY DAMAGE CONTROL1 ?IS IS :AT IT MU/1 ULTIMATELY1 BECOME4 

,?IS IS NOT TO >GUE ?AT ALL =MS ( AU?ORITY >E ILLEGITIMATE4 ,IF ?AT W]E SO1 !RE W\LD BE NO?+ TO DISCUSS4 ,BY ! SAME TOK51 NEI!R W\LD SU* A BROAD] CONV]SATION MEAN A G5]AL EFFAC+ ( B\ND>IES & ]ADICATION ( DIFF]5CE4 ,MUTUAL RELATIONS--EV5 ! MO/ 9TIMATE--ALWAYS 9VOLVE ! RECOGNITION ( B\ND>IES & ACKN[L$GM5T ( DIFF]5CE3 ?IS IS1 = EXAMPLE1 :AT WE >E G5]ALLY REF]R+ TO :5 WE SPEAK ( 0DIGNITY0 OR 0RESPECT40 ,F> FROM SUGGE/+ WE AB&ON RELATIVISM1 !N1 ,I AM SAY+ ?AT WE NE$ TO EXP& \R NOTION ( :AT RELATIVISM IS1 TO SEE IT AS AN ASPECT ( ANY FUNDAM5TALLY HEAL?Y HUMAN RELATION%IP1 :E!R 9DIVIDUAL OR COLLECTIVE1 :E!R DI/ANT OR CLOSE4 ,AT ITS MO/ M9IMAL1 ! PRACTICE ( RELATIVISM IS JU/ A MATT] ( MUTUAL RESPECT4 

,ONE MI<T REF] TO ?IS AS 0DIALOGIC RELATIVISM0--A MUTUAL RECOGNITION (1 & RESPECT =1 DIFF]5CE F\ND$ ON ! RECOGNITION ( AN EV5 MORE FUNDAM5TAL SIMIL>ITY 7H5CE1 EQUALITY7 ?AT MAKES SU* RECOGNITION POSSIBLE4 ,IT C\LD ONLY RE/ ON A COMMITM5T TO C>RY ON ! CONV]SATION 9 A WAY ?AT NEV] PU%ES ASIDE UNCOM=TABLE QUE/IONS--SU* AS1 = 9/ANCE1 :O GETS TO SPEAK1 & :O HAS TO DO ! HEAVY LIFT+8--BUT ?AT ALSO PROCE$S ON ! ASSUMPTION ?AT NO S+LE TRADITION HAS A MONOPOLY ON 9SI<T ON SU* ISSUES4 ,IF \R EXPLORATION ( ! T]M 0OPPRESSION0 %[S ANY?+1 ,I ?9K1 IT IS H[ RI*1 & H[ HET]OG5E\S1 ! MAT]IAL FROM :I* WE C\LD ?US PAT* TOGE!R A %>$ S5SE ( HUMANITY REALLY IS4 

,BIBLIOGRAPHY 

  
  

,AL?ABE1 ,G]>D 

#aifi ,OPPRESSION ET LIB]ATION DANS L'IMAG9AIRE3 LES COMMUNAUTES VILLAGEOISES DE LA COTE ORI5TALE DE ,MADAGASC>4 ,P>IS3 ,MASP]O4 

,B>?1 ,FR$]ICK 

#aifi ,E?NIC ,GR\PS & ,B\ND>IES3 ,! ,SOCIAL ,ORGANIZATION ( ,CULTURE ,DIFF]5CE4 ,B]G53 ,UNIV]SITETS=LAGET4 

,B]G1 ,G]ALD 

#aigi 0,ROYAL ,AU?ORITY & ! ,PROTECTOR ,SY/EM 9 ,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY ,IM]9A40 ,9 ,MADAGASC> 9 ,HI/ORY3 ,ESSAYS FROM ! #a#i#gS 7,R4 ,K5T1 $47 ,ALBANY3 ,! ,F\NDATION = ,MALAGASY ,/UDIES4 

,BLO*1 ,MAURICE 

#aiga ,PLAC+ ! ,DEAD3 ,TOMBS1 ,ANCE/RAL ,VILLAGES1 & ,K9%IP ,ORGANIZATION 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,LONDON3 ,SEM9> ,PRESS4 

#aigg 0,! ,DISCONNECTION BETWE5 ,P[] & ,RANK AS A ,PROCESS3 ,AN ,\TL9E ( ! ,DEVELOPM5T ( ,K+DOMS 9 ,C5TRAL ,MADAGASC>40 ,EUROPEAN ,J\RNAL ( ,SOCIOLOGY VOL4 #a#h3 #c#c-#c#c4 

#a#i#h#fA ,FROM ,BLESS+ TO ,VIOL5CE3 ,HI/ORY & ,IDEOLOGY 9 ! ,CIRCUMCISION ,RITUAL ( ! ,M]9A ( ,MADAGASC>4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

#a#i#h#fB 0,HI]>*Y & ,EQUALITY 9 ,M]9A ,K9%IP40 ,9 ,MADAGASC>3 ,SOCIETY & ,HI/ORY 7,C4,P4 ,KOTTAK1 ,J4-,A4 ,RAKOTO>ISOA1 ,A4 ,S\?ALL & ,P4 ,V]91 $S47 ,DURHAM3 ,C>OL9A ,ACADEMIC ,PRESS4 

#aihi 0,! ,RITUAL ( ! ,ROYAL ,BA? 9 ,MADAGASC>3 ,! ,DISSOLUTION ( ,DEA?1 ,BIR?1 & ,F]TILITY 9TO ,AU?ORITY40 ,9 ,RITUAL1 ,HI/ORY & ,P[]3 ,SELECT$ ,PAP]S 9 ,AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,LONDON3 ,A?LONE ,PRESS4 

,CABANES1 ,ROB]T 

#aigb 0,CULTES DES POSSESSION DANS LA PLA9E DE ,TANAN>IVE40 ,CAHI]S DU ,C5T] D',ETUDE DES ,C\TUMES #i3 #c#c-#f#f4 

,CALLET1 ,R4,P4 

#aih ,TANT>A NY ,&RIANA ETO ,MADAGASC>4 #b VOLS4 ,TANAN>IVE3 ,ACADEMIE ,MALGA*E4 

,CAMB\E1 ,R4,P4 

#aii 0,LES ,DIX ,PREMI]S ,ANS DE L'5FANCE *EZ LE ,MALGA*ES4 ,CIRCONCISION1 NOM1 $UCACION40 ,AN?ROPOS ,I,V3 #c#g#e-#c#h#f4 

,CL>K1 ,H5RY 

#ahif 0,! ,ZANAK',ANTITRA ,TRIBE3 ,ITS ,ORIG9S & ,PECULI>ITIES40 ,ANTANAN>IVO ,ANNUAL & ,MALAGASY ,MAGAZ9E #a#f3 #d#e-#d#e#f4 

,COLE1 ,J5NIF] 

#ba ,=GET ,COLONIALISM8 ,SACRIFICE & ! ,>T ( ,MEMORY 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,B]KELEY3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,CALI=NIA ,PRESS4 

,C\S9S1 ,WILLIAM ,E4 

#aifc ,FOMBA ,GASY4 7,H4 ,R&ZAVOLA1 $474 ,TANAN>IVE3 ,IM>IVOLANITRA4 

,DAVIDSON1 ,A4 

#ahhi 0,! ,RAMAN5JANA OR ,DANC+ ,MANIA ( ,MADAGASC>40 ,! ,ANTANAN>IVO ,ANNUAL & ,MADAGASC> ,MAGAZ9E #ac 7#a#h#h#i72 ,REPR9T VOL4 ,I,V_/#a3 #a#i-#b#g4 

,DOM9I*9I1 ,JEAN-,PI]RE 

#aigg ,LES ,DIEUX AU ,S]VICE DES ,ROIS3 ,HI/OIRE DES ,PALLADIUM D',EMYRNE4 ,P>IS3 ,K>?ALA4 

,DOM5I*9I1 ,JEAN-,PI]RE1 & ,BAKOLY ,DOM5I*9I-,RAMI>AMANANA 

#aih 0,REG>DS CROISES SUR LES GR&S ,SYCOMORES1 \ L'>MEE NOIRE DES ANCI5S PR9CES D',IM]9A40 ,ASIE DU ,SUD ,E/ ET ,MONDE ,9SUL9DI5 ,X,I 7#a-#d73 #e#e-#i#e4 

#aihb 0,ASPECTS DE L'ESCLAVAGE S\S LA MON>*IE M]9A40 ,OMALY SY ,ANIO #a#e3 #e#c-#i#h4 

,DOM5I*9I-,RAMI>AMANANA1 ,BAKOLY 

#aihc ,DU OHABOLANA AU HA9T5Y3 LANGUE1 LITT]ATURE ET POLITIQUE A ,MADAGASC>4 ,P>IS3 ,K>?ALA4 

,ELLIS1 ,WILLIAM 

#ah* ,HI/ORY ( ,MADAGASC>4 #b VOLS4 ,LONDON3 ,FI%] @& ,SON4 

,FIRAKETANA1 SEE ,RAVELOJAONA1 ,R&ZAVOLA1 ,RAJAONA 

,GRAEB]1 ,DAVID 

#aiie 0,DANC+ ) ,CORPSES ,RECONSID]$3 AN ,9T]PRETATION ( ,FAMADIHANA 9 ,>IVONIMAMO1 7,MADAGASC>740 ,AM]ICAN ,E?NOLOGI/ #bb 7#b73 #b#e#h-#b#g#h4 

#aiif 0,LOVE ,MAGIC & ,POLITICAL ,MORALITY 9 ,C5TRAL ,MADAGASC>1 #a#h#g#e-#a#i#i40 ,G5D] & ,HI/ORY #h 7#c73 #d#a#f-#d#c#i4 

#aiig 0,MANN]S1 ,DEF]5CE & ,PRIVATE ,PROP]TY40 ,COMP>ATIVE ,/UDIES 9 ,SOCIETY & ,HI/ORY #ci 7#d73 #f#i#d-#g#b#h4 

#bg ,LO/ ,PEOPLE3 ,MAGIC & ! ,LEGACY ( ,SLAV]Y 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,BLOOM+TON3 ,9DIANA ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,HAILE1 ,JOHN 

#ahic 0,MALAGASY ,VILLAGE ,LIFE3 ,P5 & ,9K ,SKET*ES ( ! ,PEOPLE ( ,WE/]N ,IM]9A40 ,ANTANAN>IVO ,ANNUAL & ,MALAGASY ,MAGAZ9E #a#h3 #a-#b4 

,HEB]T1 ,JEAN-,CLAUDE 

#aieh 0,LA P>5TE A PLAISANT]IE A ,MADAGASC>40 ,BULLET9 DE L',ACADEMIE ,MALGA*E1 M>S #aieh 7#a#d#b73 #a#g#e-#b#a#g2 AVRIL #aieh 7#a#d#c73 #b#f#g-#c#c4 

,HOC>T1 ,A4 ,M4 

#aifh ,CA/E1 A ,COMP>ATIVE ,/UDY4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,RUSSELL @& ,RUSSELL4 

#aig ,K+S & ,C\NCILORS3 ,AN ,ESSAY 9 ! ,COMP>ATIVE ,ANATOMY ( ,HUMAN ,SOCIETY4 ,*ICAGO3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS4 

,HODGSON1 ,DORO?Y 

#aiii 0,CRITICAL ,9T]V5TIONS40 ,ID5TITIES #f 7#b-#c73 #b#a-#b#b#d4 

,H\LD]1 ,J4,A4 

#aiae ,OHABOLANA1 OR1 ,MALAGASY PROV]BS3 ILLU/RAT+ ! WIT & WISDOM ( ! ,HOVA ( ,MADAGASC>4 ,F>AVOHITRA3 ,FRI5DS' ,=EIGN ,MISSION>Y ,ASSOCIATION4 

,JACKSON1 ,JEAN 

#aiie 0,CULTURE1 ,G5U9E & ,SPURI\S3 ,! ,POLITICS ( ,9DIANNESS 9 ,VAUPES1 ,COLUMBIA40 ,AM]ICAN ,AN?ROPOLOGI/ #b#b7#a73 #c-#b#g4 

,JULLY1 ,ANTONY 

#ahii 0,CROYANCES ET PRATIQUES SUP]/ITIEUSES *EZ LES ,M]9AS \ ,HOVES0 ,REVUE DE ,MADAGASC> TOME #a 7,OCTOB] #a#h#i#i73 #c#a#a-#c#b#h4 

,LAMBEK1 ,MI*AEL 

#bb ,! ,WEI<T ( ! ,PA/3 ,LIV+ ) ,HI/ORY 9 ,MAHAJANGA1 ,MADAGASC>4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,PALGRAVE ,MACMILLAN4 

,L>SON1 ,PI] 

#b ,HI/ORY & ,MEMORY 9 ! ,AGE ( ,5SLAVEM5T3 ,BECOM+ ,M]9A 9 ,HI<L& ,MADAGASC>1 #a#g#g-#a#h#b#b 7,SOCIAL ,HI/ORY ( ,AFRICA74 ,PORTSM\?3 ,HE9EMANN4 

,MAS*IA-,LEES1 ,FRANCES1 ,PATRICIA ,%>PE1 ,COLLE5 ,BALL]9O ,COH5 

#aihi 0,! ,PO/MOD]NI/ ,TURN 9 ,AN?ROPOLOGY3 ,CAUTIONS FROM A ,FEM9I/ ,P]SPECTIVE40 ,SIGNS #ae 7#a73 #g-#c#c4 

,MAYEUR1 ,NICOLAS 

#aiac 0,VOYAGE AU PAYS D',ANCOVE1 \TREM5TE DITE DES HOVAS 7#a#g#g#g740 ,BULLET9 DE LA ,ACADEMIE ,MALGA*E #ab 7#a73 #a#c#i-#a#g#f4 

,QUIGLEY1 ,DECLAN 

#aiic ,! ,9T]PRETATION ( ,CA/E4 ,OX=D3 ,CL>5DON ,PRESS4 

,RADIMILAHY1 ,C41 ,S4 ,&RIAMAMPIAN9A1 ,S4 ,BLAN*Y1 ,J4-,A4 ,RAKOTO>ISOA1 & ,S4 ,RAZAFIMAHAZO 

#bf 0,LIEUX DE CULTE AUTO*TONE A ,ANTANAN>IVO40 ,9 ,LE DIEUX AU S]VICE DU PEUPLE 7,SOPHIE ,BLAN*Y1 ,JEAN-,AIME ,RAKOTO>ISOA1 ,PHILIPPE ,BEAUJ>D1 & ,*ANTAL ,RADIMILAHY1 $S474 ,P>IS3 ,K>?ALA4 

,RAISON1 ,FRANCOISE 

#aigf 0,LES ,RAMAN5JANA3 UNE MIZE 5 CAUSE POPULAIRE DU *RI/IANISME 5 ,IM]9A1 #a#h#f#c40 ,ASIE DU SUD-E/ ET LE MONDE 9SUL9DI5 ,V,I,I 7II-III73 #b#g#a-#i#c4 

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,RATRIMOH>9OSY1 ,HEL5E 

#aihf 0,LA ,SOCIETE ,MALGA*E V]S #a#h40 ,9 ,MADAGASC>3 ,SOCIETY & ,HI/ORY 7,C4 ,P4 ,KOTTAK1 ,J4-,A4 ,RAKOTO>ISOA1 ,A4 ,S\?ALL1 & ,P4 ,V]91 $S474 ,DURHAM3 ,C>OL9A ,ACADEMIC ,PRESS4 

,RUUD1 ,JORG5 

#aif ,TABOO3 ,A ,/UDY ( ,MALAGASY ,BELIEFS & ,CU/OMS4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,HUMANITIES ,PRESS4 

,SC>RY1 ,ELA9E 

#aihe ,! ,BODY 9 ,PA93 ,! ,MAK+ & ,UNMAK+ ( ! ,WORLD4 ,OX=D3 ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,SCOTT1 ,JAMES 

#aiib ,DOM9ATION & ! ,>TS ( ,RESI/ANCE4 ,*ICAGO3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS4 

,SEWELL1 ,JOSEPH 

#ahgf ,REM>KS ON ,SLAV]Y 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,LONDON3 ,ELLIOT ,/OCK4 

,SIBREE1 ,JAMES 

#ahh ,MADAGASC>3 ! ,GREAT ,AFRICAN ,ISL&4 ,LONDON3 ,TRUBN] @& ,CO4 

#ahif ,MADAGASC> ,BE=E ! ,CONQUE/3 ,! ,ISL&1 ! ,C\NTRY1 & ! ,PEOPLE4 ,LONDON3 ,T4 ,FI%] ,UNW94 

,SP]B]1 ,DAN 

#aihe ,ON ,AN?ROPOLOGICAL ,KN[L$GE3 ,?REE ,ESSAYS4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

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#ahhg 0,! ,TRIBAL ,DIVISIONS ( ! ,HOVA ,MALAGASY40 ,ANTANAN>IVO ,ANNUAL & ,MALAGASY ,MAGAZ9E ,I,X3 #c#e#d-#c#e#h4 

,T\LM91 ,/EPH5 

#aiib ,COSMOPOLIS3 ,! ,HIDD5 ,AG5DA ( ,MOD]NITY4 ,*ICAGO3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS4 

#ba ,RETURN TO ,REASON4 ,CAMBRIDGE1 ,M,A43 ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,:ITAK]1 ,M>K ,P4 

#aiif 0,RELATIVISM40 ,9 ,5CYCLOP$IA ( ,SOCIAL & ,CULTURAL ,AN?ROPOLOGY 7,ALAN ,B>N>D @& ,JONA?AN ,SP5C] $S474 ,LONDON3 ,R\TL$GE4 

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,*RONOLOGY 3 
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