,*APT] #ab 
,TRU? & ,FALSEHOOD 

#aiabaiab 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,B]TR& ,RUSSELL 

,TEXT 3 

,*,A,P,T,] ,X,I,I 

,T,R,U,? ,& ,F,A,L,S,E,H,O,O,D 

,\,R KN[L$GE ( TRU?S1 UNLIKE \R KN[L$GE ( ?+S1 HAS 
AN OPPOSITE1 NAMELY ]ROR4 ,SO F> AS ?+S >E CONC]N$1  
WE MAY KN[ !M OR NOT KN[ !M1 BUT !RE IS NO POSITIVE /ATE ( 
M9D :I* CAN BE DESCRIB$ AS ]RONE\S KN[L$GE ( ?+S1 SO 
LONG1 AT ANY RATE1 AS WE CONF9E \RSELVES TO KN[L$GE BY 
ACQUA9TANCE4 ,:ATEV] WE >E ACQUA9T$ ) MU/ BE SOME?+2 WE 
MAY DRAW WRONG 9F]5CES FROM \R ACQUA9TANCE1 BUT ! ACQUA9TANCE 
ITSELF CANNOT BE DECEPTIVE4 ,?US !RE IS NO DUALISM AS REG>DS 
ACQUA9TANCE4 ,BUT AS REG>DS KN[L$GE ( TRU?S1 !RE IS A DUALISM4 
,WE MAY BELIEVE :AT IS FALSE AS WELL AS :AT IS TRUE4 ,WE KN[ ?AT ON 
V]Y MANY SUBJECTS DIFF]5T PEOPLE HOLD DIFF]5T & 9COMPATIBLE 
OP9IONS3 H5CE SOME BELIEFS MU/ BE ]RONE\S4 ,S9CE ]RONE\S 
BELIEFS >E (T5 HELD JU/ AS /RONGLY AS TRUE BELIEFS1 IT BECOMES A 
DIFFICULT QUE/ION H[ !Y >E TO BE DI/+UI%$ FROM TRUE 
BELIEFS4 ,H[ >E WE TO KN[1 9 A GIV5 CASE1 ?AT \R BELIEF IS NOT 
]RONE\S8 ,?IS IS A QUE/ION ( ! V]Y GREATE/ DIFFICULTY1 TO 
:I* NO COMPLETELY SATISFACTORY ANSW] IS POSSIBLE4 ,!RE IS1  
H[EV]1 A PRELIM9>Y QUE/ION :I* IS RA!R LESS DIFFICULT1 & 
?AT IS3 ,:AT DO WE MEAN BY TRU? & FALSEHOOD8 ,IT IS ?IS 
PRELIM9>Y QUE/ION :I* IS TO BE CONSID]$ 9 ?IS *APT]4 

,9 ?IS *APT] WE >E NOT ASK+ H[ WE CAN KN[ :E!R A 
BELIEF IS TRUE OR FALSE3 WE >E ASK+ :AT IS MEANT BY ! QUE/ION 
:E!R A BELIEF IS TRUE OR FALSE4 ,IT IS TO BE HOP$ ?AT A CLE> 
ANSW] TO ?IS QUE/ION MAY HELP US TO OBTA9 AN ANSW] TO ! 
QUE/ION :AT BELIEFS >E TRUE1 BUT = ! PRES5T WE ASK ONLY ',:AT 
IS TRU?8' & ',:AT IS FALSEHOOD8' NOT ',:AT BELIEFS >E TRUE8' & 
',:AT BELIEFS >E FALSE8' ,IT IS V]Y IMPORTANT TO KEEP !SE 
DIFF]5T QUE/IONS 5TIRELY SEP>ATE1 S9CE ANY CONFUSION BETWE5 
!M IS SURE TO PRODUCE AN ANSW] :I* IS NOT REALLY APPLICABLE TO 
EI!R4 

,!RE >E ?REE PO9TS TO OBS]VE 9 ! ATTEMPT TO DISCOV] 
! NATURE ( TRU?1 ?REE REQUISITES :I* ANY !ORY MU/ FULFILL4 

7#a7 ,\R !ORY ( TRU? MU/ BE SU* AS TO ADMIT ( ITS 
OPPOSITE1 FALSEHOOD4 ,A GOOD MANY PHILOSOPH]S HAVE FAIL$ ADEQUATELY 
TO SATISFY ?IS CONDITION3 !Y HAVE CON/RUCT$ !ORIES ACCORD+ 
TO :I* ALL \R ?9K+ \<T TO HAVE BE5 TRUE1 & HAVE !N HAD 
! GREATE/ DIFFICULTY 9 F9D+ A PLACE = FALSEHOOD4 ,9 ?IS 
RESPECT \R !ORY ( BELIEF MU/ DIFF] FROM \R !ORY ( 
ACQUA9TANCE1 S9CE 9 ! CASE ( ACQUA9TANCE IT WAS NOT NECESS>Y 
TO TAKE ACC\NT ( ANY OPPOSITE4 

7#b7 ,IT SEEMS FAIRLY EVID5T ?AT IF !RE W]E NO BELIEFS 
!RE C\LD BE NO FALSEHOOD1 & NO TRU? EI!R1 9 ! S5SE 9 
:I* TRU? IS CORRELATIVE TO FALSEHOOD4 ,IF WE IMAG9E A WORLD ( 
M]E MATT]1 !RE W\LD BE NO ROOM = FALSEHOOD 9 SU* A WORLD1  
& AL?\< IT W\LD CONTA9 :AT MAY BE CALL$ 'FACTS'1 IT W\LD 
NOT CONTA9 ANY TRU?S1 9 ! S5SE 9 :I* TRU?S >E ?9S ( ! 
SAME K9D AS FALSEHOODS4 ,9 FACT1 TRU? & FALSEHOOD >E PROP]TIES 
( BELIEFS & /ATEM5TS3 H5CE A WORLD ( M]E MATT]1 S9CE IT 
W\LD CONTA9 NO BELIEFS OR /ATEM5TS1 W\LD ALSO CONTA9 NO TRU? 
OR FALSEHOOD4 

7#c7 ,BUT1 AS AGA9/ :AT WE HAVE JU/ SAID1 IT IS TO BE 
OBS]V$ ?AT ! TRU? OR FALSEHOOD ( A BELIEF ALWAYS DEP5DS UPON 
SOME?+ :I* LIES \TSIDE ! BELIEF ITSELF4 ,IF ,I BELIEVE ?AT 
,*>LES ,I DI$ ON ! SCAFFOLD1 ,I BELIEVE TRULY1 NOT BECAUSE ( ANY 
9TR9SIC QUALITY ( MY BELIEF1 :I* C\LD BE DISCOV]$ BY M]ELY 
EXAM9+ ! BELIEF1 BUT BECAUSE ( AN HI/ORICAL EV5T :I* 
HAPP5$ TWO & A HALF C5TURIES AGO4 ,IF ,I BELIEVE ?AT ,*>LES ,I 
DI$ 9 HIS B$1 ,I BELIEVE FALSELY3 NO DEGREE ( VIVIDNESS 9 MY 
BELIEF1 OR ( C>E 9 >RIV+ AT IT1 PREV5TS IT FROM BE+ FALSE1  
AGA9 BECAUSE ( :AT HAPP5$ LONG AGO1 & NOT BECAUSE ( ANY 
9TR9SIC PROP]TY ( MY BELIEF4 ,H5CE1 AL?\< TRU? & FALSEHOOD 
>E PROP]TIES ( BELIEFS1 !Y >E PROP]TIES DEP5D5T UPON ! 
RELATIONS ( ! BELIEFS TO O!R ?+S1 NOT UPON ANY 9T]NAL 
QUALITY ( ! BELIEFS4 

,! ?IRD ( ! ABOVE REQUISITES LEADS US TO ADOPT ! VIEW 
-- :I* HAS ON ! :OLE BE5 COMMONE/ AMONG PHILOSOPH]S -- ?AT 
TRU? CONSI/S 9 SOME =M ( CORRESPOND5CE BETWE5 BELIEF & 
FACT4 ,IT IS1 H[EV]1 BY NO MEANS AN EASY MATT] TO DISCOV] A =M 
( CORRESPOND5CE TO :I* !RE >E NO IRREFUTABLE OBJECTIONS4 ,BY 
?IS P>TLY -- & P>TLY BY ! FEEL+ ?AT1 IF TRU? CONSI/S 9 A 
CORRESPOND5CE ( ?\<T ) SOME?+ \TSIDE ?\<T1 ?\<T CAN 
NEV] KN[ :5 TRU? HAS BE5 ATTA9$ -- MANY PHILOSOPH]S HAVE 
BE5 L$ TO TRY TO F9D SOME DEF9ITION ( TRU? :I* %ALL NOT 
CONSI/ 9 RELATION TO SOME?+ :OLLY \TSIDE BELIEF4 ,! MO/ 
IMPORTANT ATTEMPT AT A DEF9ITION ( ?IS SORT IS ! !ORY ?AT 
TRU? CONSI/S 9 COH]5CE4 ,IT IS SAID ?AT ! M>K ( 
FALSEHOOD IS FAILURE TO COH]E 9 ! BODY ( \R BELIEFS1 & ?AT 
IT IS ! ESS5CE ( A TRU? TO =M P>T ( ! COMPLETELY R\ND$ 
SY/EM :I* IS ,! ,TRU?4 

,!RE IS1 H[EV]1 A GREAT DIFFICULTY 9 ?IS VIEW1 OR RA!R 
TWO GREAT DIFFICULTIES4 ,! FIR/ IS ?AT !RE IS NO REASON TO 
SUPPOSE ?AT ONLY ONE COH]5T BODY ( BELIEFS IS POSSIBLE4 
,IT MAY BE ?AT1 ) SUFFICI5T IMAG9ATION1 A NOVELI/ MI<T 9V5T 
A PA/ = ! WORLD ?AT W\LD P]FECTLY FIT ON TO :AT WE KN[1 & 
YET BE QUITE DIFF]5T FROM ! REAL PA/4 ,9 MORE SCI5TIFIC 
MATT]S1 IT IS C]TA9 ?AT !RE >E (T5 TWO OR MORE HYPO!SES 
:I* ACC\NT = ALL ! KN[N FACTS ON SOME SUBJECT1 & AL?\<1  
9 SU* CASES1 M5 ( SCI5CE 5DEAVOR TO F9D FACTS :I* WILL RULE 
\T ALL ! HYPO!SES EXCEPT ONE1 !RE IS NO REASON :Y !Y %\LD 
ALWAYS SUCCE$4 

,9 PHILOSOPHY1 AGA91 IT SEEMS NOT UNCOMMON = TWO RIVAL 
HYPO!SES TO BE BO? ABLE TO ACC\NT = ALL ! FACTS4 ,?US1 = 
EXAMPLE1 IT IS POSSIBLE ?AT LIFE IS ONE LONG DREAM1 & ?AT ! 
\T] WORLD HAS ONLY ?AT DEGREE ( REALITY ?AT ! OBJECTS ( 
DREAMS HAVE2 BUT AL?\< SU* A VIEW DOES NOT SEEM 9CONSI/5T ) 
KN[N FACTS1 !RE IS NO REASON TO PREF] IT TO ! COMMON-S5SE 
VIEW1 ACCORD+ TO :I* O!R PEOPLE & ?+S DO REALLY EXI/4 
,?US COH]5CE AS ! DEF9ITION ( TRU? FAILS BECAUSE !RE IS NO 
PRO( ?AT !RE CAN BE ONLY ONE COH]5T SY/EM4 

,! O!R OBJECTION TO ?IS DEF9ITION ( TRU? IS ?AT IT 
ASSUMES ! MEAN+ ( 'COH]5CE' KN[N1 :]EAS1 9 FACT1  
'COH]5CE' PRESUPPOSES ! TRU? ( ! LAWS ( LOGIC4 ,TWO 
PROPOSITIONS >E COH]5T :5 BO? MAY BE TRUE1 & >E 9COH]5T 
:5 ONE AT LEA/ MU/ BE FALSE4 ,N[ 9 ORD] TO KN[ :E!R TWO 
PROPOSITIONS CAN BO? BE TRUE1 WE MU/ KN[ SU* TRU?S AS ! LAW ( 
CONTRADICTION4 ,= EXAMPLE1 ! TWO PROPOSITIONS1 '?IS TREE IS A 
BEE*' & '?IS TREE IS NOT A BEE*'1 >E NOT COH]5T1 BECAUSE ( 
! LAW ( CONTRADICTION4 ,BUT IF ! LAW ( CONTRADICTION ITSELF W]E 
SUBJECT$ TO ! TE/ ( COH]5CE1 WE %\LD F9D ?AT1 IF WE *OOSE 
TO SUPPOSE IT FALSE1 NO?+ WILL ANY LONG] BE 9COH]5T ) 
ANY?+ ELSE4 ,?US ! LAWS ( LOGIC SUPPLY ! SKELETON OR 
FRAMEWORK )9 :I* ! TE/ ( COH]5CE APPLIES1 & !Y 
!MSELVES CANNOT BE E/ABLI%$ BY ?IS TE/4 

,= ! ABOVE TWO REASONS1 COH]5CE CANNOT BE ACCEPT$ AS 
GIV+ ! MEAN+ ( TRU?1 ?\< IT IS (T5 A MO/ 
IMPORTANT TE/ ( TRU? AFT] A C]TA9 AM\NT ( TRU? HAS 
BECOME KN[N4 

,H5CE WE >E DRIV5 BACK TO CORRESPOND5CE ) FACT 
AS CON/ITUT+ ! NATURE ( TRU?4 ,IT REMA9S TO DEF9E PRECISELY 
:AT WE MEAN BY 'FACT'1 & :AT IS ! NATURE ( ! CORRESPOND5CE 
:I* MU/ SUBSI/ BETWE5 BELIEF & FACT1 9 ORD] ?AT BELIEF MAY 
BE TRUE4 

,9 ACCORDANCE ) \R ?REE REQUISITES1 WE HAVE TO SEEK A 
!ORY ( TRU? :I* 7#a7 ALL[S TRU? TO HAVE AN OPPOSITE1 NAMELY 
FALSEHOOD1 7#b7 MAKES TRU? A PROP]TY ( BELIEFS1 BUT 7#c7 MAKES IT A 
PROP]TY :OLLY DEP5D5T UPON ! RELATION ( ! BELIEFS TO \TSIDE 
?+S4 

,! NECESSITY ( ALL[+ = FALSEHOOD MAKES IT IMPOSSIBLE TO 
REG>D BELIEF AS A RELATION ( ! M9D TO A S+LE OBJECT1 :I* 
C\LD BE SAID TO BE :AT IS BELIEV$4 ,IF BELIEF W]E SO REG>D$1 WE 
%\LD F9D ?AT1 LIKE ACQUA9TANCE1 IT W\LD NOT ADMIT ( ! 
OPPOSITION ( TRU? & FALSEHOOD1 BUT W\LD HAVE TO BE ALWAYS TRUE4 
,?IS MAY BE MADE CLE> BY EXAMPLES4 ,O!LLO BELIEVES FALSELY ?AT 
,DESDEMONA LOVES ,CASSIO4 ,WE CANNOT SAY ?AT ?IS BELIEF CONSI/S 9 A 
RELATION TO A S+LE OBJECT1 ',DESDEMONA'S LOVE = ,CASSIO'1 = IF 
!RE W]E SU* AN OBJECT1 ! BELIEF W\LD BE TRUE4 ,!RE IS 9 FACT 
NO SU* OBJECT1 & !RE=E ,O!LLO CANNOT HAVE ANY RELATION TO 
SU* AN OBJECT4 ,H5CE HIS BELIEF CANNOT POSSIBLY CONSI/ 9 A 
RELATION TO ?IS OBJECT4 

,IT MI<T BE SAID ?AT HIS BELIEF IS A RELATION TO A DIFF]5T 
OBJECT1 NAMELY '?AT ,DESDEMONA LOVES ,CASSIO'2 BUT IT IS ALMO/ AS 
DIFFICULT TO SUPPOSE ?AT !RE IS SU* AN OBJECT AS ?IS1 :5 
,DESDEMONA DOES NOT LOVE ,CASSIO1 AS IT WAS TO SUPPOSE ?AT !RE IS 
',DESDEMONA'S LOVE = ,CASSIO'4 ,H5CE IT WILL BE BETT] TO SEEK = A 
!ORY ( BELIEF :I* DOES NOT MAKE IT CONSI/ 9 A RELATION ( ! 
M9D TO A S+LE OBJECT4 

,IT IS COMMON TO ?9K ( RELATIONS AS ?\< !Y ALWAYS HELD 
BETWE5 TWO T]MS1 BUT 9 FACT ?IS IS NOT ALWAYS ! CASE4 
,SOME RELATIONS DEM& ?REE T]MS1 SOME F\R1 & SO ON4 ,TAKE1 = 
9/ANCE1 ! RELATION 'BETWE5'4 ,SO LONG AS ONLY TWO T]MS COME 91  
! RELATION 'BETWE5' IS IMPOSSIBLE3 ?REE T]MS >E ! SMALLE/ 
NUMB] ?AT R5D] IT POSSIBLE4 ,YORK IS BETWE5 ,LONDON & ,$9BUR<2 
BUT IF ,LONDON & ,$9BUR< W]E ! ONLY PLACES 9 ! WORLD1 !RE 
C\LD BE NO?+ :I* WAS BETWE5 ONE PLACE & ANO!R4 ,SIMIL>LY 
JEAL\SY REQUIRES ?REE PEOPLE3 !RE CAN BE NO SU* 
RELATION ?AT DOES NOT 9VOLVE ?REE AT LEA/4 ,SU* A PROPOSITION AS 
',A WI%ES ,B TO PROMOTE ,C'S M>RIAGE ) ,D' 9VOLVES A RELATION ( 
F\R T]MS2 ?AT IS TO SAY1 ,A & ,B & ,C & ,D ALL COME 91 & ! 
RELATION 9VOLV$ CANNOT BE EXPRESS$ O!RWISE ?AN 9 A =M 
9VOLV+ ALL F\R4 ,9/ANCES MI<T BE MULTIPLI$ 9DEF9ITELY1 BUT 
5\< HAS BE5 SAID TO %[ ?AT !RE >E RELATIONS :I* REQUIRE 
MORE ?AN TWO T]MS BE=E !Y CAN OCCUR4 

,! RELATION 9VOLV$ 9 JUDG+ OR 
BELIEV+ MU/1 IF FALSEHOOD IS TO BE DULY ALL[$ =1 BE 
TAK5 TO BE A RELATION BETWE5 SEV]AL T]MS1 NOT BETWE5 TWO4 ,:5 
,O!LLO BELIEVES ?AT ,DESDEMONA LOVES ,CASSIO1 HE MU/ NOT HAVE BE=E 
HIS M9D A S+LE OBJECT1 ',DESDEMONA'S LOVE = ,CASSIO'1 OR '?AT 
,DESDEMONA LOVES ,CASSIO'1 = ?AT W\LD REQUIRE ?AT !RE %\LD BE 
OBJECTIVE FALSEHOODS1 :I* SUBSI/ 9DEP5D5TLY ( ANY M9DS2 & 
?IS1 ?\< NOT LOGICALLY REFUTABLE1 IS A !ORY TO BE AVOID$ IF 
POSSIBLE4 ,?US IT IS EASI] TO ACC\NT = FALSEHOOD IF WE TAKE 
JUDGM5T TO BE A RELATION 9 :I* ! M9D & ! V>I\S OBJECTS 
CONC]N$ ALL OCCUR SEV]ALLY2 ?AT IS TO SAY1 ,DESDEMONA & LOV+ 
& ,CASSIO MU/ ALL BE T]MS 9 ! RELATION :I* SUBSI/S :5 
,O!LLO BELIEVES ?AT ,DESDEMONA LOVES ,CASSIO4 ,?IS RELATION1  
!RE=E1 IS A RELATION ( F\R T]MS1 S9CE ,O!LLO ALSO IS ONE ( 
! T]MS ( ! RELATION4 ,:5 WE SAY ?AT IT IS A RELATION ( F\R 
T]MS1 WE DO NOT MEAN ?AT ,O!LLO HAS A C]TA9 RELATION TO 
,DESDEMONA1 & HAS ! SAME RELATION TO LOV+ & ALSO TO ,CASSIO4 
,?IS MAY BE TRUE ( SOME O!R RELATION ?AN BELIEV+2 BUT 
BELIEV+1 PLA9LY1 IS NOT A RELATION :I* ,O!LLO HAS TO 
EA* ( ! ?REE T]MS CONC]N$1 BUT TO ALL ( 
!M TOGE!R3 !RE IS ONLY ONE EXAMPLE ( ! RELATION ( BELIEV+ 
9VOLV$1 BUT ?IS ONE EXAMPLE KNITS TOGE!R F\R T]MS4 ,?US ! 
ACTUAL OCCURR5CE1 AT ! MOM5T :5 ,O!LLO IS 5T]TA9+ HIS 
BELIEF1 IS ?AT ! RELATION CALL$ 'BELIEV+' IS KNITT+ TOGE!R 
9TO ONE COMPLEX :OLE ! F\R T]MS ,O!LLO1 ,DESDEMONA1 LOV+1 & 
,CASSIO4 ,:AT IS CALL$ BELIEF OR JUDGM5T IS NO?+ BUT ?IS 
RELATION ( BELIEV+ OR JUDG+1 :I* RELATES A M9D TO SEV]AL 
?+S O!R ?AN ITSELF4 ,AN ACT ( BELIEF OR ( JUDGM5T 
IS ! OCCURR5CE BETWE5 C]TA9 T]MS AT SOME P>TICUL> TIME1 ( 
! RELATION ( BELIEV+ OR JUDG+4 

,WE >E N[ 9 A POSITION TO UND]/& :AT IT IS ?AT 
DI/+UI%ES A TRUE JUDGM5T FROM A FALSE ONE4 ,= ?IS PURPOSE WE 
WILL ADOPT C]TA9 DEF9ITIONS4 ,9 EV]Y ACT ( JUDGM5T !RE IS A 
M9D :I* JUDGES1 & !RE >E T]MS CONC]N+ :I* IT JUDGES4 ,WE 
WILL CALL ! M9D ! SUBJECT 9 ! JUDGM5T1 & ! 
REMA9+ T]MS ! OBJECTS4 ,?US1 :5 ,O!LLO JUDGES ?AT 
,DESDEMONA LOVES ,CASSIO1 ,O!LLO IS ! SUBJECT1 :ILE ! OBJECTS >E 
,DESDEMONA & LOV+ & ,CASSIO4 ,! SUBJECT & ! OBJECTS TOGE!R 
>E CALL$ ! CON/ITU5TS ( ! JUDGM5T4 ,IT WILL BE 
OBS]V$ ?AT ! ELATION ( JUDG+ HAS :AT IS CALL$ A 'S5SE' OR 
'DIRECTION'4 ,WE MAY SAY1 METAPHORICALLY1 ?AT IT PUTS ITS OBJECTS 9 
A C]TA9 ORD]1 :I* WE MAY 9DICATE BY MEANS ( ! ORD] 
( ! WORDS 9 ! S5T5CE4 7,9 AN 9FLECT$ LANGUAGE1 ! SAME 
?+ WILL BE 9DICAT$ BY 9FLECTIONS1 E4G4 BY ! DIFF]5CE 
BETWE5 NOM9ATIVE & ACCUSATIVE47 ,O!LLO'S JUDGM5T ?AT ,CASSIO 
LOVES ,DESDEMONA DIFF]S FROM HIS JUDGM5T ?AT ,DESDEMONA LOVES 
,CASSIO1 9 SPITE ( ! FACT ?AT IT CONSI/S ( ! SAME 
CON/ITU5TS1 BECAUSE ! RELATION ( JUDG+ PLACES ! CON/ITU5TS 
9 A DIFF]5T ORD] 9 ! TWO CASES4 ,SIMIL>LY1 IF ,CASSIO JUDGES 
?AT ,DESDEMONA LOVES ,O!LLO1 ! CON/ITU5TS ( ! JUDGM5T >E 
/ILL ! SAME1 BUT !IR ORD] IS DIFF]5T4 ,?IS PROP]TY ( HAV+ 
A 'S5SE' OR 'DIRECTION' IS ONE :I* ! RELATION ( JUDG+ %>ES 
) ALL O!R RELATIONS4 ,! 'S5SE' ( RELATIONS IS ! ULTIMATE 
S\RCE ( ORD] & S]IES & A HO/ ( MA!MATICAL CONCEPTS2 BUT 
WE NE$ NOT CONC]N \RSELVES FUR!R ) ?IS ASPECT4 

,WE SPOKE ( ! RELATION CALL$ 'JUDG+' OR 'BELIEV+' AS 
KNITT+ TOGE!R 9TO ONE COMPLEX :OLE ! SUBJECT & ! OBJECTS4 
,9 ?IS RESPECT1 JUDG+ IS EXACTLY LIKE EV]Y O!R RELATION4 
,:5EV] A RELATION HOLDS BETWE5 TWO OR MORE T]MS1 IT UNITES ! 
T]MS 9TO A COMPLEX :OLE4 ,IF ,O!LLO LOVES ,DESDEMONA1 !RE IS SU* 
A COMPLEX :OLE AS ',O!LLO'S LOVE = ,DESDEMONA'4 ,! T]MS UNIT$ 
BY ! RELATION MAY BE !MSELVES COMPLEX1 OR MAY BE SIMPLE1 BUT ! 
:OLE :I* RESULTS FROM !IR BE+ UNIT$ MU/ BE COMPLEX4 ,:]EV] 
!RE IS A RELATION :I* RELATES C]TA9 T]MS1 !RE IS A COMPLEX 
OBJECT =M$ ( ! UNION ( ?OSE T]MS2 & CONV]SELY1 :]EV] 
!RE IS A COMPLEX OBJECT1 !RE IS A RELATION :I* RELATES ITS 
CON/ITU5TS4 ,:5 AN ACT ( BELIEV+ OCCURS1 !RE IS A COMPLEX1 9 
:I* 'BELIEV+' IS ! UNIT+ RELATION1 & SUBJECT & OBJECTS 
>E >RANG$ 9 A C]TA9 ORD] BY ! 'S5SE' ( ! RELATION ( 
BELIEV+4 ,AMONG ! OBJECTS1 AS WE SAW 9 CONSID]+ ',O!LLO 
BELIEVES ?AT ,DESDEMONA LOVES ,CASSIO'1 ONE MU/ BE A RELATION -- 9 
?IS 9/ANCE1 ! RELATION 'LOV+'4 ,BUT ?IS RELATION1 AS IT OCCURS 
9 ! ACT ( BELIEV+1 IS NOT ! RELATION :I* CREATES ! UNITY 
( ! COMPLEX :OLE CONSI/+ ( ! SUBJECT & ! OBJECTS4 ,! 
RELATION 'LOV+'1 AS IT OCCURS 9 ! ACT ( BELIEV+1 IS ONE ( 
! OBJECTS -- IT IS A BRICK 9 ! /RUCTURE1 NOT ! CEM5T4 ,! 
CEM5T IS ! RELATION 'BELIEV+'4 ,:5 ! BELIEF IS TRUE1  
!RE IS ANO!R COMPLEX UNITY1 9 :I* ! RELATION :I* WAS ONE 
( ! OBJECTS ( ! BELIEF RELATES ! O!R OBJECTS4 ,?US1 E4G41  
IF ,O!LLO BELIEVES TRULY ?AT ,DESDEMONA LOVES ,CASSIO1 !N 
!RE IS A COMPLEX UNITY1 ',DESDEMONA'S LOVE = ,CASSIO'1 :I* IS 
COMPOS$ EXCLUSIVELY ( ! OBJECTS ( ! BELIEF1 9 ! 
SAME ORD] AS !Y HAD 9 ! BELIEF1 ) ! RELATION :I* WAS ONE 
( ! OBJECTS OCCURR+ N[ AS ! CEM5T ?AT B9DS TOGE!R ! 
O!R OBJECTS ( ! BELIEF4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 :5 A BELIEF IS 
FALSE1 !RE IS NO SU* COMPLEX UNITY COMPOS$ ONLY ( ! 
OBJECTS ( ! BELIEF4 ,IF ,O!LLO BELIEVES FALSELY ?AT 
,DESDEMONA LOVES ,CASSIO1 !N !RE IS NO SU* COMPLEX UNITY AS 
',DESDEMONA'S LOVE = ,CASSIO'4 

,?US A BELIEF IS TRUE :5 IT CORRESPONDS TO 
A C]TA9 ASSOCIAT$ COMPLEX1 & FALSE :5 IT DOES NOT4 
,ASSUM+1 = ! SAKE ( DEF9IT5ESS1 ?AT ! OBJECTS ( ! 
BELIEF >E TWO T]MS & A RELATION1 ! T]MS BE+ PUT 9 A C]TA9 
ORD] BY ! 'S5SE' ( ! BELIEV+1 !N IF ! TWO T]MS 9 ?AT 
ORD] >E UNIT$ BY ! RELATION 9TO A COMPLEX1 ! BELIEF IS TRUE2 
IF NOT1 IT IS FALSE4 ,?IS CON/ITUTES ! DEF9ITION ( TRU? & 
FALSEHOOD ?AT WE W]E 9 SE>* (4 ,JUDG+ OR BELIEV+ IS A 
C]TA9 COMPLEX UNITY ( :I* A M9D IS A CON/ITU5T2 IF ! 
REMA9+ CON/ITU5TS1 TAK5 9 ! ORD] :I* !Y HAVE 9 ! 
BELIEF1 =M A COMPLEX UNITY1 !N ! BELIEF IS TRUE2 IF NOT1 IT IS 
FALSE4 

,?US AL?\< TRU? & FALSEHOOD >E PROP]TIES ( BELIEFS1  
YET !Y >E 9 A S5SE EXTR9SIC PROP]TIES1 = ! CONDITION ( 
! TRU? ( A BELIEF IS SOME?+ NOT 9VOLV+ BELIEFS1 OR 79 
G5]AL7 ANY M9D AT ALL1 BUT ONLY ! OBJECTS ( ! 
BELIEF4 ,A M9D1 :I* BELIEVES1 BELIEVES TRULY :5 !RE IS A 
CORRESPOND+ COMPLEX NOT 9VOLV+ ! M9D1 BUT ONLY ITS 
OBJECTS4 ,?IS CORRESPOND5CE 5SURES TRU?1 & ITS ABS5CE 5TAILS 
FALSEHOOD4 ,H5CE WE ACC\NT SIMULTANE\SLY = ! TWO FACTS ?AT 
BELIEFS 7A7 DEP5D ON M9DS = !IR EXI/5CE1  
7B7 DO NOT DEP5D ON M9DS = !IR TRU?4 

,WE MAY RE/ATE \R !ORY AS FOLL[S3 ,IF WE TAKE SU* A BELIEF 
AS ',O!LLO BELIEVES ?AT ,DESDEMONA LOVES ,CASSIO'1 WE WILL CALL 
,DESDEMONA & ,CASSIO ! OBJECT-T]MS1 & LOV+ ! 
OBJECT-RELATION4 ,IF !RE IS A COMPLEX UNITY ',DESDEMONA'S 
LOVE = ,CASSIO'1 CONSI/+ ( ! OBJECT-T]MS RELAT$ BY ! 
OBJECT-RELATION 9 ! SAME ORD] AS !Y HAVE 9 ! BELIEF1 !N 
?IS COMPLEX UNITY IS CALL$ ! FACT CORRESPOND+ TO ! 
BELIEF4 ,?US A BELIEF IS TRUE :5 !RE IS A CORRESPOND+ 
FACT1 & IS FALSE :5 !RE IS NO CORRESPOND+ FACT4 

,IT WILL BE SE5 ?AT M9DS DO NOT CREATE TRU? OR FALSEHOOD4 
,!Y CREATE BELIEFS1 BUT :5 ONCE ! BELIEFS >E CREAT$1 ! M9D 
CANNOT MAKE !M TRUE OR FALSE1 EXCEPT 9 ! SPECIAL CASE :]E !Y 
CONC]N FUTURE ?+S :I* >E )9 ! P[] ( ! P]SON 
BELIEV+1 SU* AS CAT*+ TRA9S4 ,:AT MAKES A BELIEF TRUE IS A 
FACT1 & ?IS FACT DOES NOT 7EXCEPT 9 EXCEPTIONAL CASES7 
9 ANY WAY 9VOLVE ! M9D ( ! P]SON :O HAS ! BELIEF4 

,HAV+ N[ DECID$ :AT WE MEAN BY TRU? & 
FALSEHOOD1 WE HAVE NEXT TO CONSID] :AT WAYS !RE >E ( KN[+ 
:E!R ?IS OR ?AT BELIEF IS TRUE OR FALSE4 ,?IS CONSID]ATION WILL 
OCCUPY ! NEXT *APT]4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aiaa 3 ,*APT] #ab -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#f1 #bb 3 ,*APT] #ab -- ,ADD$4 

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