,! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION #afd 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,*RI/OPH] ,HILL 

,TEXT 3 

,CONT5TS 

,PREFACE 

#a4 ,9TRODUCTION 

#b4 ,ECONOMIC ,BACKGR\ND ( ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION 

7A7 ,! ,L& 
7B7 ,9DU/RY & ,TRADE 

#c4 ,POLITICAL ,BACKGR\ND ( ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION 

7A7 ,! ,TUDOR ,MON>*Y 
7B7 ,! ,RESI/ANCE TO ! ,/U>TS 

#d4 ,! ,REVOLUTION 

,PREFACE 

,S,O,M,E SLI<T *ANGES HAVE BE5 MADE = ! ?IRD $ITIONS ( ?IS ESSAY1 FIR/ PUBLI%$ 9 #a#i#d4 ,MORE SUB/ANTIAL REVISION & EXPANSION W\LD BE NE$$ TO 9CORPORATE ! RESULTS ( REC5T WORK ON ! P]IOD1 ESPECIALLY ?AT ( ,MAURICE ,DOBB 9 HIS ,/UDIES 9 ! ,DEVELOPM5T ( ,CAPITALISM4 ,MEAN:ILE ?IS ESSAY MU/ /& AS A FIR/ APPROXIMATION1 ) ALL ITS CRUDITIES & OV]SIMPLIFICATIONS4 ,= DOCUM5T>Y EVID5CE = SOME ( MY G5]ALIZATIONS ! READ] MAY BE REF]R$ TO ,! ,GOOD ,OLD ,CAUSE1 PUBLI%$ BY ,LAWR5CE & ,WI%>T 9 #a#i#d#i4 

,IT MAY HELP IF ,I ATTEMPT H]E A DEF9ITION ( TWO T]MS :I* SEEM TO HAVE CAUS$ SOME MISUND]/&+4 

,I USE ! WORD FEUDAL 9 ! ,M>XI/ S5SE1 & NOT 9 ! MORE RE/RICT$ S5SE ADOPT$ BY MO/ ACADEMIC HI/ORIANS TO DESCRIBE N>R[LY MILIT>Y & LEGAL RELATIONS4 ,BY 0FEUDALISM0 ,I MEAN A =M ( SOCIETY 9 :I* AGRICULTURE IS ! BASIS ( ECONOMY & 9 :I* POLITICAL P[] IS MONOPOLIZ$ BY A CLASS ( L&[N]S4 ,! MASS ( ! POPULATION CONSI/S ( DEP5D5T PEASANTS SUBSI/+ ON ! PRODUCE ( !IR FAMILY HOLD+S4 ,! L&[N]S >E MA9TA9$ BY ! R5T PAID BY ! PEASANTS1 :I* MI<T BE 9 ! =M ( FOOD OR LABOR1 AS 9 E>LY DAYS1 OR 7BY ! SIXTE5? C5TURY7 9 MONEY4 ,9 SU* A SOCIETY !RE IS ROOM = SMALL H&ICRAFT PRODUCTION1 EX*ANGE ( PRODUCTS1 9T]NAL & OV]SEAS TRADE2 BUT COMM]CE & 9DU/RY >E SUBORD9AT$ TO & PLUND]$ BY ! L&[N]S & !IR ,/ATE4 ,M]*ANT CAPITAL CAN DEVELOP )9 FEUDALISM )\T *ANG+ ! MODE ( PRODUCTION2 A *ALL5GE TO ! OLD RUL+ CLASS & ITS /ATE COMES ONLY ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! CAPITALI/ MODE ( PRODUCTION 9 9DU/RY & AGRICULTURE4 

,! WORD PROGRESSIVE AS US$ 9 ?IS ESSAY DOES NOT NECESS>ILY IMPLY MORAL APPROVAL4 ,IT MEANS SIMPLY ?AT ! T5D5CY OR SOCIAL GR\P SO DESCRIB$ CONTRIBUT$ TO ! EXPANSION ( ! WEAL? ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,! 0PROGRESSIVE0 7I4E4 CAPITALI/7 F>M+ ( ! SIXTE5? & SEV5TE5? C5TURIES L$ TO EXPROPRIATION ( MANY SMALL PEASANTS2 ! WEAL? PRODUC$ BY ! NEW ME?ODS CAME 9TO ! H&S ( A SMALL GR\P ( PR(ITE]S2 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY WAS BROK5 UP4 ,NEV]!LESS1 MORE WEAL? WAS PRODUC$3 ! ALT]NATIVE W\LD HAVE BE5 ECONOMIC /AGNATION OR RETROGRESSION4 ,EI<TE5?- & N9ETE5?-C5TURY ,SPA9 %[ :AT SU* /AGNATION W\LD HAVE MEANT = ! POLITICAL & CULTURAL LIFE ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,9 ! LONG RUN ! CREATION ( NEW WEAL? BY ! RISE ( CAPITALISM 9 ,5GL& OP5$ UP ! POSSIBILITY ( A MORE EQUITABLE DI/RIBUTION AT A NEW LEVEL1 JU/ AS ! HORRORS ( ! 9DU/RIAL REVOLUTION 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY CREAT$ ! ECONOMIC BASIS = A TRANSITION TO SOCIALISM4 ,?US AL?\< ,I AM F> FROM 0APPROV+0 ( ANY T5D5CY :I* ,I LABEL 0PROGRESSIVE0 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 ! SUGGE/ION IS ?AT ( POSSIBLE ALT]NATIVES IT WAS ?AT T5D5CY 7BECAUSE IT DEVELOP$ ! NATIONAL WEAL?7 )\T :I* ! ADVANCE TO A BETT] SOCIETY W\LD HAVE BE5 IMPOSSIBLE4 ,WE DO NOT NE$ TO IDEALIZE 0M]RIE ,5GL&0 TO REALIZE ?AT MU* WAS LO/ BY ! DISRUPTION ( ! M$IEVAL VILLAGE2 BUT ITS RELATIVE EQUALITY & COMMUNAL SPIRIT HAD ALWAYS BE5 ACCOMPANI$ BY GR9D+ POV]TY = ! MASS ( ! POPULATION1 & W]E DOOM$ BY ! SIXTE5? C5TURY ANYWAY4 ,EQUALITY & A COMMUNAL SPIRIT1 COMB9$ ) A REASONABLE & RIS+ /&>D ( LIV+1 ONLY BECAME ATTA9ABLE AFT] CAPITALISM HAS P]=M$ ITS HI/ORICAL TASK ( LAY+ ! 9DU/RIAL F\NDATION = A SOCIALI/ SOCIETY4 ,H5CE TO-DAY WE CAN AT LA/ SEE \R WAY TO REALIZ+ ! DREAMS ( ! ,LEVEL]S & ,DIGG]S 9 #a#f#d#i4 

,*,R,I,/,O,P,H,] ,H,I,L,L 

,M>* #aiee 

#a4 ,9TRODUCTION 

  

,! OBJECT ( ?IS ESSAY IS TO SUGGE/ AN 9T]PRETATION ( ! EV5TS ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY DIFF]5T FROM ?AT :I* MO/ ( US W]E TAU<T AT S*OOL4 ,TO SUMM>IZE IT BRIEFLY1 ?IS 9T]PRETATION IS ?AT ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION ( #a#f#d-#f WAS A GREAT SOCIAL MOVEM5T LIKE ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION ( #a#g#h#i4 ,! /ATE P[] PROTECT+ AN OLD ORD] ?AT WAS ESS5TIALLY FEUDAL WAS VIOL5TLY OV]?R[N1 P[] PASS$ 9TO ! H&S ( A NEW CLASS1 & SO ! FRE] DEVELOPM5T ( CAPITALISM WAS MADE POSSIBLE4 ,! ,CIVIL ,W> WAS A CLASS W>1 9 :I* ! DESPOTISM ( ,*>LES ,I WAS DEF5D$ BY ! REACTION>Y =CES ( ! E/ABLI%$ ,*UR* & CONS]VATIVE L&LORDS4 ,P>LIAM5T BEAT ! ,K+ BECAUSE IT C\LD APPEAL TO ! 5?USIA/IC SUPPORT ( ! TRAD+ & 9DU/RIAL CLASSES 9 T[N & C\NTRYSIDE1 TO ! YEOM5 & PROGRESSIVE G5TRY1 & TO WID] MASSES ( ! POPULATION :5EV] !Y W]E ABLE BY FREE DISCUSSION TO UND]/& :AT ! /RUGGLE WAS REALLY AB\T4 ,! RE/ ( ?IS ESSAY WILL TRY TO PROVE & ILLU/RATE !SE G5]ALIZATIONS4 

,! OR?ODOX ATTITUDE TO ! SEV5TE5?-C5TURY REVOLUTION IS MISLEAD+ BECAUSE IT DOES NOT TRY TO P5ETRATE BEL[ ! SURFACE1 BECAUSE IT TAKES ! ACTORS 9 ! REVOLUTION AT !IR FACE VALUE1 & ASSUMES ?AT ! BE/ WAY TO F9D \T :AT PEOPLE W]E FI<T+ AB\T IS TO CONSID] :AT ! LEAD]S SAID !Y W]E FI<T+ AB\T4 ,WE ALL KN[ ?AT DUR+ ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY ,5GL& UND]W5T A PR(\ND POLITICAL REVOLUTION4 ,EV]YONE HAS HE>D ( ,OLIV] ,CROMWELL & HIS ,R\NDHEADS1 ,K+ ,*>LES & HIS ,CAVALI]S1 & WE ALL KN[ ?AT A ,K+ ( ,5GL& HAD HIS HEAD CUT (F4 ,BUT :Y DID ?IS HAPP58 ,:AT WAS IT ALL AB\T8 ,HAS IT ANY SIGNIFICANCE = US AT ! PRES5T DAY8 

,!SE QUE/IONS >E NOT USUALLY V]Y SATISFACTORILY ANSW]$ 9 ! TEXT-BOOKS4 ,! BLOOD%$ & VIOL5CE :I* ACCOMPANI$ ! REVOLUTION >E SLURR$ OV] AS REGRETTABLE 9CID5TS1 :5 ,5GLI%M5 = ONCE DESC5D$ TO ! WICK$ CONT95TAL PRACTICE ( FI<T+ ONE ANO!R AB\T POLITICS4 ,BUT ?AT WAS ONLY BECAUSE MI/AKES W]E MADE1 OPPORTUNITIES = ,BRITI% COMPROMISE W]E M9$3 :AT A GOOD ?+1 ! BOOKS IMPLY1 ?AT WE >E SO MU* WIS] & MORE S5SIBLE TO-DAY6 ,SO !Y DO NOT EV] GIVE US REASONS :I* W\LD SEEM TO US SUFFICI5T TO JU/IFY ! DEVOTION & ! SACRIFICES ( \R ANCE/ORS 9 !IR /RUGGLES4 

,! MO/ USUAL EXPLANATION ( ! SEV5TE5?-C5TURY REVOLUTION IS ONE ?AT WAS PUT =W>D BY ! LEAD]S ( ! ,P>LIAM5T ( #afd !MSELVES 9 !IR PROPAG&A /ATEM5TS & APPEALS TO ! PEOPLE4 ,IT HAS BE5 REPEAT$ ) ADDITIONAL DETAIL & ADORNM5TS BY ,:IG & ,LIB]AL HI/ORIANS EV] S9CE4 ,?IS EXPLANATION SAYS ?AT ! ,P>LIAM5T>Y >MIES W]E FI<T+ = ! LIB]TY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL & HIS RI<TS 9 LAW AGA9/ A TYRANNICAL ,GOV]NM5T ?AT ?REW HIM 9TO PRISON )\T TRIAL BY JURY1 TAX$ HIM )\T ASK+ HIS CONS5T1 BILLET$ SOLDI]S 9 HIS H\SE1 ROBB$ HIM ( HIS PROP]TY1 & ATTEMPT$ TO DE/ROY HIS *]I%$ ,P>LIAM5T>Y 9/ITUTIONS4 ,N[ ALL ?IS IS TRUE - AS F> AS IT GOES4 ,! ,/U>TS DID TRY TO /OP PEOPLE MEET+ & HOLD+ POLITICAL DISCUSSIONS1 DID CUT (F ! E>S ( PEOPLE :O CRITICIZ$ ! ,GOV]NM5T4 DID >BITR>ILY COLLECT TAXES :I* W]E V]Y UNEQUAL 9 !IR 9CID5CE1 DID TRY TO %UT UP ,P>LIAM5T & TRY BY NOM9AT$ (FICIALS4  ,ALL ?AT IS TRUE4 ,& AL?\< ,P>LIAM5T 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY WAS EV5 LESS G5U9ELY REPRES5TATIVE ( ORD9>Y PEOPLE ?AN IT IS AT ! PRES5T DAY1 /ILL ITS VICTORY WAS IMPORTANT AS E/ABLI%+ A C]TA9 AM\NT ( SELF-GOV]NM5T = ! RI*] CLASSES 9 SOCIETY4 

,BUT FUR!R QUE/IONS >E /ILL UNANSW]$4 ,:Y DID ! ,K+ BECOME TYRANNICAL8 ,:Y DID ! L&$ & COMM]CIAL CLASSES REPRES5T$ 9 ,P>LIAM5T HAVE TO FI<T = !IR LIB]TIES8 ,DUR+ ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 UND] ! ,TUDOR RUL]S1 ! GR&FA!RS ( ! ,P>LIAM5T>IANS ( #afd W]E ! MON>*Y'S /\TE/ SUPPORT]S4 ,:AT HAD HAPP5$ TO *ANGE !IR \TLOOK8 ,P>LIAM5T HAD SUPPORT$ ,H5RY ,V,I,I & ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I & ,ELIZABE? 9 !IR EF=TS TO POLICE ! C\NTRY AGA9/ ! AN>*Y & BRIG&AGE ( OV]-MI<TY SUBJECTS1 ( FEUDAL POT5TATES ) !IR PRIVATE >MIES1 & ,5GL& HAD BE5 MADE SAFE = COMM]CIALISM4 ,P>LIAM5T HAD ALSO SUPPORT$ ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I & ,ELIZABE? 9 !IR VICTORI\S /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! 9T]NATIONAL ,CA?OLIC ,*UR*3 MONEY NO LONG] W5T FROM ,5GL& TO ,ROME1 ,BRITI% POLICY WAS NO LONG] DICTAT$ BY A =EIGN P[]4 ,P>LIAM5T1 F9ALLY1 5C\RAG$ ,QUE5 ,ELIZABE? 9 H] RESI/ANCE TO ! POLITICAL ALLY ( ! ,PAPACY1 ! ,SPANI% ,EMPIRE1 & ! PLUND] ( ! ,NEW ,WORLD WAS ?R[N OP5 TO ,DRAKE1 ,HAWK9S & ! PIRATICAL BUT ,PROTE/ANT SEADOGS4 

,! ,TUDORS1 9 %ORT1 W]E BACK$ BY ! POLITICALLY EFFECTIVE CLASSES BECAUSE ! LATT] DID V]Y WELL \T ( ,TUDOR RULE4 ,:Y DID ! ,/U>TS1 ,JAMES ,I & ,*>LES ,I1 LOSE ?IS SUPPORT8 ,IT WAS NOT JU/ BECAUSE ,JAMES1 :O SUCCE$$ ,ELIZABE? 9 #a#f#c1 WAS A P>TICUL>LY /UPID MAN1 A ,SCOT :O DID NOT UND]/& ,5GL&1 ?\< MANY HI/ORIANS HAVE S]I\SLY >GU$ ?US4 ,BUT ONE HAS ONLY TO READ :AT ,JAMES1 ,*>LES & !IR SUPPORT]S WROTE & SAID1 OR EXAM9E :AT !Y DID1 TO SEE ?AT SO F> FROM BE+ M]ELY /UPID1 !Y W]E EI!R ABLE M5 TRY+ TO IMPOSE A VICI\S POLICY1 OR M5 :OSE IDEAS W]E HOPELESSLY \T ( DATE & !RE=E REACTION>Y4 ,! CAUSES ( ! CIVIL W> MU/ BE S\<T 9 SOCIETY1 NOT 9 9DIVIDUALS4 

,ANO!R S*OOL ( HI/ORIANS - :I* WE MAY CALL 0,TORY10 AS OPPOS$ TO ! ,:IGS - HOLDS ?AT ! ROYAL POLICY WAS NOT TYRANNICAL AT ALL1 ?AT ,*>LES ,I1 AS HE TOLD ! ,C\RT :I* S5T5C$ HIM TO DEA?1 SPOKE 0NOT = MY [N RI<T ALONE1 AS ,I AM Y\R ,K+1 BUT = ! TRUE LIB]TY ( ALL MY SUBJECTS40 ,CL>5DON1 :O DES]T$ ! ,P>LIAM5T 9 #afdb & LAT] BECAME ,*>LES ,I,I'S FIR/ M9I/]1 DEVELOP$ ?IS !ORY 9 SEV]AL VOLUMES ( ELOQU5T PROSE 9 HIS ,HI/ORY ( ! ,GREAT ,REBELLION2 IT IS N[ PROPAGAT$ BY A NUMB] ( HI/ORIANS :OSE POLITICAL PREJUDICES1 ROYALI/ OR ,CA?OLIC SYMPA?IES1 & BIAS AGA9/ LIB]ALISM 9 G5]AL1 MAKE UP = !IR LACK ( HI/ORICAL UND]/&+4 ,!IR IDEA IS ?AT ,*>LES ,I & HIS ADVIS]S W]E REALLY TRY+ TO PROTECT ORD9>Y PEOPLE FROM ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION BY A SMALL CLASS ( CAPITALI/S ON ! MAKE2 & ?AT ! OPPOSITION :I* FAC$ ,*>LES WAS ORGANIZ$ & WORK$ UP TO S]VE !IR [N PURPOSES BY ?OSE BUS9ESS M5 :O ID5TIFI$ !IR 9T]E/S ) ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS 9 POLITICS & ,PURITANISM 9 RELIGION4 

,N[1 IT IS TRUE ?AT ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION ( #a#f#d1 LIKE ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION ( #a#g#h#i1 WAS A /RUGGLE = POLITICAL1 ECONOMIC & RELIGI\S P[]1 WAG$ BY ! MIDDLE CLASS1 ! B\RGEOISIE1 :I* GREW 9 WEAL? & /R5G? AS CAPITALISM DEVELOP$4 ,BUT IT IS NOT TRUE ?AT AS AGA9/ !M ! ROYAL ,GOV]NM5T /OOD = ! 9T]E/S ( ! COMMON PEOPLE3 ON ! CONTR>Y1 ! POPUL> P>TIES PROV$ TO BE ! ,K+'S MO/ MILITANT OPPON5TS1 F> MORE VIGOR\S & RU?LESS & ?OR\<-GO+ ?AN ! B\RGEOISIE ITSELF4 

,! 9T]E/S = :I* ,*>LES'S MON>*Y /OOD W]E NOT ?OSE ( ! COMMON PEOPLE AT ALL4 ,IT REPRES5T$ ! L&[N+ NOBLES1 & ITS POLICY WAS 9FLU5C$ BY A ,C\RT CLIQUE ( >I/OCRATIC COMM]CIAL RACKETE]S & !IR HANG]S-ON1 SUCK+ ! LIFE-BLOOD FROM ! :OLE PEOPLE BY ME?ODS ( ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION :I* WE %ALL BE CONSID]+ LAT] ON4 ,! MIDDLE-CLASS /RUGGLE TO %AKE (F ! CONTROL ( ?IS GR\P WAS NOT M]ELY SELFI%2 IT FULFILL$ A PROGRESSIVE HI/ORICAL FUNCTION4 ,! %>P]-WITT$ L&[N]S W]E GRAFT+ !MSELVES AS P>ASITES ON TO ! NEW GR[? ( CAPITALISM1 S9CE !IR [N MODE ( ECONOMIC EXI/5CE NO LONG] SUFFIC$ TO MA9TA9 !M4 ,IT WAS NECESS>Y = ! FUR!R DEVELOPM5T ( CAPITALISM ?AT ?IS *OK+ P>ASITISM %\LD BE 5D$ BY ! OV]?R[ ( ! FEUDAL /ATE4 ,IT WAS TO ! ADVANTAGE ( ! MASSES ( ! POPULATION ?AT CAPITALISM %\LD BE ALL[$ TO DEVELOP FREELY4 ,UND] ! OLD ORD]1 9 ! C5TURY BE=E #a#f#d1 REAL WAGES = LABOR]S 9 9DU/RY & AGRICULTURE FELL MORE ?AN ONE HALF3 9 ! C5TURY AFT] #afd !Y MORE !Y ?AN D\BL$4 

,! NEW ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5TS ( ! SIXTE5? & SEV5TE5? C5TURIES MADE ! OLD ECONOMIC & SOCIAL & POLITICAL SY/EM HOPELESSLY \T ( DATE4 ,?OSE ( ITS DEF5D]S REGRETFULLY BACK TO ! /ABILITY & RELATIVE ! PEASANTRY 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES W]E QUITE UNREALI/IC & 9 EFFECT REACTION>Y4 ,!IR ROLE WAS ! SAME AS ?AT ( MANY LIB]ALS AT ! PRES5T DAY :O ?9K H[ NICE IT W\LD BE IF CAPITALISM C\LD /ILL WORK 9 ! 0LIB]AL0 N9ETE5?-C5TURY WAY1 )\T HAV+ TO RESORT QUITE SO FREQU5TLY TO FASCISM & W>4 ,BUT F9E WORDS ALT] NO HI/ORIC PROCESSES4 ,HI/ORY HAS PASS$ ON & LEFT !SE APOLOGI/S ( AN IMAG9>Y SY/EM /&+1 JU/ AS IT LEFT ,*>LES ,I'S DEF5D]S4 

,!SE TWO !ORIES1 !N1 >E BO? ONE-SID$4 ,! ,:IGS /RESS ! PROGRESSIVE NATURE ( ! REVOLUTION1 & SLUR OV] ! FACT ?AT ! CLASS ?AT TOOK ! LEAD 9 ! REVOLUTION & MO/ PR(IT$ BY ITS A*IEVEM5TS WAS ! B\RGEOISIE4 ,!IR 9T]PRETATION P]PETUATES ! LEG5D ?AT ! 9T]E/S ( ! B\RGEOISIE >E ID5TICAL ) ?OSE ( ! NATION1 A LEG5D OBVI\SLY CONV5I5T = \R [N DAY1 ?\< SO MU* LESS TRUE N[ ?AN 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY4 ,! ,TORIES1 ON ! O!R H&1 /RESS ! CLASS NATURE ( ! REVOLUTION 9 AN ATTEMPT TO D5Y ITS PROGRESSIV5ESS & VALUE 9 ITS [N TIME1 TO :ITEWA% FEUDALISM1 & TO SUGGE/ ?AT REVOLUTIONS NEV] B5EFIT MORE ?AN A N>R[ CLIQUE4 ,A REC5T V]SION SUGGE/S ?AT ALL POLITICS IS A DIRTY GAME1 ALL PR9CIPLES >E EYE-WA%1 ALL REVOLUTIONS USELESS4 

,A ?IRD & MORE FAMILI> !ORY IS EMPHASIZ$ BY BO? SIDES3 ?AT ! CONFLICT WAS TO DECIDE :I* ( TWO RELIGIONS1 ,PURITANISM OR ,ANGLICANISM1  WAS TO BE DOM9ANT 9 ,5GL&4 ,H]E1 AGA91 ! EFFECT ( ?IS EXPLANATION IS TO MAKE US PITY & MISUND]/& ! M5 ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 &4 CONGRATULATE \RSELVES ON BE+ SO MU* MORE S5SIBLE TO-DAY3 H[EV] MU* ,ANGLICANS & ,NONCON=MI/S MAY DISLIKE ONE ANO!R P]SONALLY1 WE SAY1 !Y NO LONG] FI<T 9 ! VILLAGE /REET4 ,BUT ?IS IS TO MISS ! PO9T4 ,C]TA9LY RELIGI\S SQUABBLES FILL MANY PAGES ( ! PAMPHLET LIT]ATURE ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY3 BO? SIDES JU/IFI$ !IR ATTITUDE ULTIMATELY 9 RELIGI\S T]MS1 BELIEV$ !Y W]E FI<T+ ,GOD'S BATTLES4 ,BUT 0RELIGION0 COV]$ SOME?+ MU* WID] ?AN IT DOES TO-DAY4 ,! ,*UR* ?R\<\T ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 & D[N TO ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 WAS SOME?+ V]Y DIFF]5T FROM :AT WE CALL A ,*UR* TO-DAY4 ,IT GUID$ ALL ! MOVEM5TS ( M5 FROM BAPTISM TO ! BURIAL S]VICE1 & WAS ! GATEWAY TO ?AT LIFE TO COME 9 :I* ALL M5 F]V5TLY BELIEV$4 ,! ,*UR* $UCAT$ *ILDR52 9 ! VILLAGE P>I%ES - :]E ! MASS ( ! PEOPLE WAS ILLIT]ATE - ! P>SON'S S]MON WAS ! MA9 S\RCE ( 9=MATION ON CURR5T EV5TS & PROBLEMS1 ( GUIDANCE ON ECONOMIC CONDUCT4 ,! P>I% ITSELF WAS AN IMPORTANT UNIT ( LOCAL GOV]NM5T1 COLLECT+ & DOL+ \T SU* PITTANCES AS ! POOR RECEIV$4 ,! ,*UR* CONTROLL$ M5'S FEEL+S & TOLD !M :AT TO BELIEVE1 PROVID$ !M ) 5T]TA9M5T & %[S4 ,IT TOOK ! PLACE ( NEWS & PROPAG&A S]VICES  N[ COV]$ BY MANY DIFF]5T & MORE EFFICI5T 9/ITUTIONS - ! ,PRESS1 ! ,B4,B4,C41 ! C9EMA1 ! CLUB1 & SO =?4 ,?AT IS :Y M5 TOOK NOTES AT S]MONS2 IT IS ALSO :Y ! GOV]NM5T (T5 TOLD PREA*]S EXACTLY :AT TO PREA*4 

,= EXAMPLE1 ,QUE5 ,ELIZABE? 0TUN$ H] PULPITS0 70AS GOV]N+ P]SONS N[ /RIVE TO TUNE !IR MORN+ NEWSPAP]S10 SAID ,C>LYLE72 %E CIRCULAT$ AN (FICIAL BOOK ( HOMILIES TO ALL PREA*]S TO MAKE SURE !Y SAID ! RI<T ?+S4 ,IT WAS 0TO BE READ 9 EV]Y P>I% *UR* AGREEABLY01 & CONCLUDES ) A S]MON 9 SIX P>TS CONDEMN+ 0DISOB$I5CE & WILLFUL REBELLION40 ,BI%OPS & PRIE/S W]E F> MORE LIKE CIVIL S]VANTS1 P>T ( ! GOV]NM5T'S ADM9I/RATIVE MA*9E1 ?AN !Y >E AT PRES5T2 & ! FIR/ TO RECOGNIZE ?IS FACT W]E ! ECCLESIA/ICS !MSELVES4 ,BANCR(T1 A PRELATE ( LATE ,ELIZABE?AN TIMES1 MOCK$ AT ! ,PURITAN CLAIM TO BE DEAL+ SIMPLY ) ,*UR* MATT]S4 0,H[ F> !SE WORDS ,*UR* CAUSES 444 EXT5D60 HE CRI$4 0,Y\ SEE :AT AN 9F9ITE SEA ( AFFAIRS !Y W\LD ?RU/ !IR ELD]%IPS40 0,PRESUME NOT10 W>N$ ! ,ANGLICAN ,HOOK]1 0YE >E %EEP1 TO MAKE Y\RSELVES GUIDES ( !M ?AT GUIDE Y\ 444 ,= ,GOD IS NOT A ,GOD ( S$ITION & CONFUSION1 BUT ( ORD] & ( PEACE40 

,*UR*1 !N1 DEF5D$ ! EXI/+ ORD]1 & IT WAS IMPORTANT = ! ,GOV]NM5T TO MA9TA9 ITS CONTROL OV] ?IS PUBLICITY & PROPAG&A AG5CY4 ,= ! SAME REASON1 ?OSE :O WANT$ TO OV]?R[ ! FEUDAL /ATE HAD TO ATTACK & SEIZE CONTROL ( ! ,*UR*4 ,?AT IS :Y POLITICAL !ORIES T5D$ TO GET WRAPP$ UP 9 RELIGI\S LANGUAGE4 ,IT WAS NOT ?AT \R SEV5TE5?-C5TURY =EFA!RS W]E MU* MORE CONSCI5TI\S & SA9TLY M5 ?AN WE >E4 ,:ATEV] MAY BE TRUE ( ,IREL& OR ,SPA91 WE 9 ,5GL& TO-DAY CAN SEE \R PROBLEMS 9 SECUL> T]MS JU/ BECAUSE \R ANCE/ORS PUT AN 5D TO ! USE ( ! ,*UR* AS AN EXCLUSIVE & P]SECUT+ 9/RUM5T ( POLITICAL MA/]S1 NOT BECAUSE WE >E WIS] & BETT]1 BUT BECAUSE ,CROMWELL1 /ABL+ 9 CA!DRALS ! HORSES ( ! MO/ DISCIPL9$ & MO/ DEMOCRATIC CAVALRY ! WORLD HAD YET SE51 WON A VICTORY :I* = EV] /OPP$ M5 BE+ FLOGG$ & BR&$ = HAV+ UNOR?ODOX VIEWS AB\T ! ,COMMUNION S]VICE4 ,AS LONG AS ! P[] ( ! ,/ATE WAS WEAK & UNC5TRALIZ$1 ! ,*UR* ) ITS P>SON 9 EV]Y P>I%1 ! P>SON ) HONOR$ ACCESS TO EV]Y H\SEHOLD1 C\LD TELL PEOPLE :AT TO BELIEVE & H[ TO BEHAVE2 & BEH9D ! ?REATS & C5SURES ( ! ,*UR* W]E ALL ! T]RORS ( HELL FIRE4 ,UND] !SE CIRCUM/ANCES SOCIAL CONFLICTS 9EVITABLY BECAME RELIGI\S CONFLICTS4 

,BUT ! FACT ?AT M5 SPOKE & WROTE 9 RELIGI\S LANGUAGE %\LD NOT PREV5T US REALIZ+ ?AT !RE IS A SOCIAL CONT5T BEH9D :AT >E APP>5TLY PURELY !OLOGICAL IDEAS4 ,EA* CLASS CREAT$ & S\<T TO IMPOSE ! RELIGI\S \TLOOK BE/ SUIT$ TO ITS [N NE$S & 9T]E/S4 ,BUT ! REAL CLA% IS BETWE5 !SE CLASS 9T]E/S3 BEH9D ! P>SON /OOD ! SQUIRE4 

,IT IS NOT !N D5I$ ?AT ! 0,PURITAN ,REVOLUTION0 WAS A RELIGI\S AS WELL AS A POLITICAL /RUGGLE2 BUT IT WAS MORE ?AN ?AT4 ,:AT M5 W]E FI<T+ AB\T WAS ! :OLE NATURE & FUTURE DEVELOPM5T ( ,5GLI% SOCIETY4 ,?IS WILL BE ILLU/RAT$ 9 ! FOLL[+ PAGES1 BUT IT IS WOR? %[+ N[ ?AT CONTEMPOR>IES KNEW P]FECTLY WELL :AT IT WAS ALL AB\T1 F> BETT]1 9 FACT1 ?AN MANY LAT] HI/ORIANS4 

,IT WAS NOT M]ELY ?AT1 :5 ! VICTORY ( ! B\RGEOISIE HAD BE5 A*IEV$1 ?9K]S LIKE ,W9/ANLEY1 ,H>R+TON1 ,NEVILLE1 ,DEFOE RECOGNIZ$ ?AT ! W> HAD BE5 PRIM>ILY A /RUGGLE OV] PROP]TY4 ,%REWD POLITICIANS %[$ 9 ! HEAT ( ! CONTE/ ?AT !Y KNEW WELL 5\< :O !IR OPPON5TS W]E4 ,AS E>LY AS #a#f#c1 ,JAMES ,I TOLD ,P>LIAM5T ?AT ! ,PURITANS - 

0DO NOT SO F> DIFF] FROM US 9 PO9T ( RELIGION AS 9 !IR CONFUS$ =M ( POLICY & P>ITY1 BE+ EV] DISCONT5T$ ) ! PRES5T GOV]NM5T & IMPATI5T TO SUFF] ANY SUP]IORITY1 :I* MAKE? !IR SECTS 9SUFF]ABLE 9 ANY WELL-GOV]N$ COMMONWEAL?40 

,! POLITICAL !ORI/1 ,HOBBES1 DESCRIBES H[ ! ,PRESBYT]IAN M]*ANT CLASS ( ! CITY ( ,LONDON WAS ! FIR/ C5T] ( S$ITION1 TRY+ TO BUILD A /ATE GOV]N$ LIKE ! REPUBLICS ( ,HOLL& & ,V5ICE1 BY M]*ANTS = !IR [N 9T]E/S4 7,! COMP>ISON ) ! B\RGEOIS REPUBLICS IS CON/ANTLY RECURR+ 9 ,P>LIAM5T>IAN WRIT+S47 ,MRS4 ,HUT*9SON1 ! WIFE ( ONE ( ,CROMWELL'S COLONELS1 SAID ALL W]E DESCRIB$ AS ,PURITANS :O 0CROSS$ ! VIEWS ( ! NE$Y C\RTI]S1 ! 5CROA*+ PRIE/S1 ! ?IEVI% PROJECTORS1 ! LEWD NOBILITY & G5TRY 444 :OEV] C\LD 5DURE A S]MON1 MODE/ HABIT OR CONV]SATION1 OR ANY?+ GOOD40 ,BAXT]1 A ,PURITAN DIV9E1 WAS EV5 MORE EXPLICIT3 

0,A V]Y GREAT P>T ( ! KNI<TS & G5TLEM5 ( ,5GL& 444 ADH]$ TO ! ,K+ 444 ,& MO/ ( ! T5ANTS ( !SE G5TLEM51 & ALSO MO/ ( ! POORE/ ( ! PEOPLE1 :OM ! O!RS CALL ! RABBLE1 DID FOLL[ ! G5TRY & W]E = ! ,K+4 ,ON ! ,P>LIAM5T'S SIDE W]E 7BESIDES !MSELVES7 ! SMALL] P>T 7AS SOME ?\<T7 ( ! G5TRY 9 MO/ ( ! C\NTIES1 & ! GREATE/ P>T ( ! TRADESM5 & FREEHOLD]S & ! MIDDLE SORT ( M51 ESPECIALLY 9 ?OSE CORPORATIONS & C\NTIES :I* DEP5D ON CLO?+ & SU* MANUFACTURES40 

,HE CONCLUD$ - 

0,FREEHOLD]S & TRADESM5 >E ! /R5G? ( RELIGION & CIVILITY 9 ! L&2 & G5TLEM5 & BEGG>S & S]VILE T5ANTS >E ! /R5G? ( 9IQUITY40 

,:Y HE LUMP$ TOGE!R PRECISELY !W CLASSES WILL %ORTLY BECOME EVID5T4 

#b4 ,ECONOMIC ,BACKGR\ND ( ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION 

7A7 ,! ,L& 

,5,G,L,& AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY WAS A PR$OM9ANTLY AGRICULTURAL C\NTRY4 ,! OV]:ELM+ MASS ( ! POPULATION LIV$ 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 5GAG$ EI!R :OLLY OR P>TIALLY 9 PRODUC+ FOOD/UFFS OR WOOL4 ,= C5TURIES ,5GLI% SOCIETY HAD BE5 FEUDAL1 MADE UP ( ISOLAT$ LOCAL COMMUNITIES PRODUC+ = !IR [N CONSUMPTION ) V]Y LITTLE TRADE BETWE5 !M4 ,BUT GRADUALLY FROM ! FIFTE5? TO ! SEV5TE5? C5TURIES A *ANGE BEGAN TO COME OV] ! /RUCTURE ( ?IS AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITY4 ,! FOOD & WOOL FROM ! VILLAGE BEGAN TO SELL F> AFIELD3 ! SP9/]S & ! HUSB&M5 W]E TURN$ 9TO COMMODITY-PRODUC]S = A NATIONAL M>KET4 

,9 #a#d#i#b1 MOREOV]1 ,*RI/OPH] ,COLUMBUS HAD DISCOV]$ ,AM]ICA4 ,5GLI% M]*ANTS FOLL[$ HIM !RE1 & ALSO P5ETRAT$ OV]SEAS TO ,9DIA & ,RUSSIA4 ,AS 9DU/RY & COMM]CE DEVELOP$1 AS ! OV]SEAS M>KET = ,5GLI% CLO? EXP&$1 SOME >EAS CEAS$ TO BE ECONOMICALLY SELF-SUFFICI5T1 & HAD TO BE F$ & SUPPLI$ ) WOOL = !IR LOOMS4 ,SO WE GET ! BEG9N+S ( A SPECIALIZ$ DIVISION ( LABOR4 ,9 ! S\? ( ,5GL& - !N ! ECONOMICALLY ADVANC$ P>T ( ! C\NTRY - DIFF]5T REGIONS BEGAN TO CONC5TRATE ON PRODUC+ P>TICUL> COMMODITIES4 ,?OSE :O HAD MONEY BEGAN TO KEEP L>GE FLOCKS ( %EEP1 TO GR[ FOOD = ?IS WID] M>KET1 EI!R ON !IR [N E/ATES OR ON LEAS$ L&4 ,& V]Y WELL !Y DID \T ( IT1 TOO4 ,= PRICES W]E GO+ UP4 ,SILV] HAD BE5 DISCOV]$ 9 ,AM]ICA & BEGAN TO FL[ 9TO ,EUROPE AT A TIME :5 COMM]CE WAS EXP&+ & MONEY RELATIONS BETWE5 L&LORD & T5ANT1 EMPLOY] & WORKMAN1 W]E REPLAC+ ! OLD RELATIONS BAS$ ON PAYM5T 9 GOODS OR LABOR S]VICES4 ,PRICES ROSE ALL ?R\< ! SIXTE5? C5TURY2 BETWE5 #aea & #aeh FOOD TREBL$ 9 ,5GL&1 & TEXTILES ROSE BY #ae P]C5T4 ,?IS HAD ! SAME EFFECT AS AN 9FLATION 9 \R DAY4 ,?OSE ) FIX$ 9COMES GOT POOR]1 ?OSE LIV+ BY TRADE & PRODUCTION = ! M>KET GREW RI*]4 ,SO ! MIDDLE CLASSES PROSP]$1 ! HI< FEUDAL >I/OCRACY 79CLUD+ ! ,K+ & ! BI%OPS7 & ! SMALL] PEASANTRY & WAGE LABOR]S GREW RELATIVELY POOR]1 EXCEPT = ! FEW 9DIVIDUALS FROM ?OSE CLASSES :O W]E LUCKY 5\< TO GET 9 ON ! RACKET4 

,!RE WAS ANO!R FACTOR4 ,9 #a#e#c#f-#d1 9 :AT IS CALL$ ! ,RE=MATION1 ! MONA/]IES ( ,5GL& HAD BE5 DISSOLV$ & !IR PROP]TY CONFISCAT$4 ,?IS WAS P>T ( ! /RUGGLE BY :I* ! NATIONAL 9DEP5D5CE ( ,5GL& WAS E/ABLI%$ AGA9/ ! P[] & EXPLOITATION ( ! ,CA?OLIC ,*UR*1 & SO 5?USIA/ICALLY SUPPORT$ BY ! B\RGEOISIE & ,P>LIAM5T4 ,NOR DID !Y DO BADLY \T ( IT1 = A GREAT QUANTITY ( VALUABLE & HI!RTO 9ACCESSIBLE L& CONFISCAT$ FROM ! ,*UR* WAS ?R[N ON TO ! M>KET4 

,ALL !SE HAPP5+S W]E *ANG+ ! /RUCTURE ( ,5GLI% RURAL SOCIETY4 ,L& WAS BECOM+ A HI<LY ATTRACTIVE FIELD = 9VE/M5T ( CAPITAL4 ,PEOPLE :O HAD MONEY WANT$ TO BUY L& ) IT1 & !RE W]E MORE & MORE PEOPLE ) MONEY4 ,9 FEUDAL ,5GL& L& HAD PASS$ BY 9H]ITANCE FROM FA!R TO SON1 CULTIVAT$ ALL ! TIME 9 TRADITIONAL WAYS = ! CONSUMPTION ( ONE FAMILY2 IT HAD *ANG$ H&S COMP>ATIVELY R>ELY4 ,BUT N[1 ! LAW ADAPT+ ITSELF TO ! ECONOMIC NE$S ( SOCIETY1 L& WAS BEG9N+ TO BECOME A COMMODITY1 B\<T & SOLD 9 A COMPETITIVE M>KET1 & ?US CAPITAL HEAP$ UP 9 ! T[NS SPILL$ OV] 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE4 

,! NOR!RN & WE/]N P>TS ( ,5GL& REMA9$ RELATIVELY UNT\*$ BY ! NEW COMM]CIAL SPIRIT RADIAT+ FROM ,LONDON & ! PORTS2 BUT 9 ! S\? & EA/ MANY L&[N]S W]E BEG9N+ TO EXPLOIT !IR E/ATES 9 A NEW WAY4 ,BO? 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES & 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY ! FIR/ IMPORTANCE ( AN E/ATE WAS ?AT IT SUPPLI$ A L& [N] 7?R\< HIS CONTROL OV] ! LABOR ( O!RS7 ) ! MEANS ( LIVELIHOOD4 ,BUT OV] & ABOVE ?IS1 ! L>GE E/ATES HAD 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES MA9TA9$ ) !IR SURPLUS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE A BODY ( RETA9]S :O W\LD ON OCCASION ACT AS SOLDI]S1 & SO W]E ! BASIS ( ! POLITICAL P[] ( ! FEUDAL LORDS4 ,N[1 ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! CAPITALI/ MODE ( PRODUCTION )9 ! /RUCTURE ( FEUDALISM1 MANY L&[N]S BEGAN EI!R TO M>KET ?AT PORTION ( ! PRODUCE ( !IR E/ATES :I* WAS NOT CONSUM$ BY !IR FAMILIES1 OR TO LEASE !IR L&S TO A F>M] :O W\LD PRODUCE = ! M>KET4 ,SO L&[N]S CAME TO REG>D !IR E/ATES 9 A NEW LI<T3 AS A S\RCE ( MONEY PR(IT1 ( PR(ITS ?AT W]E ELA/IC & C\LD BE 9CREAS$4 ,R5TS US$ TO BE FIX$ AT LEVELS MA9TA9$ SO LONG ?AT !Y CAME TO BE REG>D$ AS 0CU/OM>Y10 AS HAV+ EXI/$ 0FROM TIME IMMEMORIAL02 SO DID ! MANY EXTORTIONATE LEGAL *>GES :I* FEUDAL L&[N]S EXTRACT$ FROM ! PEASANTRY2 BUT N[ !Y W]E BE+ 0RACK$ UP0 TO FANTA/ICALLY HI< LEVELS4 ,?IS WAS 9 ITSELF A MORAL AS WELL AS AN ECONOMIC REVOLUTION1 A BREAK ) ALL ?AT M5 HAD HELD RI<T & PROP]1 & HAD ! MO/ DI/URB+ EFFECTS ON WAYS ( ?\<T & BELIEF4 

,CODES ( MORALS >E ALWAYS B\ND UP ) A GIV5 SOCIAL ORD]4 ,FEUDAL SOCIETY HAD BE5 DOM9AT$ BY CU/OM1 TRADITION4 ,MONEY HAD BE5 COMP>ATIVELY UNIMPORTANT4 ,IT WAS AN \TRAGE TO ! MORALS ( SU* A SOCIETY ?AT M5'S R5TS %\LD BE %>PLY RAIS$1 & ?AT IF !Y C\LD NOT PAY1 !Y %\LD BE TURN$ \T ON ! ROADS TO BEG1 /EAL OR />VE4 ,9 TIME1 ! NE$S ( GR[+ CAPITALISM PRODUC$ A NEW MORALITY - ! MORALITY ( 0,GOD HELPS ?OSE :O HELP !MSELVES40 ,BUT 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY ! IDEA ?AT PR(IT WAS MORE IMPORTANT ?AN HUMAN LIFE1 SO FAMILI> TO US ?AT WE HAVE LO/ \R S5SE ( MORAL 9DIGNATION1 WAS V]Y NEW & V]Y %OCK+4 

0,IS NOT HE A GREAT] ?IEF10 WROTE ! ,PURITAN MORALI/1 ,/UBBES1 0?AT ROBBE? A MAN ( HIS GOOD NAME = EV]1 ?AT TAKE? A MAN'S H\SE OV] HIS HEAD1 BE=E HIS YEA BE EXPIR$1 ?AT WRE/E? FROM A MAN HIS GOODS1 HIS L&S & LIV+S 444 ?AN HE ?AT /EALE? A %EEP1 A C[1 OR AN OX1 = NECESSITY'S SAKE ONLY1 HAV+ NOT O!RWISE TO RELIEVE HIS NE$80 

,BUT :AT DID MORAL PROBLEMS MATT] TO ! NEW TYPE ( LESSEES8 ,!Y =C$ !IR 9COMES UP TO MEET ! RISE 9 ! PRICES ( ! GOODS !Y HAD TO BUY4 ,!Y W]E ABLE TO EVICT T5ANTS UNABLE TO PAY ! NEW R5TS1 :OSE SMALL HOLD+S1 P]HAPS1 /OOD 9 ! WAY ( CONSOLIDAT+ AN E/ATE 9TO A L>GE COMPACT BLOCK = PR(ITABLE %EEP-F>M+ ON A L>GE SCALE4 ,(T5 R5TS W]E RAIS$ BECAUSE ! E/ATE ITSELF HAD BE5 B\<T OR LEAS$ AT ! COMPETITIVE PRICES PREVAIL+ 9 ! L& M>KET4 ,& !N ! SPECULATIVE PUR*AS] OR LESSEE WANT$ TO GET BACK 9 PR(ITS ! CAPITAL HE HAD LAID \T 9 HIS PUR*ASE MONEY1 9 EQUIPM5T & 9 IMPROV$ ME?ODS ( CULTIVATION4 

,A NEW K9D ( F>M] WAS ?US EM]G+ 9 ! ,HOME ,C\NTIES - ! CAPITALI/ F>M]4 ,HE MI<T BE A PIRATE OR A SLAVE-TRAD]1 A RESPECTABLE ,CITY M]*ANT :O HAD DONE WELL 9 CURRANTS OR A C\NTRY CLO?+ CAPITALI/4 ,9 ANY CASE HE WAS LOOK+ = A SAFE 9VE/M5T = HIS PR(ITS1 & ONE ?AT W\LD AT ! SAME TIME GIVE HIM SOCIAL /&+4 

,= L&[N]S CONTROLL$ LOCAL GOV]NM5T1 AS LORDS ( MANORS OR AS JU/ICES ( ! PEACE4 ,ONLY G5TLEM5 W]E ELECT$ BY !IR FELL[ L&[N]S TO REPRES5T ! C\NTY 9 ,P>LIAM5T4 ,! BOR\<S1 TOO1 CAME MORE & MORE TO BE REPRES5T$ 9 ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS BY A NEI<BOR+ G5TLEMAN4 ,BUT ! NEW F>M] MI<T BE A FEUDAL LORD DRAWN BY ! PULL ( A NE>-BY M>KET & ABLE TO RAISE CAPITAL TO REORGANIZE ! MANAGEM5T ( HIS E/ATES2 OR HE MI<T BE A LESSEE FROM ! RI*] /RATUM ( ! PEASANTRY4 

,MANY ( ! LATT] CLASS - ! YEOM5 - W]E ABLE BY !IR WEAL? & ABILITY TO KEEP POSSESSION ( !IR PLOTS ( L&1 TO EXT5D & CONSOLIDATE !M1 TO %>E 9 ! NEW OPPORTUNITIES (F]$ :]E !Y HAD ACCESS TO A M>KET4 ,9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY NUMB]S ( YEOM5 & G5TLEM5 W]E CONSOLIDAT+ !IR SCATT]$ /RIPS ( L&1 CONV]T+ UN5CLOS$ >ABLE TO PA/URE OR 9CREAS+ !IR \TPUT ( CORN1 FRUIT1 VEGETABLES1 DAIRY PRODUCE = ! T[N M>KET4 ,!Y W]E *ANG+ OLD-E/ABLI%$ T5URES - TURN+ COPYHOLDS 9TO LEASEHOLDS1 LETT+ !IR L&S = %ORT] P]IODS - & RU?LESSLY EVICT+ T5ANTS UNABLE TO PAY ! NEW ECONOMIC R5TS DEM&$4 

.<,COPYHOLDS W]E ! NORMAL PEASANT HOLD+S1 USUALLY H]$IT>Y4 ,! COPYHOLD] HELD BY 0! CU/OM ( ! MANOR10 WAS 5ROLL$ AS OCCUPI] 9 ! LEGAL DOCUM5TS ( ! MANOR C\RT4 ,HIS RI<T TO POSSESSION WAS NOT ALWAYS RECOGNIZ$ BY ! COMMON LAW C\RTS4 ,ONE ( ! GREAT /RUGGLES ( ! SIXTE5? & SEV5TE5? C5TURIES WAS ?AT 9 :I* COPYHOLD]S /ROVE TO W9 FULL LEGAL SECURITY = !IR T5URES1 :IL/ LORDS ( MANORS 7L&LORDS7 /ROVE TO R5D] !IR POSSESSION UNC]TA9 & TO KEEP IT SUBJECT TO DECISION 9 ! MANOR C\RT1 PRESID$ OV] BY ! LORD ( ! MANOR OR HIS /EW>D4.> 

,BY ALL !SE MEANS !Y 5RI*$ !MSELVES 9 ! SAME WAY AS M]*ANTS & 9DU/RIALI/S 9 ! T[NS1 & A CLASS E>N+ ITS WEAL? 9 A NEW WAY CAME TO OCCUPY A PR$OM9ANT POSITION 9 SOME C\NTIES ( S\!RN & EA/]N ,5GL&4 ,?IS CLASS WAS ! BASIS ( ! FAM\S SQUIRE>*Y :I* WAS TO GOV]N ,5GL& = ! NEXT ?REE C5TURIES4 

,BUT !Y DID NOT HAVE ?+S ALL !IR [N WAY BE=E #a#f#d1 ,! /RUCTURE ( SOCIETY WAS /ILL ESS5TIALLY FEUDAL2 SO W]E ITS LAWS & ITS POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,!RE W]E /ILL MANY LEGAL RE/RICTIONS ON ! FULL UNHAMP]$ CAPITALI/ UTILIZATION ( L&$ PROP]TY1 ON FREE TRADE 9 L&4 ,!SE RE/RICTIONS W]E MA9TA9$ 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! ,CR[N1 ! FEUDAL L&[N+ CLASS1 & TO A LESS] EXT5T1 ( ! PEASANTRY1 ANXI\S TO LIVE 9 ! OLD SECURE WAY PAY+ ! OLD FIX$ DUES4 ,?IS LEGAL NETWORK HAD TO BE BROK5 ?R\< IF RURAL CAPITALISM WAS TO DEVELOP ! RES\RCES ( ! C\NTRYSIDE TO ! FULL4 

,BAD COMMUNICATIONS /ILL PREV5T$ ! FULL DEVELOPM5T ( A NATIONAL M>KET1 RE/RICT$ ! POSSIBILITIES ( DIVISION ( LABOR & SO ( CAPITALI/ DEVELOPM5TS 9 AGRICULTURE4 ,SO !RE /ILL P]SI/$ 9 MANY P>TS EV5 ( ! S\? & EA/1 & ALL OV] NOR!RN & WE/]N ,5GL&1 L&[N]S :O LACK$ EI!R ! ABILITY1 ! CAPITAL1 ! PSY*OLOGY OR ! OPPORTUNITY TO EXPLOIT !IR E/ATES 9 ! NEW WAY4 ,!Y W]E /ILL ATTEMPT+ TO MA9TA9 FEUDAL POMP & C]EMONY1 /ILL RUNN+ !IR E/ATES 9 ! TRADITIONAL WAY4 ,!IR C\RTS W]E ?RONG$ ) BLUE-BLOOD$ HANG]S-ON1 POOR RELATIONS & RETA9]S1 :O P]=M$ NO PRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS 9 SOCIETY1 BUT /ILL BELIEV$ ?AT ! WORLD [$ !M A LIV+ - 0,DRONES0 WAS :AT ! B\RGEOIS PAMPHLETE]S CALL$ !M1 AS !Y HAD CALL$ ! MONKS BE=E !M3 0NE$LESS & DISORD]LY ATT5DANTS1 OLD CAPTA9S1 OLD C\RTI]S1 UNUSEFUL S*OL>S1 & COMPANIONS0 WAS ! UNFLATT]+ DESCRIPTION GIV5 BY AN A/UTE /EW>D ( ONE ( !SE L>GE E/ATES4 

  

,! FOCUS ( ?IS SOCIETY WAS ! ,K+'S ,C\RT4 ,! L>GE/ L&[N] ( ?IS K9D WAS ! ,CR[N ITSELF1 ALWAYS %ORT ( CAPITAL4 ,! BI%OPS ALSO W]E NOTORI\SLY EASY-GO+ L&[N]S1 :OSE E/ATES W]E DEVELOP$1 IF AT ALL1 BY LESSEES4 ,A CONTEMPOR>Y OBS]V$ ?AT 0!Y NEV] RAISE NOR RACK !IR R5TS AS ! NOBLEM5 & G5TLEM5 DO TO ! UTT]MO/ P5NY1 BUT DO LET !IR L&S AS !Y W]E LET A HUNDR$ YE>S S9CE04 

,TIMES W]E H>D = !SE P>ASITES & R5TI]S4 ,! RISE 9 PRICES MADE IT IMPOSSIBLE = !M TO KEEP UP !IR OLD /&>DS ( LIV+1 /ILL LESS TO COMPETE 9 LUXURY ) ! M]*ANT PR9CES4 ,!Y W]E CONT9UALLY 9 DEBT1 (T5 TO SOME SM>T CITY BUS9ESS MAN :O DEM&$ A MORTGAGE ON !IR E/ATE1 & /EPP$ 9TO IT :5 ! DEBT FELL DUE4 ,! NE$Y C\RTI]1 ! PR\D BUT P5NILESS Y\NG] SON ( A NOBLE H\SE1 W]E COMMONPLACES ( POPUL> D]ISION & MIDDLE-CLASS CONTEMPT4 ,YET ?IS CLASS WAS /ILL A SOCIAL & POLITICAL P[]2 ! ,/ATE WAS ORGANIZ$ TO SAFEGU>D ITS 9T]E/S4 ,ITS 9ABILITY TO REORGANIZE ITS E/ATES WAS KEEP+ A L>GE AM\NT ( CAPITAL UN9VE/$4 ,MU* ( ! RI*E/ L& 9 ,5GL& WAS NOT UTILIZ$ TO ! FULL TE*NICAL CAPACITIES ( ! TIME4 .<,A SIMIL> SITUATION EXI/S UND] CAPITALISM AT ! PRES5T TIME1 :]E BIG MONOPOLY CONC]NS BUY UP 9V5TIONS 9 ORD] TO PREV5T !M BE+ US$1 & :]E FOOD IS DE/ROY$ :IL/ MILLIONS GO HUNGRY4 ,! SEV5TE5?-C5TURY ,5GLI% REVOLUTION BY TRANSF]R+ ,/ATE P[] TO ! B\RGEOISIE MADE POSSIBLE ! FULL DEVELOPM5T ( ALL ! RES\RCES ( ,5GLI% SOCIETY 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,A TRANSITION TO SOCIALISM WILL BE NECESS>Y TO W9 ! SAME RESULT 9 ,5GL& TO-DAY4.> ,/ATE P[] WAS BE+ US$ TO PREV5T ! GR[? ( A NATIONAL M>KET4 

,!RE WAS AN ACUTE /RUGGLE ( ALL CLASSES TO PR(IT BY ! AGRICULTURAL *ANGES TAK+ PLACE4 ,9 G5]AL !Y MADE = GREAT] PRODUCTIVITY1 & 5ABL$ SOME RI*] PEASANTS & SMALL L&[N]S TO RISE 9 ! WORLD4 ,BUT = MANY SMALL] CULTIVATORS !Y MEANT DEPRESSION1 ! RAIS+ ( R5TS & DUES ( V>I\S K9DS1 ! 5CLOSURE ( ! COMMON FIELDS ON :I* ! VILLAG]S HAD = C5TURIES PA/UR$ !IR CATTLE & GEESE4 ,MANY HUSB&M5 :OSE SMALL PROP]TIES /OOD 9 ! WAY ( A F>M] WANT+ TO CONSOLIDATE A L>GE %EEP F>M W]E BRUTALLY EVICT$4 

0,Y\R %EEP10 WROTE ,SIR ,?OMAS ,MORE 9 ! E>LY SIXTE5? C5TURY1 0?AT W]E WONT TO BE SO MEEK & TAME1 & SO SMALL EAT]S1 N[1 AS ,I HE> SAY1 BE BECOME SO GREAT DEV\R]S & SO WILD1 ?AT !Y EAT UP & SWALL[ D[N ! V]Y M5 !MSELVES40 

0,! PSY*OLOGY ( L&[N+ HAD BE5 REVOLUTIONIZ$10 ,PR(ESSOR ,TAWNEY SUMS UP1 0& = TWO G5]ATIONS ! %>P L&LORD1 9/EAD ( US+ HIS SEIGNEURIAL RI<T TO F9E OR >RE/ RUNAWAYS FROM ! VILLE9 NE/1 HAD BE5 HUNT+ = FLAWS 9 TITLES1 SCREW+ UP ADMISSION F9ES1 TWI/+ MANORIAL CU/OMS1 &1 :5 HE D>$1 TURN+ COPYHOLDS 9TO LEASES40 

,OR1 AS ,PHILIP ,/UBBES PUT IT3 0,L&LORDS MAKE M]*&ISE ( !IR POOR T5ANTS40 

,AGA9/ ?IS TREATM5T REVOLT SMOLD]$ ?R\<\T ! P]IOD2 IT BROKE \T 9 OP5 REBELLION 9 #a#e#d#i1 #afg & #a#f#c#a1 BUT EA* TIME ! PEASANTRY WAS BEAT5 BACK 9TO SUBMISSION4 ,! ,/ATE IS ALWAYS AN 9/RUM5T ( CO]CION 9 ! H&S ( ! RUL+ CLASS2 & L&LORDS RUL$ SIXTE5?-C5TURY ,5GL&4 ,SOME ( !SE POOR T5ANTS BECAME VAGABONDS W&]+ ! ROADS = BREAD1 SO LAWS W]E PASS$ ORD]+ VAGRANTS TO BE BR&$ OR TO BE 0:IPP$ UNTIL HIS OR H] %\LD]S BE BLOODY40 0,! FA!RS ( ! PRES5T WORK+-CLASS10 AS ,M>X PUTS IT 9 ,CAPITAL1 0W]E *A/IS$ = !IR 5=C$ TRANS=MATION 9TO VAGABONDS & PAUP]S4 ,LEGISLATION TREAT$ !M AS 'VOLUNT>Y' CRIM9ALS40 ,O!RS BECAME AGRICULTURAL LABOR]S WORK+ ON ! L>GE E/ATES4 ,O!RS AGA9 PROVID$ A USEFUL SUPPLY ( *EAP LABOR = EXP&+ 9DU/RIES4 ,BO? !SE GR\PS W]E )\T L& TO SUPPORT !M 9 9DEP5D5CE 9 A BAD YE> OR :5 !IR EMPLOY]S W5T BANKRUPT4 ,!Y W]E ON !IR WAY TO BECOM+ PROLET>IANS1 ) NO?+ TO (F] 9 ! M>KET BUT !IR H\R1 AT ! M]CY ( ALL ! FLUCTUATIONS & 9SECURITY ( CAPITALISM4 

0,?US10 TO QUOTE ,M>X AGA91 0?US W]E ! AGRICULTURAL PEOPLE1 FIR/LY =CIBLY EXPROPRIAT$ FROM ! SOIL1 DRIV5 FROM !IR HOMES1 TURN$ 9TO VAGABONDS1 & !N :IPP$1 BR&$1 TORTUR$ BY LAWS GROTESQUELY T]RIBLE1 9TO ! DISCIPL9E NECESS>Y = ! WAGE SY/EM40 .<,CAPITAL.> 

,WE MU/ BE C>EFUL1 H[EV]1 NOT TO ANT$ATE !SE DEVELOPM5TS1 NOR TO EXAGG]ATE !IR EXT5T3 !Y >E SIGNIFICANT AS ! DOM9ANT T5D5CY4 ,SIMIL>LY ! NEW PROGRESSIVE L&[N]S & F>M]S CAT* ! EYE AS ! RIS+ & EXP&+ CLASS P]HAPS MORE ?AN C\LD BE JU/IFI$ /ATI/ICALLY4 ,! IMPROV+ L&LORD WAS NOT TYPICAL BE=E #a#f#f4 

,& WE MU/ REMEMB] :AT ! AGRICULTURAL *ANGES 9 PRE-REVOLUTION>Y ,5GL& W]E4 ,!Y TOOK PLACE )9 A GIV5 SY/EM ( TE*NICAL EQUIPM5T4 ,!RE WAS NO L>GE-SCALE REVOLUTION 9 AGRICULTURAL TE*NIQUE TILL ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 ?\< ITS FIR/ BEG9N+S CAN BE TRAC$ BACK TO ! REVOLUTION>Y DECADES ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY4 ,! *ANGES ( ! P]IOD BE=E #a#f#d1 :I* W]E 5ORM\SLY ACCEL]AT$ 9 ! YE>S BETWE5 #afd & #a#f#f1 W]E *ANGES 9 L&[N]%IP1 & 9 ! VOLUME ( PRODUCTION RA!R ?AN 9 ! TE*NIQUE ( PRODUCTION4 ,SO ! *ANGES HAD NO REVOLUTION>Y EFFECT ON SOCIETY AS A :OLE4 ,! NEW CLASS ( CAPITALI/ F>M]S WAS !RE1 ?RU/+ ITS WAY =W>D1 HAMP]$ BY FEUDAL SURVIVALS1 )\T :OSE ABOLITION IT C\LD NOT DEVELOP FREELY2 9 ! REVOLUTION1 9 ALLIANCE ) ! URBAN B\RGEOISIE1 IT TOOK OV] ! ,/ATE1 CREAT+ ! CONDITIONS )9 :I* FUR!R EXPANSION WAS POSSIBLE4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 NOT ONLY DID L>GE >EAS 9 ! NOR? & WE/ REMA9 UNAFFECT$ BY ! NEW *ANGES1 BUT EV5 :]E !SE *ANGES W]E TAK+ PLACE L>GE SECTIONS ( ! PEASANTRY /ILL SURVIV$ 9 #afd AS SEMI-9DEP5D5T CULTIVATORS4 ,?IS IMPORTANT GR\P F\ND ITSELF 9 TEMPOR>Y ALLIANCE ) ! DOM9ANT B\RGEOIS =CES 9 OPPOSITION TO A ,CR[N :I* DID LITTLE TO HELP IT2 BUT :5 IT DISCOV]$1 AS IT DID AFT] #a#f#d#g1 :AT ! REAL AIMS ( ITS ALLIES W]E1 IT BEGAN TO FI<T1 9 COMPANY ) O!R RADICAL ELEM5TS1 TO PU% ! REVOLUTION LEFTW>DS4 ,BUT BECAUSE ITS 9/9CTS & SOCIAL AIMS W]E TO SOME EXT5T PRE-CAPITALI/1 LOOK+ BACKW>D TO A /ABLE PEASANT COMMUNITY1 IT WAS B\ND TO BE DEFEAT$4 ,! CURR5T IS ONE :I* CANNOT BE IGNOR$ BECAUSE IT EXPLA9S :Y 9 ,PURITAN SOCIAL IDEAS & ,LEVEL] .<! LEFT W+ ( ! REVOLUTION>IES.> SOCIAL AIMS !RE IS A TR5D ?AT IS 0M$IEVAL0 & EV5 REACTION>Y4 

7B7 ,9DU/RY & ,TRADE 

,?\< MO/ ,5GLI% PEOPLE BE=E #afd WORK$ 9 ! FIELDS1 *ANGES NO LESS IMPORTANT ?AN ?OSE WE HAVE DESCRIB$ W]E TAK+ PLACE 9 TRADE & 9DU/RY1 *ANGES1 9DE$1 :I* GAVE ! IMPETUS TO ! AGR>IAN DEVELOPM5TS4 ,SOME?+ LIKE AN 9DU/RIAL REVOLUTION TOOK PLACE 9 ! C5TURY BE=E #a#f#d1 /IMULAT$ BY CAPITAL LIB]AT$ AT ! DISSOLUTION & PLUND] ( ! MONA/]IES1 OR ACQUIR$ BY TRADE1 PIRACY & PLUND] FROM ! ,NEW ,WORLD OR BY ! SLAVE TRADE4 ,5GL& HAD LONG BE5 A GREAT WOOL-GR[+ C\NTRY1 EXPORT+ RAW MAT]IAL TO ! ,NE!RL&S TO BE WORK$ UP 9TO CLO?4 ,N[ ! ,5GLI% CLO?+ 9DU/RY DEVELOP$ ) GREAT RAPIDITY1 & ,5GLI% M]*ANTS BEGAN TO EXPORT F9I%$ OR SEMI-F9I%$ CLO?S ON A F> L>G] SCALE4 ,AT ! SAME TIME A GREAT DEVELOPM5T TOOK PLACE 9 COAL-M9+2 BY #afd ,5GL& PRODUC$ OV] F\R-FIF?S ( ! COAL ( ,EUROPE4 ,COAL PLAY$ A PROM95T P>T 9 ! GR[? ( V]Y MANY O!R 9DU/RIES - IRON1 T91 GLASS1 SOAP1 %IPBUILD+4 

,?IS 9DU/RIAL BOOM CAUS$ A GREAT EXPANSION 9 ! VOLUME ( ,5GL&'S TRADE1 & ! SWIT*-OV] FROM EXPORT ( RAW MAT]IALS TO F9I%$ PRODUCTS CAUS$ A *ANGE 9 ITS DIRECTION TOO4 ,5GL& CEAS$ TO BE M]ELY A S\RCE ( RAW MAT]IALS = ! WE/ ,EUROPEAN C\NTRIES1 BEGAN TO COMPETE ) !IR MANUFACTURES & SO TO REA* FUR!R AFIELD = M>KETS1 RAW MAT]IALS & LUXURY IMPORTS - TO ,RUSSIA1 ,TURKEY ! ,EA/ & ,WE/ ,9DIES4 ,H5CE ! BEG9N+S ( ,5GLI% COLONIZATION1 9 ORD] TO DEVELOP TRADE & TO W9 MONOPOLY POLITICAL CONTROL OV] ! P>TS ( ! WORLD :I* ,5GL& WAS AIM+ TO EXPLOIT ECONOMICALLY4 ,?IS CALL$ = A /RONG] ,/ATE MA*9E & L$ TO ! RISE ( ,5GLI% SEA-P[] 9 ORD] TO *ALL5GE ,SPA91 ! GREAT COLONIAL P[]4 

,! DEFEAT ( ! ,SPANI% ,>MADA 9 #aehh GAVE ,5GLI% OV]SEAS COMM]CE ! *ANCE TO DEVELOP FREELY4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 IT MADE ! B\RGEOISIE 9 ,5GL& MORE ACUTELY AW>E ( ! RE/RICTIONS *ECK+ !IR EXPANSION AT HOME4 ,P>LIAM5T BEGAN TO ATTACK ! MON>*Y & ITS ATTEMPT TO REGULATE ! ECONOMIC LIFE ( ! C\NTRY FROM ! MOM5T :5 ! DEFEAT ( ! ,>MADA CREAT$ A FEEL+ ( POLITICAL SECURITY4 7,WE MU/ NOT EXAGG]ATE ! EXT5T ( ?IS DEVELOPM5T BE=E #a#f#d1 BECAUSE IT WAS HAMP]$ BY MANY OB/RUCTIONS1 AS WE %ALL SEE3 BUT ! T5D5CY IS CLE>47 

,!SE NEW ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5TS CREAT$ NEW CLASS CONFLICTS4 ,CAPITAL = 9DU/RIAL DEVELOPM5T WAS SUPPLI$1 DIRECTLY OR 9DIRECTLY1 BY M]*ANTS1 SLAVE-TRAD]S & PIRATES1 :O HAD AMASS$ =TUNES OV]SEAS1 & BY ?AT SECTION ( ! G5TRY :I* HAD MADE ITS =TUNE 9 ! PLUND] ( ! MONA/]IES & 9 ! NEW AGRICULTURE2 IT WAS ALSO BE+ ACCUMULAT$ BY ! SAV+S ( YEOM5 & CRAFTSM54 

,FROM ! />T ! M]*ANTS1 ORGANIZ$ 9 COMPANIES1 CONTROLL$ EXPORT1 AS !Y HAD DONE ?R\<\T ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES2 M]*ANT MIDDLEM5 DOM9AT$ 9T]NAL TRADE4 ,! FACTORY SY/EM HAD NOT YET DEVELOP$2 ! 0PUTT+-\T0 SY/EM1 BY :I* WOOL OR Y>N WAS SUPPLI$ BY ! M]*ANT TO BE SPUN OR WOV5 BY ! LABOR] & HIS FAMILY 9 HIS [N HOME 7ALSO CALL$ ! 0DOME/IC SY/EM071 MEANT ?AT EV5 IF ! PRODUC] SOMETIMES [N$ ! 9/RUM5TS ( PRODUCTION - SP9N+-:EEL OR LOOM - HE WAS COMPLETELY DEP5D5T ON HIS EMPLOY] = SUPPLIES & SO = HIS 9COME4 ,9 BAD P]IODS HE WAS CONT9UALLY FALL+ 9TO DEBT1 USUALLY TO ! CAPITALI/ :O EMPLOY$ HIM4 ,9 ?IS WAY1 VA/ =TUNES W]E MADE BY EMPLOY]S & USUR]S AT ! EXP5SE ( SMALL PROPRIETORS4 

,OCCASIONALLY1 9DE$1 A SMALL MA/] MANAG$ TO 0BETT] HIMSELF0 BY =TUNATE BORR[+ ( ! CAPITAL :I* WAS 9DISP5SABLE IF ONE WAS TO GET ON1 BUT F> MORE W]E UNLUCKY4 ,H5CE ! SMALL PRODUC]S JO9$ 9 ! CLAMOR ( ! FEUDAL L&LORDS AGA9/ 0USURY40 ,!Y C\LD NOT DO )\T LOANS1 & YET W]E CRIPPL$ BY ! HI< RATES ( 9T]E/ :I* C\LD BE EXACT$ 9 A PRE-CAPITALI/ SOCIETY4 0,USURY0 WAS TO ORD9>Y PEOPLE :AT WAGE-LABOR IS TO !IR SUCCESSORS TO-DAY4 ,! EMPLOY] EXPLOIT$ HIS WORKMAN UND] ! DOME/IC SY/EM BY *>G+ HIM HI< PRICES & HI< RATES ( 9T]E/ EV5 MORE ?AN BY PAY+ HIM L[ WAGES4 ,H5CE !RE WAS COM+ 9TO EXI/5CE A PETTY-B\RGEOIS CLASS ) SPECIFIC ECONOMIC 9T]E/S ( ITS [N1 BUT *ANG+ 9 COMPOSITION AS ITS MO/ 5T]PRIS+ & LUCKY MEMB]S ROSE TO BECOME CAPITALI/S1 & ! UN=TUNATE SANK TO BE WAGE-LABOR]S4 ,! /RON<OLDS ( ?IS CLASS W]E ,EA/ ,ANGLIA & ! S\? ,MIDL&S1 LAT] TO BE ! C5T]S ( ! MO/ UNCOMPROMIS+ RESI/ANCE TO ,*>LES ,I4 

,!RE W]E AS MANY & AS S]I\S OB/ACLES TO ! EXPANSION ( CAPITALISM 9 TRADE & 9DU/RY AS 9 AGRICULTURE4 ,DUR+ ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES TRADE & 9DU/RY HAD BE5 RE/RICT$ TO ! T[NS1 :]E !Y HAD BE5 RIGIDLY CONTROLL$ BY ! GILDS4 ,!SE W]E ASSOCIATIONS ( PRODUC]S :O E/ABLI%$ A MONOPOLY OV] ! LOCAL M>KET & KEPT IT BY RE/RICT+ \TPUT & COMPETITION1 REGULAT+ PRICES & QUALITY ( PRODUCTION1 CONTROLL+ !IR APPR5TICES & J\RNEYM54 7,UND] ! APPR5TICE SY/EM AN >TISAN HAD TO UND]GO SEV5 YE>S' TRA9+ BE=E BE+ ALL[$ TO SET UPON HIS [N47 ,?IS SY/EM PRESUPPOS$ A /ATIC & CLOS$ LOCAL M>KET2 FEUDAL ECONOMIC !ORY WAS BAS$ ON ! IDEA ( A COMP>ATIVELY /ABLE SOCIETY4 

,BUT N[ ! M>KET WAS EXP&+3 ! :OLE NATION WAS BECOM+ ONE ECONOMIC UNIT4 ,CAPITAL S\<T PR(ITS BY 9VE/M5T 9 ANY ECONOMIC ACTIVITY1 & ! CAPITALI/ WAS NOT 9T]E/$ 9 KN[+ :]E HIS PRODUCTS W]E SOLD1 PROVID$ !Y SOLD AT A PR(IT4 ,! LOCAL B>RI]S TO TRADE BROKE D[N4 ,! M>KET T[N C\LD NO LONG] BULLY ! SURR\ND+ C\NTRYSIDE1 = IT HAD TO FACE ! COMPETITION ( M]*ANTS FROM ,LONDON1 P$DL+ !IR W>ES & BUY+ UP ! PRODUCTS ( LOCAL H&ICRAFTS4 ,COMPETITION BROKE UP MONOPOLY4 ,= OV]SEAS TRADE1 9DE$1 M]*ANTS /ILL F\ND IT ADVANTAGE\S TO JO9 TOGE!R 9 COMPANIES = SELF-DEF5SE 9 DI/ANT L&S & UNPOLIC$ SEAS1 9 ?OSE DAYS MANY A M]*ANT WAS A PIRATE 9 HIS SP>E TIME4 ,! ,TUDOR ,/ATE WAS ABLE TO KEEP SOME CONTROL OV] !SE COMPANIES BY SELL+ !M ITS PROTECTION & G5]\S *>T]S ( PRIVILEGES4 

,BUT IT WAS V]Y DIFF]5T 9 9DU/RY4 ,! HI< /&>DS ( QUALITY ( ! T[N CRAFT GILDS1 !IR RE/RICTIONS ON COMPETITION & \TPUT1 BECAME 9 ! EYES ( CAPITALI/ 5TREPR5EURS SO MANY /UPID OB/ACLES TO FREE PRODUCTION1 PREV5T+ !M MEET+ ! DEM&S ( ! EXP&+ M>KET4 ,TO ESCAPE FROM !SE %ACKLES1 9DU/RY OV]FL[$ FROM ! BOR\<S TO ! SUBURBS & UN9CORPORAT$ T[NS & C\NTRYSIDE1 :]E PRODUCTION WAS FREE FROM 9T]F]5CE & REGULATION4 ,H]E !Y F\ND A SUPPLY ( *EAP LABOR 9 ! PEASANTRY RU9$ & EXPROPRIAT$ BY ! AGRICULTURAL *ANGES4 ,MANY ( ! NEW 9DU/RIES - E4G4 COAL & ALUM M9+ - W]E ALMO/ 5TIRELY CAPITALI/ FROM ! />T4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ! CORPORATE T[NS /ILL TRI$ TO MONOPOLIZE LOCAL TRADE1 TO MAKE TO !IR M>KETS A BOTTLE-NECK ?R\< :I* ALL COMMODITIES MU/ FL[4 

,! M]*ANT MIDDLEM51 ON ! O!R H&1 W]E TRY+ TO MEET ! DEM&S ( ! ,LONDON & EXPORT M>KETS BY DEAL+ DIRECT ) ! PRODUC] 7E4G4 ( FOOD74 ,SO !Y CAME 9TO CONFLICT ) ! M>KET REGULATIONS ( ! CORPORATE T[NS & !IR REACTION>Y OLIG>*IES4 ,!IR PRIVILEGES & RE/RICTIONS1 & ! APPR5TICE SY/EM1 REMA9$ AS A S]I\S *ECK 7 ! FULL DEVELOPM5T ( ! PRODUCTIVE RES\RCES ( ! C\NTRY1 TO ! FREE FL[ ( CAPITAL 9TO 9DU/RY4 ,! GILDS W]E SO MANY VE/$ 9T]E/S L9K$ UP ) ! SOCIAL /RUCTURE ( FEUDALISM1 OPPOS$ TO ! NEW]1 FRE] =CES ( CAPITALISM4 

,AS ! OLD 9DU/RIAL CONTROL BROKE D[N1 ! ,CR[N1 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! FEUDAL L&[N+ CLASS 7& A SMALL C\RT GR\P ( F9ANCI]S & RACKETE]S71 TRI$ TO IMPOSE NEW CONTROLS4 ,MONOPOLIES - ! SALE TO A P>TICUL> 9DIVIDUAL ( EXCLUSIVE RI<TS ( PRODUCTION & _/OR SALE ( A P>TICUL> COMMODITY 7OR ! EXCLUSIVE RI<T TO TRADE 9 A P>TICUL> OV]SEAS M>KET7 - W]E ! MEANS BY :I* ! ,CR[N TRI$ TO BR+ 9DU/RY & TRADE UND] CONTROL1 ON A NATIONAL SCALE N[ ?AT ! T[N GILDS HAD BE5 CIRCUMV5T$4 ,WE %ALL SEE H[ ?IS ATTEMPT FAIL$1 & ! DISA/R\S RESULTS ( ITS FAILURE = ! MON>*Y4 

,IT CAN BE REALIZ$ H[ ?IS VA/ 9DU/RIAL & COMM]CIAL EXPANSION REACT$ ON AGRICULTURE & L&HOLD+3 = ! AGR>IAN *ANGES W]E CAUS$ 9 P>T BY ! DEM& = MORE FOOD TO FE$ ! NEW URBAN >EAS1 9 P>T BY ! DEM& = WOOL = ! EXP&+ CLO?+ 9DU/RY1 OR BY ! HUNT = M9]ALS2 9 EA* CASE ! NE$S ( ! M]*ANT CLASS W]E ID5TICAL ) ?OSE ( ! CAPITALI/ F>M]S & PROGRESSIVE L&[N]S4 ,& ! MIGRATION ( CAPITAL TO ! C\NTRYSIDE1 :E!R BY ! LEAS+ OR PUR*ASE ( E/ATES OR BY LOANS1 BR\<T A NEW BUS9ESS & COMPETITIVE SPIRIT 9TO ! HI!RTO RELATIVELY /ATIC & TRADITIONAL AGR>IAN RELATIONS4 ,:]E ! FAMILIES ( T5ANT & L&LORD HAD = C5TURIES OCCUPI$ !IR RESPECTIVE E/ATES1 ! T5ANT PAY+ A NON-ECONOMIC R5T .<,I4E4 A R5T :I* DID NOT CORRESPOND TO ! PRICE N[ OBTA9ABLE = ! L&4 ,! L&LORD C\LD MAKE MORE BY LEAS+ HIS L&S AT RACK R5T ?AN BY HIMSELF RECEIV+ ! S]VICES1 DUES 9 K9D1 ETC41 SUPPLI$ BY CU/OM>Y T5ANTS4 ,SO SECURITY ( T5URE1 IF COPYHOLD]S C\LD HAVE WON IT1 W\LD HAVE BE5 AN OB/ACLE TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( L>GE-SCALE CAPITALI/ AGRICULTURE.>1 RELATIONS W]E V]Y DIFF]5T FROM ?OSE EXI/+ BETWE5 A NEW PUR*AS] & A CAPITALI/ LESSEE4 

,! PO9T TO BE /RESS$ IS ?IS4 ,!RE WAS A GREAT DEAL ( CAPITAL 9 ,5GL& :I* M]*ANTS1 YEOM5 & G5TLEM5 W]E ANXI\S TO 9VE/ 9 ! FREE/ POSSIBLE 9DU/RIAL1 COMM]CIAL & AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,?IS WAS CONT9UALLY ?W>T$ BY FEUDAL SURVIVALS 9 T[N & C\NTRY1 & BY GOV]NM5T POLICY DELIB]ATELY 5DEAVOR+ 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! OLD L&$ RUL+ CLASS TO RE/RICT PRODUCTION & ! ACCUMULATION ( CAPITAL4 ,?US1 9 ATTACK+ ! FEUDAL L&LORDS' /ATE & ! OLIG>*Y ( BIG M]*ANTS 9 ALLIANCE ) ! ,C\RT :O W]E TRY+ TO MONOPOLIZE BUS9ESS PR(ITS1 ! /RUGGLE ( ! B\RGEOISIE WAS PROGRESSIVE1 REPRES5T+ ! 9T]E/S ( ! C\NTRY AS A :OLE4 

,5GL& 9 #afd WAS /ILL RUL$ BY L&LORDS & ! RELATIONS ( PRODUCTION W]E /ILL P>TLY FEUDAL1 BUT !RE WAS ?IS VA/ & EXP&+ CAPITALI/ SECTOR1 :OSE DEVELOPM5T ! ,CR[N & FEUDAL L&LORDS C\LD NOT =EV] HOLD 9 *ECK4 ,!RE W]E FEW PROLET>IANS 7EXCEPT 9 ,LONDON71 MO/ ( ! PRODUC]S UND] ! PUTT+-\T SY/EM BE+ ALSO SMALL PEASANTS4 ,BUT !SE PEASANTS & SMALL >TISANS W]E LOS+ !IR 9DEP5D5CE4 ,!Y W]E HIT ESPECIALLY H>D BY ! G5]AL RISE 9 PRICES1 & W]E BE+ BR\<T 9TO EV] CLOS] DEP5D5CE ON ! M]*ANTS & SQUIRES4 ,A /ATUTE ( #aefc =BAD ! POOR] #ge P] C5T ( ! RURAL POPULATION TO GO AS APPR5TICES 9TO 9DU/RY4 

,SO !RE W]E REALLY ?REE CLASSES 9 CONFLICT4 ,AS AGA9/ ! P>ASITIC FEUDAL L&[N]S & SPECULATIVE F9ANCI]S1 AS AGA9/ ! GOV]NM5T :OSE POLICY WAS TO RE/RICT & CONTROL 9DU/RIAL EXPANSION1 ! 9T]E/S ( ! NEW CLASS ( CAPITALI/ M]*ANTS & F>M]S W]E TEMPOR>ILY ID5TICAL ) ?OSE ( ! SMALL PEASANTRY & >TISANS & J\RNEYM54 ,BUT CONFLICT BETWE5 ! TWO LATT] CLASSES WAS B\ND TO DEVELOP1 S9CE ! EXPANSION ( CAPITALISM 9VOLV$ ! DISSOLUTION ( ! OLD AGR>IAN & 9DU/RIAL RELATION%IPS & ! TRANS=MATION ( 9DEP5D5T SMALL MA/]S & PEASANTS 9TO PROLET>IANS4 

#c4 ,POLITICAL ,BACKGR\ND ( ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION 

7A7 ,! ,TUDOR MON>*Y 

,S,E,T AGA9/ ?IS BACKGR\ND ( ECONOMIC & SOCIAL TRANSITION1 ! ROLE ( ! ,TUDOR MON>*Y BECOMES CLE>4 ,ITSELF ROOT$ 9 FEUDAL SOCIETY1 IT C\LD TO A C]TA9 EXT5T BALANCE BETWE5 ! B\RGEOISIE & PROGRESSIVE G5TRY1 ON ! ONE H&1 & ! FEUDAL LORDS ON ! O!R4 ,AFT] ! GREAT NOBLE H\SES HAD DE/ROY$ ONE ANO!R 9 ! FIFTE5?-C5TURY ,W>S ( ! ,ROSES1 ! /R5G? ( ! ADVANC+ & DECL9+ CLASSES WAS 9 EQUILIBRIUM = A BRIEF P]IOD1 DUR+ :I* ! FUNCTION ( ! MON>*Y WAS TO SEE ?AT CONCESSIONS TO B\RGEOIS DEM&S DID ! LEA/ POSSIBLE H>M TO ! RUL+ CLASS4 ,! M]*ANTS WI%$ = A UNIT$ ,5GL&1 ORD]LY & POLIC$1 ) UNI=M LAWS1 WEI<TS & MEASURES3 ,H5RY ,V,I,I & HIS SUCCESSORS SAW TO IT ?AT ?IS UNITY C5T]$ >\ND ! P]SON ( ! ,K+1 ?AT ! POLIC+ WAS DONE BY ! C\NTRY G5TRY 7,J4,P4S74 ,! B\RGEOISIE ATTACK$ ! ,*UR* = ITS WEAL? & UNPRODUCTIV5ESS2 ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I L$ ! 0RE=MATION0 ( #a#e#b#i-#d1 & SAW TO IT ?AT ! POLITICAL P[] & P>T ( ! WEAL? ( ! ,*UR* PASS$ TO ! ,CR[N44 ,MO/ ( ! MONA/IC E/ATES W5T ULTIMATELY TO ?OSE :O HAD MONEY TO BUY !M1 & SO /R5G!N$ ! NEW ELEM5T 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE4 ,QUE5 ,M>Y SUCCE$$ 9 REE/ABLI%+ ,CA?OLICISM = A FEW YE>S1 BUT C\LD NOT GET ! MONA/IC E/ATES BACK \T ( ! CLUT*ES ( !IR PUR*AS]S4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ! ,CR[N TRI$ TO CONTROL TRADE & 9DU/RY 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! NATIONAL EX*EQU]1 POS$ FREQU5TLY AS ! DEF5D] ( ! PEASANT & >TISAN AGA9/ ! RI*3 BUT ALWAYS 9 ! LA/ RESORT IT CONT9U$ TO RETREAT BE=E ! B\RGEOISIE1 ON :OM IT DEP5D$ = SUPPLIES & LOANS4 

,9 FACT1 UNTIL AB\T #a#e#i1 ! MON>*Y HAD MANY 9T]E/S 9 COMMON ) ?OSE ( ! B\RGEOISIE 9 T[N & C\NTRY - 9 ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ ,SPA91 AGA9/ ! 9T]NATIONAL ,CA?OLIC ,*UR*1 AGA9/ RIVAL NOBLE H\SES DISPUT+ SUPREME CONTROL ) ! ,H\SE ( ,TUDOR & RU9+ ! C\NTRY ) !IR PRIVATE W>S4 ,H5CE ! COLLABORATION 9 ,P>LIAM5T BETWE5 MON>*Y1 G5TRY & B\RGEOISIE4 ,YET !RE WAS A PO9T BEYOND :I* ! RETREAT C\LD NOT BE CONT9U$1 & ULTIMATELY ! UNITY ( 9T]E/ BROKE D[N4 

,UP TO A PO9T1 9DE$1 ! B\RGEOISIE & ! FEUDAL G5TRY W]E ABLE TO GET ALONG TOGE!R UND] ! MON>*Y4 ,9 AN AGE :5 PLUND] & PIRACY HELP$ 9 ! RAPID ACCUMULATION ( CAPITAL1 ! RECKLESS SEADOGS ( ! SEMI-FEUDAL S\?-WE/]N C\NTIES - ,DEVON & ,CORNWALL - HEAP$ UP WEAL? ON A SCALE :I* ! MORE CAUTI\S M]*ANTS ( ,LONDON C\LD NEV] HAVE IMITAT$4 ,9 LOOT+ ,SPANI% COLONIES & ,SPANI% TREASURE %IPS = GOLD1 9 ! QUE/ = L& 9 ,IREL& & ,NOR? ,AM]ICA1 ! ADV5TUR]S ( ! DECAY+ CLASS DID NOT COME 9TO CONFLICT ) ! RIS+ 5TREPR5EURS4 ,?OSE :O W]E =TUNATE ACQUIR$ ! CAPITAL NECESS>Y TO TAKE P>T 9 PRODUCTION = ! M>KET !MSELVES3 ! L9ES ( CLASS DIVISION HAD NOT YET CRY/ALLIZ$4 

,?IS H>D5+ PROCESS TOOK PLACE 9 ! REIGNS ( ,JAMES ,I & ,*>LES ,I4 ,BY !N ! NEW L&$ G5TRY & RESPECTABLE TRAD]S WI%$ TO SETTLE D[N TO PEACEFUL DEVELOPM5T & LEGITIMATE TRADE4 0,! NEW AGE HAD TURN$ ITS BACK ON ! GOLD :I* DID NOT COME ?R\< *>T]$ COMPANIES40 0,PEACE & LAW HAVE BEGG>$ US ALL10 WAIL$ ! FUTURE ROYALI/ ,SIR ,JOHN ,OGL&]4 

,SO ! FEUDAL G5TRY1 AS !IR 9COMES FROM L& DECL9$1 BECAME MORE & MORE DEP5D5T ON ! C\RT = JOBS & ECONOMIC PICK+S1 MORE & MORE P>ASITIC4 ,AS ! ,/U>T MON>*Y BECAME PROGRESSIVELY LESS USEFUL TO ! B\RGEOISIE1 SO IT BECAME MORE 9DISP5SABLE TO ! >I/OCRACY & C\RTI]S1 !IR ONLY GU>ANTEE ( ECONOMIC SURVIVAL4 ,?AT IS :Y !Y W]E TO FI<T = IT SO DESP]ATELY 9 ! ,CIVIL ,W>4 

,= ! MON>*Y WAS B\ND UP ) ! FEUDAL ORD] BY MORE ?AN ! BONDS ( CONS]VATIVE S5TIM5T4 ,! ,K+ WAS HIMSELF ! GREATE/ ( FEUDAL L&LORDS &1 ?\< HE WAS 9 A BETT] POSITION ?AN O!RS TO GET A RAKE-(F FROM ! NEW CAPITALI/ WEAL?1 HE WAS OPPOS$ NO LESS ?AN ANY O!R L&[N] TO A FUNDAM5TAL *ANGE FROM A FEUDAL TO A CAPITALI/ ORD] ( SOCIETY4 

,9 ! E>LY SIXTE5? C5TURY ! MON>*Y HAD US$ ! B\RGEOISIE AS AN ALLY AGA9/ ITS MO/ P[]FUL RIVALS - ! O!R GREAT FEUDAL H\SES WEAK5$ BY ! ,W>S ( ! ,ROSES & ! ,*UR*4 ,! ALLIANCE BETWE5 ,CR[N & ,P>LIAM5T 7REPRES5T+ ! L&$ CLASSES & ! M]*ANTS7 HAD 9 ! E>LY SIXTE5? C5TURY BE5 G5U9E4 ,! NEW M5 PROSP]$ UND] ! %ELT] ( ! ?RONE2 ! MON>*Y DEF5D$ !M FROM 9T]NAL REACTION OR REVOLT1 AS :5 IT DEFEAT$ ! ,PILGRIMAGE ( ,GRACE 7#a#e#c#f7 & ! RIS+ ( ! NOR!RN E>LS 7#a#e#f#i74 ,! ,CR[N ALSO DEF5D$ !M FROM ! EXT]NAL REACTION>Y P[] ( ,SPA9 7! ,>MADA74 ,! ONLY TIME :5 REACTION SEEM$ = A BRIEF P]IOD LIKELY TO TRIUMPH WAS :5 ,QUE5 ,M>Y WAS M>RI$ TO ,PHILIP ( ,SPA92 & !N ! T]ROR & BURN+S ) :I* ALONE H] POLICY C\LD BE C>RI$ ?R\< HELP$ TO CONFIRM ! NATIONAL HATR$ ( ,CA?OLICISM4 ,SO ! COLLABORATION BETWE5 ,CR[N & ,P>LIAM5T 9 ! ,TUDOR P]IOD WAS BAS$ ON A COMMUNITY ( REAL 9T]E/S4 ,! ,P>LIAM5T>Y FRAN*ISE WAS V]Y RE/RICT$ & ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS REPRES5T$ EXCLUSIVELY ! L&$ CLASS & ! M]*ANTS1 :IL/ ! ,H\SE ( ,LORDS REMA9$ ! MORE IMPORTANT *AMB] UNTIL ! ,COMMONS SEIZ$ ! 9ITIATIVE 9 ,JAMES ,I'S REIGN4 ,P>LIAM5T UND] ! ,TUDORS DID NOT MEET (T51 & !N NORMALLY APPROV$ ! ROYAL POLICY4 

,BUT BY ! LA/ DECADE ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 :5 ALL ITS 9T]NAL & EXT]NAL FOES HAD BE5 CRU%$1 ! B\RGEOISIE CEAS$ TO DEP5D ON ! PROTECTION ( ! MON>*Y2 AT ! SAME TIME ! ,CR[N BECAME 9CREAS+LY AW>E ( ! DANG]\S POSSIBILITIES ( ! GR[+ WEAL? ( ! B\RGEOISIE1 & /ROVE TO CONSOLIDATE ITS POSITION BE=E IT WAS TOO LATE4 

,?IS CLA% CAN BE SE5 9 ! QU>RELS ( ,JAMES ,I & ,*>LES ,I ) !IR ,P>LIAM5TS4 ,! *ANGE WAS 9 ! RELATIVE /R5G? ( ! CLASS =CES2 ,JAMES WAS SILLI] ?AN ,ELIZABE?1 BUT ?IS ALONE DOES NOT ACC\NT = ! FAILURE ( HIS POLICY :]E H]S SUCCE$$4 ,JAMES =MULAT$ GR&IOSE !ORIES ( ! DIV9E RI<T ( K+S :]E ,ELIZABE? HAD PRES]V$ A PRUD5T SIL5CE2 BUT ?IS IS A SYMPTOM ( ! GR[+ DIV]G5CE BETWE5 ,CR[N & ,P>LIAM5T1 NOT A CAUSE4 ,JAMES HAD TO DEF9E HIS POSITION BECAUSE IT WAS BE+ CALL$ 9 QUE/ION4 ,! REAL CRUX ( ! PROBLEM WAS F9ANCE1 OV] :I* !RE HAD ALREADY BE5 CONFLICT AT ! 5D ( ,ELIZABE?'S REIGN4 ,PRICES W]E RIS+1 ! WEAL? ( ! B\RGEOISIE WAS 9CREAS+ BY LEAPS & B\NDS1 YET ! REV5UE ( ! ,CR[N1 AS ( MO/ GREAT L&[N]S1 REMA9$ /ATIC & 9ADEQUATE TO ! NEW NE$S4 ,UNLESS ! ,CR[N C\LD TAP ! NEW WEAL? EI!R 7A7 BY DRA/ICALLY 9CREAS+ TAXATION AT ! EXP5SE ( ! B\RGEOISIE & G5TRY1 OR 7B7 BY SOMEH[ TAK+ P>T 9 ! PRODUCTIVE PROCESS ITSELF1 ITS 9DEP5D5T P[] MU/ DISAPPE>4 

,! FIR/ POLICY - 9CREAS$ CU/OMS1 =C$ LOANS1 NEW TAXES - L$ TO VIOL5T QU>RELS ) ,P>LIAM5T1 :I* HAD LONG CLAIM$ ! RI<T TO CONTROL TAXATION1 & WAS NOT GO+ TO ALL[ TAXES TO BE 9CREAS$ UNLESS IT WAS GIV5 FULL CONTROL OV] ! MA*9]Y ( ,/ATE4 

,! SECOND POLICY L$ TO ! ]ECTION ( MONOPOLIES 9 ! ATTEMPT TO CONTROL C]TA9 9DU/RIES & OBTA9 A R5TI]'S RAKE-(F FROM ?AT CONTROL1 E4G4 COAL1 ALUM1 SOAP1 ETC4 ,IT \TRAG$ ! :OLE BUS9ESS POPULATION1 CAPITALI/S & EMPLOYES ALIKE4 ,! SC&AL REA*$ ITS HEI<T 9 0,COCKAYNE'S PROJECT0 7#a#f#a#f74 ,?IS WAS A S*EME TO BR+ ! CLO?+ 9DU/RY UND] ROYAL CONTROL & EXP& EXPORTS TO ! ADVANTAGE ( ! ,EX*EQU]4 ,IT WAS SABOTAG$ BY ! EXPORT]S1 & L$ TO A CRISIS ( OV]-PRODUCTION & WIDESPREAD UNEMPLOYM5T1 ! BLAME = :I* ATTA*$ ITSELF TO ! ,CR[N4 

,A ?IRD POLICY1 TRI$ BY ! ,/U>TS AFT] ALL O!RS HAD FAIL$1 NEV] HAD A *ANCE ( SUCCESS4 ,?IS WAS AN ATTEMPT TO REVIVE & 9CREASE ! REV5UE FROM FEUDAL DUES4 ,!RE WAS NO *ANCE ( ! ,CR[N BECOM+ F9ANCIALLY 9DEP5D5T ( ! B\RGEOISIE FROM ?IS S\RCE ALONE2 ! ONLY CONSEQU5CE ( ITS EXPLOITATION WAS ! ALI5ATION ( ! ,CR[N'S POT5TIAL FRI5DS AMONG ! >I/OCRACY & G5TRY1 AS WELL AS ( ! B\RGEOISIE4 ,= ) ! 9CREAS+ ECONOMIC DIFFICULTIES1 & ! POLITICAL ?REAT FROM ! B\RGEOISIE1 ! MON>*Y WAS ?R[N BACK ON ! EXCLUSIVE SUPPORT ( ! NOBILITY & ! ECONOMICALLY UNPROGRESSIVE1 P>ASITIC ELEM5TS 9 ! /ATE4 ,ON ! O!R SIDE1 ! NOBILITY ITSELF CAME TO DEP5D MORE & MORE ON ! ,CR[N'S CONTROL ( ECONOMIC LIFE TO MA9TA9 ITS [N POSITION4 ,IT WANT$ ,C\RT PATRONAGE = ITS L&LESS Y\NG] SONS1 :OM B\RGEOIS COMPETITION WAS DRIV+ \T ( ! PR(ESSIONS2 IT WANT$ PRIVILEGES & MONOPOLIES :I* W\LD GIVE IT A R5TI]'S %>E 9 ! PR(ITS ( DEVELOP+ CAPITALISM4 ,IT IS NOT SURPRIS+ ?AT ! MAJOR P>LIAM5T>Y CLA%ES ( ! E>LY SEV5TE5? C5TURY W]E OV] ?IS V]Y ISSUE ( MONOPOLIES4 ,!Y W]E ! MEANS BY :I* ! MON>*Y ATTEMPT$ TO CONTROL & CANALIZE COMM]CIAL ACTIVITY 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! GRE$Y C\RTI]S1 ! 0DRONES10 9 D5UNCIATION ( :OM ,PURITAN S]MONS AB\ND$4 

,ANO!R GREAT L&[N] REMA9S TO BE CONSID]$1 :OSE 9T]E/S W]E EV5 MORE CLOSELY B\ND UP ) ?OSE ( ! MON>*Y - ! ,*UR* HI]>*Y4 ,S9CE ! DISSOLUTION ( ! ,MONA/]IES1 ! REMA9+ POSSESSIONS ( ! ,*UR* ( ,5GL& W]E COVET$ BY A SECTION ( ! G5TRY4 ,ONLY ! USEFULNESS ( ! BI%OPS TO ! ,CR[N PROTECT$ ! ,*UR* FROM FUR!R SPOLIATION4 ,ITS MORAL AU?ORITY1 TOO1 C\LD N[ NO LONG] BE DRAWN FROM ! 9T]NATIONAL ,PAPACY ) :I* ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I HAD BROK51 BUT CAME FROM ! NATIONAL MON>*Y1 ITS ONLY DEF5D] AGA9/ ,CA?OLIC REACTION & LEFT-W+ ,PROTE/ANT REVOLUTION>IES4 ,SO ! ,ELIZABE?AN ,*UR* /OOD = PASSIVE OB$I5CE TO DIV9ELY CON/ITUT$ AU?ORITY1 & PREA*$ ?AT REBELLION WAS ! WOR/ POSSIBLE S94 ,! DEP5D5CE ( ! ,*UR* ON ! ,CR[N WAS A C5TURY OLD BY #a#f#d1 & !IR ALLIANCE WAS BAS$ ON ! CLOSE/ COMMUNITY ( 9T]E/4 ,AS ! BREA* BETWE5 ,CR[N & B\RGEOISIE WID5$1 SO ! ,PURITAN ATTACK ON ! ,*UR*1 ON ITS =MS & C]EMONIES1 ITS C\RTS & DISCIPL9E1 BECAME H>DLY DI/+UI%ABLE FROM ! ,P>LIAM5T>Y ATTACK ON ! ,CR[N4 ,A GR\P ( M]*ANTS 9 ,LONDON =M$ A SOCIETY = E/ABLI%+ LECTURE%IPS 9 ! 0B>R5 P>TS0 ( ! C\NTRY1 & LECTUR]S NOM9AT$ BY T[N CORPORATIONS 9CURR$ ! SPECIAL HO/ILITY ( ,*>LES ,I'S ,>*BI%OP1 ,LAUD1 :O RI<TLY SUSPECT$ ?AT !IR !OLOGY & POLITICAL !ORY W\LD BE EQUALLY 0UNS\ND0 FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( ! ,GOV]NM5T4 

,TWO SOCIAL SY/EMS & !IR IDEOLOGIES W]E 9 CONFLICT4 ,PRESBYT]IANISM 7:I* ADVOCAT$ ABOLITION ( ! ROYALLY APPO9T$ BI%OPS & ! DOM9ATION ( EA* ,*UR* BY ELD]S - LOCAL BIGWIGS7 WAS AN OLIG>*ICAL !ORY :I* ESPECIALLY APPEAL$ TO ! BIG B\RGEOISIE4 ,:AT !Y WANT$ WAS A ,*UR* ORGANIZ$ 9 SU* A WAY AS TO BE CAPABLE ( DIFFUS+ ?R\<\T ! :OLE ( SOCIETY ! POLITICAL & ECONOMIC WAYS ( ?9K+ CONV5I5T = ! M]*ANT CLASS4 ,= IT HAS BE5 ABUNDANTLY DEMON/RAT$ H[ ! MORALITY ?AT ,PURITANISM PREA*$ WAS PRECISELY ! \TLOOK NE$$ = ! ACCUMULATION ( CAPITAL & EXPANSION ( CAPITALISM4 ,! EMPHASIS WAS ON ?RIFT1 SOBRIETY1 H>D WORK 9 ! /ATION TO :I* ,GOD HAD CALL$ A MAN2 ON UNCEAS+ LABOR 9 :ATEV] CALL+1 M]*ANT OR >TISAN1 ONE HAPP5$ TO BE1 BUT ) NO EXTRAVAGANT 5JOYM5T ( ! FRUITS ( LABOR1 & UNCEAS+ PREOCCUPATION ) DUTY TO ! DETRIM5T ( 0WORLDLY0 PLEASURE4 ,! WEAL?Y W]E TO ACCUMULATE CAPITAL1 ! POOR TO LABOR AT !IR TASKS - AS A DIV9E DUTY & ALWAYS UND] ! 0GREAT ,TASK-MA/]'S0 EYE4 ,?IS BELIEF 9SPIR$ ! B\RGEOISIE TO REMODEL SOCIETY 9 ! DIV9ELY ORDA9$ FA%ION AS ,GOD'S 0ELECT10 & IF ?AT FA%ION BORE A /RIK+ RESEMBLANCE TO ! CAPITALI/ SY/EM1 !Y W]E EV] MORE F]V5TLY CONV9C$ ?AT !Y W]E DO+ ! WORK ( ,GOD & ?AT ULTIMATE VICTORY WAS BO? PR$E/9$ & ASSUR$4 ,!IR CONVICTION ( 0SALVATION0 WAS BORN ( ! HI/ORICAL NECESSITY & PROGRESSIV5ESS ( !IR TASK1 & WAS CONFIRM$ BY ! MAT]IAL PROSP]ITY ) :I* ,GOD T5D$ TO BLESS HIS S]VANTS4 

,! HI]>*Y C\NT]-ATTACK$ BY TRY+ TO 9CREASE TI! PAYM5TS 9 ! T[NS1 & TO RECOV] SOME ( ! ,*UR*'S LO/ REV5UES 7TI!S :I* HAD BE5 0IMPROPRIAT$0 - ?AT IS TO SAY1 DIV]T$ 9TO ! POCKETS ( A LAY L&LORD FROM ! ECCLESIA/ICAL PURPOSES = :I* !Y HAD ORIG9ALLY BE5 *>G$ ON ALL OCCUPI]S ( PROP]TY74 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 IT TRI$ TO EXT5D ITS CONTROL OV] PATRONAGE1 9 ORD] TO APPO9T TO ,*UR* LIV+S SOCIALLY & DOCTR9ALLY SATISFACTORY 9CUMB5TS4 0,SUBV]SIVE0 VIEWS ON DOCTR9E & DISCIPL9E W]E RU?LESSLY PUNI%$ BY ! ECCLESIA/ICAL ,C\RT ( ,HI< ,COMMISSION1 ) ,LAUD AT ITS HEAD4 ,! ,PURITAN OPPOSITION DEPICT$ ! :OLE TR5D ( ,*>LES'S POLICY AS A RETURN TO PAPI/RY1 :I* IS TRU] 9 SPIRIT ?AN 9 ! LETT]4 ,LAUD WAS NO DOCTR9AL PAPI/1 & HE REFUS$ ALL OV]TURES FROM ,ROME2 BUT ! SOCIAL POLICY :I* HE P]SONIFI$ WAS AN ATTEMPT TO REVIVE & P]PETUATE OBSOLETE M$IEVAL ECONOMIC & SOCIAL RELATIONS & ! WAYS ( ?9K+ CORRESPOND+ TO !M4 ,?US ! FI<T TO CONTROL ! ,*UR* WAS ( FUNDAM5TAL IMPORTANCE2 :OEV] CONTROLL$ ITS DOCTR9E & ORGANIZATION WAS 9 A POSITION TO DET]M9E ! NATURE ( SOCIETY4 ,JAMES ,I WAS MAK+ A %REWD POLITICAL ANALYSIS :5 HE SAID1 0,NO ,BI%OP1 NO ,K+40 ,IT WAS ONLY ?REE YE>S AFT] ! ABOLITION EPISCOPACY ?AT ,*>LES ,I DI$ ON ! SCAFFOLD4 

B7 ,RESI/ANCE TO ! ,/U>TS 

  

,! POLITICAL /RUGGLE WAS WAG$ 9 ,P>LIAM5T DUR+ ! E>LY YE>S ( ! C5TURY4 ,IT COV]$ MANY SUBJECTS - RELIGI\S1 ECONOMIC1 CON/ITUTIONAL4 ,) RELIGION W]E CONFUS$ QUE/IONS ( =EIGN POLICY4 ,S9CE ! W> AGA9/ ! REACTION>Y P[] ( ,SPA9 & ! DEFEAT ( ! ,>MADA1 ,5GLI% ,PROTE/ANTISM & ,5GLI% PATRIOTISM W]E CLOSELY CONNECT$4 ,JAMES \TRAG$ !M BO? :51 ?R\< FE> ( ! REVOLUTION>Y T5D5CIES ( EXTREME ,PROTE/ANTISM 9 ,5GL& & ABROAD1 HE DREW CLOS] TO ,SPA94 ,= MANY YE>S ! ,SPANI% ,AMBASSADOR ,GONDOM> WAS ! *IEF 9FLU5CE AT ,JAMES'S ,C\RT1 ! BE/-HAT$ MAN 9 ,5GL&2 & DUR+ ?OSE YE>S ,SPANI% DIPLOMACY & ,SPANI% >MIES ADVANC$ AT ! CO/ ( ,PROTE/ANTS ALL OV] ! ,CONT95T4 ,! B\RGEOISIE KNEW ITS FRI5DS4 ,AGA9/ ,JAMES'S POLICY ( APPEASEM5T1 ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS CALL$ = A MILITANT ANTI-,SPANI% POLICY4 ,BUT ?IS WAS ONLY TO BE SECUR$ AFT] ! D[NFALL ( ! MON>*Y4 ,ITS =EIGN POLICY REFLECT$ ! 9T]E/S ( REACTION 9 ,5GL& & ,EUROPE1 & A FUNDAM5TAL REV]SAL ( =EIGN POLICY IS POSSIBLE ONLY BY MEANS ( A FUNDAM5TAL *ANGE 9 ! SOCIAL SY/EM4 

,MEAN:ILE1 9 CONSEQU5CE1 GREAT OPPORTUNITIES = ,5GLI% EXPANSION 9 ! ,NEW ,WORLD W]E LO/2 ! C>RY+ TRADE (  ,EUROPE1 = WANT ( A =W>D POLICY1 WAS LO/ TO ! B\RGEOIS ,DUT* ,REPUBLIC1 & ,5GLI% CLO? WAS DRIV5 FROM ,G]MAN M>KETS4 ,EV5 :]E ! ,CR[N PURSU$ A COLONIZ+ POLICY & TRI$ TO 5LI/ ! SUPPORT ( ! B\RGEOISIE - 9 ,IREL& - !RE W]E TWO DIV]G5T VIEWS ON COLONIZATION4 ,JAMES ,I 5VISAG$ ! ,CITY'S ,LONDOND]RY ,COMPANY AS M]ELY ,GOV]NM5T AG5TS1 :OSE JOB WAS TO PROVIDE YEOM5 SETTL]S TO DEF5D & POLICE ! CONQU]$ & OCCUPI$ DI/RICTS1 :]EAS ! ,CITY M]*ANTS WI%$ TO RETA9 ! 0NATIVE ,IRI%0 AS A S\RCE ( *EAP LABOR = ABS5TEE EMPLOY]S4 ,! ROYAL & FEUDALI/ CONCEPTION ( COLONIZATION - EMPHASIZ+ /RATEGIC & POLIC+ CONSID]ATIONS & ! NE$ = L& = ! IMPOV]I%$ G5TRY - CLA%$ ) ! B\RGEOIS VISION ( COLONIES AS A S\RCE ( /EADY PR(ITS4 ,*>LES ,I EV5 FUR!R ALI5AT$ ! ,CITY BY REVOK+ ! COMPANY'S *>T] AFT] ,G,B,P#e1 CAPITAL HAD BE5 LO/1 & IMPOS+ A F9E ( ,G,B,P#g1 7ULTIMATELY R$UC$ TO ,G,B,P#a#b17 M]ELY BECAUSE ! CITIZ5S HAD PUT PR(IT BE=E ! LETT] ( !IR OBLIGATIONS4 7,?IS1 LIKE O!R F9ES1 WAS A USEFUL W9DFALL = ! ,GOV]NM5T AT ! TIME1 BUT DID NOT MAKE IT MU* EASI] = ! ,CR[N SUBSEQU5TLY TO RAISE LOANS 9 ! ,CITY4 ,! FACT ?AT 0!RE W]E NO SAFE 9VE/M5TS UND] ! ANCI5 REGIME0 IS ALWAYS GIV5 AS ONE ( ! CAUSES ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION47 ,! LAT] RU?LESS DET]M9ATION ( ! B\RGEOISIE TO SUBJUGATE ,IREL&1 LEAD+ UP TO ,CROMWELL'S CONQUE/ 9 #a#f#d#i1 DATES BACK TO ! LOSSES OV] ! ,LONDOND]RY PLANTATION4 

,=EIGN POLICY IS L9K$ ) F9ANCE AS WELL AS ) RELIGION4 ,JAMES CLAIM$ ?AT HIS WEAK =EIGN POLICY WAS DUE TO LACK ( MONEY1 AT A TIME :5 ! B\RGEOISIE WAS BECOM+ VISIBLY RI*]4 ,BUT !RE C\LD BE NO F9ANCIAL CONCESSIONS TO A GOV]NM5T :I* ! MONEY$ CLASSES DID NOT TRU/4 ,OV] ,JAMES'S & ,*>LES'S ATTEMPTS TO REPL5I% ! ,EX*EQU] !RE W]E MANY CLA%ES4 ,IMPORTS W]E TAX$ )\T CONS5T ( ,P>LIAM5T 70IMPOSITIONS074 ,MONOPOLIES AIM$ AT TAPP+ 9DU/RIAL PR(ITS1 & W]E DECL>$ ILLEGAL BY ,P>LIAM5T4 0,COCKAYNE'S PROJECT0 = CONTROL ( ! EXPORT ( CLO? WAS AN ATTEMPT AT ,/ATE 9T]F]5CE ) ! PROCESSES ( PRODUCTION4 ,ITS FAILURE CAUS$ A GRAVE ECONOMIC CRISIS1 & L$ 9 #afba TO ! FIR/ L>GE-SCALE D5UNCIATION ( ! :OLE ECONOMIC POLICY ( ! ,GOV]NM5T & ! SURR5D] ( ,JAMES ON ?AT ISSUE4 ,*>LES1 :O SUCCE$$ HIS FA!R 9 #a#f#b#e1 US$ =C$ LOANS1 BACK$ UP BY >BITR>Y >RE/ ( ?OSE :O REFUS$ TO PAY 7! ,FIVE ,KNI<TS' ,CASE74 

,?IS L$ TO AN OP5 BREA*4 ,9 ! ,PETITION ( ,RI<T1 #a#f#b#h1 ,P>LIAM5T DECL>$ ?AT TAXATION )\T ITS CONS5T & >BITR>Y >RE/ W]E ALIKE ILLEGAL2 O!R CLAUSES TRI$ TO MAKE IMPOSSIBLE = ! ,K+ TO MA9TA9 A /&+ >MY4 ,= ?AT WAS CLE>LY ! DIRECTION 9 :I* ! ,GOV]NM5T WAS T5D+4 ,*>LES ACCEPT$ ! ,PETITION ( ,RI<T P]=CE1 BUT !N IMM$IATELY QU>REL$ ) ! ,COMMONS OV] ITS 9T]PRETATION4 ,9 ,M>*1 #a#f#b#i1 ,P>LIAM5T WAS DISSOLV$ BY A SUDD5 C\P1 BUT NOT BE=E A VIOL5T SC5E 9 ! ,L[] ,H\SE 9 :I* RESOLUTIONS W]E PASS$1 AIM+ AT MAK+ IT IMPOSSIBLE = ! ,K+ TO GET 9 ANY REV5UE1 & CA/+ SUSPICION ON HIS :OLE POLICY AS 0PAPI/0 & 9 ! 9T]E/ ( =EIGN ,P[]S4 

,! PO9T HAD BE5 REA*$ BEYOND :I* ! ,K+ C\LD TREAT NO FUR!R )\T VIRTUAL ABDICATION TO ! B\RGEOISIE4 ,! SITUATION WAS ALREADY REVOLUTION>Y1 BUT ,*>LES HAD TAK5 ! 9ITIATIVE1 & = ELEV5 YE>S HE WAS ABLE TO TRY HIS H& AT P]SONAL GOV]NM5T4 ,HIS M9I/]S W]E NOT 9EFFICI5T4 ,!RE WAS ,>*BI%OP ,LAUD 9 ,LONDON4 ,SIR ,?OMAS ,W5TWOR?1 LEAD] ( ! ,YORK%IRE G5TRY AS OPPOS$ TO ! CLO?+ 9T]E/ 9 ?AT C\NTY1 :OSE COMPROMIS+ LEAD]%IP HAD BE5 REJECT$ BY ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS 9 #a#f#b#h1 N[ CAME OV] OP5LY TO ! ,K+'S SIDE4 ,HE WAS MADE ,PRESID5T ( ! ,C\NCIL 9 ! ,NOR?1 LAT] ,LORD ,LIEUT5ANT ( ,IREL& & ,E>L ( ,/RAF=D4 ,9 ,IREL& HE DI/+UI%$ HIMSELF BY BRUTAL EFFICI5CY1 & BUILT UP A P[]FUL & PAPI/ >MY :I* /RUCK T]ROR 9TO ! HE>TS ( ,5GLI% P>LIAM5T>IANS4 ,! OPPOSITION WAS TEMPOR>ILY DRIV5 UND]GR\ND4 

,DUR+ !SE YE>S ,5GL& WAS AT PEACE ) ! WORLD1 SO ! EXP]IM5T ( P]SONAL GOV]NM5T WAS C>RI$ \T UND] ! MO/ FAVORABLE CIRCUM/ANCES4 ,YET ,*>LES'S SY/EM PROV$ A TOTAL FAILURE1 & BROKE D[N ( ITS [N ACCORD4 ,! ,GOV]NM5T ALI5AT$ ALL SECTIONS ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,IT ANNOY$ ! COMMON LAWY]S BY 9T]F]+ ) JUDGES TO GET ! SORT ( LEGAL DECISIONS IT WANT$ 7,JAMES ,I HAD BE5 GUILTY ( ?IS1 TOO7 & BY RELY+ ON ! PR]OGATIVE C\RTS 7,/> ,*AMB]1 ,C\NCIL 9 ! ,NOR? & 9 ,WALES7 AS 9/RUM5TS ( POLICY4 

,!SE C\RTS HAD BE5 US$ BY ! ,TUDORS1 P>TLY TO DEAL ) COMM]CIAL CAUSES :I* ! COMMON LAW WAS NOT COMPET5T TO H&LE1 P>TLY TO SUPPRESS FEUDAL AN>*Y & MA9TA9 ! ORD] SO NECESS>Y TO A COMM]CIAL CIVILIZATION4 ,BUT DUR+ ! ,TUDOR P]IOD ! COMMON LAW - PRODUCT ( A FEUDAL SOCIETY - HAD ADAPT$ ITSELF TO ! NE$S ( ! BUS9ESS WORLD1 ITS P]SONNEL HAD COME TO BE DRAWN L>GELY FROM ! B\RGEOISIE2 & N[ ?AT ! DANG]S FROM B>ONIAL DISORD] NO LONG] EXI/$1 ! WIDE EXECUTIVE P[]S ( ! PR]OGATIVE C\RTS W]E LOOK$ UPON ) FE> BY ! B\RGEOISIE1 :O NO LONG] NE$$ !IR PROTECTION & MI<T BECOME !IR VICTIMS4 ,! JUDGES 9 ! ,/> ,*AMB] W]E = ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES ALMO/ ID5TICAL ) ! ,GOV]NM5T 9 ! ,PRIVY ,C\NCIL4 

,! B\RGEOISIE ?US F\ND WILL+ ALLIES 9 ! LAWY]S1 ANXI\S = !IR FEES1 AS WELL AS 9 ALL ?OSE :O DETE/$ ! ME?ODS ( ! PR]OGATIVE C\RTS4 ,! CUTT+ (F ( ,PRYNNE'S E>S = WRIT+ A PAMPHLET :I* ! ,GOV]NM5T HELD TO HAVE SLI<T$ ! ,QUE51 ! FLOGG+ ( ,LILBURNE = DI/RIBUT+ ILLEGAL LIT]ATURE1 MADE ! ,GOV]NM5T'S VICTIMS POPUL> H]OES4 

,! F9ANCIAL EXP$I5TS ( ,*>LES'S P]SONAL ,GOV]NM5T AFFECT$ ALL CLASSES4 ,FEUDAL DUES W]E REVIV$ & EXT5D$1 & ?AT HIT L&LORDS & !IR T5ANTS4 ,! DECL9E ( ! ,NAVY & ATTACKS ( PIRATES ON %IPP+ & COA/ T[NS W]E MADE ! EXCUSE = COLLECT+ %IP-MONEY4 ,?IS WAS AN OBSOLETE NATIONAL TAX NOT VOT$ BY ,P>LIAM5T1 FALL+ ESPECIALLY ON ! T[NS & ! G5TRY4 ,MONOPOLIES & ! TI<T5$ GRIP ( CORRUPT ,C\RT CIRCLES ON ! ECONOMIC LIFE ( ! C\NTRY MEANT WEAL? = A FEW BIG M]*ANTS1 BUT GRAVE 9CONV5I5CE = ! VA/ MASS ( BUS9ESS M5 & SMALL PRODUC]S4 

,MONOPOLIES W]E ! MO/ UNECONOMICAL =M ( TAXATION4 ,IT HAS BE5 E/IMAT$ ?AT :]EAS EV]Y #fS4 *>G$ TO ! CONSUM] BY ! ,CU/OMS BR\<T #eS4 9TO ! ,EX*EQU]1 #fS4 9CREAS$ CO/ TO ! CONSUM] 9 MONOPOLIES BR\<T AB\T #aD4 9TO ! ,EX*EQU]4 ,! RE/ W5T TO ! PRIVILEG$ GR\P ( ,C\RT P>ASITES1 :O FULFILL$ NO PRODUCTIVE FUNCTION !MSELVES & W]E AN 5ORM\S DRAG ON ! FULL DEVELOPM5T ( ! PRODUCTIVE CAPACITIES ( ! C\NTRY4 ,! SOAP MONOPOLY SEV]ELY HAMP]$ ! WOOL5 9DU/RY4 ,! SALT MONOPOLY HIT FI%-CUR+4 ,ALL 9DU/RIES SUFF]$ FROM A RISE 9 ! PRICE ( COAL DUE TO ! ,CR[N'S ALLIANCE ) A R+ ( EXPORT]S4 ,MONOPOLIES CAUS$ A %>P RISE 9 PRICES ALL R\ND1 :I* HIT ! POOR ESPECIALLY H>D4 ,!RE W]E MONOPOLIES 7& !RE=E 9CREAS$ PRICES7 ON NECESSITIES1 SU* AS BUTT]1 H]R+S1 SALT1 BE]1 SOAP & TOO MANY O!RS TO 5UM]ATE4 0,IS NOT BREAD !RE80 AN 9DIGNANT ,MEMB] ( ,P>LIAM5T DEM&$ :5 ! LI/ WAS READ \T 9 #a#f#a4 

,9 FACE ( !SE FACTS1 ! MANEUV]S ( ! ,GOV]NM5T TO 5LI/ ! SUPPORT ( ! POOR] PEASANTS AGA9/ !IR L&LORDS DECEIV$ NO ONE 7EXCEPT A REC5T S*OOL ( REACTION>Y HI/ORIANS - ,!Y RELY L>GELY ON ! /ATEM5T ( ! HI/ORIAN ,CL>5DON ?AT ! P]IOD #a#f#b#i-#d WAS ONE ( GREAT PROSP]ITY = ! MASS ( ! POPULACE4 ,ON ?IS ,?OROLD ,ROG]S4 ! HI/ORIAN ( PRICES1 COMM5TS3 0,I AM CONV9C$1 BY COMP>ISON ( WAGES1 R5TS & PRICES1 ?AT IT WAS A P]IOD ( EXCESSIVE MIS]Y AMONG ! MASS ( ! PEOPLE & ! T5ANTS1 A TIME 9 :I* A FEW MI<T HAVE BECOME RI*1 :ILE ! MANY W]E CRU%$ D[N 9TO HOPELESS & ALMO/ P]MAN5T 9DIG5CE0 .<,! ,ECONOMIC ,9T]PRETATION ( HI/ORY1 P4 #a#c#i.>4 ,CL>5DON IS H>DLY AN IMP>TIAL WITNESS1 = HE HAD BE5 ! *IEF ,C\NCILOR ( ,*>LES ,I & ,*>LES ,I,I 9 EXILE1 & WAS ,*>LES ,I,I'S FIR/ ,M9I/] AFT] ! ,RE/ORATION1 UNTIL ! ,P>LIAM5T>Y OPPOSITION DROVE HIM \T ( ! C\NTRY AGA9 9 #a#f#f#g4 ,( C\RSE HE WANT$ TO BOO/ ! OLD REGIME4 ,HE IS REFUT$ BY ! CONTEMPOR>Y DISPAT*ES ( ! ,V5ETIAN ,AMBASSADOR7 & W]E NOT EV5 EFFECTIVE4 ,COMMISSIONS W]E SET UP TO PUNI% L&LORDS :OSE 5CLOSURES HAD L$ TO EVICTION1 BUT ! F9ANCIAL EXTREMITY ( ! ,GOV]NM5T WAS SU* ?AT IT C\LD NEV] RESI/ ! (F]S ( RI* M5 TO BUY !MSELVES (F4 ,!RE W]E MANY PEOPLE ( ADMIRABLE 9T5TIONS 9 ,*>LES'S ,GOV]NM5T1 BUT !Y W]E UNABLE TO MAKE ANY?+ ( ! ROTT5 SY/EM !Y W]E TRY+ TO WORK4 ,?IS IS ESPECIALLY CLE> 9 ! CASE ( ,LAUD1 :OSE VIEWS ON ! NE$ = BEAUTY & UNI=MITY 9 *UR* WOR%IP L$ HIM TO VIOL5T P]SECUTION ( HIS OPPON5TS1 TO ESPIONAGE & ! ?ROTTL+ D[N ( ALL CRITICISM4 ,?US ALL HONE/ ,PURITANS1 & MANY :O HAD NO /RONG RELIGI\S VIEWS AT ALL1 W]E DRIV5 WILLY-NILLY 9TO POLITICAL OPPOSITION1 & EV5 SU* A LONG-E/ABLI%$ CU/OM AS ! PAYM5T ( TI!S TO ! E/ABLI%$ ,*UR* BEGAN TO BE WIDELY CALL$ 9 QUE/ION4 

,DUR+ !SE ELEV5 YE>S ! OPPOSITION WAS ORGANIZ+ ITSELF AS WELL AS GR[+4 ,ITS C5T] WAS A GR\P ( L&$ FAMILIES1 CLOSELY CONNECT$ BY TRADE & 9T]M>RIAGE1 :O W]E ALWAYS WELL REPRES5T$ 9 BO? ,H\SES ( ,P>LIAM5T4 ,! SORT ( ,/ATE !Y WANT$ C\LD NOT BE PROCUR$ )\T ! OV]?R[ ( ! ,LAUD-,/RAF=D REGIME 7?\< !RE W]E AS YET FEW REPUBLICANS74 

,! FIR/ GREAT SIGNAL ( REVOLT WAS ,JOHN ,HAMPD5'S REFUSAL TO PAY ,%IP ,MONEY 9 #a#f#c#g1 & HIS TRIAL & CONDEMNATION FOCUS$ ATT5TION 9 A WAY ?AT ! MORE CRUEL IMPRISONM5T ( ,ELIOT & O!R ,P>LIAM5T>Y LEAD]S 9 #afbi HAD FAIL$ TO DO4 7,ELIOT DI$ 9 PRISON1 AS ! ,GOV]NM5T 9T5D$ HIM TO DO4 ,ON ONE OCCASION ! ,LIEUT5ANT ( ! ,T[] WAS SEV]ELY REPRIM&$ = ALL[+ AIR FROM AN OP5 W9D[ TO REA* ?IS DANG]\S PRISON]47 

,! B\RGEOISIE ?US SAW ?AT !IR ECONOMIC GRIEVANCES C\LD ONLY BE R$RESS$ BY POLITICAL ACTION2 ! ROYAL ECONOMIC POLICIES1 HITT+ ! CAPITALI/ CLASS AS A :OLE1 C\LD NOT BE IMPROV$ BY ! W9N+ ( SMALL PRIVILEGES = P>TICUL> MEMB]S ( ! CLASS4 ,! DEM& = A BUS9ESS GOV]NM5T1 /RONG EV] S9CE ! CRISIS ( #a#f#b#a1 GREW RAPIDLY4 ,FOLL[+ ,HAMPD5'S EXAMPLE1 !RE WAS A G5]AL REFUSAL TO PAY TAXES 9 ! YE>S #a#f#c#i-#d4 ,! B\RGEOISIE HAD GONE ON /RIKE4 

,MEAN:ILE ,*>LES'S SY/EM HAD BROK5 D[N AT ITS WEAKE/ L9K - 9 ,SCOTL&4 ,SCOTL& WAS A MU* MORE BACKW>D C\NTRY ?AN ,5GL& ECONOMICALLY1 BUT POLITICALLY ! G5TRY HAD ?R[N (F ! CONTROL ( ,*UR*1 ,CR[N & BIG >I/OCRACY4 ,*>LES ,I WANT$ TO REV]SE ?IS A*IEVEM5T4 ,HIS ATTEMPT TO EXT5D ROYAL CONTROL OV] ! ,*UR* ( ,SCOTL&1 & HIS ?REAT TO RESUME ,*UR* L&S !RE1 CREAT$ A NATIONAL REVOLT = :I* !RE WAS MU* SYMPA?Y 9 ,5GL&4 ,:5 A ,SCOTTI% >MY 9VAD$ ,5GL& 9 #a#f#c#i1 ! ABS5CE ( ALL POPUL> SUPPORT AS WELL AS %E] LACK ( MEANS =C$ ,*>LES TO COME TO T]MS ) IT4 

,9 ! ECONOMIC CRISIS ( #afd HE WAS UTT]LY BANKRUPT4 ,HE \TRAG$ COMM]CIAL CIRCLES BY SEIZ+ BULLION DEPOSIT$ 9 ! ,T[] & BY PROPOS+ TO DEBASE ! CO9AGE4 ,! ,/ATE MA*9E - :I* DEP5D$ ON ! SUPPORT ( ! MIDDLE-CLASS ,J4,P4S - CEAS$ TO FUNCTION4 ,! ,SCOTS REFUS$ TO LEAVE ,5GL& )\T AN 9DEMNITY4 ,! ,5G IS >MY S5T AGA9/ !M WAS MUT9\S & HAD TO BE PAID4 ,A ,P>LIAM5T C\LD NO LONG] BE AVOID$4 ,EV5 SO ,*>LES DISSOLV$ ONE ,P>LIAM5T AFT] ?REE WEEKS 7! ,%ORT ,P>LIAM5T72 BUT 9 ,NOVEMB]1 #a#f#d1 ! ,LONG ,P>LIAM5T MET1 TO :I* ! ,GOV]NM5T HAD TO SURR5D]4 ,PYM1 ,HAMPD5 & O!R ,OPPOSITION LEAD]S HAD /UMP$ ! C\NTRY 9 A SUCCESSFUL ELECTION CAMPAIGN4 ,!Y W]E HELP$ BY RIOTS AGA9/ 5CLOSURES 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE & BY MASS DEMON/RATIONS 9 ! ,CITY4 ,! LA/ TIME ! RACK WAS US$ 9 ,5GL& WAS TO TORTURE A Y\? :O HAD L$ A PROCESSION TO ,LAMBE? TO HUNT 0,WILLIAM ! ,FOX0 7,>*BI%OP ,LAUD74 

,?IS ,P>LIAM5T DIFF]$ FROM ITS PR$ECESSORS ONLY 9 ! L5G? ( ITS SESSION4 ,IT REPRES5T$ ! SAME CLASSES - PR9CIPALLY ! G5TRY & WEAL?Y M]*ANTS4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 IT CAME TO REFLECT ! DIVISION AMONG ! ,5GLI% G5TRY CORRESPOND+ R\<LY TO ! ECONOMIC DIVISION BETWE5 FEUDAL NOR?-WE/ & CAPITALI/ S\?-EA/4 ,BUT ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS DID NOT MAKE ! REVOLUTION3 ITS MEMB]S W]E SUBJECT TO PRESSURE FROM \TSIDE1 FROM ! PEOPLE ( ,LONDON1 ! YEOM5 & >TISANS ( ! HOME C\NTIES4 

,BUT 9 #afd MO/ CLASSES W]E UNIT$ AGA9/ ! ,CR[N4 ,! F9AL ISSUES W]E3 7A7 DE/RUCTION ( ! BUREAUCRATIC MA*9]Y :]EBY ! ,GOV]NM5T HAD BE5 ABLE TO RULE 9 CONTRAV5TION ( ! DESIRES ( ! GREAT MAJORITY ( ITS POLITICALLY 9FLU5TIAL SUBJECTS 7,/RAF=D WAS EXECUT$1 ,LAUD IMPRISON$1 O!R LEAD+ ,M9I/]S FL$ ABROAD2 ! ,/> ,*AMB]1 ,C\RT ( ,HI< ,COMMISSION1 & O!R PR]OGATIVE C\RTS W]E ABOLI%$72 7B7 PREV5TION ( A /&+ >MY CONTROLL$ BY ! ,K+2 7C7 ABOLITION ( ! REC5T F9ANCIAL EXP$I5TS1 :OSE AIM HAD ALSO BE5 TO R5D] ! ,K+ 9DEP5D5T ( ! CONTROL ( ! B\RGEOISIE ?R\< ,P>LIAM5T1 & :OSE EFFECT HAD BE5 ECONOMIC DISLOCATION & ! UND]M9+ ( CONFID5CE2 7D7 ,P>LIAM5T>Y 7I4E4 B\RGEOIS7 CONTROL ( ! ,*UR*1 SO ?AT IT C\LD NO LONG] BE US$ AS A REACTION>Y PROPAG&A AG5CY4 

,A CRISIS WAS =C$ BY A REVOLT 9 ,IREL& 9 #a#f#d#a4 ,) ! )DRAWAL ( ,/RAF=D1 ! ,5GLI% ,GOV]NM5T !RE1 :I* HAD LONG BE5 OPPRESSIVE1 CEAS$ TO BE /RONG1 & ! ,IRI% SEIZ$ ! OPPORTUNITY TO ATTEMPT TO ?R[ (F ! ,5GLI% YOKE4 ,P>LIAM5T WAS UNIT$ 9 ITS DET]M9ATION TO KEEP ! FIR/ ,BRITI% COLONY 9 SUBJECTION2 BUT ! B\RGEOISIE FIRMLY REFUS$ TO TRU/ ,*>LES ) AN >MY = ITS RE-CONQUE/ 7,ROYALI/ PLOTS 9 ! >M$ =CES HAD ALREADY BE5 EXPOS$74 ,SO ,P>LIAM5T WAS RELUCTANTLY =C$ TO TAKE CONTROL ( ! ,>MY4 

,! UNANIMITY 9SIDE ,P>LIAM5T CAME TO AN 5D4 ,TO MO/ ( ! >I/OCRACY & CONS]VATIVE G5TRY1 ! POLICY ( ! LEAD]S ( ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS1 & ESPECIALLY !IR READ9ESS TO APPEAL TO PUBLIC OP9ION \TSIDE ,P>LIAM5T1 SEEM$ LEAD+ TO A BREAKUP ( ! SOCIAL ORD] 9 :I* !IR DOM9ANT POSITION WAS SECURE1 & !Y GRADUALLY FELL BACK TO SUPPORT ( ! ,K+4 ,9 ! C\NTRY AS A :OLE1 ! DIVISION W5T ALONG BROAD CLASS L9ES4 ,! L&$ CLASS WAS DIVID$1 MANY BE+ FRI<T5$ BY RIOTS AGA9/ 5CLOSURES & ?REATS ( A PEASANT REVOLT1 SU* AS HAD %AK5 ! ,MIDL&S 9 #a#f#g2 ! PROGRESSIVE SECTION ( ! G5TRY & ! B\RGEOISIE W]E CONFID5T ?AT !Y C\LD RIDE ! /ORM4 ,9 ,LONDON1 :IL/ MONOPOLI/S & ! RUL+ OLIG>*Y SUPPORT$ ! C\RT FROM :I* !IR PR(ITS CAME1 ! MA9 BODY ( M]*ANTS1 >TISANS & APPR5TICES GAVE ACTIVE SUPPORT TO ! =W>D P>TY 9 ,P>LIAM5T1 & PU%$ IT /EADILY FUR!R ALONG ! REVOLUTION>Y PA?4 ,! GREAT LEAD] ( ! ,COMMONS1 ,PYM1 WELCOM$ ?IS POPUL> SUPPORT1 & 9 ! ,GR& ,REMON/RANCE 7,NOVEMB] #a#f#d#a7 ! REVOLUTION>Y LEAD]S DREW UP A SWEEP+ 9DICTM5T ( ,*>LES'S ,GOV]NM5T1 & PUBLI%$ IT = PROPAG&A PURPOSES - A NEW TE*NIQUE ( APPEAL TO ! PEOPLE4 

,BUT ! DECISION TO PR9T ! ,REMON/RANCE HAD BE5 ! OCCASION ( A SAVAGE CLA% 9 ! ,H\SE & WAS PASS$ BY ONLY ELEV5 VOTES1 AFT] :I* ! DIVISION BECAME IRRECONCILABLE4 ,! FUTURE ,ROYALI/S )DREW FROM ,P>LIAM5T1 NOT 7AS IS (T5 ALLEG$7 BECAUSE ( !IR DEVOTION TO BI%OPS1 BUT RA!R 7AS A ,MEMB] SAID 9 ! DEBATE7 BECAUSE1 0IF WE MAKE A P>ITY 9 ! ,*UR* WE MU/ COME TO A P>ITY 9 ! ,COMMONWEAL?40 ,IF ! PROP]TY ( ! ECCLESIA/ICAL L&LORDS C\LD BE CONFISCAT$1 :OSE TURN MI<T NOT COME NEXT8 ,! BIG B\RGEOISIE ITSELF WAS FRI<T5$1 & FELT ! NE$ ( SOME K9D ( MON>*ICAL SETTLEM5T 7) A RE=M$ MON>*Y RESPONSIVE TO ITS 9T]E/S7 TO *ECK ! FL[ ( POPUL> FEEL+4 ,IT TRI$ DESP]ATELY TO /EM ! REVOLUTION>Y TORR5T IT HAD LET LOOSE4 ,ONE G5TLEMAN SWIT*$ OV] FROM ! SIDE ( ,P>LIAM5T TO ! ,K+ BECAUSE HE FE>$ ?AT 0! NECESSIT\S PEOPLE ( ! :OLE K+DOM WILL PRES5TLY RISE 9 MI<TY NUMB]S2 & :OSOEV] !Y PRET5D = AT FIR/1 )9 A :ILE !Y WILL SET UP = !MSELVES1 TO ! UTT] RU9 ( ALL ! NOBILITY & G5TRY ( ! K+DOM40 0,RI* M501 A PAMPHLETE] IRONICALLY OBS]V$ LAT]1 0>E NONE ( ! GREATE/ 5EMIES TO MON>*Y40 ,BUT ?IS FE> ( ! COMMON PEOPLE ONLY 5C\RAG$ ! K+ TO ?9K HIMSELF 9DISP5SABLE3 HE REFUS$ ALL OV]TURES1 & 9 ! SUMM] ( #afdb W> BEGAN4 

,9 TIME ( W> M5 MU/ *OOSE ONE SIDE OR ! O!R4 ,MANY G5TLEM5 TO :OM PROP]TY MEANT MORE ?AN PR9CIPLE *OSE ! L9E ( LEA/ RESI/ANCE & SAV$ !IR E/ATES BY CO-OP]AT+ ) :I*EV] P>TY DOM9AT$ 9 !IR >EA4 ,BUT EV5 AMONG ! M5 ( CONVICTION1 ! DIVID+ ISSUES W]E OBSCUR$ 7AS !Y HAVE BE5 = MANY HI/ORIANS7 BY ! FACT ?AT MANY ( ! HAT$ ,/ATE (FICIALS W]E ALSO (FICIALS ( ! NATIONAL ,*UR*4 ,& = ! ,*UR* MU* TRADITIONAL & S5TIM5TAL POPUL>ITY C\LD BE WORK$ UP4 ,MANY ( ! ,P>LIAM5T>IANS1 MOREOV]1 T5D$ TO SPEAK AS ?\< !Y ?\<T ! MO/ IMPORTANT P>T ( !IR /RUGGLE ! IDEOLOGICAL BATTLE ( ,PURITANISM AGA9/ AN ,ANGLICANISM ?AT WAS B>ELY DI/+UI%ABLE FROM ,CA?OLICISM4 ,BUT !IR ACTIONS MAKE IT CLE> ?AT !Y KNEW ?AT MORE ?AN ?IS WAS AT /AKE4 

,! ISSUE WAS ONE ( POLITICAL P[]4 ,! B\RGEOISIE HAD REJECT$ ,*>LES ,I'S ,GOV]NM5T1 NOT BECAUSE HE WAS A BAD MAN1 BUT BECAUSE HE REPRES5T$ AN OBSOLETE SOCIAL SY/EM4 ,HIS ,GOV]NM5T TRI$ TO P]PETUATE A FEUDAL SOCIAL ORD] :5 ! CONDITIONS EXI/$ = FREE CAPITALI/ DEVELOPM5T1 :5 ! 9CREASE ( NATIONAL WEAL? C\LD ONLY COME BY MEANS ( FREE CAPITALI/ DEVELOPM5T4 ,A SEV5TE5? C5TURY P>SON ?US DESCRIB$ ! L9EUP3- 0,AGA9/ ! K+1 ! LAWS & RELIGION1 W]E A COMPANY ( POOR TRADESM51 BROK5 & DECAY$ CITIZ5S1 DELUD$ & PRIE/-RIDD5 WOM5 444 ! RUDE RABBLE ?AT KNEW NOT :]E=E !Y W]E GOT TOGE!R1 444 TAILORS1 %OEMAK]S1 L9KBOYS1 ETC42 444 ON ! K+'S SIDE 444 ALL ! BI%OPS ( ! L&1 ALL ! DEANS1 PREB5DS & LE>N$ M52 BO? ! UNIV]SITIES2 ALL ! PR9CES1 DUKES1 M>QUISES2 ALL ! E>LS & LORDS EXCEPT TWO OR ?REE2 444 ALL ! KNI<TS & G5TLEM5 9 ! ?REE NATIONS1 EXCEPT A SCORE ( SECT>IES & A!I/S40 ,WE NE$ NOT TAKE ?AT P>TISAN ACC\NT TOO LIT]ALLY BUT IT MAKES ! CLASS NATURE ( ! DIVISION CLE>4 

,*>LES'S POLICY ?R\<\T HIS REIGN1 ILLU/RATES ! CLASS BASIS ( HIS RULE4 ,HE TRI$ TO REGULATE TRADE & 9DU/RY ) ! CONTRADICTORY 9T5TION BO? ( SL[+ D[N A TOO RAPID CAPITALI/ DEVELOPM5T & ( %>+ 9 ITS PR(ITS4 ,9 =EIGN POLICY HE WI%$ = ! ALLIANCE ( ! MO/ REACTION>Y P[]S1 ,SPA9 & ,AU/RIA1 & REFUS$ !RE=E ! =W>D NATIONAL POLICY DEM&$ BY ! B\RGEOISIE4 ,BECAUSE HE LO/ ALL FAVOR ) ! MONEY$ CLASSES1 HE HAD TO LEVY ILLEGAL TAXES1 TO AIM TO DISP5SE ) ,P>LIAM5T1 TO RULE BY =CE4 ,HIS FAILURE 9 ,SCOTL& %[$ UP ! ROTT5NESS ( ! :OLE /RUCTURE :I* HE HAD RE>$2 & HIS APPEALS = NATIONAL UNITY AGA9/ ! =EIGN 5EMY FELL ON DEAF E>S4 ,! REAL 5EMY WAS AT HOME4 ,! 9VAD+ ,SCOTTI% >MY WAS HAIL$ AS AN ALLY4 ,! ,P>LIAM5T>IAN ATTACK %[$ ?AT ! OPPOSITION HAD REALIZ$ ?AT !Y W]E FI<T+ MORE ?AN A FEW EVIL C\NSELORS 7AS !Y HAD LONG BELIEV$ OR PRET5D$ TO BELIEVE71 MORE EV5 ?AN ! ,K+ HIMSELF4 ,!Y W]E FI<T+ A SY/EM4 ,BE=E ! SOCIAL ORD] !Y NE$$ C\LD BE SECURE !Y HAD TO SMA% ! OLD BUREAUCRATIC MA*9]Y1 DEFEAT ! CAVALI]S 9 BATTLE4 ,! HEADS ( A K+ & MANY PE]S HAD TO ROLL 9 ! DU/ BE=E IT C\LD BE C]TA9 ?AT FUTURE K+S & ! PE]AGE W\LD RECOGNIZE ! DOM9ANCE ( ! NEW CLASS4 

,= MANY YE>S DUR+ & AFT] ! ,CIVIL ,W>1 9 !IR EAG]NESS TO DEFEAT ! OLD ORD]1 ! MONEY$ CLASSES WILL+LY ACCEPT$ TAXES ?REE & F\R TIMES AS HEAVY AS ?OSE !Y HAD REFUS$ TO PAY TO ,*>LES ,I4 ,= ! OBJECTION WAS NOT TO TAXES AS SU*2 IT WAS TO ! POLICY TO IMPLEM5T :I* ?OSE TAXES W]E COLLECT$4 ,! B\RGEOISIE HAD NO CONFID5CE 9 ,*>LES1 W\LD NOT TRU/ HIM ) MONEY1 BECAUSE !Y KNEW ?AT ! :OLE BASIS ( HIS RULE WAS HO/ILITY TO !IR DEVELOPM5T4 ,BUT TO A GOV]NM5T ( !IR [N K9D ! PURSE-/R+S W]E AT ONCE LOOS$4 

,NOR WAS IT A W> ( ! RI* ONLY4 ,ALL SECTIONS ( SOCIETY 9 S\!RN & EA/]N ,5GL& BR\<T 9 !IR CONTRIBUTIONS TO HELP TO W9 ! W>1 = 9 ! OV]?R[ ( ! OLD REGIME M5 SAW ! ESS5TIAL PRELIM9>Y CONDITION ( SOCIAL & 9TELLECTUAL ADVANCE4 ,MANY ( ?OSE :O F\<T = ,P>LIAM5T W]E AFT]W>DS DISAPPO9T$ ) ! A*IEVEM5TS ( ! REVOLUTION1 FELT !Y HAD BE5 BETRAY$4 ,BUT !Y W]E RI<T TO FI<T4 ,A VICTORY = ,*>LES ,I & HIS GANG C\LD ONLY HAVE MEANT ! ECONOMIC /AGNATION ( ,5GL&1 ! /ABILIZATION ( A BACKW>D FEUDAL SOCIETY 9 A COMM]CIAL AGE1 & YET NECESSITAT$ AN EV5 BLOODI] /RUGGLE = LIB]ATION LAT]4 ,! ,P>LIAM5T>IANS ?\<T !Y W]E FI<T+ ,GOD'S BATTLES4 ,!Y W]E C]TA9LY FI<T+ ?OSE ( PO/]ITY1 ?R[+ (F AN 9TOL]ABLE 9CUBUS TO FUR!R ADVANCE4 ,! FACT ?AT ! REVOLUTION MI<T HAVE GONE FUR!R %\LD NEV] ALL[ US TO =GET ! H]OISM & FAI? & DISCIPL9$ 5]GY ) :I* ORD9>Y DEC5T PEOPLE RESPOND$ :5 ! ,P>LIAM5T'S LEAD]S FREELY & FRANKLY APPEAL$ TO !M TO SUPPORT ITS CAUSE4 

#d4 ,! ,REVOLUTION 

  

,O,N,C,E ! W> AGA9/ ! ,K+ HAD BEGUN1 DIVISIONS >OSE 9SIDE & \TSIDE ,P>LIAM5T AS TO ! MODE ( CONDUCT+ IT4 ,! ,CAVALI]S1 AS ! TROOPS ( ! ,ROYALI/ G5TRY CAME TO BE CALL$1 HAD C]TA9 MILIT>Y ADVANTAGES4 ,! ,R\NDHEADS 7!RE IS A SOCIAL SNE] 9 ! NAME7 W]E /RONGE/ 9 ! T[NS1 & ?\< ! BUR<]S BR\<T WEAL? TO ! CAUSE1 !Y W]E NOT AT FIR/ EXP]I5C$ FI<T+ M54 ,! ,CAVALI]S1 ON ! O!R H&1 RELI$ MA9LY ON ! NOR? & WE/ ( ,5GL&1 ECONOMICALLY BACKW>D & BADLY POLIC$2 !Y1 ) !IR T5ANTS & DEP5D5TS1 W]E US$ TO H>D RID+ & FI<T+4 

,YET = A LONG TIME ,P>LIAM5T TRI$ TO FI<T ! ,CAVALI]S ) !IR [N WEAPONS - BY CALL+ \T ! FEUDAL MILITIA 9 ! C\NTIES LOYAL TO ,P>LIAM5T1 BY US+ ! OLD F9ANCIAL & ADM9I/RATIVE MA*9]Y ( ! C\NTIES TO RUN ! W>4 ,BUT BY ?IS MEANS ! REAL RES\RCES ( ,P>LIAM5T W]E NOT DRAWN UPON - ! VA/ WEAL? ( ,LONDON1 ! ADM9I/RATIVE ABILITIES ( ! B\RGEOISIE1 ESPECIALLY ! 9ITIATIVE & RES\RCE ( ! MASSES ( ORD9>Y PEOPLE :O /AUN*LY SUPPORT$ ! CAUSE1 BUT W]E ?W>T$ BY ! CA/E SY/EM ( (FIC]+ ! MILITIA & BY ITS LOCAL LOYALTIES4 ,A ROYALI/ ADVANCE ON ,LONDON WAS ONLY *ECK$ BY ! OB/9ATE RESI/ANCE ( ?REE GREAT PORTS - ,HULL1 ,PLYM\? & ,GL\CE/] - & BY ! BOLD FRONT PRES5T$ BY ! CITIZ5S ( ,LONDON AT ,TURNHAM ,GRE5 7#a#f#d#b7 & !IR D>+ M>* TO ! RELIEF ( ,GL\CE/]4 ,BUT !SE SPONTANE\S EF=TS W]E 9ADEQUATELY CO-ORD9AT$4 

,OLIV] ,CROMWELL FIR/ %[$ HIS G5IUS 9 OV]COM+ !SE WEAKNESSES & %[+ ?AT A REVOLUTION>Y W> MU/ BE ORGANIZ$ 9 A REVOLUTION>Y WAY4 ,9 HIS =CE 9 ! EA/]N C\NTIES PROMOTION CAME BY M]IT1 NOT BIR?3 0,I HAD RA!R HAVE A PLA9 RUSSET-COAT$ CAPTA910 HE SAID1 0?AT KN[S :AT HE FI<TS = & LOVES :AT HE KN[S1 ?AN ?AT :I* Y\ CALL 'A G5TLEMAN' & IS NO?+ ELSE10 ,HE 9SI/$ ON HIS M5 HAV+ 0! ROOT ( ! MATT]0 9 !M2 O!RWISE HE 5C\RAG$ FREE DISCUSSION ( DIV]G5T VIEWS4 ,CROMWELL HAD TO FI<T ?OSE ( HIS SUP]IOR (FIC]S :O W\LD NOT ADOPT ! DEMOCRATIC ME?OD ( RECRUITM5T & ORGANIZATION :OSE ADVANTAGES HE HAD %[N4 7,?IS CONFLICT IS USUALLY DESCRIB$ 9 \R S*OOL HI/ORIES AS ONE BETWE5 0,PRESBYT]IANS0 & 0,9DEP5D5TS40 ,IT WILL BE USEFUL TO RETA9 !SE T]MS1 BUT RELIGION HAD LITTLE TO DO ) IT EXCEPT 9 SO F> AS ,CROMWELL ADVOCAT$ FRE$OM ( ASSEMBLY & DISCUSSION1 I4E4 0RELIGI\S TOL]ATION02 ! REAL DIFF]5CE WAS BETWE5 ! W9-!-W> P>TY & ! COMPROMIS]S4 ,IT WAS1 9 FACT1 A CLASS SPLIT - BETWE5 ! BIG TRAD+ B\RGEOISIE & ?AT SECTION ( ! >I/OCRACY & BIG L&[N]S :OSE 9T]E/S W]E B\ND UP ) !M - 0,PRESBYT]IANS0 - & ! PROGRESSIVE SMALL] G5TRY1 YEOM51 FREE-TRADE B\RGEOISIE1 SUPPORT$ BY ! MASSES ( SMALL] PEASANTS & >TISANS - 0,9DEP5D5TS0 & 0,SECT>IES407 ,MANY ( ! GREAT 0,PRESBYT]IAN0 COMM&]S DID NOT WANT TOO COMPLETE A VICTORY4 0,IF WE BEAT ! ,K+ N9ETY & N9E TIMES1 YET HE IS ,K+ /ILL10 SAID ! ,E>L ( ,MAN*E/]1 ,CROMWELL'S G5]AL4 0,MY ,LORD10 ,CROMWELL REPLI$1 0IF ?IS BE SO1 :Y DID WE TAKE UP >MS AT FIR/80 

,! 0,PRESBYT]IANS0 W]E AFRAID ( ! FLOOD ( RADICAL DEMOCRACY TO :I* A FRANK APPEAL TO ! PEOPLE AGA9/ ! ,K+ MI<T EXPOSE !M4 ,CROMWELL HIMSELF WAS ALLEG$ TO HAVE SAID1 0,!RE W\LD NEV] BE A GOOD TIME 9 ,5GL& TILL WE HAVE DONE ) ,LORDS40 ,C]TA9LY MANY ( HIS TROOPS W]E ?9K+ SO4 ,! ,9DEP5D5T & ,SECT>IAN CONGREGATIONS W]E ! WAY 9 :I* ORD9>Y PEOPLE ORGANIZ$ !MSELVES 9 ?OSE DAYS TO ESCAPE FROM ! PROPAG&A ( ! E/ABLI%$ ,*UR* & DISCUSS ! ?+S !Y WANT$ TO DISCUSS 9 !IR [N WAY4 ,! ,PRESBYT]IAN ,$W>DS GAVE AS ONE ( ! 0H]ESIES0 ( ! ,SECT>IES ! VIEW ?AT 0BY NATURAL BIR? ALL M5 >E EQUALLY & ALIKE BORN TO LIKE PROP]TY1 LIB]TY & FRE$OM40 ,!SE W]E ! SMALL PEOPLE1 :OSE 9TELLECTUAL VISION WAS NOT RE/RICT$ BY ANXIETIES = !IR [N PROP]TY4 ,!Y W]E 9VALUABLE = !IR 5?USIASM1 C\RAGE & MORALE 9 ! >MY2 BUT !Y CAME TO PRODUCE :AT !IR PAYMA/]S REG>D$ AS DANG]\S SOCIAL IDEAS4 

,SU* W]E ! DIFFICULTIES ! B\RGEOISIE EXP]I5C$ EV5 AT ! BEG9N+ ( ITS C>E]2 IT NE$$ ! PEOPLE & YET FE>$ !M1 & WANT$ TO KEEP ! MON>*Y AS A *ECK AGA9/ DEMOCRACY - IF ONLY ,*>LES ,I W\LD ACT AS !Y WANT$ HIM TO1 AS ,*>LES ,I,I1 BY & L>GE1 LAT] DID4 

,! 0,PRESBYT]IANS0 HOP$ TO RELY PR9CIPALLY UPON ! WELL-DISCIPL9$ ,SCOTTI% >MY TO BE> ! BRUNT ( ! FI<T+4 ,BUT AFT] ! GREAT VICTORY ( ,M>/ON ,MOOR1 WON 9 #afdd BY ,CROMWELL'S G5IUS & ! DISCIPL9E ( HIS YEOM5 CAVALRY1 HE =C$ ! ISSUE4 0,IT IS N[ A TIME TO SPEAK OR = EV] TO HOLD ! TONGUE10 HE SAID 9 ,P>LIAM5T4 ,! TAX-PAY+ CLASSES W]E BECOM+ IRRITAT$ AT ! SL[ & DILATORY TACTICS ( ! >I/OCRATIC 0,PRESBYT]IAN0 COMM&]S :I* 9CREAS$ ! CO/ ( ! W>4 ,A DEMOCRATIC REORGANIZATION WAS NECESS>Y = VICTORY OV] ! MORE EXP]I5C$ FI<T]S ON ! ,ROYALI/ SIDE4 

,!SE CONSID]ATIONS CAUS$ ,CROMWELL'S VIEWS TO PREVAIL1 & BY ! 0,SELF-,D5Y+ ,ORD9ANCE0 ALL ,MEMB]S ( ,P>LIAM5T W]E CALL$ UPON TO LAY D[N !IR COMM&S 7,APRIL #a#f#d#e74 ,?IS HIT PR9CIPALLY ! PE]S2 ! AB&ONM5T ( !IR TRADITIONAL RI<T TO COMM& ! >M$ =CES ( ! C\NTRY WAS 9 ITSELF A M9OR SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 ,! ,NEW ,MODEL ,>MY ( ! C>E] OP5 TO ! TAL5TS WAS =M$ - NATIONALLY ORGANIZ$ & F9ANC$ BY A NEW NATIONAL TAX4 

,?IS 9 ITS TURN L$ TO CORRESPOND+ *ANGES 9 ! ,/ATE MA*9]Y4 ,! DE/RUCTION ( ! ROYAL BUREAUCRACY HAD LEFT A VOID :I* WAS ULTIMATELY TO BE FILL$ BY A NEW MIDDLE-CLASS CIVIL S]VICE4 ,BUT MEAN:ILE1 PRESSURE ( REVOLUTION>Y NECESSITY HAD L$ TO ! CREATION ( A S]IES ( REVOLUTION>Y COMMITTEES 9 ! LOCALITIES4 0,WE HAD A ?+ H]E CALL$ A ,COMMITTEE10 WROTE A DESPOND5T G5TLEMAN 9 ! ,ISLE ( ,WI<T1 0:I* OV]RUL$ ,DEPUTY-,LIEUT5ANTS & ALSO ,JU/ICES ( ! ,PEACE1 & ( ?IS WE HAD BRAVE M53 ,R+WOOD ( ,NEWPORT1 ! P$DL]3 ,MAYN>D1 ! APO!C>Y3 ,MAT!WS1 ! BAK]3 ,WAVELL & ,LEGGE1 F>M]S2 & POOR ,BAXT] ( ,HUR/ ,CA/LE4 ,!SE RUL$ ! :OLE ,ISL&1 & DID :ATSOEV] !Y ?\<T GOOD 9 !IR [N EYES40' 7,SIR ,JOHN ,OGL&] PROBABLY EXAGG]AT$ ! SOCIAL 9F]IORITY ( HIS 5EMIES3 OV] ! C\NTRY AS A :OLE ! C\NTY COMMITTEES W]E RUN BY ! G5TRY & ! UPP] B\RGEOISIE74 ,!SE COMMITTEES W]E N[ ORGANIZ$ & C5TRALIZ$ & ALL BR\<T UND] ! UNIFY+ CONTROL ( ! GREAT COMMITTEES ( ,P>LIAM5T1 :I* REALLY RAN ! ,CIVIL ,W> - ! COMMITTEE ( BO? K+DOMS1 ! COMMITTEE = ADVANCE ( MONEY1 ! COMMITTEE = COMP\ND+1 ETC4 ,! OLD ,/ATE SY/EM WAS NOT :OLLY BUT P>TIALLY DE/ROY$ & MODIFI$2 NEW 9/ITUTIONS W]E BE+ BUILT UP UND] PRESSURE ( EV5TS4 

,9 ! MILIT>Y S5SE ! W> WAS WON BY >TILL]Y 7:I* MONEY ALONE C\LD BUY7 & BY ,CROMWELL'S YEOM5 CAVALRY4 ,UND] ,PR9CE ,RUP]T1 ! CAVALI]S *>G$ ) VIGOR & DESP]ATION1 BUT !Y W]E TOTALLY UNDISCIPL9$1 SPLIT UP = PLUND] AFT] ! FIR/ *>GE4 ,9 W> AS 9 PEACE1 ! FEUDAL G5TRY C\LD NEV] RESI/ ! PROSPECT ( LOOT4 ,BUT ,CROMWELL'S HUMBL] HORSEM5 HAD A DISCIPL9E ?AT WAS IRRESI/IBLE BECAUSE IT WAS SELF-IMPOS$4 ,?ANKS TO ! COMPLETE FRE$OM ( DISCUSSION :I* EXI/$ 9 ! >MY1 !Y 0KNEW :AT !Y F\<T = & LOV$ :AT !Y KNEW40 ,SO !Y *>G$ HOME1 KNEE TO KNEE1 RES]V+ !IR FIRE TILL ! LA/ MOM5T1 !N RE=M$ & *>G$ AGA9 & AGA9 UNTIL ! 5EMY WAS BROK54 ,! ,P>LIAM5T'S BATTLES W]E WON BECAUSE ( ! DISCIPL9E & UNITY & HI< POLITICAL CONSCI\SNESS ( ! MASSES ORGANIZ$ 9 ! ,NEW ,MODEL ,>MY4 

,ONCE PROP]LY ORGANIZ$ & REGUL>LY PAID1 ) AN EFFICI5T COMMISS>IAT & TE*NICAL /AFF1 ) ,CROMWELL1 ! 9DISP5SABLE LEAD]1 REAPPO9T$ TO HIS COMM&1 ! ,NEW ,MODEL ,>MY ADVANC$ RAPIDLY TO VICTORY & ! ,ROYALI/S W]E DECISIVELY R\T$ AT ,NASEBY 7#a#f#d#e74 ,AFT] ?AT ! W> SOON 5D$4 ,A ,ROYALI/ COMM&]1 SURR5D]+1 SAID3 0,Y\ HAVE DONE Y\R WORK & MAY GO PLAY - UNLESS Y\ FALL \T AMONG Y\RSELVES40 

,?AT WAS ! DANG]4 ,= ONCE ! FI<T+ WAS OV]1 ! 0,PRESBYT]IAN0 COMPROMIS]S BEGAN TO RAISE !IR HEADS AGA91 9SIDE & \TSIDE ,P>LIAM5T4 ,*>LES HAD SURR5D]$ TO ! ,SCOTTI% >MY 9 #a#f#d#f1 :O SOLD HIM TO ! ,5GLI% ,P>LIAM5T4 ,!REUPON ! 0,PRESBYT]IANS0 BEGAN TO NEGOTIATE ) ! CAPTIVE ,K+3 !Y PROPOS$ TO GET RID ( ! VICTORI\S ,>MY BY S5D+ IT TO CONQU] ,IREL&1 )\T PAY+ ITS WAGES2 !Y PRODUC$ NO SOCIAL RE=MS1 NOT EV5 AN 9DEMNITY = ACTIONS COMMITT$ DUR+ ! W>1 SO ?AT SOLDI]S W]E ACTUALLY BR\<T BE=E ! C\RTS = :AT !Y HAD DONE 9 ! S]VICE ( ,P>LIAM5T4 

,BUT AS ! OPPON5TS ( ! ,NEW ,MODEL ,>MY HAD ANTICIPAT$1 ! PEOPLE W]E NOT SO EASILY TO BE FOBB$ (F1 ONCE !Y W]E >M$ & GIV5 ! *ANCE ( ORGANIZATION4 ,! MA9 OB/ACLE TO A PEASANT & >TISAN POPULATION MAK+ ITS WILL FELT IS ! DIFFICULTY ( ORGANIZ+ ! PETTY B\RGEOISIE2 BUT ! RADICALS SAW ! ,>MY AS AN ORGANIZATION :I* C\LD 0TEA* PEASANTS TO UND]/& LIB]TY40 ,9 ,LONDON A POLITICAL P>TY SPRANG UP TO REPRES5T ! VIEWS ( ! SMALL PRODUC]S1 :I* GOT 9TO T\* ) ! ,>MY AGITATION4 ,!SE W]E ! ,LEVEL]S4 

,! TR\BLE CAME TO A HEAD 9 ! ,>MY 9 ! SPR+ ( #afdg ) ! ATTEMPT TO DISB& REGIM5TS & =M NEW ONES = ! ,IRI% S]VICE4 ,L$ BY ! YEOM5 CAVALRY1 ! RANK & FILE ORGANIZ$ !MSELVES1 APPO9T$ DEPUTIES FROM EA* REGIM5T 70AGITATORS10 !Y W]E CALL$7 TO A C5TRAL C\NCIL1 PL$G$ !MSELVES TO MA9TA9 SOLID>ITY & NOT DISB& UNTIL !IR DEM&S W]E SATISFI$4 ,!RE WAS A HI< DEGREE ( ORGANIZATION - A P>TY *E/ & LEVY ON MEMB]S1 A PR9T+ PRESS1 CONTACTS ) ,LONDON1 ) ! O!R >MIES & G>RISONS1 & ) ! FLEET4 ,! 9ITIATIVE 9 ?IS MASS MOVEM5T SEEMS UND\BT$LY TO HAVE COME FROM ! RANK & FILE1 ?\< MANY ( ! L[] (FIC]S CO-OP]AT$ 5?USIA/ICALLY FROM ! />T4 ,! G5]AL (FIC]S 70GR&EES0 AS ! ,LEVEL]S CALL$ !M7 HESITAT$ = A TIME1 TRI$ TO M$IATE BETWE5 ! 0,PRESBYT]IAN0 MAJORITY 9 ,P>LIAM5T & ! ,>MY RANK & FILE4 ,!N1 :5 !Y SAW ! LATT] W]E DET]M9$ TO PROCE$1 !Y ?REW !MSELVES 9 ) ! MOVEM5T & H5CE=? CONC5TRAT$ ON GUID+ ITS 5]GIES 9TO !IR [N *ANNELS4 ,!Y WORK$ PR9CIPALLY TO RE/RICT ! SOLDI]S' DEM&S TO ! PR(ESSIONAL & POLITICAL1 & TO M9IMIZE ! SOCIAL & ECONOMIC PROGRAM :I* ! ,LEVEL]S TRI$ TO GRAFT ON TO ! RANK-&-FILE MOVEM5T4 

,>MY & ,P>LIAM5T N[ EXI/$ SIDE BY SIDE AS RIVAL P[]S 9 ! ,/ATE4 ,9 ,JUNE #a#f#d#g1 9 ORD] TO /OP ! 0,PRESBYT]IANS0 9 ,P>LIAM5T COM+ TO AN AGREEM5T ) ! ,K+ BEH9D ! BACKS ( ! ,>MY1 ,CORNET ,JOYCE WAS S5T BY ! AGITATORS 7?\< PROBABLY ) ,CROMWELL'S CONNIVANCE7 TO SEIZE ,*>LES4 ,AT A G5]AL R5DEZV\S NEXT DAY1 ! :OLE ,>MY TOOK A SOLEMN 0,5GAGEM5T0 NOT TO DIVIDE UNTIL ! LIB]TIES ( ,5GL& W]E SECURE4 ,AN ,>MY ,C\NCIL WAS SET UP 9 :I* ELECT$ REPRES5TATIVES ( ! RANK & FILE SAT SIDE BY SIDE ) (FIC]S TO DECIDE QUE/IONS ( POLICY4 ,5GL& HAS NEV] AGA9 SE5 SU* DEMOCRATIC CONTROL ( ! >MY AS EXI/$ = ! NEXT SIX MON?S4 ,!N1 HOLD+ ! K+ AS A B>GA9+ WEAPON1 ! ,>MY M>*$ ON ,LONDON4 ,! PR9CIPAL 0,PRESBYT]IAN0 LEAD]S )DREW FROM ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS1 LEAV+ ,CROMWELL & ! 0,9DEP5D5TS0 TEMPOR>ILY 9 CONTROL2 ! ,>MY WAS 9 A POSITION DECISIVELY TO 9FLU5CE POLICY4 

,?AT WAS AS MU* AS ! G5TLEM5 0,9DEP5D5TS0 WANT$4 ,!Y HAD REMOV$ !IR MA9 RIVALS & W]E P]FECTLY SATISFI$ ) ! OLD SY/EM 7) OR )\T ! ,K+74 ,!Y HAD NO DESIRE TO MODIFY IT FUR!R1 SO LONG AS !Y HAD ! RUNN+ ( IT4 ,BUT ! PETTY B\RGEOISIE1 :OSE 9T]E/S W]E MORE & MORE BE+ EXPRESS$ BY ! ,LEVEL]S1 WANT$ VA/ *ANGES4 ,& ,LEVEL] 9FLU5CE WAS GR[+ RAPIDLY 9 ! ,>MY4 ,!Y WANT$ COMPLETE FREE TRADE = SMALL PRODUC]S1 AS WELL AS ! FRE$OM ( ! BIG M]*ANT COMPANIES FROM ! CORRUPT MONOPOLIES :I* ,P>LIAM5T HAD ALREADY ABOLI%$2 !Y WANT$ DISE/ABLI%M5T ( ! ,*UR* & ! ABOLITION TI!S2 SECURITY ( SMALL PROP]TY & RE=M ( ! DEBTORS' LAWS2 & TO SECURE ALL ?IS !Y WANT$ A REPUBLIC1 EXT5SION ! P>LIAM5T>Y FRAN*ISE1 MANHOOD SUFFRAGE4 

  

,!SE W]E ! PO9TS AT ISSUE 9 DEBATES ( ! ,>MY ,C\NCIL HELD AT ,PUTNEY 9 ,OCTOB] & ,NOVEMB]1 #a#f#d#g1 ON PROPOS$ ,LEVEL] CON/ITUTION1 ! ,AGREEM5T ( ! PEOPLE4 ,! ,LEVEL] ,RA9BOR[E WANT$ MANHOOD SUFFRAGE1 BECAUSE HE ?\<T 0! POORE/ HE ?AT IS 9 ,5GL& HA? A LIFE TO LIVE AS ! GREATE/ HE40 ,IRETON1 ,CROMWELL'S SON-9-LAW1 SUMM$ UP ! ,GR&EES' CASE :5 HE SAID3 0,LIB]TY CANNOT BE PROVID$ = 9 A G5]AL S5SE1 IF PROP]TY BE PRES]V$40 ,AN ATTEMPT BY ! ,LEVEL]S TO CAPTURE CONTROL ( ! ,>MY WAS DEFEAT$ BY ! ,GR&EES AT ,W>E 9 ,NOVEMB]1 #a#f#d#g1 & RESULT$ 9 ! DISP]SAL ( ! ,>MY ,C\NCIL & ! 5D ( ,>MY DEMOCRACY4 ,BUT MEAN:ILE ! ,K+ HAD ESCAP$ FROM CAPTIVITY1 CIVIL W> BROKE \T AGA9 9 ! FOLL[+ ,MAY1 & ?IS REUNIT$ ! ,>MY BEH9D ,CROMWELL4 

,AFT] ! ,>MY'S VICTORY 9 ?IS SECOND CIVIL W>1 ,GR&EES & ,LEVEL]S UNIT$ TO CLE> ! COMPROMIS]S \T ( ,P>LIAM5T 7,PRIDE'S ,PURGE7 & TO BR+ ! ,K+ TO JU/ICE4 ,AFT] A SPE$Y TRIAL1 HE WAS EXECUT$ ON ,JANU>Y #c?1 #a#f#d#i1 AS A 0PUBLIC 5EMY TO ! GOOD PEOPLE ( ?IS NATION40 ,MON>*Y WAS DECL>$ TO BE 0UNNECESS>Y1 BURD5SOME1 & DANG]\S TO ! LIB]TY1 SAFETY & PUBLIC 9T]E/ ( ! PEOPLE10 & WAS ABOLI%$4 ,! ,H\SE ( ,LORDS1 :I* WAS ALSO ABOLI%$1 WAS M]ELY 0USELESS & DANG]\S40 ,ON ,MAY #a#i?1 #a#f#d#i1 A REPUBLIC WAS PROCLAIM$4 ,BUT ! ,AGREEM5T ( ! ,PEOPLE1 ! EXT5SION ( ! FRAN*ISE1 ! ECONOMIC & SOCIAL DEM&S ( ! ,LEVEL]S1 W]E AS F> FROM ATTA9M5T AS EV]2 !Y FELT !Y HAD BE5 BETRAY$4 ,! ,GR&EES W]E ABLE TO PROVOKE !M 9TO AN UNSUCCESSFUL REVOLT1 :I* WAS ISOLAT$ & PUT D[N & ITS LEAD]S %OT AT ,BUR=D 9 ,MAY1 #a#f#d#i4 

,IT IS NOT DIFFICULT TO ACC\NT = ! FAILURE ( ! ,LEVEL]S4 ,!IR DEM&S W]E ?OSE ( ! PETTY B\RGEOISIE1 A CLASS ALWAYS UN/ABLE & DIFFICULT TO ORGANIZE BECAUSE ( ITS DEP5D5CE1 ECONOMIC & IDEOLOGICAL1 ON ! BIG B\RGEOISIE 7CF4 ! IMPOT5CE ( PRES5T-DAY LIB]AL MORALITY TO CONTROL A RAPIDLY *ANG+ WORLD74 ,MOREOV]1 ! PETTY B\RGEOISIE 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY WAS 9 ! PROCESS ( /RATIFICATION4 ,= IF SOME ( ! RI*] YEOM5 & >TISANS W]E PROSP]+ & PU%+ !IR WAY UP 9TO ! B\RGEOISIE & G5TRY1 MANY MORE W]E BE+ SQUEEZ$ D[N TO ! /ATUS ( L&LESS AGRICULTURAL LABOR]S4 ,! EV5TS ( ! ,CIVIL ,W> SPE$$ UP ?IS PROCESS4 ,MANY ( ! MO/ SUCCESSFUL & 9FLU5TIAL MEMB]S ( ! PETTY B\RGEOISIE F\ND !Y HAD 9T]E/S 9 COMMON ) ?OSE ( ! B\RGEOISIE1 LIKE ! KULAKS 9 ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION4 ,BO?1 = 9/ANCE1 WELCOM$ 5CLOSURE & ! EMPLOYM5T ( WAGE LABOR 9 PRODUCTION = ! M>KET4 ,CONSEQU5TLY ?IS SECTION DES]T$ ! ,LEVEL] MOVEM5T AS SOON AS IT CEAS$ TO BE M]ELY ! MO/ REVOLUTION>Y W+ ( ! B\RGEOISIE & BEGAN ITSELF TO ATTACK ! BIG B\RGEOISIE4 ,! SECTION :I* WAS S9K+ 9 ! SOCIAL SCALE T5D$ TO BE ]RATIC1 DESPAIR+ & DEFEATI/4 ,! ,LEVEL] IDEAL WAS A SMALL-PRODUC]'S ,UTOPIA 9 ECONOMICS & PETTY B\RGEOIS DEMOCRACY 9 POLITICS4 ,DESPITE ! FOCUS ( ! ,>MY1 ! ,LEVEL]S NEV] REPRES5T$ A SUFFICI5TLY HOMOG5E\S CLASS TO BE ABLE TO A*IEVE !IR AIMS4 ,! FULL REALIZATION ( ! DEMOCRATIC TASKS EV5 ( ! B\RGEOIS REVOLUTION IS IMPOSSIBLE UNLESS !RE IS A WORK+ CLASS ABLE TO C>RY !M \T4 ,! MO/ RADICAL A*IEVEM5TS ( ! ,5GLI% B\RGEOIS REVOLUTION 7ABOLITION ( ! MON>*Y1 CONFISCATION ( ,*UR*1 DR[N & >I/OCRATIC E/ATES7 W]E PUT ?R\< BY :AT ,5GELS CALL$ ! 0PLEBEIAN ME?ODS0 ( ! ,LEVEL]S & ,9DEP5D5TS02 BUT !RE WAS NO ORGANIZ$ WORK+-CLASS MOVEM5T1 ) A VISION ( A DIFF]5T =M ( SOCIAL ORD] & A SCI5TIFIC REVOLUTION>Y !ORY1 TO LEAD ! PETTY B\RGEOISIE TO A FRONTAL ATTACK ON ! P[] ( BIG CAPITAL4 ,AFT] ! ,BUR=D %OOT+S1 ! ,LEVEL] MOVEM5T DEG5]AT$4 ,MANY ( ITS LEAD]S TURN$ C>E]I/ OR SPECULAT$ 9 L&2 O!RS TOOK TO T]RORISM1 SOMETIMES EV5 9 AGREEM5T ) ! ,ROYALI/S4 ,MANY MORE HAD !IR 5]GIES DIV]T$ BY ! RADICAL RELIGI\S MOVEM5TS :I* DATE FROM ?IS P]IOD - NOTABLY ! PACIFI/ ,QUAK]S1 ! AN>*I/ ,ANABAPTI/S & ,FIF? ,MON>*I/S4 

,! NE>E/ ! ,5GLI% B\RGEOIS REVOLUTION GOT TO REPRES5T+ ! 9T]E/S ( ! PROP]TYLESS WAS ! ,DIGG] MOVEM5T4 ,?IS WAS AN ATTEMPT TO PROCE$ BY DIRECT ACTION TO A =M ( AGR>IAN COMMUNISM BY MEMB]S ( ! DISPOSSESS$ RURAL PROLET>IAT1 :O >GU$ ?AT LORDS ( MANORS HAD BE5 DEFEAT$ AS WELL AS ! ,K+1 ?AT ! VICTORY ( ! PEOPLE HAD FRE$ ! L& ( ,5GL&1 :I* WAS N[ !IRS TO CULTIVATE4 

,TRANSF]R+ ,RA9BOR[E'S SLOGAN FROM POLITICS TO ECONOMICS1 ! ,DIGG] ,G]R>D ,W9/ANLEY WROTE3 0,! POORE/ MAN HA? AS TRUE A TITLE & JU/ RI<T TO ! L& AS ! RI*E/ MAN40 ,9 ! SPR+ ( #afdi A GR\P ( ,DIGG]S BEGAN TO DIG UP ! WA/E L& ON ,/4 ,GEORGE'S ,HILL 9 ,SURREY4 ,9DIGNANT LOCAL G5TLEM5 & P>SONS CALL$ 9 ! SOLDI]Y1 & ! COMMUNI/IC COLONY WAS ULTIMATELY DISP]S$4 ,!RE W]E SIMIL> ATTEMPTS 9 ,K5T1 ,BUCK+HAM%IRE & ,NOR?AMPTON%IRE1 BUT ! MOVEM5T REA*$ NO GREAT DIM5SIONS1 REPRES5T+ AS IT DID A SMALL IF GR[+ CLASS2 ITS WEAKNESS IS EVID5C$ 9 ! PACIFISM & PASSIVE RESI/ANCE ITS LEAD]S PREA*$4 

,W9/ANLEY'S COMMUNI/ IDEAL WAS 9 ONE S5SE BACKW>D-LOOK+1 S9CE IT >OSE FROM ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY :I* CAPITALISM WAS ALREADY DIS9TEGRAT+4 ,BUT ! ,DIGG]S W]E ! MO/ RADICAL & EGALIT>IAN OPPON5TS ( ! FEUDAL SOCIAL ORD]4 ,W9/ANLEY' CLE> /ATEM5TS HAVE A CONTEMPOR>Y R+3 0,?IS IS ! BONDAGE ! POOR COMPLA9 (1 ?AT !Y >E KEPT POOR BY !IR BRE?R5 9 A L& :]E !RE IS SO MU* PL5TY = EV]YONE40 0,EV]Y ONE TALKS ( FRE$OM1 BUT !RE >E BUT FEW ?AT ACT = FRE$OM1 & ! ACTORS = FRE$OM >E OPPRESS$ BY ! TALK]S & V]BAL PR(ESSORS ( FRE$OM40 ,= 0IT IS CLE>LY SE5 ?AT IF WE BE SUFF]$ TO SPEAK1 WE %ALL BATT] TO PIECES ALL ! OLD LAWS1 & PROVE ! MA9TA9]S ( !M HYPOCRITES & TRAITORS TO ! COMMONWEAL? ( ,5GL&40 ,& ,W9/ANLEY DID NOT ONLY LOOK TO ! PA/2 HE ALSO HAD GLIMPSES ( A FUTURE 9 :I* 0:]ESOEV] !RE IS A PEOPLE UNIT$ BY COMMON COMMUNITY ( LIVELIHOOD 9TO ON5ESS IT WILL BE ! /RONGE/ L& 9 ! WORLD1 = !RE !Y WILL BE AS ONE MAN TO DEF5D !IR 9H]ITANCE40 

"9 "9 "9 

,! HI/ORY ( ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION FROM #afdi TO #aff CAN BE BRIEFLY TOLD4 ,CROMWELL'S %OOT+ ( ! ,LEVEL]S AT ,BUR=D MADE A RE/ORATION ( MON>*Y & LORDS ULTIMATELY 9EVITABLE1 = ! BREA* ( BIG B\RGEOISIE & G5TRY ) ! POPUL> =CES MEANT ?AT !IR GOV]NM5T C\LD ONLY BE MA9TA9$ EI!R BY AN >MY 7:I* 9 ! LONG RUN PROV$ CRU%+LY EXP5SIVE AS WELL AS DIFFICULT TO CONTROL7 OR BY A COMPROMISE ) ! SURVIV+ REPRES5TATIVES ( ! OLD ORD]4 ,BUT FIR/ !RE W]E /ILL TASKS TO BE DONE4 

,!RE WAS ! CONQUE/ ( ,IREL&1 ! EXPROPRIATION ( ITS L&[N]S & PEASANTRY - ! FIR/ BIG TRIUMPH ( ,5GLI% IMP]IALISM & ! FIR/ BIG DEFEAT ( ,5GLI% DEMOCRACY4 ,= ! PETTY B\RGEOISIE ( ! ,>MY1 DESPITE ! W>N+S ( MANY ( ! ,LEVEL] LEAD]S1 ALL[$ !MSELVES TO BE DI/RACT$ FROM E/ABLI%+ !IR [N LIB]TIES 9 ,5GL& &1 DELUD$ BY RELIGI\S SLOGANS1 TO DE/ROY ?OSE ( ! ,IRI%4 ,MANY ( !M SET UP AS L&$ PROPRIETORS 9 ,IREL&4 7,! ,LEVEL] REVOLT ( #afdi HAD BE5 OCCASION$ BY ! REFUSAL ( MANY ( ! RANK & FILE TO LEAVE = ,IREL&1 = ?AT MEANT VIOLAT+ !IR ,5GAGEM5T ( #afdg NOT TO DIVIDE UNTIL ! LIB]TIES ( ,5GL& W]E SECURE47 

  

,!RE WAS ! CONQUE/ ( ,SCOTL&1 NECESS>Y TO PREV5T A RE/ORATION ( ! OLD ORD] !NCE2 ,SCOTL& WAS OP5$ UP TO ,5GLI% TRAD]S BY POLITICAL UNION4 

  

,A =W>D COMM]CIAL POLICY WAS UND]TAK5 ) ! ,NAVIGATION ,ACT ( #a#f#e#a1 ! BASIS ( ,5GL&'S COMM]CIAL PROSP]ITY 9 ! NEXT C5TURY4 ,?IS AIM$ AT W9N+ ! C>RY+ TRADE ( ,EUROPE = ,5GLI% %IPS1 & AT EXCLUD+ ALL RIVALS FROM TRADE ) ,5GL&'S COLONIES4 ,IT L$ TO A W> ) ! ,DUT*1 :O HAD MONOPOLIZ$ ! C>RY+ TRADE ( ! WORLD 9 ! FIR/ HALF ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY4 ,= 9 ?AT P]IOD ! ROYAL POLICY HAD FRU/RAT$ ALL ATTEMPTS ( ! B\RGEOISIE TO ?R[ ! RES\RCES ( ,5GL& 9TO AN EFFECTIVE /RUGGLE = ?IS TRADE4 ,9 ?IS W>1 ?ANKS TO ,BLAKE'S FLEET & ! ECONOMIC /R5G? ! ,REPUBLICAN ,GOV]NM5T WAS ABLE TO MOBILIZE1 ,5GL& WAS VICTORI\S4 

  

,AN IMP]IALI/ POLICY NE$$ ! /RONG ,NAVY :I* ,*>LES HAD FAIL$ TO BUILD UP1 & UND] ,BLAKE ! ,COMMONWEAL? BEGAN TO RULE ! WAVES TO SOME PURPOSE2 W> 9 ALLIANCE ) ,FRANCE AGA9/ ,SPA9 BR\<T ,JAMAICA & ,DUNKIRK TO ,5GL&4 

  

,! ABOLITION ( FEUDAL T5URES MEANT ?AT L&LORDS E/ABLI%$ AN ABSOLUTE RI<T TO !IR PROP]TY VIS-A-VIS ! ,K+2 ! FAILURE ( COPYHOLD]S TO W9 EQUAL SECURITY = !IR HOLD+S LEFT !M AT ! M]CY ( !IR L&LORDS1 & PREP>$ ! WAY = ! :OLESALE 5CLOSURES & EXPROPRIATIONS ( ! NEXT #ae YE>S4 

  

,A VIOL5T RE/ORATION ( ! OLD ORD] AT HOME WAS MADE IMPOSSIBLE BY DEMOLI%+ =TRESSES1 DIS>M+ ! ,CAVALI]S1 & TAX+ !M TO ! V]GE ( RU91 SO ?AT MANY W]E =C$ TO SELL !IR E/ATES & ) !M !IR CLAIM TO SOCIAL PRE/IGE & POLITICAL P[]4 ,= MANY [N]S ( ECONOMICALLY UNDEVELOP$ E/ATES :O W]E ALREADY DESP]ATELY 9 DEBT1 ! P]IOD ( ! ,COMMONWEAL? & AFT] REPRES5T$ A GREAT =ECLOS+ ON MORTGAGES1 CAPITAL AT LA/ GETT+ ITS [N BACK AGA9/ IMPROVID5T L&LORDS4 

  

,F9ALLY1 TO F9ANCE ! NEW ACTIVITIES ( ! REVOLUTION>Y GOV]NM5TS1 ! L&S ( ,*UR* & ,CR[N & ( MANY LEAD+ ,ROYALI/S W]E CONFISCAT$ & SOLD2 SMALL] ,ROYALI/S :OSE E/ATES HAD BE5 CONFISCAT$ W]E ALL[$ TO 0COMP\ND0 = !M BY PAY+ A F9E EQUAL TO A SUB/ANTIAL PROPORTION ( !IR E/ATES 7& !Y W]E ?US (T5 COMPELL$ TO SELL A P>T ( !IR PROP]TY PRIVATELY TO BE ABLE TO KEEP ! REMA9D]74 

,IF WE KEEP !SE PO9TS 9 M9D1 !RE IS NO NE$ TO GO 9TO ! DETAIL$ POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS ( ! NEXT ELEV5 YE>S4 ,CROMWELL DISSOLV$ ! ,LONG ,P>LIAM5T =CIBLY 9 #a#f#e#c1 NOM9AT$ A CONV5TION ( HIS [N ADH]5TS 7! ,B>EBONES ,P>LIAM5T71 :I* REVIV$ ! SOCIAL & ECONOMIC DEM&S ( ! PETTY B\RGEOISIE & HAD TO BE HA/ILY DISSOLV$4 ,CROMWELL WAS !N PROCLAIM$ ,PROTECTOR UND] A ,CON/ITUTION 7! ,9/RUM5T ( ,GOV]NM5T71 :I* WAS RIGG$ TO CONCEAL ! DICTATOR%IP ( ! ,>MY (FIC]S4 ,HE CALL$ A ,P>LIAM5T UND] ?IS CON/ITUTION ON A NEW ,G,B,P#b FRAN*ISE1 BY :I* MONEY$ M5 W]E ADMITT$ TO VOTE & ! LESS] FREEHOLD]S EXCLUD$4 ,BUT ,P>LIAM5T & ,>MY QU>REL$1 ,P>LIAM5T WAS DISSOLV$1 & A P]IOD ( NAK$ MILIT>Y DICTATOR%IP FOLL[$ UND] ! ,MAJOR-,G5]ALS1 9 :I* ! ,CAVALI]S W]E F9ALLY DIS>M$4 ,ULTIMATELY ,CROMWELL & HIS ,C\RT CIRCLE 7REPRES5T+ ESPECIALLY ! NEW CIVIL S]VICE71 UND] PRESSURE FROM ! ,CITY1 CAME TO REALIZE ?AT ! ,>MY HAD DONE ITS JOB & ?AT ITS MA9T5ANCE N[ MEANT A CRU%+ BURD5 ( TAXATION ON ! PROP]TI$ CLASSES1 = :I* NO COMP5SAT+ ADVANTAGES W]E OBTA9$4 

,MOREOV]1 DESPITE REPEAT$ PURGES & ! DRAFT+ ( POLITICALLY UNRELIABLE UNITS TO FI<T 9 ,IREL&1 ,JAMAICA1 ,FL&]S1 ! ,LEVEL] & DEMOCRATIC TRADITION REMA9$ /RONG 9 ! ,>MY4 ,SO 9 #afeg ,CROMWELL SURR5D]$ TO HIS SECOND ,P>LIAM5T & ACCEPT$ A NEW P>LIAM5T>Y CON/ITUTION4 ,?IS CON/ITUTION 7! ,HUMBLE ,PETITION & ,ADVICE7 TOOK EXECUTIVE P[] FROM A C\NCIL REPRES5T+ ! ,>MY ,GR&EES & PLAC$ IT 9 ONE CONTROLL$ BY ,P>LIAM5T1 BR\<T ! ,>MY UND] ,P>LIAM5T'S F9ANCIAL CONTROL1 MADE ! PROTECTORATE NON-ELECTIVE & ! ,PROTECTOR SUBJECT TO ,P>LIAM5T>Y CONTROL4 ,! NEW CON/ITUTION WAS 9TRODUC$ BY A ,CITY ,MEMB]1 & WAS SUPPORT$ BY MANY =M] ,PRESBYT]IANS :O W]E SOON TO WELCOME HOME ,*>LES ,I,I4 ,PROTE/S 9 ! ,>MY ONLY JU/ PREV5T$ ,OLIV] ACCEPT+ ! ,CR[N AS ,K+4 ,! ,GR&EES W]E B\<T (F BY BE+ GIV5 SEATS 9 A NEW SECOND *AMB]4 

,BUT ,CROMWELL DI$ 9 #afeh BE=E ?IS CON/ITUTION WAS WORK+ SATISFACTORILY2 HIS SON & SUCCESSOR1 ,RI*>D ,CROMWELL1 LACK$ HIS 9FLU5CE ) ! ,>MY2 & ! ,PETITION & ,ADVICE CON/ITUTION WAS SO LIKE A MON>*Y ?AT IT WAS CLE> ?AT ! B\RGEOISIE W\LD ACCEPT ,*>LES ,I,I IF HE W\LD ACCEPT !M1 & IF ! ,>MY C\LD BE DISPOS$ (4 ,:5 ! ,GR&EES DEPOS$ ,RI*>D ,CROMWELL 9 A PALACE REVOLUTION & SEIZ$ P[] = !MSELVES1 A REVULSION OCCURR$4 ,! ,5GLI% >MY ( OCCUPATION 9 ,SCOTL&1 UND] COMM& ( ! EX-,ROYALI/ ADV5TUR] ,G5]AL ,MONCK1 HAD HI!RTO TAK5 NO P>T 9 ,5GLI% POLITICAL 9TRIGUES4 ,MONCK HAD CONC5TRAT$ ON PURG+ IT ( LEFT-W+ ELEM5TS & 5=C+ 0DISCIPL9E40 ,N[ HE BECAME ! HOPE ( ! CONS]VATIVE CLASSES 9 ! ,/ATE1 FRI<T5$ ( ! RADICALISM ( ! ,5GLI% >MIES4 ,MONCK TOOK *>GE ( ! SITUATION4 ,) ! APPROVAL & F9ANCIAL BACK+ ( ! ,SCOTTI% G5TRY1 HE M>*$ D[N FROM ,SCOTL& ) HIS PURG$ & DISCIPL9$ >MY1 & DECL>$ = A FREE ,P>LIAM5T ELECT$ ON ! OLD FRAN*ISE1 TO ! APPLAUSE ( ! B\RGEOISIE & G5TRY4 ,= ALL KNEW ?AT A 0FREE0 ,P>LIAM5T MEANT ! DOM9ANCE ( ! L&$ CLASSES4 0,FRE$OM0 IS A RELATIVE T]M4 ,?IS ,P>LIAM5T RECALL$ ,*>LES ,I,I 9 ,MAY1 #a#f#f4 

  

,?AT IS V]Y BRIEFLY :AT HAPP5$4 ,N[ LET US TRY TO SEE :Y IT HAPP5$4 ,! MO/ CONSPICU\S FEATURE ( ! 'FIFTIES IS ! GR[+ CONS]VATISM ( ! 0,9DEP5D5T0 LEAD]S2 !IR 9CREAS+ FE> ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION AS !Y !MSELVES BECAME SAT$ & REASSIMILAT$ TO ! 0,PRESBYT]IANS40 ,?IS IS ESPECIALLY EVID5T 9 ! CLASS SPLIT )9 ! ,>MY 7SO P[]FUL ?R\< ITS UNITY 9 #afdg & 9 ,DECEMB] #a#f#d#h-,JANU>Y #a#f#d#i74 ,AFT] ! BREA* ) ! ,LEVEL]S1 ! SCRAMBLE = CONFISCAT$ L&S HAD HELP$ TO WID5 ?IS SPLIT1 = (FIC]S HAD B\<T L&S ) DEB5TURES 7PROMISES TO PAY WAGES7 PUR*AS$ AT A DISC\NT FROM !IR TROOPS4 ,! RANK & FILE1 AFT] RECEIV+ A PIECE ( PAP] 9 LIEU ( WAGES = RISK+ !IR LIVES 9 ! ,P>LIAM5T'S CAUSE1 W]E LUCKY IF !Y GOT #gS4 #fD4 9 ! ,G,B,P#a = ?OSE PIECES ( PAP]4 ,MANY GOT F> LESS - #aS4 #fD4 OR #bS4 ,BUT = ?OSE :O W]E RI* 5\< TO BE ABLE TO WAIT1 ! 0DEB5TURES0 W]E A PR(ITABLE 9VE/M5T4 ,AFT] #afeg ! L[] (FIC]S ALSO FELT !MSELVES BETRAY$ BY ! ,GR&EES1 :O HAD SOLD \T = SEATS 9 ! NEW ,UPP] ,H\SE4 ,FE> ( ! POSSIBILITY ( A POLITICAL REUNION BETWE5 L[] (FIC]S & ,>MY RANK & FILE HELPS TO ACC\NT = ! HA/E ) :I* ,*>LES ,I,I WAS SCRAMBL$ HOME4 

,= BY #af$ ! L& TRANSF]S HAD BE5 COMPLET$3 A NEW CLASS ( L&[N]S HAD APPE>$1 :O N[ WANT$ PEACE & ORD] TO DEVELOP !IR PROP]TY4 ,! 0,9DEP5D5T0 G5TRY - ,OLIV] ,CROMWELL'S CLASS - HAD BE5 ! SPE>HEAD ( ! REVOLUTION BECAUSE !Y WANT$ TO ABOLI% ! MONOPOLY ( SOCIAL & POLITICAL PRIVILEGES ATTA*$ TO FEUDAL L&HOLD+ & TO EXT5D !M TO ! ADVANTAGE ( !IR [N CLASS4 ,!Y HAD NO DESIRE TO ABOLI% BIG PROP]TY 9 L& AS SU*1 & ! LEFT-W+ P>TIES ADVOCAT+ ?IS CEAS$ TO BE USEFUL ALLIES & BECAME DANG]\S FOES AS ! 0,9DEP5D5T0 G5TRY SUCCE$$ TO ! POSITION ( ! OLD RUL+ CLASS4 ,! ATTACK ON TI!S MADE ! [N]S ( IMPROPRIATIONS SEE UNSUSPECT$ VIRTUES EV5 9 ! OLD ,*UR* E/ABLI%M5T1 :IL/ ! 0EXCESSES0 ( ! DEMOCRATIC SECTS - ,QUAK]S & ! LIKE - MADE ! SQUIRE>*Y YE>N = AN E/ABLI%$ ,/ATE ,*UR*1 UNI=M & DISCIPL9$ & UNDEMOCRATIC4 

,9 9DU/RY ! 9T]REGNUM SAW ATTEMPTS TO ORGANIZE SMALL PRODUC]S 70! YEOMANRY07 AGA9/ ! P[] ( M]*ANT CAPITAL4 ,9 A BITT] CLASS /RUGGLE1 WAGES W]E =C$ UP4 ,ADD TO ?IS ! F9ANCIAL DIFFICULTIES1 ! >BITR>Y TAXATION :I* ! ,GOV]NM5T WAS =C$ TO IMPOSE AFT] ! EXHAU/ION ( ! L& FUND 7= ,P>LIAM5T REFUS$ TO VOTE TAXES = ! ,>MY7 & WE CAN UND]/& ! WILL+NESS ( ! NEW RUL+ CLASS TO COMPROMISE ) ! OLD1 TO AGREE TO A RE/ORATION ( ! OLD LAW TO GU>ANTEE ! NEW ORD]4 

,! ,RE/ORATION1 !N1 WAS BY NO MEANS A RE/ORATION ( ! OLD REGIME4 ,IT IS EVID5CE1 NOT ( ! WEAKNESS ( ! B\RGEOISIE & G5TRY1 BUT ( !IR /R5G?4 ,! P]SONNEL ( ! ,CIVIL ,S]VICE1 JUDICIAL B5*1 ,GOV]NM5T F9ANCI]S1 CONT9U$ ) V]Y LITTLE *ANGE AFT] #a#f#f4 ,*>LES ,I,I CAME BACK1 & PRET5D$ HE HAD BE5 ,K+ BY DIV9E H]$IT>Y RI<T EV] S9CE HIS FA!R'S HEAD HAD FALL5 ON ! SCAFFOLD AT ,:ITEHALL4 ,BUT HE WAS NOT RE/OR$ TO HIS FA!R'S OLD POSITION4 ,! PR]OGATIVE C\RTS W]E NOT RE/OR$1 & SO ,*>LES HAD NO 9DEP5D5T EXECUTIVE AU?ORITY4 .<,! EXECUTIVE WAS CONTROLL$ FIR/ BY ! IMPEA*M5T ( ,M9I/] :5 ,P>LIAM5T DISAPPROV$ ( !IR CONDUCT1 !N BY ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! CAB9ET SY/EM4.> ,! COMMON LAW1 AS ADAPT$ BY ,SIR ,$W>D ,COKE TO ! NE$S ( CAPITALI/ SOCIETY1 TRIUMPH$ ALIKE OV] ! >BITR>Y 9T]F]5CE ( ! ,CR[N & ! RE=M+ DEM&S ( ! ,LEVEL]S4 ,!RE WAS NO RATIONALIZATION ( ! LEGAL SY/EM 9 ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION COMP>ABLE TO ! ,CODE ,NAPOLEON1 :I* ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION PRODUC$ = ! PROTECTION ( SMALL PROP]TY4 ,AFT] #aga SUBORD9ATION ( JUDGES TO ,P>LIAM5T WAS A PO9T ( ! ,CON/ITUTION3 ! G5TRY DOM9AT$ LOCAL GOV]NM5T AS JU/ICES ( ! ,PEACE4 ,! ,K+ HAD NO P[] ( TAXATION 9DEP5D5T ( ,P>LIAM5T 7?\< BY A LACK ( =ESI<T ,P>LIAM5T 9 ITS 5?USIASM VOT$ ,*>LES ! ,CU/OMS REV5UE = LIFE1 & SU* WAS ! EXPANSION ( TRADE 9 HIS REIGN ?AT T[>DS ! 5D ( IT HE CAME NE> TO F9ANCIAL 9DEP5D5CE4 ,?IS WAS RECTIFI$ AFT] #a#f#h#h74 ,*>LES WAS CALL$ ,K+ BY ! ,GRACE ( ,GOD1 BUT WAS REALLY ,K+ BY ! GRACE ( ! M]*ANTS & SQUIRES4 ,HE HIMSELF RECOGNIZ$ ?IS :5 HE SAID HE DIDN'T WANT TO GO ON HIS TRAVELS AGA94 ,JAMES ,I,I WAS LESS WISE 9 RECOGNIZ+ ! LIMITATIONS ( HIS POSITION - & HE TRAVEL$4 

,! BI%OPS ALSO CAME HOME ) ! ,K+1 BUT ! ,*UR* DID NOT REGA9 ITS OLD 9DEP5D5T P[]1 NOR ITS MONOPOLY 9 ! MANUFACTURE ( PUBLIC OP9ION4 ,! ,C\RT ( ,HI< ,COMMISSION WAS NOT RE/OR$2 ! LESS] ECCLESIA/ICAL C\RTS GRADUALLY CEAS$ TO BE ABLE TO GET !IR S5T5CES 5=C$2 ,CONVOCATION AB&ON$ ITS CLAIM TO TAX ! CL]GY 9DEP5D5TLY ( ,P>LIAM5T4 ,! ,*UR* ( ,5GL& CEAS$ EV5 TO PRET5D TO BE ALL-EMBRAC+ & AIM$ AT HOLD+ ,NONCON=MI/S 9 SUBJECTION RA!R ?AN AT REABSORB+ !M4 ,IT CEAS$ TO BE AN 9/RUM5T ( P[]1 & BECAME ! HALLM>K ( RESPECTABILITY4 ,! RECOGNIZ$ EXI/5CE ( ,NONCON=MITY DATES FROM ! ,RE/ORATION3 ,/ATE & ,*UR* W]E NO LONG] ID5TICAL4 ,A SEP>ATE L[] MIDDLE-CLASS CULTURE GREW UP4 ,NO LONG] A P[]FUL ORGAN ( GOV]NM5T AT ! DISPOSAL ( ! ,K+1 ! ,*UR* ( ,5GL& SANK TO BE M]ELY ! RI*E/ ( MANY RIVAL RELIGI\S ORGANIZATIONS4 ,& IT TOO BECAME DEP5D5T ON ,P>LIAM5T4 ,! BI%OPS HAD BE5 ,*>LES ,I'S MO/ FAI?FUL TOOLS2 IT WAS ! BI%OPS :O FIR/ REFUS$ OB$I5CE TO ,JAMES ,I,I4 

,SOME ( ! RI* ,ROYALI/S HAD B\<T !IR L&S BACK BE=E #a#f#f4 ,O!RS GOT !M BACK !N4 ,*UR* & ,CR[N L&S W]E RE/OR$1 TOO4 ,BUT ! MASS ( SMALL] ,ROYALI/S1 :O HAD SOLD !IR E/ATES PRIVATELY AFT] RU9+ !MSELVES 9 ! CAUSE1 GOT NO R$RESS4 ,& EV5 :]E L&[N]S W]E RE/OR$1 !Y W]E NOT RE/OR$ ON ! OLD CONDITIONS4 ,FEUDAL T5URES HAD BE5 ABOLI%$ 9 #a#f#d#f1 & CONFIRMATION ( !IR ABOLITION WAS ! FIR/ BUS9ESS ,P>LIAM5T TURN$ ITS ATT5TION TO AFT] RECALL+ ! ,K+ 9 #a#f#f2 ! ABSOLUTE PROP]TY RI<TS ( BIG L&LORDS W]E SECURE4 ,BETWE5 #afdf & #aff MANY ( ! CONFISCAT$ L&S HAD PASS$ 9TO ! POSSESSION ( SPECULATIVE PUR*AS]S1 MO/LY B\RGEOIS1 :O HAD IMPROV$ CULTIVATION1 5CLOS$1 RACK$ R5TS UP TO ! M>KET LEVEL4 ,! RETURN$ ,ROYALI/S HAD P]=CE TO ADAPT !MSELVES TO ! NEW FREE M>KET CONDITIONS1 I4E4 TO TURN !MSELVES 9TO CAPITALI/ F>M]S OR LESSORS ( !IR E/ATES1 OR !Y W5T UND] 9 ! COMPETITIVE /RUGGLE4 

,MANY ( ! L&[N]S RE/OR$ 9 #aff HAD MORTGAG$ & RESOLD !IR E/ATES BY ! 5D ( ! C5TURY4 ,AMONG !SE L&[N]S WE MU/ 9CLUDE ! ,K+1 :O H5CE=? BECAME DEP5D5T ON A ,P>LIAM5T>Y CIVIL LI/1 A SAL>I$ (FICIAL1 ! FIR/ ,CIVIL ,S]VANT4 ,! ,K+ C\LD NO LONG] 0LIVE ( HIS [N0 ON HIS PRIVATE 9COME FROM HIS E/ATES & FEUDAL DUES1 & SO C\LD NEV] BE 9DEP5D5T AGA94 ,9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY HE HAD 9FLU5CE BUT NO 9DEP5D5T P[]4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! FAILURE ( ! DEMOCRATIC MOVEM5T TO W9 LEGALLY WAT]TI<T SECURITY ( T5URE = SMALL PEASANT PROPRIETORS HAD LEFT ! DOOR OP5 = RU?LESS RACK+ ( R5TS1 5CLOSURES1 EVICTIONS1 ! CREATION ( A L&LESS PROLET>IAT1 ) NO R$RESS FROM A ,P>LIAM5T & A JUDICIAL SY/EM DOM9AT$ BY ! PROP]TI$ CLASSES4 

,9 ! BUS9ESS WORLD1 MONOPOLIES & ROYAL CONTROL ( 9DU/RY & TRADE DISAPPE> =EV]4 ,GILDS & APPR5TICE LAWS HAD BROK5 D[N 9 ! 9T]REGNUM1 & NO EFFECTIVE ATTEMPT WAS MADE TO REVIVE !M4 ,LIB]AT$ TRADE & 9DU/RY EXP&$ RAPIDLY4 ,!RE WAS NO BREAK 9 COMM]CIAL1 IMP]IAL OR =EIGN POLICY AT ! ,RE/ORATION4 ,! ,NAVIGATION ,ACT WAS R5EW$ BY ,*>LES ,I,I'S ,GOV]NM5T & BECAME ! BACKBONE ( ,5GLI% POLICY1 ! MEANS BY :I* ! ,5GLI% M]*ANTS MONOPOLIZ$ ! WEAL? ( ! COLONIES4 ,! EXCLUSIVE TRAD+ COMPANIES DECL9$1 EXCEPT :]E SPECIAL CIRCUM/ANCES MADE !IR RET5TION NECESS>Y TO ! B\RGEOISIE 7! ,EA/ ,9DIA ,COMPANY74 ,! COMPLETE DOM9ATION ( ! MONEY$ 9T]E/S WAS NOT E/ABLI%$ TILL AFT] ! SECOND REVOLUTION 9 #a#f#h#h1 ) ! F\NDATION ( ! ,BANK ( ,5GL& & ! ,NATIONAL ,DEBT 7#a#f#i#d74 ,! YE>S FROM #aff TO #afhh >E A P]IOD ( RETR5*M5T1 9 :I* WEAL? WAS ACCUMULAT$ TO F9ANCE GR&IOSE IMP]IALI/ POLICIES :I* ! ,PROTECTORATE HAD UND]TAK5 & BE5 UNABLE TO C>RY ?R\<4 ,BY ! 5D ( ! C5TURY !Y W]E BE+ RESUM$1 N[ UND] ! COMPLETE CONTROL ( A ,P>LIAM5T REPRES5T+ L&$ & MONEY$ 9T]E/S FUNDAM5TALLY UNIT$ BY !IR SIMIL> WAYS ( PRODUC+ WEAL?4 

,TE*NOLOGY LIKEWISE B5EFIT$ 5ORM\SLY BY ! LIB]ATION ( SCI5CE & BY ! /IMULUS TO FREE ?\<T & EXP]IM5T :I* ! ,REVOLUTION GAVE4 ,! REVOLUTIONS 9 9DU/RIAL & AGR>IAN TE*NIQUE :I* W]E TO *ANGE ! FACE ( ,5GL& 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY W\LD HAVE BE5 IMPOSSIBLE )\T ! POLITICAL REVOLUTION ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY4 ,! FRE$OM ( 9TELLECTUAL SPECULATION 9 LATE SEV5TE5?- & EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,5GL& 5ORM\SLY 9FLU5C$ ! IDEAS ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION ( #a#g#h#i4 

,9 #aff PASSIVE OB$I5CE WAS PREA*$ 9 ALL PULPITS2 A ,K+ WAS BR\<T BACK 0) PL5TY ( HOLY OIL AB\T HIM10 BECAUSE ?IS WAS NECESS>Y = ,P>LIAM5T1 = ! POSSESS+ CLASSES1 ?REAT5$ BY SOCIAL REVOLUTION FROM BEL[4 ,A :ITE T]ROR WAS 9TRODUC$ BY ! RETURN$ EMIGRES1 & AN ATTEMPT WAS MADE TO DRIVE FROM POLITICAL LIFE ALL :O DID NOT ACCEPT ! RE/OR$ REGIME 9 ,*UR* & ,/ATE 7! ,CL>5DON ,CODE1 ! ,TE/ ,ACT74 ,$UCATIONAL ADVANCES1 LIKE ! PURGE :I* HAD MADE ,OX=D A C5T] ( SCI5TIFIC RESE>*1 W]E REV]S$4 ,ALL ?IS BROKE ! REVOLUTION>Y-DEMOCRATIC MOVEM5T = ! MOM5T1 ?\< IT F\<T BACK AGA9 9 ! SIXTE5-SEV5TIES & -EI<TIES4 ,9 #affb A ,PRESBYT]IAN M9I/]1 :O HAD BE5 DEPRIV$ ( HIS LIV+ BY ! ,RE/ORATION1 WROTE 9 WORDS ?AT RECAPTURE ! FE>S ( MANY RESPECTABLE MEMB]S ( ! POSSESS+ CLASSES AT ?AT TIME3 

0,?\< SOON AFT] ! SETTLEM5T ( ! NATION WE SAW \RSELVES ! DESPIS$ & *EAT$ P>TY 444 YET 9 ALL ?IS ,I HAVE SUFF]$ S9CE1 ,I LOOK UPON IT AS LESS ?AN MY TR\BLE WAS FROM MY FE>S !N 444 ,!N WE LAY AT ! M]CY & IMPULSE ( A GIDDY1 HOT-HEAD$1 BLOODY MULTITUDE40 

,MANY ,PRESBYT]IANS CON=M$ TO ! ,*UR* ( ,5GL&1 N[ AGA9 FA%IONABLE4 ,BUT ! V]Y P>SONS & G5TRY :O PREA*$ PASSIVE OB$I5CE TO CON/ITUT$ AU?ORITY 9 #aff UNIT$ TO EXPEL ,JAMES ,I,I 9 #a#f#h#h1 :5 HE MADE ! MI/AKE ( TAK+ !SE !ORIES AT !IR FACE VALUE & ?REAT5$ TO RE/ORE ! OLD ABSOLUTI/ MON>*Y4 ,JAMES WAS HU/L$ \T BY ! 0,GLORI\S ,REVOLUTION0 ( #a#f#h#h1 0GLORI\S0 BECAUSE BLOODLESS & BECAUSE !RE WAS NO SOCIAL DISORD]1 NO 0AN>*Y10 NO POSSIBILITY ( A REVIVAL ( REVOLUTION>Y-DEMOCRATIC DEM&S4 

,EV] S9CE !N OR?ODOX HI/ORIANS HAVE DONE !IR UTMO/ TO /RESS ! 0CONT9UITY0 ( ,5GLI% HI/ORY1 TO M9IMIZE ! REVOLUTION>Y BREAKS1 TO PRET5D ?AT ! 09T]REGNUM0 7! WORD ITSELF %[S :AT !Y >E TRY+ TO DO7 WAS AN UN=TUNATE ACCID5T1 ?AT 9 #aff WE RETURN$ TO ! OLD ,CON/ITUTION NORMALLY DEVELOP+1 ?AT #afhh M]ELY CORRECT$ ! AB]RATIONS ( A D]ANG$ ,K+4 ,:]EAS1 9 FACT1 ! P]IOD #a#f#d-#f SAW ! DE/RUCTION ( ONE K9D ( /ATE & ! 9TRODUCTION ( A NEW POLITICAL /RUCTURE )9 :I* CAPITALISM C\LD FREELY DEVELOP4 ,= TACTICAL REASONS1 ! RUL+ CLASS 9 #aff PRET5D$ ?AT !Y W]E M]ELY RE/OR+ ! OLD =MS ( ! ,CON/ITUTION4 ,BUT !Y 9T5D$ BY ?AT RE/ORATION TO GIVE SANCTITY & SOCIAL /AMP TO A NEW SOCIAL ORD]4 ,! IMPORTANT ?+ IS ?AT ! SOCIAL ORD] WAS NEW & W\LD NOT HAVE BE5 WON )\T REVOLUTION4 

0,IF WRIT+S BE TRUE10 SAID ! ,LEVEL] ,RA9BOR[E 9 #a#f#d#g1 0!RE HAVE BE5 MANY SCUFFL+S BETWE5 ! HONE/ M5 ( ,5GL& & ?OSE ?AT HAVE TYRANNIZ$ OV] !M2 & IF IT BE READ1 !RE IS NONE ( ?OSE JU/ & EQUITABLE LAWS ?AT ! PEOPLE ( ,5GL& >E BORN TO BUT >E 5TR5*M5T ALTOGE!R4 ,BUT 444 IF ! PEOPLE F9D ?AT !Y >E NOT SUITABLE TO FREEM5 AS !Y >E1 ,I KN[ NO REASON %\LD DET] ME 444 FROM 5DEAVOR+ BY ALL MEANS TO GA9 ANY?+ ?AT MI<T BE ( MORE ADVANTAGE TO !M ?AN ! GOV]NM5T UND] :I* !Y LIVE40 .<,WOODH\SE.> 

,IT IS /RUGGLE ?AT W9S RE=MS1 JU/ AS IT IS /RUGGLE ?AT WILL RETA9 ! LIB]TIES :I* \R ANCE/ORS WON = US4 ,& IF ! PEOPLE F9D ! LEGAL SY/EM 0NOT SUITABLE TO FRE$OM AS IT IS10 !N IT CAN BE *ANG$ BY UNIT$ ACTION4 ,?AT IS ! LESSON ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY = TO-DAY4 ,IT WAS ( US ?AT ,W9/ANLEY WAS ?9K+ :5 HE WROTE AT ! HEAD ( ONE ( HIS MO/ IMPASSION$ PAMPHLETS3 

,:5 !SE CLAY BODIES >E 9 GRAVE1 & *ILDR5 /& 9 PLACE1 

,?IS %[S WE /OOD = TRU? & PEACE & FRE$OM 9 \R DAYS40 

0,FRE$OM10 HE ADD$ ) A BITT]NESS BORN ( EXP]I5CE1 BUT ALSO ) PRIDE & CONFID5CE1 0FRE$OM IS ! MAN ?AT WILL TURN ! WORLD UPSIDE D[N1 !RE=E NO WOND] HE HA? 5EMIES40 ,& FRE$OM = ,W9/ANLEY WAS NOT A *EAP POLITICIAN'S SLOGAN3 IT MEANT ! LIV+ /RUGGLE ( COMRADES TO BUILD A SOCIETY BAS$ ON COMMUNAL [N]%IP1 A SOCIETY :I* ORD9>Y PEOPLE W\LD ?9K WOR? DEF5D+ ) ALL !IR MI<T BECAUSE IT WAS !IR SOCIETY4 0,TRUE FRE$OM LIES 9 ! COMMUNITY 9 SPIRIT & COMMUNITY 9 ! E>?LY TREASURY40 

0,?IS COMMONWEAL?'S FRE$OM WILL UNITE ! HE>TS ( ,5GLI%M5 TOGE!R 9 LOVE1 SO ?AT IF A =EIGN 5EMY 5DEAVOR TO COME 91 WE %ALL ALL ) JO9T CONS5T RISE UP TO DEF5D \R 9H]ITANCE1 & %ALL BE TRUE TO ONE ANO!R4 ,:]EAS N[ ! POOR SEE1 IF !Y FI<T & %\LD CONQU] ! 5EMY1 YET EI!R !Y OR !IR *ILDR5 >E LIKE TO BE SLAVES /ILL1 = ! G5TRY WILL HAVE ALL40 .<,W9/ANLEY.> 

0,PROP]TY 444 DIVIDES ! :OLE WORLD 9TO P>TIES1 & IS ! CAUSE ( ALL W>S & BLOOD%$ & CONT5TION EV]Y:]E40 

0,:5 ! E>? BECOMES A COMMON TREASURY AGA91 AS IT MU/1 444 !N ?IS 5MITY 9 ALL L&S WILL CEASE40 

,WE /ILL HAVE MU* TO LE>N FROM ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY4 

,FROM 3 ,M>XI/S4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #a#g1 #bba 3 ,! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION #afd -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #f1 #bbb 3 ,! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION #afd -- ,UPDAT$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/