,SECTION #c1 ,*APT] #ca 
,! ,HI/ORICAL ,CONDITIONS ( ,ACCUMULATION3 ,PROTECTIVE ,T>IFFS & ,ACCUMULATION 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,ROSA ,LUXEMBURG 

,TEXT 3 

,I,M,P,],I,A,L,I,S,M IS ! POLITICAL EXPRESSION ( ! ACCUMULATION ( CAPITAL 9 ITS COMPETITIVE /RUGGLE = :AT REMA9S /ILL OP5 ( ! NON-CAPITALI/ 5VIRONM5T4 ,/ILL ! L>GE/ P>T ( ! WORLD 9 T]MS ( GEOGRAPHY1 ?IS REMA9+ FIELD = ! EXPANSION ( CAPITAL IS YET 9SIGNIFICANT AS AGA9/ ! HI< LEVEL ( DEVELOPM5T ALREADY ATTA9$ BY ! PRODUCTIVE =CES ( CAPITAL2 WITNESS ! IMM5SE MASSES ( CAPITAL ACCUMULAT$ 9 ! OLD C\NTRIES :I* SEEK AN \TLET = !IR SURPLUS PRODUCT & /RIVE TO CAPITALIZE !IR SURPLUS VALUE1 & ! RAPID *ANGE-OV] TO CAPITALISM ( ! PRE-CAPITALI/ CIVILIZATIONS4 ,ON ! 9T]NATIONAL /AGE1 !N1 CAPITAL MU/ TAKE APPROPRIATE MEASURES4 ,) ! HI< DEVELOPM5T ( ! CAPITALI/ C\NTRIES & !IR 9CREAS+LY SEV]E COMPETITION 9 ACQUIR+ NON-CAPITALI/ >EAS1 IMP]IALISM GR[S 9 LAWLESSNESS & VIOL5CE1 BO? 9 AGGRESSION AGA9/ ! NON-CAPITALI/ WORLD & 9 EV] MORE S]I\S CONFLICTS AMONG ! COMPET+ CAPITALI/ C\NTRIES4 ,BUT ! MORE VIOL5TLY1 RU?LESSLY & ?OR\<LY IMP]IALISM BR+S AB\T ! DECL9E ( NON-CAPITALI/ CIVILIZATIONS1 ! MORE RAPIDLY IT CUTS ! V]Y GR\ND FROM UND] ! FEET ( CAPITALI/ ACCUMULATION4 ,?\< IMP]IALISM IS ! HI/ORICAL ME?OD = PROLONG+ ! C>E] ( CAPITALISM1 IT IS ALSO A SURE MEANS ( BR++ IT TO A SWIFT CONCLUSION4 ,?IS IS NOT TO SAY ?AT CAPITALI/ DEVELOPM5T MU/ BE ACTUALLY DRIV5 TO ?IS EXTREME3 ! M]E T5D5CY T[>DS IMP]IALISM ( ITSELF TAKES =MS :I* MAKE ! F9AL PHASE ( CAPITALISM A P]IOD ( CATA/ROPHE4 

,CLASSICAL ECONOMICS1 9 ITS P]IOD ( /ORM & /RESS1 HAD HAD HI< HOPES ( A PEACEFUL DEVELOPM5T ( ! ACCUMULATION ( CAPITAL & ( A TRADE & 9DU/RY :I* CAN ONLY PROSP] 9 TIMES ( PEACE1 EVOLV+ ! OR?ODOX ,MAN*E/] IDEOLOGY ( ! H>MONY ( 9T]E/S AMONG ! WORLD'S COMM]CIAL NATIONS ON ! ONE H&1 & BETWE5 CAPITAL & LABOR ON ! O!R4 ,!SE HOPES W]E APP>5TLY JU/IFI$ 9 ,EUROPE BY ! %ORT P]IOD ( ,FREE ,TRADE 9 ! SIXTIES & SEV5TIES1 :I* WAS BAS$ UPON ! MI/AK5 DOCTR9E ( ! ,5GLI% ,FREE ,TRAD]S ?AT ! ONLY !ORETICAL & PRACTICAL CONDITION = ! ACCUMULATION ( CAPITAL IS COMMODITY EX*ANGE1 ?AT ! TWO >E ID5TICAL4 ,AS WE HAVE SE51 ,RIC>DO & HIS :OLE S*OOL ID5TIFI$ ACCUMULATION & ITS REPRODUCTIVE CONDITIONS ) SIMPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION & ! CONDITIONS ( SIMPLE COMMODITY CIRCULATION4 ,?IS WAS SOON TO BECOME EV5 MORE OBVI\S 9 ! PRACTICES ( ! COMMON ,FREE ,TRAD]4 ,! SPECIAL 9T]E/S ( ! EXPORT+ ,LANCA%IRE COTTON MANUFACTUR]S 9 ,MAN*E/] DET]M9$ ! 5TIRE L9E ( >GUM5T ( ! ,COBD5 ,LEAGUE4 ,!IR PR9CIPAL OBJECT WAS TO GET M>KETS1 & IT BECAME AN >TICLE ( FAI?3 ',BUY FROM =EIGN C\NTRIES & ?US 9 TURN SELL \R 9DU/RIAL PRODUCT1 \R COTTON GOODS1 ON ! NEW M>KETS4' ,COBD5 & ,BRI<T DEM&$ ,FREE ,TRADE & *EAP] FOOD/UFFS 9 P>TICUL> 9 ! 9T]E/ ( CONSUMPTION2 BUT ! CONSUM] WAS NOT ! WORK] :O EATS ! BREAD1 BUT ! CAPITALI/ :O CONSUMES LABOR P[]4 

,?IS TEA*+ NEV] EXPRESS$ ! 9T]E/S ( CAPITALI/ ACCUMULATION AS A :OLE4 ,9 ,5GL& H]SELF IT WAS GIV5 ! LIE ALREADY 9 ! =TIES1 :5 ! H>MONY ( 9T]E/S ( ! COMM]CIAL NATIONS 9 ! ,EA/ W]E PROCLAIM$ TO ! S\ND ( GUNFIRE 9 ! ,OPIUM ,W>S :I* ULTIMATELY1 BY ! ANNEXATION ( ,HONGKONG1 BR\<T AB\T ! V]Y OPPOSITE ( SU* H>MONY1 A SY/EM ( 'SPH]ES ( 9T]E/'47#a7 ,ON ! ,EUROPEAN ,CONT95T1 ,FREE ,TRADE 9 ! SIXTIES DID NOT REPRES5T ! 9T]E/S ( 9DU/RIAL CAPITAL1 BECAUSE ! =EMO/ ,FREE ,TRADE C\NTRIES ( ! ,CONT95T W]E /ILL PR$OM9ANTLY AGR>IAN ) A COMP>ATIVELY FEEBLE DEVELOPM5T ( 9DU/RY4 ,RA!R1 ! POLICY ( ,FREE ,TRADE WAS IMPLEM5T$ AS A MEANS = ! POLITICAL RECON/RUCTION ( ! ,C5TRAL ,EUROPEAN /ATES4 ,9 ,G]MANY1 UND] ,BISM>CK & ,MANTEUFFEL1 IT WAS A PECULI>LY ,PRUSSIAN LEV] = \/+ ,AU/RIA FROM ! ,BUND & ! ,ZOLLV]E9 & TO SET UP ! NEW ,G]MAN ,EMPIRE UND] ,PRUSSIAN LEAD]%IP4 ,ECONOMICALLY SPEAK+1 ! MA9/AYS ( ,FREE ,TRADE W]E 9 ?IS CASE ! 9T]E/S BO? ( COMM]CIAL CAPITAL1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! ,HANSA T[NS TO :OM 9T]NATIONAL TRADE WAS VITAL1 & ( AGR>IAN CONSUM]S2 AMONG 9DU/RY PROP]1 IT WAS O!RWISE4 ,! IRON 9DU/RY WAS WON OV] ONLY ) DIFFICULTY & 9 EX*ANGE = ! ABOLITION ( ! ,RH9E TOLLS4 ,BUT ! COTTON 9DU/RY 9 ,S\!RN ,G]MANY REMA9$ IRRECONCILABLE & CLUNG TO PROTECTIVE T>IFFS4 ,9 ,FRANCE1 'MO/ FAVOR$ NATIONS' CLAUSE' AGREEM5TS1 ! BASIS ( ! ,FREE ,TRADE SY/EM ALL OV] ,EUROPE1 W]E CONCLUD$ BY ,NAPOLEON ,I,I,I )\T ! CONS5T1 & EV5 AGA9/ ! WILL1 ( P>LIAM5T1 9DU/RIALI/S & AGR>IANS1 :O CON/ITUT$ AN ABSOLUTE MAJORITY1 BE+ 9 FAVOR ( PROTECTIVE T>IFFS4 ,! GOV]NM5T ( ! ,SECOND ,EMPIRE ONLY TOOK ! C\RSE ( COMM]CIAL TREATIES AS AN EM]G5CY MEASURE - ,BRITA9 ACCEPT$ IT AS SU* - 9 ORD] TO GET R\ND POLITICAL OPPOSITION 9 ,FRANCE & TO E/ABLI% ,FREE ,TRADE BEH9D ! BACK ( ! LEGISLATURE BY 9T]NATIONAL ACTION4 ,! FIR/ PR9CIPAL TREATY BETWE5 ,5GL& & ,FRANCE SIMPLY RODE R\<-%OD OV] PUBLIC OP9ION 9 ,FRANCE47#b7 ,TWO IMP]IAL DECREES ABOLI%$ ! OLD SY/EM ( ,FR5* PROTECTIVE T>IFFS :I* HAD BE5 9 =CE FROM #ahec TO #a#h#f#b4 ,) SCANT OBS]VANCE ( ! =MALITIES !Y W]E 'RATIFI$' 9 #a#h#f#c4 ,9 ,ITALY1 ,FREE ,TRADE WAS A PROP ( ,CAV\R'S POLICY1 DEP5D+ AS IT DID ON ,FR5* SUPPORT4 ,UND] PRESSURE ( PUBLIC OP9ION1 AN 9QUIRY WAS MADE 9 #ahg :I* REVEAL$ ?AT ?OSE MO/ 9TIMATELY CONC]N$ W]E HO/ILE TO ! POLICY ( ,FREE ,TRADE4 ,9 ,RUSSIA1 F9ALLY1 ! T5D5CY T[>DS ,FREE ,TRADE 9 ! SIXTIES WAS BUT ! FIR/ /EP T[>DS CREAT+ A BROAD BASIS = COMMODITY ECONOMY & 9DU/RY ON A L>GE SCALE1 COM+ AT ! SAME TIME AS ! ABOLITION ( S]FDOM & ! CON/RUCTION ( A RAILWAY NETWORK4 7#c7 

,?US ! V]Y 9CEPTION ( AN 9T]NATIONAL SY/EM ( ,FREE ,TRADE %[S IT TO BE JU/ A PASS+ PHASE 9 ! HI/ORY ( CAPITALI/ ACCUMULATION1 & IT %[S UP ! FALLACY ( ATTRIBUT+ ! G5]AL REV]SION TO PROTECTIVE T>IFFS AFT] ! SEV5TIES SIMPLY TO A DEF5SIVE REACTION AGA9/ ,5GLI% ,FREE ,TRADE47#d7 

,SU* AN EXPLANATION IS VITIAT$ BY ! FACT ?AT BO? 9 ,G]MANY & ,FRANCE ! LEAD]S 9 ! REV]SION TO PROTECTIVE T>IFFS W]E ! AGR>IAN 9T]E/S1 ?AT ! MEASURES W]E DIRECT$ NOT AGA9/ ,BRITI% BUT AGA9/ ,AM]ICAN COMPETITION1 & ?AT NOT ,5GL& BUT ,G]MANY CON/ITUT$ ! *IEF DANG] TO ! RIS+ HOME 9DU/RY 9 ,RUSSIA1 & ,FRANCE TO ?AT 9 ,ITALY4 ,NOR WAS ,BRITA9'S MONOPOLY ! CAUSE = ! WORLD-WIDE DEPRESSION :I* PREVAIL$ S9CE ! SEV5TIES & 9DUC$ ! DESIRE = PROTECTIVE T>IFFS4 ,WE MU/ LOOK DEEP] = ! REASONS RESPONSIBLE = ! *ANGE ( FRONT ON ! QUE/ION ( PROTECTIVE T>IFFS4 ,! DOCTR9E ( ,FREE ,TRADE ) ITS DELUSION AB\T ! H>MONY ( 9T]E/S ON ! WORLD M>KET CORRESPOND$ ) AN \TLOOK :I* CONCEIV$ ( EV]Y?+ 9 T]MS ( COMMODITY EX*ANGE4 ,IT WAS AB&ON$ JU/ AS SOON AS BIG 9DU/RIAL CAPITAL HAD BECOME SUFFICI5TLY E/ABLI%$ 9 ! PR9CIPAL C\NTRIES ( ! ,EUROPEAN ,CONT95T TO LOOK TO ! CONDITIONS = ITS ACCUMULATION4 ,AS AGA9/ ! MUTUAL 9T]E/S ( CAPITALI/ C\NTRIES1 !SE LATT] BR+ TO ! =E ! ANTAGONISM 5G5D]$ BY ! COMPETITIVE /RUGGLE = ! NON-CAPITALI/ 5VIRONM5T4 

,:5 ! ,FREE ,TRADE ]A OP5$1 ,EA/]N ,ASIA WAS ONLY JU/ BE+ MADE ACCESSIBLE BY ! ,*9ESE W>S1 & ,EUROPEAN CAPITAL HAD BUT BEGUN TO MAKE HEADWAY 9 ,EGYPT4 ,9 ! EI<TIES ! POLICY ( EXPANSION BECAME EV] /RONG]1 TOGE!R ) A POLICY ( PROTECTIVE T>IFFS4 ,!RE WAS AN UN9T]RUPT$ SUCCESSION ( EV5TS DUR+ ! EI<TIES3 ! ,BRITI% OCCUPATION ( ,EGYPT1 ,G]MANY'S COLONIAL CONQUE/S 9 ,AFRICA1 ! ,FR5* OCCUPATION ( ,TUNISIA TOGE!R ) ! ,TONK9 EXP$ITION1 ,ITALY'S ADVANCES 9 ,ASSAB & ,MASSAWA1 ! ,ABYSS9IAN W> & ! CREATION ( A SEP>ATE ,]ITREA1 & ! ,5GLI% CONQUE/S 9 ,S\? ,AFRICA4 ,! CLA% BETWE5 ,ITALY & ,FRANCE OV] ! ,TUNISIAN SPH]E ( 9T]E/ WAS ! *>ACT]I/IC PRELUDE TO ! ,FRANCO-,ITALIAN T>IFF W> SEV5 YE>S LAT]1 BY :I* DRA/IC EPILOGUE AN 5D WAS MADE TO ! ,FREE ,TRADE H>MONY ( 9T]E/S ON ! ,EUROPEAN ,CONT95T4 ,TO MONOPOLIZE ! NON-CAPITALI/ >EAS AT HOME & ABROAD BECAME ! W>-CRY ( CAPITAL1 :ILE ! FREE-TRADE POLICY ( ! 'OP5 DOOR' SPECIFICALLY REPRES5T$ ! PECULI> HELPLESSNESS ( NON-CAPITALI/ C\NTRIES 9 ! FACE ( 9T]NATIONAL CAPITAL & ! NATURAL EQUILIBRIUM :I* WAS AIM$ AT BY ITS COMPETITION 9 ! PRELIM9>Y /AGE ( ! P>TIAL OR TOTAL OCCUPATION ( !SE >EAS AS COLONIES OR SPH]ES ( 9T]E/4 ,AS ! OLDE/ CAPITALI/ ,EMPIRE1 ,5GL& ALONE C\LD SO F> REMA9 LOYAL TO ,FREE ,TRADE1 PRIM>ILY BECAUSE %E HAD LONG HAD IMM5SE POSSESSIONS ( NON-CAPITALI/ >EAS AS A BASIS = OP]ATIONS :I* AF=D$ H] ALMO/ UNLIMIT$ OPPORTUNITIES = CAPITALI/ ACCUMULATION4 ,UNTIL REC5TLY1 %E HAD ?US 9 FACT BE5 BEYOND ! COMPETITION ( O!R CAPITALI/ C\NTRIES4 ,!SE1 9 TURN1 UNIV]SALLY /ROVE TO BECOME SELF SUFFICI5T BEH9D A B>RI] ( PROTECTIVE T>IFFS2 YET !Y BUY ONE ANO!R'S COMMODITIES & COME TO DEP5D EV] MORE ONE UPON ANO!R = REPL5I%+ !IR MAT]IAL CONDITIONS ( REPRODUCTION4 ,9DE$1 PROTECTIVE T>IFFS HAVE BY N[ COMPLETELY LO/ !IR USE = TE*NICAL DEVELOPM5T ( ! PRODUCTIVE =CES1 ALL TOO (T5 BE+ ! 9/RUM5T = ! >TIFICIAL CONS]VATION ( OBSOLETE PRODUCTIVE ME?ODS4 ,! 9H]5T CONTRADICTIONS ( AN 9T]NATIONAL POLICY ( PROTECTIVE T>IFFS1 EXACTLY LIKE ! DUAL *>ACT] ( ! 9T]NATIONAL LOAN SY/EM1 >E JU/ A REFLECTION ( ! HI/ORICAL ANTAGONISM :I* HAS DEVELOP$ BETWE5 ! DUAL 9T]E/S ( ACCUMULATION3 EXPANSION1 ! REALIZATION & CAPITALIZATION ( SURPLUS VALUE ON ! ONE H&1 &1 ON ! O!R1 AN \TLOOK :I* CONCEIVES ( EV]Y?+ PURELY 9 T]MS ( COMMODITY EX*ANGE4 

,?IS FACT IS EVID5C$ P>TICUL>LY 9 ?AT ! MOD]N SY/EM ( HI< PROTECTIVE T>IFFS1 REQUIR$ BY COLONIAL EXPANSION & ! 9CREAS+ 9N] T5SION ( ! CAPITALI/ M$IUM1 WAS ALSO 9/ITUT$ ) A VIEW TO 9CREAS+ >MAM5TS4 ,! REV]SION TO PROTECTIVE T>IFFS WAS C>RI$ ?R\< 9 ,G]MANY AS WELL AS 9 ,FRANCE1 ,ITALY1 & ,RUSSIA1 TOGE!R )1 & 9 ! 9T]E/S (1 AN EXPANSION ( ! >M$ S]VICES1 AS ! BASIS = ! ,EUROPEAN COMPETITION 9 >MAM5TS :I* WAS DEVELOP+ AT ?AT TIME1 FIR/ ON L&1 & !N ALSO AT SEA4 ,EUROPEAN ,FREE ,TRADE1 ) ITS ATT5DANT CONT95TAL SY/EM ( 9FANTRY1 HAD BE5 SUP]S$$ BY PROTECTIVE T>IFFS AS ! F\NDATION & SUPPLEM5T ( AN IMP]IALI/ SY/EM ) A /RONG BIAS T[>DS NAVAL P[]4 

,?US CAPITALI/ ACCUMULATION AS A :OLE1 AS AN ACTUAL HI/ORICAL PROCESS1 HAS TWO DIFF]5T ASPECTS4 ,ONE CONC]NS ! COMMODITY M>KET & ! PLACE :]E SURPLUS VALUE IS PRODUC$ - ! FACTORY1 ! M9E1 ! AGRICULTURAL E/ATE4 ,REG>D$ 9 ?IS LI<T1 ACCUMULATION IS A PURELY ECONOMIC PROCESS1 ) ITS MO/ IMPORTANT PHASE A TRANSACTION BETWE5 ! CAPITALI/ & WAGE LABOR]4 ,9 BO? ITS PHASES1 H[EV]1 IT IS CONF9$ TO ! EX*ANGE ( EQUIVAL5TS & REMA9S )9 ! LIMITS ( COMMODITY EX*ANGE4 ,H]E1 9 =M AT ANY RATE1 PEACE1 PROP]TY & EQUALITY PREVAIL1 & ! KE5 DIALECTICS ( SCI5TIFIC ANALYSIS W]E REQUIR$ TO REVEAL H[ ! RI<T ( [N]%IP *ANGES 9 ! C\RSE ( ACCUMULATION 9TO APPROPRIATION ( O!R PEOPLE'S PROP]TY1 H[ COMMODITY EX*ANGE TURNS 9TO EXPLOITATION & EQUALITY BECOMES CLASS-RULE4 

,! O!R ASPECT ( ! ACCUMULATION ( CAPITAL CONC]NS ! RELATIONS BETWE5 CAPITALISM & ! NON-CAPITALI/ MODES ( PRODUCTION :I* />T MAK+ !IR APPE>ANCE ON ! 9T]NATIONAL /AGE4 ,ITS PR$OM9ANT ME?ODS >E COLONIAL POLICY1 AN 9T]NATIONAL LOAN SY/EM - A POLICY ( SPH]ES ( 9T]E/ - & W>4 ,=CE1 FRAUD1 OPPRESSION1 LOOT+ >E OP5LY DISPLAY$ )\T ANY ATTEMPT AT CONCEALM5T1 & IT REQUIRES AN EF=T TO DISCOV] )9 ?IS TANGLE ( POLITICAL VIOL5CE & CONTE/S ( P[] ! /]N LAWS ( ! ECONOMIC PROCESS4 

,B\RGEOIS LIB]AL !ORY TAKES 9TO ACC\NT ONLY ! =M] ASPECT3 ! REALM ( 'PEACEFUL COMPETITION'1 ! M>VELS ( TE*NOLOGY & PURE COMMODITY EX*ANGE2 IT SEP>ATES IT /RICTLY FROM ! O!R ASPECT3 ! REALM ( CAPITAL'S BLU/]+ VIOL5CE :I* IS REG>D$ AS MORE OR LESS 9CID5TAL TO =EIGN POLICY & QUITE 9DEP5D5T ( ! ECONOMIC SPH]E ( CAPITAL4 

,9 REALITY1 POLITICAL P[] IS NO?+ BUT A VEHICLE = ! ECONOMIC PROCESS4 ,! CONDITIONS = ! REPRODUCTION ( CAPITAL PROVIDE ! ORGANIC L9K BETWE5 !SE TWO ASPECTS ( ! ACCUMULATION ( CAPITAL4 ,! HI/ORICAL C>E] ( CAPITALISM CAN ONLY BE APPRECIAT$ BY TAK+ !M TOGE!R4 ',SWEAT+ BLOOD & FIL? ) EV]Y PORE FROM HEAD TO TOE' *>ACT]IZES NOT ONLY ! BIR? ( CAPITAL BUT ALSO ITS PROGRESS 9 ! WORLD AT EV]Y /EP1 & ?US CAPITALISM PREP>ES ITS [N D[NFALL UND] EV] MORE VIOL5T CONTORTIONS & CONVULSIONS4 

,FOOTNOTES 

7#a7 ,& NOT ONLY 9 ,5GL&4 ',EV5 9 #a#h#e#i1 A PAMPHLET1 ASCRIB$ TO ,DI]G>DT ( ,VI]S51 A FACTORY [N]1 WAS DISSEM9AT$ ALL OV] ,G]MANY1 URG+ ?AT C\NTRY TO MAKE SURE ( ! ,EA/-,ASIATIC M>KETS 9 GOOD TIME4 ,IT ADVOCAT$ ! DISPLAY ( MILIT>Y =CE AS ! ONLY MEANS = GETT+ COMM]CIAL ADVANTAGES FROM ! ,JAPANESE & ! ,EA/]N ,ASIATIC NATIONS 9 G5]AL4 ,A ,G]MAN FLEET1 BUILT ) ! PEOPLE'S SMALL SAV+S1 HAD BE5 A Y\?FUL DREAM1 LONG S9CE BR\<T UND] ! HAMM] BY ,HANNIBAL ,FIS*]4 ,?\< ,PRUSSIA HAD A FEW %IPS1 H] NAVAL P[] WAS NOT IMPRESSIVE4 ,BUT 9 ORD] TO 5T] 9TO COMM]CIAL NEGOTIATIONS ) ,EA/]N ,ASIA1 IT WAS DECID$ TO EQUIP A %IP4 ,GRAF ZU ,EUL5BURG1 ONE ( ! ABLE/ & MO/ PRUD5T ,PRUSSIAN /ATESM51 WAS APPO9T$ *IEF ( ?IS MISSION :I* ALSO HAD SCI5TIFIC OBJECTS4 ,UND] MO/ DIFFICULT CONDITIONS HE C>RI$ \T HIS COMMISSION ) GREAT SKILL1 & ?\< ! PLAN = SIMULTANE\S NEGOTIATIONS ) ! ,HAWAIIAN ISL&S HAD TO BE GIV5 UP1 ! MISSION WAS O!RWISE SUCCESSFUL4 ,?\< ! ,B]L9 PRESS ( ?AT TIME KNEW BETT]1 DECL>+ :5EV] A NEW DIFFICULTY WAS REPORT$1 ?AT IT WAS ONLY TO BE EXPECT$1 & D5\NC+ ALL EXP5DITURE ON NAVAL DEMON/RATIONS AS A WA/E ( ! TAXPAY]S' MONEY1 ! M9I/RY ( ! NEW ]A REMA9$ /EADFA/1 & ! H>VE/ ( SUCCESS WAS REAP$ BY ! M9I/RY ?AT FOLL[$' 7,W4 ,LOTZ1 ,DIE ,IDE5 D] DEUTS*5 ,H&ELSPOLITIK1 P4#h74 

7#b7 ,FOLL[+ ON ! PRELIM9>Y DISCUSSION BETWE5 ,MI*EL ,*EVALI] &4 ,RI*>D ,COBD5 ON BEHALF ( ! ,FR5* & ,5GLI% GOV]NM5TS1 '(FICIAL NEGOTIATIONS W]E %ORTLY 5T]$ UPON & W]E CONDUCT$ ) ! GREATE/ SECRECY4 ,ON ,JANU>Y #a1 #a#h#f1 ,NAPOLEON ,I,I,I ANN\NC$ HIS 9T5TIONS 9 A MEMOR&UM ADDRESS$ TO ,M4 ,F\LD1 ! ,M9I/] ( ,/ATE4 ,?IS DECL>ATION CAME LIKE A BOLT FROM ! BLUE4 ,AFT] ! EV5TS ( ! PA/ YE>1 ! G5]AL BELIEF WAS ?AT NO ATTEMPT W\LD BE MADE TO MODIFY ! T>IFF SY/EM BE=E #a#h#f#a4 ,FEEL+S RAN HI<1 BUT ALL ! SAME ! TREATY WAS SIGN$ ON ,JANU>Y #b#c' 7,AUGU/E ,DEV]S1 ,LA POLITIQUE COMM]CIALE DE LA ,FRANCE ,DEPUIS #a#h#f1 ,S*RIFT5 DES ,V]E9S FUR ,SOZIALPOLITIK1 VOL4#e#a1 P4#a#c#f74 

7#c7 ,BETWE5 #aheg & #a#h#f#h1 ! REVISION ALONG LIB]AL L9ES ( ! ,RUSSIAN T>IFFS & ! ULTIMATE WRIT+-(F ( ! 9SANE SY/EM ( KANTR9 ) REG>D TO PROTECTIVE T>IFFS W]E A MANIFE/ATION & COROLL>Y ( ! PROGRESSIVE RE=MS :I* ! DISA/R\S ,CRIMEAN W>S HAD MADE 9EVITABLE4 ,BUT ! R$UCTION ( CU/OMS DUTIES REFLECT$ ! CONC]N ( ! L&[N+ G5TRY :O1 BO? AS CONSUM]S ( =EIGN GOODS & AS PRODUC]S ( GRA9 = EXPORT1 W]E 9T]E/$ 9 UNRE/RICT$ COMM]CE BETWE5 ,RUSSIA & ,WE/]N ,EUROPE4 ,! *AMPION ( AGR>IAN 9T]E/S1 ! ',FREE ,ECONOMIC ,ASSOCIATION' /AT$3 

',DUR+ ! LA/ SIXTY YE>S1 BETWE5 #ahbb & #a#h#h#b1 AGRICULTURE1 ,RUSSIA'S L>GE/ PRODUC]1 WAS BR\<T TO A PREC>I\S POSITION [+ TO F\R GREAT SETBACKS4 ,!SE C\LD 9 EV]Y CASE BE DIRECTLY ATTRIBUT$ TO EXCESSIVE T>IFFS4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! ?IRTY-TWO YE>S BETWE5 #ahde & #ahgg :5 T>IFFS W]E MOD]ATE W5T BY )\T ANY SU* EM]G5CY1 9 SPITE ( ?REE =EIGN W>S & ONE CIVIL W> .<MEAN+ ! ,POLI% 9SURRECTION ( #ahfc - ,R4,L4.>1 EV]Y ONE ( :I* PROV$ A GREAT] OR LESS /RA9 ON ! F9ANCIAL RES\RCES ( ! /ATE' 7,MEMOR&UM ( ! ,IMP]IAL ,FREE ,ECONOMIC ,ASSOCIATION ON ,REVIS+ ,RUSSIAN ,T>IFFS1 ,/4 ,PET]SBURG #a#h#i1 P4#a#d#h74 

,AS LATE AS ! N9ETIES1 !N1 ! SCI5TIFIC SPOKESMAN ( ! ,FREE ,TRADE ,MOVEM5T1 ! SAID ',FREE ,ECONOMIC ,ASSOCIATION'1 HAD TO AGITATE AGA9/ PROTECTIVE T>IFFS AS A 'CONTRIVANCE TO TRANSPLANT' CAPITALI/ 9DU/RY TO ,RUSSIA4 ,9 A REACTION>Y 'POPULI/' SPIRIT1 IT D5\NC$ CAPITALISM AS A BRE$+ GR\ND = ! MOD]N PROLET>IAT1 '?OSE MASSES ( %IFTLESS PEOPLE )\T HOME OR PROP]TY :O HAVE NO?+ TO LOSE & HAVE LONG BE5 9 ILL REPUTE' 7P4#a#i#a74 ,?IS IS PRO( 5\< ?AT UNTIL MO/ REC5T TIMES ! ,RUSSIAN *AMPIONS ( ,FREE ,TRADE1 OR AT LEA/ ( MOD]ATE T>IFFS1 DID NOT TO ANY APPRECIABLE EXT5T REPRES5T ! 9T]E/S ( 9DU/RIAL CAPITAL4 ,CF4 ALSO ,K4 ,LODY%5SKI3 ,! ,HI/ORY ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,T>IFFS1 ,/4 ,PET]SBURG #a#h#h#f1 PP4#b#c#i-#e#h4 

7#d7 ,?IS IS ALSO ! OP9ION ( ,F4 ,5GELS4 ,9 ONE ( HIS LETT]S TO ,NIKOLAYON1 ON ,JUNE #a#h1 #a#h#i#b1 HE WRITES3 

',5GLI% AU?ORS1 BL9D$ BY !IR PATRIOTIC 9T]E/S1 COMPLETELY FAIL TO GRASP :Y ! :OLE WORLD SO /UBBORNLY REJECTS ,5GL&'S EXAMPLE ( FREE TRADE & ADOPTS 9 ITS PLACE ! PR9CIPLE ( PROTECTIVE T>IFFS4 ,( C\RSE1 !Y SIMPLY D>E NOT ADMIT EV5 TO !MSELVES ?AT ! SY/EM ( PROTECTIVE T>IFFS1 BY N[ ALMO/ UNIV]SAL1 IS M]ELY A DEF5SIVE MEASURE AGA9/ ,5GLI% FREE TRADE :I* WAS 9/RUM5TAL 9 P]FECT+ ,5GL&'S 9DU/RIAL MONOPOLY4 ,SU* A DEF5SE POLICY MAY BE MORE OR LESS REASONABLE - 9 SOME CASES IT IS D[NRI<T /UPID1 AS = 9/ANCE 9 ,G]MANY :O UND] ! SY/EM ( FREE TRADE HAD BECOME A GREAT 9DU/RIAL P[] & N[ IMPOSES PROTECTIVE T>IFFS ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS & RAW MAT]IALS1 ?US 9CREAS+ ! CO/ ( H] 9DU/RIAL PRODUCTION4 ,9 MY VIEW ?IS UNIV]SAL REV]SION TO PROTECTIVE T>IFFS IS NOT A M]E ACCID5T BUT ! REACTION AGA9/ ,5GL&'S 9TOL]ABLE 9DU/RIAL MONOPOLY4 ,! =M :I* ?IS REACTION TAKES1 AS ,I SAID BE=E1 MAY BE WRONG1 9ADEQUATE & EV5 WORSE1 BUT ITS HI/ORICAL NECESSITY SEEMS TO ME QUITE CLE> & OBVI\S' 7,LETT]S ( ,K>L ,M>X & ,FR$]ICK ,5GELS TO ,NIKOLAYON1 ,/4 ,PET]SBURG #a#i#h1 P4#g#a74 

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,*RONOLOGY 3 
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,M>* #f1 #bba 3 ,SECTION #c1 ,*APT] #ca -- ,UPDAT$4 

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