,*APT] #b 
,! ,RISE ( ! ,B\RGEOIS ,CITY 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

#b4 ,! ,RISE ( ! ,B\RGEOIS ,CITY 

  

,ONLY 9 WE/]N & C5TRAL ,EUROPE1 DID ! RISE ( URBAN LIFE YIELD A LA/+ DOM9ATION ( T[N OV] C\NTRY -- NOT AS A SPECIAL ,CASE 9 ! ,CREVICES ( ! ANCI5T WORLD1 BUT AS ! G5]AL FEATURE ( A CONT95TAL SOCIETY1 ,EUROPE'S DEVELOPM5T CLOSELY RECAPITULATES ! EVOLUTION ( AGR>IAN SOCIETY ?R\< ! SOCIAL PHASES WE HAVE DISCUSS$ 9 CONNECTION ) ,GREECE & ,LATIUM2 BUT :ILE ! DEVELOPM5T ( URBAN LIFE 9 ANTIQUITY L$ TO A CUL DE SAC1 9 ,EUROPE ! T[NS DEVELOP$ CAPITALISM & E/ABLI%$ ! B\RGEOIS CITY4 

,! /RIK+ SOCIAL ADVANCES SCOR$ BY ,EUROPEAN CITIES CAN BE EXPLA9$ BY MANY FACTORS UNIQUE TO ! CONT95T ITSELF1 AL?\< :AT /&S \T AS ! PR9CIPAL ONE ,IS AGA9 ! 9FLU5CE ( GEOGRAPHY ON AGR>IAN RELATIONS4 ,:]EV] ! =E/ COV] WAS REMOV$1 ! AGRICULTURI/ F\ND L>GE >EAS3 ( >ABLE L& -- A NOTABLE CONTRA/ ) ! ,NE> ,EA/ & ,NOR? ,AFRICA1 :]E SUB/ANTIAL SURPLUSES ( FOOD C\LD BE GLEAN$ ONLY FROM N>R[ /RIPS ( ALLUVIAL L& ,:ILE ! RIV] VALLEYS ( ! ,NE> ,EA/ & ,NOR? ,AFRICA W]E ,SURR\ND$ BY 9HOSPITABLE WA/ES & M\NTA9S1 ,EUROPEAN RIV]S FL[$ 9TO ! DEP?S ( VA/ =E/S 9 :I* NEW COMMUNITIES C\LD BE F\ND$ )\T 9T]F]5CE FROM AN ALL-5COMPASS+ C5TRALIZ$ /ATE1 ,9DE$1 M ! ABS5CE ( ANY NE$ = EXT5SIVE IRRIGATION WORKS1 NO NE$ EXI/$ = ! ELABORATE BUREAUCRATIC & MON>*ICAL APP>ATUS :I* DRA9$ ! COMM]CIAL LIFE ( ! ANCI5T WORLD4 ,! V]Y EXT5T ( ! L&1 ( ITS M\NTA9S & =E/S1 VITIAT$ ANY T5D5CY T[>D C5TRALIZATION ?AT MI<T HAVE BE5 A POLITICAL H]ITAGE ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN CIVILIZATIONS4 ,CLASSICAL ,EUROPEAN FEUDALISM WAS N\RI%$ BY ! GEOGRAPHY & CLIMATE ( ! CONT95T ) ! RESULT ?AT ,EUROPEAN URBAN COMMUNITIES A*IEV$ A DEGREE ( 9DEP5D5CE UNKN[N1 AP>T FROM ,GREECE1 TO ANCI5T SOCIETY4 

,=TUNATELY1 TOO1 = ! CITIES1 ,EUROPEAN FEUDALISM REMA9$ AT *RONIC W> ) ITSELF4 ,?IS NOT ONLY PROMOT$ FUR!R DEC5TRALIZATION BUT (T5 PROVID$ URBAN COMMUNITIES ) A WIDE LATITUDE = ,9DEP5D5T GR[?4 ,BY ! T5? C5TURY1 ! MUTUAL PITT+ ( ,FR5* B>ONIES AGA9/ EA* O!R HAD DIVID$ ! C\NTRY 9TO SOME T5 ?\S& POLITICAL UNITS4 ,:5 ,EUROPEAN CITIES BEGAN TO EM]GE1 !Y F\ND AN AGR>IAN SOCIETY 9COMP>ABLY LESS UNIFI$ & MAT]IALLY WEAK] ?AN ! DOM9E]+ & ,WEAL?Y ,ASIAN L& SY/EMS ( ! ,NE> ,EA/ & ,NOR? ,AFRICA4 ,GIV5 TIME & ! /EADY SETTL+ ( ! CONT95T1 MANY M$IEVAL CITIES FRE$ !MSELVES FROM ! CONTROL ( ! FEUDAL LORDS & A*IEV$ A MODE/ DOM9ANCE OV] AGR>IAN 9T]E/S4 

,TO UND]/& ! UNIQU5ESS ( ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE 7AS !SE T[NS & CITIES W]E CALL$ 9 ,FRANCE71 IT W\LD BE USEFUL TO DI/+UI% !M FROM !IR URBAN ANTEC$5TS 9 ,9DIAN ,AM]ICA1 ! ,NE> ,EA/1 & ,ASIA4 ,AL?\< AH CITIES EM]GE 9 V>Y+ DEGREES FROM ! DIVISION1 ( LABOR AMONG FOOD CULTIVATION1 CRAFTS1 & COMM]CE1 ! EXT5T TO :I* !Y RE/ ON ?IS DIVISION ( LABOR (T5 DI/+UI%ES ONE CITY FROM ANO!R4 ,QUITE (T51 FUNCTIONS O!R ?AN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES DET]M9E ! NATURE & DEVELOPM5T ( AN URBAN 5TITY4 ,T5O*TITLAN'S SIZE & POPULATION1 = EXAMPLE1 >E NOT EASILY EXPLA9$ BY ITS COMM]CIAL & CRAFT ACTIVITIES4 ,9 FACT1 AS WE HAVE ALREADY SE51 ! CITY'S PR9CIPAL FUNCTIONS W]E C]EMONIAL1 MILIT>Y1 & ADM9I/RATIVE4 ,ADM9I/RATIVE NE$S W]E IMPORTANT TO ! GR[? ( MANY ,NE> ,EA/]N & ,ASIAN CITIES3 9 ,EGYPT & ,MESOPOTAMIA AS WELL AS 9 ,9DIA ,L9D ,*9A4 ,:I* IS NOT TO SAY ?AT CRAFTS & TRADE W]E UNIMPORTANT 9 !SE COMMUNITIES1 BUT M]ELY ?AT !Y OCCUPI$ AN ANCILL>Y POSITION ) RESPECT TO POLITICAL & RELIGI\S ACTIVITIES4 

,BY CONTRA/1 ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE WAS DEVOT$ ALMO/ 5TIRELY TO H&ICRAFTS & LOCAL TRADE4 ,! T[NS ( ! HI< ,MIDDLE ,AGES W]E PRIM>ILY M>KETPLACES & C5T]S = ! PRODUCTION ( COMMODITIES4 ,ONLY 9 A FEW 9/ANCES 9 ,EUROPEAN HI/ORY DO WE 5C\NT] CITIES ?AT EXP&$ = REASONS O!R ?AN ECONOMIC ONES -- NOTABLY1 ,AIX-LA-,*APELLE1 A CITY ?AT GREW OR REGRESS$ ,) ! POLITICAL =TUNES ( ! ,C>OI+IAN K+S1 & ( C\RSE ,ROME1 :I* 9CREAS$ [+ TO ! TRIBUTE COLLECT$ BY ! PAPACY FROM DIOCESES ?R\<\T ,EUROPE4 ,= ! MO/ P>T1 H[EV]1 M$IEVAL COMMUNES FURNI%$ ! SKILLS & PRODUCTS :I* C\LD NOT BE ACQUIR$ FROM ! MANORIAL DOME/IC ECONOMY4 ,?US !SE T[NS NEV] SUFF]$ FROM ANY CONFUSION AB\T !IR FUNCTIONS OR AB\T ! FACTORS :I* DET]M9$ !IR DE/9Y4 ,!Y HAD A REASONABLY DE> SELF-UND]/&+ ( !IR COMM]CIAL & CRAFT 9T]E/S4 ,F> FROM BE+ DI/ORT$ LIKE !IR ANTEC$5TS 9TO PLIANT 9/RUM5TS ( AGR>IAN CLASSES1 !Y JEAL\SLY GU>D$ !IR AUTONOMY & PROVID$ A HOSPITABLE 5VIRONM5T = 9DEP5D5T TRAD]S & H&ICRAFT WORK]S -- ! PRECURSORS ( ! MOD]N B\RGEOISIE4 

,YET ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE WAS A FEUDAL1 NOT A B\RGEOIS1 CITY4 ,ESS5TIALLY1 ITS ECONOMY WAS BAS$ ON SIMPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION -- A MODE ( PRODUCTION 9 :I* CRAFTSM5 USE ! M>KETPLACE TO SATISFY !IR NE$S1 NOT TO ACCUMULATE CAPITAL4 ,AL?\< GOODS W]E PRODUC$ = EX*ANGE1 ?AT IS1 AS COMMODITIES 7TO USE ,M>X'S CONCEPTION ( ! T]M71 ! [N] ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION REMA9$ ! DIRECT PRODUC] RA!R ?AN A B\RGEOIS 0SUP]VISOR0 ( PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY4 ,TO BE SURE1 A MA/] CRAFTSMAN WAS AID$ BY APPR5TICES1 BUT ! LATT] C\LD REALI/ICALLY ASPIRE TO BECOME MA/] CRAFTSM5 9 !IR [N RI<T ONCE !Y ACQUIR$ ! SKILLS TO DO SO4 ,9 TYPICAL FEUDAL FA%ION1 GUILDS REGULAT$ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY D[N TO ALMO/ ! SMALLE/ DETAIL2 ! \TPUT1 QUALITY1 & PRICES ( GOODS ?AT F\ND !IR WAY TO ! M>KETPLACE W]E C>EFULLY SUP]VIS$ BY CRAFT ASSOCIATIONS ( MA/] WORKM54 ,! ATOMIZATION ( LABOR & ! *AOS ( ! M>KETPLACE ?AT >E SO 9DELIBLY ET*$ 9TO ! MOD]N CAPITALI/ SY/EM W]E UNKN[N TO ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE ,EA* 9DIVIDUAL HAD HIS SECURE POSITION 9 ! ECONOMY ( ! COMMUNITY1 A POSITION C>EFULLY DEF9$ BY A SY/EM ( RI<TS & DUTIES1 & EA* FULFILL$ HIS RESPONSIBILITIES ) DIGNITY1 >TI/RY1 & A DEEP PRIDE ( WORKMAN%IP4 

,9 SO SELF-CONTA9$ & SELF-FULFILL+ A SOCIETY1 !N1 H[ DID IT COME TO ?IS ?AT !SE SIMPLE COMMODITY RELATIONS W]E SUPPLANT$ BY B\RGEOIS ONES & ! BEAUTY ( ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE BY ! BLI<T ( ! B\RGEOIS CITY8 

,\R [N AGE T5DS TO ANSW] ?IS QUE/ION ON ITS [N T]MS1 NOTABLY 9 TE*NOLOGICAL ONES -- SU* AS ! ADV5T ( ! /EAM 5G9E & L>GE-SCALE MA*9]Y -- AS ?\< EV5 AN ECONOMIC 9T]PRETATION ( HI/ORICAL *ANGES DOES NOT 9CLUDE ! TOTALITY ( MAN'S SOCIAL RELATIONS4 ,D\BTLESS1 ,EUROPEAN FEUDALISM WAS NOT DEVOID ( TE*NOLOGICAL A*IEVEM5TS ( ITS [N2 9DE$1 ! TRADITIONAL IMAGE ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES AS A TE*NOLOGICALLY /AGNANT ]A HAS S9CE UND]GONE CONSID]ABLE REVISION 9 ! FACE ( REC5T RESE>*4 ,FEUDAL SOCIETY SCOR$ SIGNIFICANT ADVANCES 9 AGRICULTURAL TE*NIQUE1 ! DEVELOPM5T ( NEW S\RCES ( 5]GY1 & ! DISCOV]Y ( NEW ME*ANICAL DEVICES4 ,YET !RE IS A REAL S5SE 9 :I* M$IEVAL TE*NOLOGY DID NOT GO MU* BEYOND ! MILL5NIA-OLD DOME/IC ECONOMY ( ! NEOLI?IC P]IOD -- ! BASIC >TS ( MANUAL PL[+1 BROADCA/ S[+1 HORTICULTURE1 H& CON/RUCTION ( DWELL+S & SMALL-SCALE WEAV+1 POTT]Y1 & SMELT+4 ,?IS WAS AN ECONOMY ( TOOLS & SKILLS1 NOT MA*9ES & 9DU/RIAL ADM9I/RATION4 ,TO ! TE*NIQUES PREVAL5T1 SAY1 9 ANCI5T ,EGYPT1 M$IEVAL ,EUROPE DID NOT ADD APPRECIABLY MORE ?AN ! ADAPTATIONS ( A TRADITIONAL TE*NOLOGY TO ITS [N SOILS & CLIMATE4 ,9DE$1 9 SOME RESPECTS1 ,EUROPEAN SKILLS & CRAFTS W]E 9F]IOR TO ?OSE ( ,ASIA1 :I* ACC\NTS = ! C5TURIES-LONG ATTRACTION ?AT ,EA/]N GOODS HAD = M$IEVAL TRAD]S4 ,EUROPEAN AGRICULTURAL TE*NIQUES W\LD HAVE BE5 USELESS1 EV5 H>MFUL1 9 MANY >EAS ( ! WORLD4 ,:AT ,EUROPE PRIM>ILY A*IEV$1 DUR+ ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 WAS TO ADVANCE H] [N CONT95TAL ECONOMY4 ,! MO/ IMPORTANT MAT]IAL /EP P]=M$ BY FEUDAL SOCIETY WAS NOT ! DISCOV]Y ( ANY S+LE CORPUS ( NEW 9V5TIONS ?AT PRESUMABLY MADE CAPITALISM POSSIBLE1 BUT RA!R ! OP5+1 CLE>+1 & SETTLEM5T ( ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T ITSELF & ADAPTATION ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN TE*NOLOGY TO ! HEAVI] SOILS1 CLIMATIC RIGORS1 & SP>S] POPULATIONS ( ! NOR?4 ,& ! GREATE/ SOCIAL ADVANCE SCOR$ BY ,EUROPE WAS ! DEVELOPM5T ( COMMODITY PRODUCTION 9 T[NS F\ND$ )\T DECISIVE 9T]F]5CE BY AGR>IAN 9T]E/S -- ?AT IS1 URBAN C5T]S ) !IR [N LAW ( LIFE1 A LAW ( LIFE ?AT F\ND ITS EXPRESSION 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( COMMODITY PRODUCTION4 

,) ! GR[? ( 9T]NATIONAL TRADE1 COMMODITY RELATIONS BEGAN TO SUBV]T ! 5TIRE FABRIC ( ,EUROPEAN FEUDALISM1 UND]M9+ TRADITIONAL RELATIONS 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE AS WELL AS 9 ! T[NS4 ,FROM ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY ONW>D1 ,EUROPEAN SOCIETY BECAME ! !AT] ( SOCIAL & ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5TS HI!RTO UNPREC$5T$ 9 HI/ORY1 ,9 NOR!RN ,ITALY1 & ?R\<\T C5TRAL & WE/]N ,EUROPE1 ! COMMUNES BEGAN TO ALLY ) EA* O!R TO E/ABLI% F$]ATIONS AGA9/ LOCAL T]RITORIAL LORDS4 ,! FIR/ BREEZES ( ,G]MAN UNIFICATION WAFT$ ACROSS ! L& :5 9 #abef ! T[NS ( ! ,RH9E VALLEY E/ABLI%$ ! ,RH5I% ,LEAGUE ( ,CITIES12 & AL?\< ! ,LEAGUE SOON FELL AP>T1 IT F\ND MORE OR LESS P]MAN5T SUCCESSORS 9 ! ,HANSEATIC ,LEAGUE ( ! ,BALTIC REGION & ! ,SWABIAN ,LEAGUE4 ,NOR WAS ?IS REM>KABLE /IRR+ ( ! CITIES CONF9$ M]ELY TO ,G]MANY4 ,! ,SWISS CANTONS EMANCIPAT$ !MSELVES FROM ,AU/RIA2 ,FLEMI% T[NS ROSE 9 REVOLT AGA9/ ,C\NT ,L\IS 9 ! FIR/ ( A S]IES ( CIVIL CONFLICTS 9 ! ,L[L&S2 & ,P>IS1 UND] ,ETI5NE ,M>CEL1 LOOK UP >MS AGA9/ ! ,FR5* DAUPH94 ,AL?\< MANY ( ! URBAN REVOLTS W]E PREMATURE & UNSUCCESSFUL1 !IR FAILURES W]E MORE ?AN COMP5SAT$ = BY ! SUCCESS 5JOY$ BY ! ,ITALIAN CITIES4 ,9 NOR!RN ,ITALY1 T[N AFT] T[N MANAG$ NOT ONLY TO SUBORD9ATE OR ASSIMILATE ! T]RITORIAL LORDS TO ITS COMM]CIAL 9T]E/S BUT EA*1 9 ALMO/ EV]Y VITAL RESPECT1 WAS N[ A B\RGEOIS CITY4 

,:AT IS ( P>AM\NT IMPORTANCE1 H]O1 IS ?AT URBAN LIFE WAS DEVELOP+ ON ITS [N AU!NTIC MA9SPR+S4 ,9 ! PA/1 ! L& HAD 9 SOME S5SE BELEAGU]$ ! CITY -- IF NOT ALWAYS BY DOM9AT+ OR CIRCUMSCRIB+ ITS EVOLUTION1 !N AT LEA/ BY DI/ORT+ & F9ALLY UND]M9+ IT4 ,9 LATE M$IEVAL ,EUROPE1 BY CONTRA/1 ! COMMODITY SY/EM DEVELOP$ BY ! T[NS BEGAN TO REA* 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE ITSELF & TRANS=M ! L& 9TO A SOCIAL IMAGE ( ! CITY4 ,TRADE1 BY CREAT+ NEW NE$S )9 ! MANOR1 SL[LY DISSOLV$ ! OLD SELF-SUFFICI5T AGR>IAN ECONOMY & EV5 ! P>O*IALISM ( ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE ITSELF1 ,9CREAS+LY1 FEUDAL RELATIONS W]E REPLAC$ BY EX*ANGE RELATIONS & ! TRADITIONAL E/ATE SY/EM -- A HI]>*Y OSSIFI$ 9 A TIME-HONOR$ NEXUS ( MUTUAL RI<TS & DUTIES -- BY ! M$IATION ( COMMODITIES BETWE5 9DEP5D5T & SOV]EIGN PRODUC]S4 ,BY ! F\RTE5? C5TURY1 S]FDOM BEGAN TO DISAPPE> FROM MU* ( WE/]N ,EUROPE4 ,! EM]G+ FREE F>M] & YEOMAN BECAME ! RURAL C\NT]P>T ( ! MA/] CRAFTSMAN 9 ! T[N1 ,AL?\< MU* ! SAME DEVELOPM5T HAD OCCURR$ 9 ,GREECE & ,LATIUM C5TURIES E>LI]1 ,EUROPE'S EVOLUTION WAS FAVOR$ BY ! FACT ?AT ITS COMM]CE WAS CONT95TAL RA!R ?AN M]ELY LOCAL1 ITS AGR>IAN SY/EM WEAK] & MORE RESILI5T ) ! RESULT ?AT ITS COMM]CIAL DEVELOPM5T WAS NOT BLOCK$ BY ! GREAT ,ASIAN L& SY/EMS :I* HAD DET\R$ ,ROMAN SOCIETY FROM AN AU!NTIC B\RGEOIS DEVELOPM5T 9TO P>ASITIC ALT]NATIVES ,PRIM>ILY1 ! ,EUROPEAN M]*ANT PR9CES ( ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES S\<T COMM]CIAL W>ES FROM ! ,EA/ RA!R ?AN TRIBUTE -- AL?\< !Y C]TA9LY PILLAG$ :]EV] !Y C\LD -- & !Y ACQUIR$ !SE W>ES = CONT95TAL M>KETS RA!R ?AN = LOCAL CONSUMPTION ,9DE$1 ! DISCOV]Y ( NEW W>ES ABROAD S]V$ TO WID5 ! M>KET AT HOME &1 ) ! COLONIZATION ( ,AM]ICA1 PROVID$ A %>P /IMULUS TO COMM]CIAL & 9DU/RIAL DEVELOPM5T4 

,TO =M A REASONABLY CLE> IDEA ( H[ ! B\RGEOIS CITY EM]G$1 WE MU/ PAUSE1 H]E1 TO CLEAT ) ! DIALECTIC ( ! COMMODITY RELATION%IP & ! MODES ( LABOR IT YIELDS -- A DIALECTIC TO :I* ,M>X'S WORK =MS AN 9DISP5SABLE GUIDE4 ,TO SAY ?AT CAPITALISM REPRES5TS ! MO/ ADVANC$ ,=M ( COMMODITY PRODUCTION IS N[ A TRUISM1 BUT ! S5SE 9 :I* ?IS /ATEM5T IS TRUE REQUIRES SOME COMM5T4 ,! AB/RACT TREATM5T ?AT ,M>S GIVES TO ! DIALECTIC ( ! COMMODITY RELATION%IP -- ! SUCCESSIVE DEVELOPM5T ( ITS POT5TIALITIES FROM ! ACCID5TAL TO ! EXP&$ & F9ALLY TO MONEY =MS -- T5DS TO CONCEAL A LIV+ HI/ORICAL PROCESS4 ,AS ,M>X DEMON/RATES1 ! 9N] LOGIC :I* YIELDS !SE-=MS IS L>GELY QUANTITATIVE2 GIV5 ! F]TILE GR\ND ,= EXP&+ EX*ANGE1 ALMO/ EV]Y ASPECT ( ! PRODUCTIVE PROCESS1 9CLUD+ LABOR P[] ITSELF BECOMES A COMMODITY1 AN OBJECT ( EX*ANGE1 HI ! ANCI5T WORLDS ! EXPANSION ( TRADE WAS OB/RUCT$ BY ! WEAL? & P[] ( A /RONG AGR>IAN SOCIETY2 9DE$1 SO COMPELL+ W]E AGR>IAN VALUES ?AT ! M]*ANT'S SOCIAL IDEALS C5T]$ NOT ON CAPITAL ACCUMULATION1 BUT RA!R ON ! [N]%IP ( L&$ PROP]TY4 ,TN ,EUROPE1 ?IS OB/ACLE DID NOT EXI/ TO A SIGNIFICANT DEGREE4 ,TRADE 9CREAS+LY BECAME AN 5D 9 ITSELF &1 BY ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 SO TOO DID CAPITAL ACCUMULATION4 ,FEUDAL SOCIETY LACK$ ! VIABILITY NE$$ TO CONTA9 ! CONT95TAL P]COLATION ( COMMODITY RELATION%IPS4 ,ONCE ! EX*ANGE PROCESS BECAME WIDESPREAD 5\<1 IT SIMPLY 5GULF$ ! OLD] ORD] ( RELATION%IPS4 ,EX*ANGE CREAT$ NEW DIVISIONS 9 ! LABOR PROCESS &1 SIMPLY BY ! PROCESS ( CONT9UAL DIVISION & SUBDIVISION1 DEMOLI%$ ! SELF-CONTA9$ DOME/IC ECONOMY ( ! MANOR4 ,FROM A M>G9AL S\RCE ( GOODS & S]VICES1 ! M>KET MOV$ TO ! C5T] ( ECONOMIC LIFE4 

,NO MAJOR TE*NOLOGICAL 9NOVATIONS W]E NE$$ TO A*IEVE ?IS PR(\ND TRANS=MATION4 ,AL?\< ! CAPITALI/ SY/EM LAT] PRODUC$ ! MO/ ,F>-REA*+ TE*NOLOGICAL ADVANCES KN[N 9 HI/ORY1 ! B\RGEOISIE 9ITIALLY US$ ! TOOLS & MAT]IALS ( ! CRAFTSMAN TO PROMOTE ! NEW MODE ( PRODUCTION ,CAPITAL SIMPLY ALT]$ ! TRADITIONAL LABOR PROCESS BY HIR+ WORKM5 TO PRODUCE = EX*ANGE )\T APPRECIABLY *ANG+ ! 9DU/RIAL PRACTICES ( ! TIME4 ,LABOR-P[] WAS CONV]T$ 9TO A COMMODITY4 ,A,H ! DECISIVE TE*NOLOGICAL ADVANCES A*IEV$ BY ! CAPITALI/ SY/EM !NCE=? C5T]$ >\ND ! ADAPTATION ( NATURAL ,=CES & 5]GY TO ?IS MODE ( LABOR1 ,TE*NOLOGY BECAME AN EXT5SION ( LABOR CONCEIV$ NOT M]ELY AS A HUMAN ACTIVITY1 BUT AS WAGE LABOR1 A RES\RCE = ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION4 ,ECONOMIC ACTIVITY BEGAN TO SUBORD9ATE ! SATISFACTION ( CONCRETE HUMAN NE$S TO ! AB/RACT GOALS ( EX*ANGE & CAPITAL ACCUMULATION4 ,PRODUCTION1 9 EFFECT1 OCCURR$ = ITS [N SAKE4 ,?IS M>K$ A FUNDAM5TAL *ANGE 9 ALL ! VALUES ( PREVI\SLY EXI/+ SOCIETIES1 H[EV] EXPLOITATIVE !IR NATURES4 

,WE MU/ FOCUS MORE %>PLY ON ?IS UNIQUE ECONOMIC TRANS=MATION & ITS SOCIAL CONSEQU5CES4 ,:ATEV] ELSE MAY BE ! PR9CIPAL FUNCTIONS ( ! E>LY CITY1 C]TA9LY 9 AN ADVANC$ URBAN SOCIETY ! AU!NTIC NEXUS ( ! CITY IS ! M>KETPLACE -- ! >5A 9 :I* ! NECESSITIES ( LIFE >E EX*ANG$ & 9 :I* URBAN CONTACT HAS ITS4 WORKADAY C5T]4 ,! NATURE ( ! M>KETPLACE 9 ANY GIV5 P]IOD ( HI/ORY DEP5DS L>GELY ON ! PREVAIL+ MODE ( LABOR4 ,!RE IS NO MY/]Y AB\T ?IS *>ACT]I/ICALLY ,M>XIAN =MULATION4 ,AS WE HAVE ALREADY NOT$1 TIRE M>KETPLACE ( ,T5O*TITLAN WAS PRIMITIVE BY VIRTUE ( ! FACT ?AT ,AZTEC TRADE NEV] DEVELOP$ TO ! LEVEL ( ! MONEY ,=M1 ,CONCRETE LABOR -- SU* AS ! SPECIFIC SKILLS ( ! FOOD CULTIVATOR1 MASON1 WEAV]1 POTT]1 OR SCULPTOR -- MORE OR LESS DET]M9$ ! WAY 9 :I* M>KETABLE GOODS W]E VIEW$ 9 BE M>KETPLACE1 ,AL?\< EA* OBJECT F\ND ITS 0REFLECTION01 DUR+ ! EX*ANGE PROCESS 9 ANO!R EX*ANGEABLE OBJECT1 ! LABOR TIME 9VOLV$ 9 PRODUCTION DID NOT REA* ! DEGREE ( QUANTIFICATION1 AB/RACTION1 & G5]ALIZATION REQUIR$ = ! DEVELOPM5T ( MONEY1 ,EX*ANGE WAS GUID$ PRIM>ILY BY MAT]IAL NE$ & BY ! QUALITY ( ! OBJECTS TO BE EX*ANG$1 ,LABOR1 LIKE ! OBJECT1 RETA9$ ITS QUALITATIVE1 HUMAN1 CONCRETE FEATURES3 IT DID NOT DISSOLVE 9TO A M]E AGGREGATE ( MUSCUL> OR M5TAL 5]GY & LOSE ITS ID5TITY AS AN EXPRESSION ( HUMAN P[]S4 ,?AT ! UTILITY OR USE-VALUE ( AN OBJECT RETA9$ ITS PRIMACY OV] EX*ANGE VALUE IS DEMON/RAT$ CLE>LY 5\< BY ! FACT ?AT MANY USE-VALUES 9 PRIMITIVE SOCIETY W]E 9ALI5ABLE4 ,L& 9 ,9DIAN ,AM]ICA S ,= EXAMPLE1 WAS NEV] A 0SALABLE ITEM02 IT C\LD NOT HAVE BE5 D5ATUR$ 9TO 0REAL E/ATE0 UNTIL ! COM+ ( ! :ITE MAN4 

,) ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! MONEY =M UND] CONDITIONS ( SIMPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION1 LABOR1 TO BE SURE1 DOES REA* A FAIRLY HI< DEGREE ( AB/RACTION1 BUT R>ELY DOES IT L5D ITSELF TO ! DEGREE ( QUANTIFICATION ATTA9$ UND] CAPITALISM4 ,! ALI5ATION ( COMMODITIES /ILL RETA9S KEY HUMAN FEATURES1 ,TRADE REMA9S AN 9DIVIDUAL ACT 9 :I* ! DIRECT PRODUC]S MEET FACE TO FACE 9 ORD] TO EX*ANGE ! PRODUCTS ( !IR [N N LABOR4 ,! MUTUAL SATISFACTION ( NE$S RETA9S ITS PREEM95CE OV] ! M9DLESS ACCUMULATION ( COMMODITIES & CAPITAL ,CONCRETE LABOR PREVAILS1 AS IT W]E1 OV] QUANTIFI$1 G5]ALIZ$1 AB/RACT LABOR1 ,A L>GE >EA ( HUMAN NE$S IS /ILL SATISFI$ \TSIDE ! M>KETPLACE -- ?AT IS1 BY ! DOME/IC ECONOMY -- & EV5 ?OSE :O MAY DEP5D UPON ! M>KET = !IR EXI/5CE >E NOT SO MU* ITS VICTIM AS ITS CREATORS4 ,!Y HAVE 9DIVIDUALLY MA/]$ ! CONDITIONS ( PRODUCTION & !Y EX*ANGE !IR PRODUCTS UND] CONDITIONS TN :I* ! NE$S ( ! COMMUNITY1 ! ID5TITY ( PRODUC]S & CONSUM]S1 & ! NUMB] ( COMMODITIES REQUIR$ BY ! M>KET CAN BE DET]M9$ ) A LAIR DEGREE ( PRECISION4 ,H[EV] MU* SU* COMMUNITIES MAY COMPOTE ) EA* O!R1 !RE IS LITTLE COMPETITION )9 ! COMMUNITY ITSELF1 ,& !RE IS NO PRODUCTION ,= ! SAKE ( PRODUCTION4 ,! VALUE ( A COMMODITY IS DET]M9$ PRIM>ILY BY ! WORKMAN%IP & TAL5T 9VOLV$ 9 ITS PRODUCTION & BY ,FACTORS SU* AS ITS DURABILITY & QUALITY -- 9 %ORT1 BY CONCRETE LABOR1 H5CE ! EXTRAORD9>Y BEAUTY ( ! SIMPLE/ OBJECTS PRODUC$ BY MANY NONCAPITALI/ COMMUNITIES4 

,AL?\< ALL TRADE IS ALI5ATION1 9 ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE IT WAS ALSO RELATION4 ,9ASMU* AS ?IS WAS AN EXPLICIT FACT ( DAILY LIFE [+ TO ! PREVAIL+ MODE ( LABOR1 ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE CREAT$ REM>KABLE =MS ( ASSOCIATION NOT ONLY 9 CIVIC LIFE BUT 9 ! ECONOMY ITSELF4 ,LEWIS ,MUM=D REM>KS ?AT  
  

! WORK%OP WAS A FAMILY1 LIKEWISE ! M]*ANT'S C\NT+ H\SE4 ,! MEMB]S ATE TOGE!R AT ! SAME TABLE1 WORK$ 9 ! SAME ROOMS1 SLEPT 9 ! SAME DORMITORY1 JO9$ ,LN FAMILY PRAY]S1 P>TICIPAT$ 9 COMMON AMUSEM5TS4.<#a#f.>  
  

,! 9TIMACY BETWE5 LABOR & LIFE WAS REVEAL$ BY ! FACT ?AT 0,! FAMILY PATT]N DOM9AT$ 9DU/RY40 ,URBAN LIRE WAS 9T5SELY1 EV5 >TI/ICALLY COLLECTIVE4 ,! M>KETPLACE WAS A C5T] NOT ONLY = TRADE BUT ALSO =  
  

PUBLIC C]EMONY = IF IS ON ! POR* ( ! CA!DRAL ?AT ! MIRACLE PLAYS W]E 5ACT$2 IT WAS )9 ! SQU>E ?AT ! GUILDS SET UP !IR /AGES = ! P]=MANCE ( !IR MY/]Y PLAYS2 IT WAS H]E ?AT GREAT T\RNEYS W\LD BE HELD4 ,IT WAS NOT M]ELY ACROPOLIS BUT AMPHI!AT]4.<#a#g.>  
  

,YET EV5 !SE REM>KS DO NOT RECAPTURE = US ! DEMOCRATIC AMBIANCE ( MANY M$IEVAL COMMUNES1 AT ! HI< PO9T ( !IR DEVELOPM5T4 ,NE>LY ALL COMMUNES W]E POLIC$ BY !IR [N CITIZ5S1 :O ROTAT$ TO =M ! NI<T WAT* & FILL$ ! RANKS ( ! CITY MILITIA4 ,COMMONLY1 MAYORS & T[N C\NCILS W]E ELECT$ BY ! GUILDS OR BY PUBLIC-ASSEMBLIES ( ! POPULACE REM9ISC5T ( ! ,A!NIAN ,ECCLESIA4 ,9DE$1 ! ! POLIS1 !SE T[NS ,=M$ A COMPLETE & R\ND$ TOTALITY4 ,AS ,MUM=D NOTES3  
  

,PRAY]1 MASS1 PAGEANT1 LIFE-C]EMONY1 BAPTISM1 M>RIAGE1 ,DR FUN]AL -- ! CITY ITSELF WAS /AGE = !SE SEP>ATE SC5ES ( ! DRAMA1 & ! CITIZ5 HIMSELF WAS ! ACTOR4 .<#a#h.>  
  

,P]HAPS NO ACC\NT ( ! COMMUNE MORE DRAMATICALLY REVEALS ! SOLID>ITY :I* WELD$ ?IS URBAN WAY ( LIFE TOGE!R ?AN ,ALBRE*T ,DUR]'S DESCRIPTION ( A RELIGIONS C]EMONY HELD 9 ,ANTW]P AS LATE AS ! SIXTE5? C5TURY3  
  

,I SAW ! ,PROCESSION PASS ALONG ! /REET1 ! PEOPLE BE+ >RANG$ 9 R[S1 EA* MAN SOME DI/ANCE FROM HIS NEI<BOR1 BUT ! R[S CLOSE BEH9D ! O!R4 ,!RE W]E ! ,GOLDSMI?S1 ! ,PA9T]S1 ! ,MASONS1 ! ,BROD]]S1 ! ,SCULPTORS1 ! ,JO9]S1 ! ,C>P5T]S1 ! ,SAILORS1 ! ,FI%]M51 ! ,BUT*]S1 ! ,LEA!R]S1 ! ,CLO?MAK]S1 ! ,BAK]S1 ! ,TAILORS1 ! ,CORDWA9]S -- 9DE$1 WORKM5 ( ALL K9DS &3 MANY CRAFTSM5 & DEAL]S :O WORK = !IR LIVELIHOOD4444,A V]Y L>GO COMPANY ( WID[S ALSO TOOK P>T 9 ! PROCESSION4 ,!Y SUPPORT !MSELVES ) !IR [N H&S & OBS]VE A SPECIAL RULE ,!Y W]E AIL DRESS$ FROM HEAD TO FOOT 9 :ITE L95 G>M5TS MADE EXPRESSLY = ! OCCASION4444.<#a#i.>  
  

,TO :I* ,MYM=D ADDS3  
  

,NOTE ! VA/ NUMB] ( PEOPLE >RAY$ 9 ?IS PROCESSION4 ,AS 9 ! *UR* ITSELF1 ! SPECTATORS W]E ALSO ! COMMUNICANTS & P>TICIPANTS3 !Y 5GAG$ 9 ! SPECTACLE1 WAT*+ IT FROM )941 NOT FROM )\T3 OR RA!R1 FEEL+ II FROM )91 ACT+ 9 UNISON1 NOT DISMEMB]$ BE+S1 R$UC$ TO A S+LE SPECIALIZ$ ROLE4.<#b.>  
  

,DUR+ ! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 ! ,P>ISIANS REPLAC$ ! FEUDAL NOM5CLATURE BY ! S+LE WORD CITOY5 TO EXPRESS !IR NEWLY DISCOV]$ NATIONAL SOLID>ITY1 ,LAT] EV5TS W]E TO REVEAL ?AT B5EA? ! APP>5T UNITY ( ! NATION LAY PR(\NDLY DIV]G5T & ANTAGONI/IC SOCIAL 9T]E/S4 ,! M$IEVAL COMMUNE = ITS P>T US$ ! MORE ORGANIC T]M 0BRO!R40 0,UNUS SUBV5IET ALT]I TAMQUAM FRATRI SUO -- 'LET EA* HOLD ! O!R LIKE A BRO!R' -- SAYS A ,FLEMI% *>T] ( ! TWELF? C5TURY1 & !SE WORDS W]E ACTUALLY A REALITY10 OBS]VES ,H5RI ,PIR5NE1  
  

,AS E>LY AS ! TWELF? C5TURY ! M]*ANTS W]E EXP5D+ A GOOD P>T ( !IR PR(ITS FUR ! B5EFIT ( !IR FELL[ CITIZ5S -- BUILD+ *UR*ES1 F\ND+ HOSPITALS1 BUY+ (F ! M>KET-TOLLS4 ,! LOVE ( GA9 WAS ALLI$1 9 !M1 ) LOCAL PATRIOTISM4 ,EV]Y MAN WAS PR\D ( HIS CITY & SPONTANE\SLY DEVOT$ HIMSELF TO ITS PROSP]ITY1 ,?IS WAS BECAUSE1 9 REALITY1 EA* 9DIVIDUAL LIFE DEP5D$ DIRECTLY UPON ! COLLECTIVE LIFE ( ! MUNICIPAL ASSOCIATION4 ,! COMMUNE ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES HAD-1 9 FACT1 ALL ! ESS5TIAL ATTRIBUTES :I* ! ,/ATE EX]CISES TODAY4 ,IT GU>ANTE$ TO AIL ITS MEMB]S ! SECURITY ( HIS P]SON & ( HIS *ATTELS1 ,\TSIDE ( IT HE WAS 9 @& HO/ILE WORLD1 SURR\ND$ BY P]ILS & EXPOS$ TO EV]Y RISK4 ,9 IT ALONE DID HE HA ,YE A %ELT]1 & = IT HE FELT A GRATITUDE :I* BORD]$ ON LOVE1 ,HE WAS READY TO DEVOTE HIMSELF TO ITS DEF5SE1 JU/ AS HE WAS ALWAYS READY TO B$ECK IT & MAKE IT MORE BEAUTIFUL ?AN ITS NEI<BORS4 ,?OSE MAGNIFIC5T CA!DRALS :I* ! ?IRTE5? ,C5TURY SAW ]ECT$ W\LD NOT HAVE BE5 CONCEIVABLE )\T ! JOY\S ALACRITY ) :I* ! BUR<]S CONTRIBUT$1 BY GIFTS1 TO !IR CON/RUCTION4 ,!Y W]E NOT ONLY H\SES ( ,GOD2 !Y ALSO GLORIFI$ ! CITY OR :I* !Y W]E ! GREATE/ ORNAM5T & :I* !IR MAJE/IC T[]S ADV]TIS$ AF>4 ,!Y W]E = ! CITIES ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES :AT TEMPLES W]E = ?OSE ( ANTIQUITY4.<#b#a.>  
  

,YET1 EV5 !SE G5]\S L9ES BY ,PIR5NE FAIL TO DO ADEQUATE JU/ICE TO ! ATTITUDE ( ! M$IEVAL URBAN DWELL] T[>D HIS CITY4 ,! COMMUNE PROVID$ NOT ONLY SECURITY TO ITS POPULACE BUT ALSO A DEEP S5SE ( COMMUNITY4 ,IT (F]$ NOT ONLY PROTECTION BUT ! COM=T ( SOCIALITY & A HUMAN SCALE ! BUR<] C\LD COMPREH5D & 9 :I* HE C\LD F9D A UNIQUELY 9DIVIDUAL SPACE ,! COMMUNE WAS HOME -- NOT M]ELY AN 5VIRONM5T ?AT SURR\ND$ ! HOME4 ,! CONCRETE NATURE ( ! LABOR PROCESS1 ! DIRECTNESS1 9DE$1 FAMILI> *>ACT]1 ( NE>LY ALL SOCIAL RELATIONS1 & ! HUMAN SCALE ( CIVIC LIFE :I* ,FO/]$ A HI< DEGREE ( P]SONAL P>TICIPATION 9 URBAN AFFAIRS -- ALL1 COMB9$ TO RETA9 A NATURAL CORE TO SOCIAL LIFE :I* ! COSMOPOLISES ( ! ANCI5T WORLD HAD DISSOLV$ ) ! PASS+ ( ! POLIS4 ,ONE MI<T SAY ?AT ! NATURAL CORE ( ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE WAS NOT UNLIKE ! SEXUAL DIVISION ( LABOR :I* UND]P9N$ ! ECONOMIC LIFE ( TRIBAL SOCIETY4 ,M>X1 ) CONSID]ABLE P]CEPTION1 NOTES ?AT  
  

,CA/ES & GUILDS >ISE FROM ! ACTION ( ! SAME NATURAL LAWS ?AT REGULATE ! DIFF]5TIATION ( PLANTS1 & ANIMALS 9TO SPECIES & V>IETIES1 EXCEPT ?AT1 :5 A C]TA9 DEGREE ( DEVELOPM5T HAS BE5 REA*$1 ! H]$ITY ( CA/ES & EXCLUSIV5ESS ( GUILDS >E ORDA9$ AS A LAW ( ,SOCIETY4 .<#b#b.>  
  

,JU/ AS ! GUILDS SPECIATE ! COMMUNE1 SO COMMUNE & MANOR C\LD BE SAID TO SPECIATE FEUDAL SOCIETY4 ,AS TO ! COMMUNE1 A NATURAL CIVIC NUCLEUS MUTES ! EXT]NALIZ+ & DIS9TEGRATIVE =CES LAT5T 9 TRADE4 ,EV5 ! PREVAIL+ TE*NOLOGY RETA9S ?IS NATURAL OR ORGANIC *>ACT]S TOOTS >E ADAPT$ TO ! PR(ICI5CY ( ! CRAFTSMAN1 TO HIS SKILLS1 TAL5TS1 & PHYSIOLOGY4 ,! NOTION ?AT A MAN IS M]ELY AN ADJUNCT ( AN IMP]SONAL MA*9E ?AT DET]M9ES ! TEMPO & NATURE ( HIS WORK W\LD HAVE SURELY HORRIFI$ MEMB]S ( A M$IEVAL GUILD4 

,CONTRA/ ?IS M5TALITY ) ?AT ( B\RGEOIS SOCIETY -- A SOCIETY ?AT DISSOLVES ! NATURAL BASIS ( CIVIC LIFE BY TRANSMUT+ ! FRAT]NAL RELATIONS ( ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE 9TO H>% COMMODITY RELATIONS -- & WE >E P]HAPS BETT] EQUIPP$ TO JUDGE ! 5ORM\S PSY*IC AS WELL AS ECONOMIC *ANGES ?AT W]E TO HE 9TRODUC$ BY ! CAPITALI/ MODE ( PRODUCTION4 ,! COMMODITY1 LIKE A MY/]I\S EXT]NAL =CE1 N[ SEEMS TO RISE ABOVE M5 & DET]M9E !IR DE/9Y ACCORD+ TO SUPRAHUMAN AUTONOM\S LAWS4 ,) ! 9CREAS+LY PROBLEMATIC AB/RACTION ( LABOR FROM ITS CONCRETE =MS1 ALL RELATIONS1 OBJECTS1 & RESPONSIBILITIES ACQUIRE A MONET>Y EQUIVAL5T4 ,NATURAL LIFE %R9KS FROM ! COMMUNITY TO ! 9DIVIDUAL2 ! CITY BECOMES A M]E AGGREGATE ( ISOLAT$ HUMAN MONADS -- A GRAY FEATURELESS MASS1 ! RAW MAT]IALS ( BUREAUCRATIC MOBILIZATION & MANIPULATION4 ,! GUILD1 :I* ONCE =M$ ! SPONTANE\S >5A ( AU!NTIC HUMAN FRAT]NITY1 F9DS ITS C>ICATURE 9 ! 9DU/RIAL & COMM]CIAL CORPORATION1 ) ITS SMOO?LY 5G9E]$ AMBIANCE ( 0TOGE!RNESS0 & 0TEAM PLAY40 ,! PROCESSION DESCRIB$ BY ,DUR] BECOMES ! P>ADE2 ! SPIRITUAL C]EMONY1 ! REIFI$ SPECTACLE4 ,) ! EM]G5CE ( A HI<LY MONETIZ$ ECONOMY1 HUMAN BE+S BECOME 9T]*ANGEABLE ) ! V]Y W>ES ?AT >E ! RESULT ( !IR HUMAN P[]S4 ,!Y TOO BECOME COMMODITIES1 ! PASSIVE OBJECTS -- :E!R AS WORK]S OR SPECTATORS -- ( ECONOMIC LAWS4 

,IF ! M]E EXT5SION ( COMMODITY RELATIONS CAN BE SAID TO HAVE TRANS=M$ ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE 9TO ! B\RGEOIS CITY1 ! FACTORY MAY BE S+L$ \T AS ! AG5T :I* GIVES ?IS CITY ITS /RUCTURAL =M & ITS SOCIAL PURPOSE4 ,BY ! WORD 0FACTORY0 ,I MEAN MORE ?AN AN 9DU/RIAL 5T]PRISE3 ! FACTORY IS ! LOCUS ( MOBILIZ$ AB/RACT LABOR1 ( LABOR P[] AS A COMMODITY1 PLAC$ 9 ! S]VICE ( COMM]CE AS WELL AS PRODUCTION4 ,ACCORD+LY1 ! T]M APPLIES AS MU* TO AN (FICE BUILD+ & A SUP]M>KET AS TO A MILL & A PLANT4 ,ONCE ! FACTORY BECOMES AN CLEM5T ( URBAN LIFE1 IT TAKES OV] ! CITY ALMO/ COMPLETELY4 ,H]E1 A V]Y IMPORTANT HI/ORIC CONTRA/ MU/ BE EMPHASIZ$4 ,9 ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE1 ! WORK%OP WAS A HOMO3 IT WAS ! LOCUS NOT ONLY ( HI<LY 9DIVIDUAT$ TE*NICAL ACTIVITIES1 BUT ALSO 7AS ,MUM=D HAS ALREADY /RESS$7 ( COMPLEX P]SONAL & CULTURAL RESPONSIBILITIES4 ,) ! EM]G5CE ( ! FACTORY1 HOME & WORK PLACE >E SEP>AT$4 ,! FACTORY IS4 A PLACE TO :I* ! WORK] GOES 9 ORD] TO EXP5D HIS HUMAN P[]S -- P[]S ?AT >E /EADILY DEGRAD$ TO ! DEGREE ?AT !Y >E AB/RACT$ & QUANTIFI$ AS M]E 0WORK LIME0 -- 9 ! S]VICE ( 9CREAS+LY ANONYM\S [N]S & ADM9I/RATORS1 ,! FACTORY HAS NO P]SONAL OR CULTURAL FUNCTIONS2 IT IS M]ELY ! COLLECT+ & MOBILIZ+ C5T] = ALI5AT$ DEP]SONALIZ$ LABOR4 

,IF !SE SIGNIFICANT DIFF]5CES >E VIEW$ FROM A BROAD] P]SPECTIVE1 !Y REVEAL CRUCIAL DIFF]5CES BETWE5 ! V]Y NATURE ( ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE & ! B\RGEOIS CITY4 ,! GUILD1 :I* UNITES HOMES ?AT >E ALSO WORK%OPS1 IMP>TS A DI/9CTLY DOME/IC *>ACT] TO ! COMMUNE3 IT TURNS ! CITY 9TO A HOME1 9TO AN AU!NTIC HUMAN COMMUNITY ?AT GRADUATES P]SONAL AFFILIATIONS & RESPONSIBILITIES TO A SOCIAL LEVEL ,CONV]SELY1 ! FACTORY TRANS=MS ! CITY 9TO A COMM]CIAL & 9DU/RIAL 5T]PRISE4 ,IT NEGATES ! ROLE ( ! CITY AS A P]SONAL & CULTURAL 5TITY1 & EXAGG]ATES ITS ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS TO ! PO9T ( URBAN PA?OLOGY4 ,! M$IEVAL COMMUNE WAS PRIM>ILY A PLACE 9 :I* TO LIVE2 ! B\RGEOIS CITY IS PRIM>ILY A PLACE 9 :I* TO WORK4 ,! GUILDS MADE ! CITY 9TO A C5T] ( HUMAN SOLID>ITY1 RELIGI\S COMMUNION1 & CULTURAL VITALITY2 AL?\< WORK WAS NECESS>Y TO A*IEVE !SE GOALS1 IT BECAME ! M$IUM = >TI/RY & ! EXPRESSION ( CREATIVE HUMAN P[]S1 NOT AN 5D 9 ITSELF4 ,! FACTORY DEGRADES ! CITY TO A C5T] ( PRODUCTION = ! SAKE ( PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION = ! SAKE ( CONSUMPTION4 ,?AT PEOPLE MU/ LIVE0 9 A CITY 9 ORD] TO WORK IS OBVI\SLY NECESS>Y TO ! EXI/5CE ( ! FACTORY1 BUT ! FACT ?AT !Y OCCUPY DWELL+S IS SECOND>Y TO ! FACT ?AT !Y WORK 9 (FICE BUILD+S1 SUP]M>KETS1 PLANTS1 & MILLS4 

,WE WILL EXAM9E ! UNIQUE *>ACT]I/ICS ( ! B\RGEOIS CITY 9 A LAT] SECTION1 BUT AT ?IS PO9T1 WE MU/ ASK H[ T9E M$IEVAL COMMUNE WAS TRANS=M$ 9TO ! B\RGEOIS CITY1 ,! FACTORY' REQUIRES ! SEP>ATION ( ! SMALL 9DEP5D5T PRODUC] ,FROM ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION3 ! ALI5ATION ( ! PRODUC]'S LABOR & ! R$UCTION ( HIS LABOR P[] TO A COMMODITY4 ,G5]ALLY AS ! M>KET BEG9S TO EXP& BEYOND ! 5VIRONS ( ! COMMUNE1 CONSID]ABLE DIFF]5CES 9 WEAL? EM]GE BETWE5 MEMB]S ( ! SAME GUILD & BETWE5 9DIVIDUAL MEMB]S ( ! SAME COMMUNITY4 ,9 TIME1 WEAL?Y MA/] CRAFTSM51 TRAD]S 7:O >E (T5 ORGANIZ$ 9TO GUILDS ( !IR [N71 & EV5TUALLY ! GUILDS !MSELVES T5D TO BECOME AN EXCLUSIVE /RATUM )9 ! COMMUNITY ) 9T]E/S ( !IR [N ?AT >E SET AP>T FROM & (T5 OPPOS$ TO ?OSE ( ! COMMUNITY AS A :OLE4 ,SU* GUILDS BEG9 TO EXCLUDE APPR5TICES & J\RNEYM5 FROM BECOM+ MA/]S1 TURN+ !M 9TO AU!NTIC PROLET>IANS :O MU/ WORK = O!RS 91 ORD] TO SURVIVE1 ,9 SOME >EAS ( ,EUROPE1 ?IS PROCESS ( PROLET>IANIZATION OCCURR$ SO SL[LY ?AT IT DID NOT VISIBLY UPSET ! /ABILITY ( ! COMMUNE4 ,! ,SWISS CITIES >E A CASE 9 PO9T4 ,!RE1 ! TRANS=MATION FROM ! GUILD WORK%OP TO ! FACTORY WAS SO ORGANIC ?AT ,SWISS COMMUNITIES1 NE>LY TO ! PRES5T DAY1 C\LD BE CIT$ AS MODELS ( CIVIC BALANCE1 /ABILITY1 & ! 9TEGRATION ( CRAFT SKILLS ) MASS PRODUCTION4 

,BUT 9 O!R >EAS1 ! EXPANSION ( ! M>KET FROM A LOCAL ,OR REGIONAL TO AN 9T]NATIONAL ,/ALE OCCURR$ AT A TEMPO ?AT GRAVELY DISRUPT$ ! H>MONY ( ! COMMUNE4 ,AS E>LY AS ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY1 ,FL&]S PROVIDES US ) A NOT UNCOMMON EXAMPLE ( CITIES1 BAS$ L>GELY ON 9T]NATIONAL TRADE1 9 :I* ! GUILDS DEVELOP$ 9TO AN OPPRESSIVE HI]>*ICAL /RATUM ?AT GROSSLY EXPLOIT$ A L>GE MASS ( DISPOSSESS$ >TISANS4 ,NOR DID ?IS *ANGE OCCUR ) TRANQUILITY4 9 #a#b#h1 NE>LY ALL ! ,FLEMI% COMMUNES EXPLOD$ 9TO A BLOODY CLASS W> BETWE5 PROLET>IANIZ$ >TISANS & WEAL?Y MA/]S :O W]E ORGANIZ$ 9TO EXCLUSIVE GUILD MONOPOLIES4 ,?IS CONFLICT WAS NOT DECISIVELY RESOLV$4 ,BE=E EI!R SIDE C\LD DEF9ITIVELY VANQUI% ! O!R1 ! T]RITORIAL LORDS %REWDLY US$ ! OCCASION TO 9T]V5E & HOLD BO? CLASSES 9 *ECK4 ,9DE$1 IT MAY WELT BE ?AT1 [+ P>TLY TO ! FACT ?AT ?IS /RUGGLE WAS NEV] F\<T \T TO ITS LOGICAL CONCLUSION & P>TLY TO ! LAT] SUBORD9ATION ( ! ,L[L&S TO ,5GLI% COMM]CIAL HEGEMONY1 CIVIC LIFE 9 ,HOLL& & ,FL&]S RETA9$ ! M$IEVAL *>M ?AT HAS TURN$ !IR CITIES 9TO ! MUSEUM PIECES ( ! MOD]N WORLD4 

,WE MU/ TURN TO ,5GL& TO F9D ! >EA 9 :I* ! TRANS=MATION ( SMALL PRODUC]S 9TO PROLET>IANS RAN ITS FULL1 P]HAPS MO/ SAVAGE1 C\RSE4 ,&1 IRONICALLY1 ?IS TRANS=MATION FIR/ OCCURR$ 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE & ONLY LAT] 9 ! CITIES4 ,9 ! ,5GLI% C\NTRYSIDE1 ! B\RGEOIS DEVELOPM5T FOLL[$ TWO DI/9CT AL?\< COMPLEM5T>Y PA?S2 MORE & MORE ACREAGE WAS REMOV$ FROM FOOD CULTIVATION & VILLAGE PA/URAGE & DEVOT$ TO RAIS+ %EEP = ! WOOL M>KET ( ,FL&]S2 &1 CAPITALI/ 5TREPR5EURS1 BLOCK$ BY GUILDS & M]*ANT MONOPOLIES 9 ! CITIES1 TURN$ TO ! VILLAGES TO AVAIL !MSELVES ( *EAP UNREGULAT$ LABOR = ! DOME/IC PRODUCTION ( TEXTILE PRODUCTS4 ,9 BO? CASES1 ?IS DEVELOPM5T WAS M>K$ BY ! /EADY DEGRADATION & EV5TUALLY DISPOSSESSION ( ! ,5GLI% PEASANTRY & YEOMANRY1 A DEVELOPM5T 9 :I* ! L&$ >I/OCRACY & TEXTILE M]*ANTS DRAMATICALLY TRANS=M$ ! SOCIAL NATURE ( ! C\NTRYSIDE & F9ALLY ! CITIES 

,BY ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 ! ,5GLI% >I/OCRACY -- ITS APPETITE = RI*ES :ETT$ BY RIS+ WORLD PRICES ( WOOL -- BEGAN RU?LESSLY TO EXPROPRIATE & 5CLOSE ! TRADITIONAL COMMON PA/URE L&S ( ! VILLAGES1 EV5 ! PRIVATE HOLD+S ( T5ANTS :OSE PLOTS HAD BE5 TILL$ = G5]ATIONS4 ,!SE L&S W]E SIMPLY TURN$ 9TO %EEP RUNS & !IR OCCUPANTS DISPOSSESS$4 ,! /ORY IS TOLD 9 A SCA?+ MANN] BY ,?OMAS ,MORE 9 ! OP5+ PAGES ( ,UTOPIA4 ,MORE'S PR9CIPAL *>ACT]2 ,RAPHAEL ,HY?LODAY1 DECL>ES3  
  

,Y\R %EEP :I* >E NORMALLY SO G5TLE & NE$ SO LITTLE FOOD 444 HAVE BEGUN TO BE SO RAV5\S & WILD ?AT !Y EV5 EAT UP M54 ,!Y DEVA/ATE & DE/ROY FIELDS1 H\SES & T[NS4 ,= 9 :ATEV] P>TS ( ! K+DOM L9E & !RE=E MORE PRECI\S WOOL IS PRODUC$1 !RE ! NOBLES & G5TLEM51 & ALSO SOME HOLY ABBOTS1 >E NOT CONT5T ) ! R5TS & ANNUAL PR(ITS ?AT !IR PR$ECESSORS US$ TO GET FROM !IR F>MS4 ,!Y >E NOT SATISFI$ TO LIVE 9 LUXURY & IDL5ESS & BE ( NO USE TO ! /ATE2 !Y EV5 H>M IT4 !Y LEAVE NO?+ = >ABLE L&1 5CLOSE EV]Y?+ = PA/URE1 DE/ROY H\SES1 TE> D[N T[NS & LEAVE ONLY ! *UR* TO H\SE ! %EEP2 & AS IF ! =E/S & P>KS LO/ YON TOO LITTLE GR\ND1 ?OSE GOOD M5 TURN ALL H\SES & CULTIVAT$ L& 9TO A DES]T4.<#b#c.>  
  

,AN 9CREAS+LY CAPITALI/ =M ( AGRICULTURE1 9 EFFECT1 HAD BECOME ! PACESETT] 9 ,5GL& ,= CAPITALI/ 9DU/RY4 

,EV5 MORE SIGNIFICANT = ! LONG RUN DEVELOPM5T ( ,5GLI% CAPITALISM1 0FREE0 CAPITAL1 SEEK+ ESCAPE FROM ! FETT]S ( GUILD RE/RICTIONS & M]*ANT MONOPOLIES 9 ! T[NS1 BEGAN TO COLONIZE ! C\NTRYSIDE ALONG 9DU/RIAL L9ES4 ,AGA91 ONE F9DS 9 ?IS DEVELOPM5T NO REM>KABLY NEW TE*NOLOGICAL ADVANCES2 RA!R1 AN 5TREPOT SORT ( M]*ANT-CAPITALI/1 TRAVEL+ FROM COTTAGE TO COTTAGE1 PROVIDES VILLAGE SP9N]S ) WOOL1 WEAV]S & KNITT]S ) Y>N1 & DY]S ) DO?4 ,MAT]IALS &1 :]E NECESS>Y1 MA*9ES W]E =M$ \T & WORK$ = ?O B>E/ SUBSI/5CE WAGES 9/EAD ( ! HI<] GUILD-REGULAT$ T[N RATES4 ,) ?IS PUTT+-\T SY/EM1 ! CAPITALI/ C\LD EASILY UND]CUT ! URBAN /&>D ( LIV+ & DELIV] HIS W>ES AT SU* HI<LY R$UC$ PRICES ?AT URBAN MA/]S & J\RNEYM5 W]E SIMPLY WIP$ \T BY ! ?\S&S4 ,! 5TIRE FAMILY ( ! COTTAG]1 9CLUD+ HIS 9FANT *ILDR51 W]E PUT TO WORK TO MEET ! RAV5\S DEM&S ( ! NEW ECONOMY4 ,! FACTORY SY/EM WAS BORN :5 ! CAPITALI/1 F9D+ IT MORE PR(ITABLE TO MOBILIZE RURAL LABOR & 9T5SIFY ITS OP]ATIONS UND] CLOSE SUP]VISION1 H\S$ ,IT 9 A S+LE /RUCTURE4 ,5GLI% CAPITALI/ MANUFACTURE EM]G$ PRIM>ILY 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE RA!R ?AN ! CITIES &1 9 CONTRA/ TO ,FL&]S1 ESS5TIALLY DEMOLI%$ ! GUILD SY/EM ,FROM )\T RA!R ?AN FROM )94 

,) ! SPREAD ( CAPITALI/ MANUFACTURE1 ALL ?AT REMA9$ ( ! TRADITIONAL GUILD /RUCTURE COLLAPS$4 ,& ) ! PASS+ ( ! GUILDS W5T ! LA/ 9TEGRAT+ =CES ( ! M$IEVAL COMMUNES & ,R5AISSANCE T[NS4 ,!REAFT]1 A NEW BASIS = CITY LIFE DEVELOP$ 9 ! URBAN C5T]S ( ! 9DU/RIALIZ$ WE/]N WORLD1 *ANG+ QUALITATIVELY ALL PREEXI/+ SOCIAL & ECONOMIC RELATIONS )9 ! T[NS & BETWE5 T[N & C\NTRY4 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #b1 #bba 3 ,*APT] #b -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #a#f1 #bbb 3 ,*APT] #b -- ,UPDAT$4 

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