,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE 

#ahhg 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TAGS 3 VILLAGE COMMUNE1 HI/ORIC ROLE1 MIDDLE AGES1 FRE$OM PRESS1 COMMUNAL L&S1 VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 FREE CITIES1 CU/OM>Y LAW1 SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 MUTUAL AID4 

,SECTIONS 7,T,O,C7 3 
     

O ,TRANSLATOR'S ,NOTES 

      #a1#d#f#b ,WORDS2 #i1#b#b#c ,*>ACT]S     

O ,SECTION #a 

      #a1#a#e#c ,WORDS2 #f1#f#h#f ,*>ACT]S     

O ,SECTION #b 

      #a1#i#h ,WORDS2 #a#a1#d#e ,*>ACT]S     

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      #b1#g#a#f ,WORDS2 #a#f1#c#e#h ,*>ACT]S     

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      #a1#h#b#e ,WORDS2 #a#a1#a#i ,*>ACT]S     

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      #a1#d#a#i ,WORDS2 #h1#c#a ,*>ACT]S     

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      #b1#c#e#c ,WORDS2 #a#c1#h#g#i ,*>ACT]S     

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      #a1#f#i#c ,WORDS2 #a1#d#c#d ,*>ACT]S     

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      #b1#b#h#a ,WORDS2 #a#c1#g#c#e ,*>ACT]S     

O ,SECTION #i 

      #b1#d#i#f ,WORDS2 #a#d1#e#d#f ,*>ACT]S     

O ,SECTION #a 

      #a1#h#d#a ,WORDS2 #a#a1#a#f#c ,*>ACT]S 

,SECTIONS 7,CONT5T7 3 

O ,TRANSLATOR'S ,NOTES 

,PHOTO BY ,GONZALE1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C ,LIC5SE ,:5 ,KROPOTK9 WAS 9VIT$ BY ,JEAN ,GRAVE1 $ITOR ( ,LES ,TEMPS ,N\VEAUX1 TO TAKE P>T 9 A S]IES ( LECTURES TO BE HELD 9 ! ,MILLES ,COLONNES ,HALL 9 ,P>IS 9 ,M>* #a#h#i#f1 HE *OSE TWO SUBJECTS3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE & ,AN>*ISM3 ,ITS ,PHILOSOPHY & ,ITS ,IDEAL4 ,BE>+ 9 M9D ?AT HIS GREATE/ WORK1 ,MUTUAL ,AID1 HAD BE5 APPE>+ AS A S]IES ( >TICLES 9 ,! ,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY FROM #a#h#i-#a#h#i#f HIS *OICE ( SUBJECTS = !SE LECTURES IS NOT SURPRIS+4 ,KROPOTK9 EXPLA9S 9 ! ,FR5* $ITION ( HIS ,MEMOIRS 0,! RESE>* ?AT ,I C>RI$ \T 9 ! C\RSE ( FAMILI>IZ+ MYSELF ) ! 9/ITUTIONS ( ! B>B>IAN P]IOD & ?OSE ( ! FREE CITIES ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 L$ ME TO C>RY \T FUR!R 9T]E/+ RESE>* ON ! ROLE PLAY$ BY ! ,/ATE DUR+ ! LA/ ?REE C5TURIES1 FROM ! TIME ( ITS LA/ 9C>NATION 9 ,EUROPE4 ,9 ADDITION ! /UDY ( 9/ITUTIONS ( MUTUAL AID 9 ! DIFF]5T P]IODS ( CIVILIZATION L$ ME TO 9QUIRE AS TO H[ ! DEVELOPM5T ( IDEAS ( JU/ICE & MORALITY CAME AB\T 9 HUMAN SOCIETY4 ,I SUMM>IZ$ MY F9D+S AS TWO LECTURES3 ONE ON ,! ,/ATE & ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 & ! O!R1 9 ,5GLI%1 AS ,JU/ICE & ,MORALITY40 

  

,AS IT HAPP5S ! LECTURES W]E NEV] DELIV]$4 ,! DAY ,KROPOTK9 SET (F = ,P>IS CO9CID$ ) ! DECISION BY ! HEIR TO ! ,RUSSIAN ?RONE TO VISIT ,NICE :]E HE WAS TO BE WELCOM$ BY TOP REPRES5TATIVES ( ! ,GOV]NM5T4 ,AT ?AT TIME ! ,FRANCO ,RUSSIAN MILIT>Y ALLIANCE WAS CLOSE & IMPORTANT TO ,FRANCE1 & ! ,FR5* AU?ORITIES C\LD NOT RISK DEMON/RATIONS 9 ,P>IS AT ! ,KROPOTK9 LECTURE :I* WAS EXPECT$ TO ATTRACT BETWE5 #d & #e PEOPLE4 

,SO :5 HE DISEMB>K$ FROM ! ,NE:AV5-,DIEPPE DAY BOAT ,KROPOTK9 WAS MET BY POLICE (FIC]S :O DETA9$ HIM4 ,HE WAS TOLD ?AT HE HAD BE5 EXPELL$ FROM ,FRANCE & W\LD HAVE TO RETURN BY ! FIR/ BOAT2 9 ! EV5T ( ANY RESI/ANCE HE W\LD BE TAK5 9TO 'ADM9I/RATIVE CU/ODY'4 ,AP>T FROM ! FACT ?AT HE DID NOT GET TO ,P>IS TO DELIV] HIS LECTURES1 ! 9CID5T HAD ITS AMUS+ SIDE AS WELL AS CONFIRM+ ! E/EEM :I* HE 5JOY$ EV5 ) HIS POLITICAL 5EMIES4 ,HE DESCRIB$ ! 9CID5T 9 MORE ?AN ONE LETT] TO HIS FRI5DS4 ,WRIT+ TO ,JAMES ,GUILLAUME 9 #aib - SIX YE>S AFT] ! 9CID5T - 9 RESPONSE TO HIS OLD FRI5D'S REQUE/ = A DETAIL$ ACC\NT1 HE DESCRIBES ! WAY HE WAS APPROA*$ BY ! POLICE SUP]9T5D5T4 

0,HE 9TRODUC$ HIMSELF AS ,MONSIEUR ,M]DES 7'( ,SPANI% DESC5T' HE ADD$ EV]Y TIME HE REPEAT$ HIS NAME74 ,HE READ \T ! TELEGRAM FROM ,B\RGEOIS .<! ,FR5* ,PRIME ,M9I/]7 :I* MORE OR LESS SAID ',IF ,KROPOTK9 DISEMB>KS 9=M HIM ?AT HE IS EXPELL$1 & ?AT HE MU/ RETURN ) ! FIR/ BOAT4 ,IF HE RESI/S TAKE HIM 9TO ADM9I/RATIVE CU/ODY'4 

0',V]Y WELL'1 ,I REPLI$1 ',I %ALL S5D TELEGRAMS TO ,GRAVE & MY WIFE'4 ,:I* IS :AT ,I DID4 

0,AS TO MY RETURN2 ,I HAD COME ON ! DAY S]VICE1 9 SECOND CLASS2 ! SEA WAS T]RIBLE - SO R\< ?AT ,I1 :O HAD NEV] SUFF]$ FROM SEA-SICKNESS1 HAD TO LIE D[N 7,I WAS JU/ CONVALESC+ AFT] A B\T ( 9FLU5ZA74 ,V]Y WELL1 ,I %ALL RETURN TOMORR[ MORN+'1 ,I SAID1 ') ! DAY BOAT'4 

0',NO'1 ANSW]$ ,MONSIEUR ,M]DES ( ,SPANI% ORIG9 & MANY GRIMACES4 ',Y\ MU/ RETURN IMM$IATELY BY ! NI<T BOAT - OR ,I %ALL HAVE TO PUT Y\ 9 PRISON4 ,Y\R CELL IS ALREADY PREP>$4' 

0,!N FROM ONE O'CLOCK TILL LATE AT NI<T !Y TELEGRAPH$ ALL OV] ,FRANCE TO F9D \T :E!R ,I C\LD SP5D ! NI<T AT AN HOTEL 7) TWO POLICEM5 9 ! NEXT ROOM7 OR :E!R ,I HAD TO BE TAK5 TO PRISON4 ,! ,DEPUTY ,PREFECT DID NOT D>E TO TAKE UPON HIMSELF ?IS T]RIBLE RESPONSIBILITY4 ,NOR DID ! ,PREFECT4 ,!Y EV5 TELEGRAPH$ & TELEPHON$ TO ,NICE4 

0,AT T5 O'CLOCK ,MONSIEUR ,M]DES RETURN$ BEAM+3 ',! ,M9I/] WILL ALL[ Y\ TO SP5D ! NI<T 9 ! HOTEL'4 

0',! WEA!R IS FAIRLY GOOD'1 ,I SAID4 ',SO TELEGRAPH ! ,M9I/] ?AT ,I AM RETURN+ BY ! NI<T BOAT'4 ,:I* WAS :AT ,I DID40 

  

,KROPOTK9'S BRILLIANT1 ]UDITE1 PROVOCATIVE LECTURE NE$S NO =MAL 9TRODUCTION FROM A LATT]-DAY TRANSLATOR4 ,& ONE ASSUMES ?AT ! READ] IS PREP>$ TO MAKE ! NECESS>Y TIME ADJU/M5T & ALL[ANCES = 'CONTEMPOR>Y' REF]5CES ?AT >E NO LONG] CONTEMPOR>Y BUT /ILL 9T]E/+ & RELEVANT TO \R TIME2 & = =ECA/S ?AT HAVE ALAS BE5 PROV$ OV]-OPTIMI/IC2 POSSIBLY TOO = ,KROPOTK9'S UNDUE 5?USIASM = AN HI/ORIC PA/ ! GLORIES ( :I* >E SOMETIMES GIV5 MORE EMPHASIS ?AN >E ITS LESS ATTRACTIVE ASPECTS4 

,SOME READ]S MAY ALSO QUE/ION ! VALUE ( DETAIL$ KN[L$GE ( ! DI/ANT PA/ = ?OSE :O >E SEEK+ 9 ! PRES5T1 EV5 MODE/LY1 TO 9FLU5CE BY DIRECT ACTION ! FUTURE4 ,= IF WE BELIEVE ?AT ,MAN MAKES HI/ORY & NOT ?AT ,MAN IS DET]M9$ BY HI/ORY !N IT %\LD BE SUFFICI5T TO KN[ :AT ONE WANTS TO *ANGE 9 SOCIETY & ?AT !RE >E ALSO 5\< PEOPLE PREP>$ TO ACT TO BR+ AB\T ?OSE *ANGES1 = ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION TO TAKE PLACE4 

,:5 ! ABOVE P>AGRAPH WAS WRITT5 = ! #aifi $ITION ,I ASK$3 0,!RE SURELY MU/ BE A FLAW 9 ?IS >GUM5T 9 VIEW ( ! FACT ?AT 9 #aifi ,M>XI/ DET]M9ISM IS AT ITS L[E/ EBB2 ! ,/ATE IS ON ! ONE H& DISCR$IT$ BY ! ,LEFT & ! ,RI<T YET ON ! O!R ASSUMES MORE & MORE FUNCTIONS 7GOOD & BAD7 P>TLY BECAUSE IT IS ASSUM$ BY ,LEFT & ,RI<T ?AT IT IS ! ,/ATE'S FUNCTION TO DO SO6 ,I ?9K !RE IS NO FLAW 9 ! CLASSICAL AN>*I/ >GUM5T AS EXPRESS$ BY ,KROPOTK9 9 ! CONCLUD+ SECTIONS ( ?IS LECTURE1 & ! Y\NG 'AN>*O-,MAOI/S'1 & !IR 'AN>*O-,*E-,GUEV>I/' CONTEMPOR>IES WILL PROBABLY LE>N MORE FROM ,KROPOTK9'S 9T]PRETATION ( SOCIAL HI/ORY ?AN FROM ! BRO!RS ,COHN-,B5DIT'S ,OBSOLETE ,COMMUNISM 7,DEUTS*1 ,LONDON #a#i#f#h71 H[EV] MU* ONE WELCOMES ) OP5 >MS ! ADV5T ( ',DANNY LE ,R\GE' & HIS G5]ATION40 

,H[ F> AWAY ,MAY #aifh N[ SEEMS POLITICALLY 9 A #aihf :5 FROM ,?AT*] TO ,REAGAN1 FROM ,*IRAC TO ,KOHL1 ,WE/]N POLITICS IS DOM9AT$ BY A ,RI<TI/ LAISSEZ FAIRE PHILOSOPHY :I* EXALTS '9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE' & DECRIES ',/ATE 9T]F]5CE'2 :5 ?AT PILL> ( ! ,/ATE - ! ,*UR* - IS N[ 9 MANY P>TS ( ! WORLD 9 OP5 REBELLION AGA9/ GOV]NM5T2 & NOT ALL ! ,JUDICI>Y IS AS ACCOMMODAT+ AS AT PRES5T 9 ?IS C\NTRY :]E IT IGNORES POLICE EXCESSES & IMPLEM5TS ) 5?USIASM ! GOV]NM5T'S CAMPAIGN TO DE/ROY ,TRADES ,UNIONISM4 

,= ,KROPOTK9 0! ,/ATE IDEA MEANS SOME?+ QUITE DIFF]5T FROM ! IDEA ( GOV]NM5T0 & ?OSE :O ?9K O!RWISE >E 0CONFUS+0 ! TWO CONCEPTS4 ,ONE EM95T AN>*I/ ?9K] :O DID JU/ ?IS WAS ,MALATE/A :O 9 HIS ESSAY ,AN>*Y1 FIR/ PUBLI%$ 9 #a#h#i#a1"9 A FEW YE>S BE=E ,KROPOTK9'S ,! ,/ATE1 HAS ?IS TO SAY ON ! SUBJECT3 

 ,AN>*I/S1 9CLUD+ ?IS WRIT]1 HAVE US$ ! WORD ,/ATE1 & /ILL DO1 TO MEAN ! SUM TOTAL ( ! POLITICAL1 LEGISLATIVE1 JUDICI>Y1 MILIT>Y & F9ANCIAL 9/ITUTIONS ?R\< :I* ! MANAGEM5T ( !IR [N AFFAIRS1 ! CONTROL OV] !IR P]SONAL BEHAVIOR1 ! RESPONSIBILITY = !IR P]SONAL SAFETY1 >E TAK5 AWAY FROM ! PEOPLE & 5TRU/$ TO O!RS :O1 BY USURPATION OR DELEGATION1 >E VE/$ ) ! P[]S TO MAKE ! LAWS = EV]Y?+ & EV]YBODY1 & TO OBLIGE ! PEOPLE TO OBS]VE !M1 IF NE$ BE1 BY ! USE ( COLLECTIVE =CE4 

 ,9 ?IS S5SE ! WORD ,/ATE MEANS GOV]NM5T1 OR TO PUT IT ANO!R WAY1 IT IS ! IMP]SONAL1 AB/RACT EXPRESSION ( ?AT /ATE ( AFFAIRS1 P]SONIFI$ BY GOV]NM5T3 & !RE=E ! T]M ABOLITION ( ! ,/ATE1 ,SOCIETY )\T ! ,/ATE1 ETC41 DESCRIBE EXACTLY ! CONCEPT :I* AN>*I/S SEEK TO EXPRESS ( ! DE/RUCTION ( ALL POLITICAL ORD] BAS$ ON AU?ORITY4  

,IT W\LD SEEM ?AT ,MALATE/A'S DEF9ITION CORRESPONDS MORE CLOSELY TO ! CONTEMPOR>Y SITUATION4 ,?IS WRIT] W\LD EV5 V5TURE ! OP9ION ?AT EFFECTIVE GOV]NM5T IS NO LONG] 9 ! H&S ( ! POLITICIANS BUT ) ! MULTI-NATIONALS1 ! BANKS1 9SURANCE COMPANIES & P5SION FUNDS 7COMP>E ! P[] ( ! ,*ANCELLOR ( ! ,EX*EQU] JUGGL+ ) A FEW BILLION 9 HIS ANNUAL BUDGET ) ?AT ( ! ,LONDON M>KET'S DAILY TURNOV] ( #f BILLION DOLL>S674 ,& :AT ( ! REC5T ,BIG ,BANG AT ! ,/OCK ,EX*ANGE & ! TE*NOLOGICAL EXPLOSION :I* PURSUES ITS RU?LESS PA? FIR/ TO DEHUMANIZ+ WORK & LIFE & EV5TUALLY TO ! ANNIHILATION ( HUMANITY4 ,WE MAY EV5 LIVE TO SEE A PRIVATIZ$ P>A-MILIT>Y POLICE =CE CONTROLL$ BY ?IS NEW ',/ATE'4 ,P]HAPS444BUT WE CAN ONLY E*O ,KROPOTK9'S F9AL WORDS TO HIS LECTURE3 0! *OICE LIES ) US604 

,COL*E/] ,DECEMB] #aihf 

 ,V]NON ,RI*>DS 

"9 ,AN>*Y BY ,E4 ,MALATE/A 9 A NEW TRANSLATION 7,FRE$OM ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#d74 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

O ,SECTION #a 

,PHOTO BY HAV5'T ! SLI<TE/1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,9 TAK+ ! ,/ATE & ITS HI/ORIC ROLE AS ! SUBJECT = ?IS /UDY1 ,I ?9K ,I AM SATISFY+ A MU* FELT NE$ AT ! PRES5T TIME3 ?AT ( EXAM9+ 9 DEP? ! V]Y CONCEPT ( ! ,/ATE1 ( /UDY+ ITS ESS5CE1 ITS PA/ ROLE & ! P>T IT MAY BE CALL$ UPON TO PLAY 9 ! FUTURE4 

,IT IS ABOVE ALL OV] ! QUE/ION ( ! ,/ATE ?AT SOCIALI/S >E DIVID$4 ,TWO MA9 CURR5TS CAN BE DISC]N$ 9 ! FACTIONS ?AT EXI/ AMONG US :I* CORRESPOND TO DIFF]5CES 9 TEMP]AM5T AS WELL AS 9 WAYS ( ?9K+1 BUT ABOVE ALL TO ! EXT5T ?AT ONE BELIEVES 9 ! COM+ REVOLUTION4 

,!RE >E ?OSE1 ON ! ONE H&1 :O HOPE TO A*IEVE ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION ?R\< ! ,/ATE BY PRES]V+ & EV5 EXT5D+ MO/ ( ITS P[]S TO BE US$ = ! REVOLUTION4 ,& !RE >E ?OSE LIKE \RSELVES :O SEE ! ,/ATE1 BO? 9 ITS PRES5T =M1 9 ITS V]Y ESS5CE1 & 9 :ATEV] GUISE IT MI<T APPE>1 AN OB/ACLE TO ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 ! GREATE/ H9DRANCE TO ! BIR? ( A SOCIETY BAS$ ON EQUALITY & LIB]TY1 AS WELL AS ! HI/ORIC MEANS DESIGN$ TO PREV5T ?IS BLOSSOM+4 ,! LATT] WORK TO ABOLI% ! ,/ATE & NOT TO RE=M IT4 

,IT IS CLE> ?AT ! DIVISION IS A DEEP ONE4 ,IT CORRESPONDS ) TWO DIV]G5T CURR5TS :I* 9 \R TIME >E MANIFE/ 9 ALL PHILOSOPHICAL ?\<T1 9 LIT]ATURE AS WELL AS 9 ACTION4 ,& IF ! PREVAIL+ VIEWS ON ! ,/ATE REMA9 AS OBSCURE AS !Y >E TODAY1 !RE IS NO D\BT :ATSOEV] ?AT :5 - & WE HOPE1 SOON - COMMUNI/ IDEAS >E SUBJECT$ TO PRACTICAL APPLICATION 9 ! DAILY LIFE ( COMMUNITIES1 IT WILL BE ON ! QUE/ION ( ! ,/ATE ?AT ! MO/ /UBBORN /RUGGLES WILL BE WAG$4 

,HAV+ SO (T5 CRITICIZ$ ! ,/ATE AS IT IS TODAY1 IT BEHOOVES ONE TO SEEK ! REASON = ITS EM]G5CE1 TO /UDY 9 DEP? ITS PA/ ROLE1 & TO COMP>E IT ) 9/ITUTIONS ?AT IT HAS REPLAC$4 

,LET US1 FIR/ ( ALL1 BE AGRE$ AS TO :AT WE4WI% TO 9CLUDE BY ! T]M '! ,/ATE'4 

,!RE IS1 ( C\RSE1 ! ,G]MAN S*OOL :I* TAKES PLEASURE 9 CONFUS+ ,/ATE ) ,SOCIETY4 ,?IS CONFUSION IS TO BE F\ND AMONG ! BE/ ,G]MAN ?9K]S & MANY ( ! ,FR5* :O CANNOT VISUALIZE ,SOCIETY )\T A CONC5TRATION ( ! ,/ATE2 & IT IS = ?IS REASON ?AT AN>*I/S >E G5]ALLY UPBRAID$ = WANT+ TO DE/ROY SOCIETY' & ( ADVOCAT+ A RETURN TO '! P]MAN5T W> ( EA* AGA9/ ALL'4 

,H[EV] TO >GUE 9 ?IS WAY IS TO OV]LOOK ALTOGE!R ! ADVANCES MADE 9 ! DOMA9 ( HI/ORY 9 ! PA/ ?IRTY OR SO YE>S2 IT IS TO OV]LOOK ! FACT ?AT ,MAN LIV$ 9 ,SOCIETIES = ?\S&S O YE>S BE=E ! ,/ATE HAD BE5 HE>D (@58IT IS TO =GET ?AT SO F> AS ,EUROPE IS CONC]N$ ! ,/ATE IS ( REC5T ORIG9 - IT B>ELY GOES BACK TO ! SIXTE5? C5TURY2 & F9ALLY1 IT IS TO IGNORE ?AT ! MO/ GLORI\S P]IODS 9 ,MAN'S HI/ORY >E ?OSE 9 :I* CIVIL LIB]TIES & COMMUNAL LIFE HAD NOT YET BE5 DE/ROY$ BY ! ,/ATE1 & 9 :I* L>GE NUMB]S ( PEOPLE LIV$ 9 COMMUNES & FREE F$]ATIONS4 

,! ,/ATE IS ONLY ONE ( ! =MS ASSUM$ BY SOCIETY 9 ! C\RSE ( HI/ORY4 ,:Y !N MAKE NO DI/9CTION BETWE5 :AT IS P]MAN5T & :AT IS ACCID5TAL8 

,ON ! O!R H& ! ,/ATE HAS ALSO BE5 CONFUS$ ) ,GOV]NM5T4 ,S9CE !RE CAN BE NO ,/ATE )\T GOV]NM5T1 IT HAS SOMETIMES BE5 SAID ?AT :AT ONE MU/ AIM AT IS ! ABS5CE ( GOV]NM5T & NOT ! ABOLITION ( ! ,/ATE4 

,H[EV]1 IT SEEMS TO ME ?AT ,/ATE & GOV]NM5T >E TWO CONCEPTS ( A DIFF]5T ORD]4 ,! ,/ATE IDEA MEANS SOME?+ QUITE DIFF]5T FROM ! IDEA ( GOV]NM5T4 ,IT NOT ONLY 9CLUDES ! EXI/5CE ( A P[] SITUAT$ ABOVE SOCIETY1 BUT ALSO ( A T]RITORIAL CONC5TRATION AS WELL AS ! CONC5TRATION 9 ! H&S ( A FEW ( MANY FUNCTIONS 9 ! LIFE ( SOCIETIES4 ,IT IMPLIES SOME NEW RELATION%IPS BETWE5 MEMB]S ( SOCIETY :I* DID NOT EXI/ BE=E ! =MATION ( ! ,/ATE4 ,A :OLE ME*ANISM ( LEGISLATION & ( POLIC+ HAS TO BE DEVELOP$ 9 ORD] TO SUBJECT SOME CLASSES TO ! DOM9ATION ( O!RS4 

,?IS DI/9CTION1 :I* AT FIR/ SI<T MI<T NOT BE OBVI\S1 EM]GES ESPECIALLY :5 ONE /UDIES ! ORIG9S ( ! ,/ATE4 

,9DE$1 !RE IS ONLY ONE WAY ( REALLY UND]/&+ ! ,/ATE1 & ?AT IS TO /UDY ITS HI/ORIC DEVELOPM5T1 & ?IS IS :AT WE %ALL TRY TO DO4 

,! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE WAS A ,/ATE 9 ! REAL S5SE ( ! WORD4 ,TO ?IS DAY IT REMA9S ! LEGI/'S IDEAL4 ,ITS ORGANS COV]$ A VA/ DOMA9 ) A TI<T NETWORK4 ,EV]Y?+ GRAVITAT$ T[>DS ,ROME3 ECONOMIC & MILIT>Y LIFE1 WEAL?1 $UCATION1 NAY1 EV5 RELIGION4 ,FROM ,ROME CAME ! LAWS1 ! MAGI/RATES1 ! LEGIONS TO DEF5D ! T]RITORY1 ! PREFECTS & ! GODS1 ,! :OLE LIFE ( ! ,EMPIRE W5T BACK TO ! ,S5ATE - LAT] TO ! ,CES>1 ! ALL P[]FUL1 OMNISCI5T1 GOD ( ! ,EMPIRE4 ,EV]Y PROV9CE1 EV]Y DI/RICT HAD ITS ,CAPITOL 9 M9IATURE1 ITS SMALL PORTION ( ,ROMAN SOV]EIGNTY TO GOV]N EV]Y ASPECT ( DAILY LIFE4 ,A S+LE LAW1 ?AT IMPOS$ BY ,ROME1 DOM9AT$ ?AT ,EMPIRE :I* DID NOT REPRES5T A CONF$]ATION ( FELL[ CITIZ5S BUT WAS SIMPLY A H]D ( SUBJECTS4 

,EV5 N[1 ! LEGI/ & ! AU?ORIT>IAN /ILL ADMIRE ! UNITY ( ?AT ,EMPIRE1 ! UNIT>IAN SPIRIT ( ITS LAWS &1 AS !Y PUT IT1 ! BEAUTY & H>MONY ( ?AT ORGANIZATION4 

,BUT ! DIS9TEGRATION FROM )91 HA/5$ BY ! B>B>IAN 9VASION2 ! EXT9CTION ( LOCAL LIFE1 :I* C\LD NO LONG] RESI/ ! ATTACKS FROM \TSIDE ON ! ONE H& NOR ! CANK] SPREAD+ FROM ! C5T] ON ! O!R2 ! DOM9ATION BY ! RI* :O HAD APPROPRIAT$ ! L& TO !MSELVES & ! MIS]Y ( ?OSE :O CULTIVAT$ IT - ALL !SE CAUSES R$UC$ ! ,EMPIRE TO A %AMBLES1 & ON !SE RU9S A NEW CIVILIZATION DEVELOP$ :I* IS N[ \RS4 

,SO1 IF WE LEAVE ASIDE ! CIVILIZATION ( ANTIQUITY1 & CONC5TRATE \R ATT5TION ON ! ORIG9 & DEVELOPM5TS ( ?IS Y\NG B>B>IAN CIVILIZATION1 RI<T UP TO ! TIMES :51 9 ITS TURN1 IT GAVE BIR? TO \R MOD]N ,/ATES1 WE WILL BE ABLE TO CAPTURE ! ESS5CE ( ! ,/ATE BETT] ?AN HAD WE DIRECT$ \R /UDIES TO ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 OR TO ?AT ( ,ALEX&] ( ,MAC$ONIA1 OR AGA9 ! DESPOTIC MON>*IES ( ! ,EA/4 

,9 US+1 = 9/ANCE1 !SE P[]FUL B>B>IAN OV]?R[]S ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE AS \R PO9T ( DEP>TURE1 WE WILL BE ABLE TO RETRACE ! EVOLUTION ( \R :OLE CIVILIZATION1 FROM ITS BEG9N+S & UP TO ITS ,/ATAL PHASE4 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

O ,SECTION #b 

,PHOTO BY ,JOEL ,HANSELL1,C,C ,B,Y ,LIC5SE ,MO/ PHILOSOPH]S ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY HAD V]Y ELEM5T>Y IDEAS ON ! ORIG9 ( SOCIETIES4 

,ACCORD+ TO !M1 9 ! BEG9N+ ,MANK9D LIV$ 9 SMALL ISOLAT$ FAMILIES1 & P]PETUAL W>F>E BETWE5 !M WAS ! NORMAL /ATE ( AFFAIRS4 ,BUT1 ONE DAY1 REALIZ+ AT LA/ ! DISADVANTAGES ( !IR 5DLESS /RUGGLES1 M5 DECID$ TO SOCIALIZE4 ,A SOCIAL CONTRACT WAS CONCLUD$ AMONG ! SCATT]$ FAMILIES :O WILL+LY SUBMITT$ !MSELVES TO AN AU?ORITY :I* - NE$ ,I SAY8 - BECAME ! />T+-PO9T AS WELL AS ! 9ITIATOR ( ALL PROGRESS4 ,& DOES ONE NE$ TO ADD1 S9CE WE HAVE BE5 TOLD AS MU* AT S*OOL1 ?AT \R PRES5T GOV]NM5TS HAVE SO F> REMA9$ 9 !IR NOBLE ROLE AS ! SALT ( ! E>?1 ! PACIFI]S & CIVILIZ]S ( ! HUMAN RACE8 

,?IS IDEA DOM9AT$ ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 A P]IOD 9 :I* V]Y LITTLE WAS KN[N AB\T ! ORIG9S ( ,MAN2 & ONE MU/ ADD ?AT 9 ! H&S ( ! ,5CYCLOP$I/S & ( ,R\SSEAU1 ! IDEA ( ! 'SOCIAL CONTRACT' BECAME A WEAPON ) :I* TO FI<T ! DIV9E RI<TS ( K+S4 ,NEV]!LESS1 9 SPITE ( ! S]VICES IT MAY HAVE R5D]$ 9 ! PA/1 ?IS !ORY MU/ BE SE5 TO BE FALSE4 

,! FACT IS ?AT ALL ANIMALS1 ) ! EXCEPTION ( SOME C>NIVORES & BIRDS ( PREY1 & SOME SPECIES :I* >E BECOM+ EXT9CT1 LIVE 9 SOCIETIES4 ,9 ! /RUGGLE = LIFE1 IT IS ! GREG>I\S SPECIES :I* HAVE AN ADVANTAGE OV] ?OSE ?AT >E NOT4 ,9 EV]Y ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION !Y >E AT ! TOP ( ! LADD] & !RE CANNOT BE ! SLI<TE/ D\BT ?AT ! FIR/ HUMAN BE+S ) HUMAN ATTRIBUTES W]E ALREADY LIV+ 9 SOCIETIES4 

,MAN DID NOT CREATE SOCIETY2 SOCIETY EXI/$ BE=E ,MAN4 

,WE N[ ALSO KN[ - & IT HAS BE5 CONV9C+LY DEMON/RAT$ BY AN?ROPOLOGY - ?AT ! PO9T ( DEP>TURE = MANK9D WAS NOT ! FAMILY BUT ! CLAN1 ! TRIBE4 ,! PATRI>*AL FAMILY AS WE KN[ IT1 OR AS IT IS DEPICT$ 9 ,HEBREW TRADITIONS1 DID NOT APPE> UNTIL V]Y MU* LAT]4 MAN SP5T T5S ( ?\S&S ( YE>S 9 ! CLAN OR TRIBAL PHASE - LET US CALL IT ! PRIMITIVE TRIBE OR1 IF Y\ WI%1 ! SAVAGE TRIBE - & DUR+ ?IS TIME MAN HAD ALREADY DEVELOP$ A :OLE S]IES ( 9/ITUTIONS1 HABITS & CU/OMS MU* E>LI] ?AN ! 9/ITUTIONS ( ! PATRI>*AL FAMILY4 

,9 !SE TRIBES1 ! SEP>ATE FAMILY NO MORE EXI/$ ?AN IT EXI/S AMONG SO MANY O!R SOCIABLE MAMMALS4 ,ANY DIVISION )9 ! TRIBE WAS MA9LY BETWE5 G5]ATIONS2 & FROM A F> DI/ANT AGE1 GO+ RI<T BACK TO ! DAWN ( ! HUMAN RACE1 LIMITATIONS HAD BE5 IMPOS$ TO PREV5T SEXUAL RELATIONS BETWE5 ! DIFF]5T G5]ATIONS1 :I* H[EV] W]E ALL[$ BETWE5 ?OSE ( ! SAME G5]ATION4 ,ONE CAN /ILL F9D TRACES ( ?AT P]IOD 9 SOME CONTEMPOR>Y TRIBES AS WELL AS 9 ! LANGUAGE1 CU/OMS & SUP]/ITIONS ( PEOPLES ( A MU* HI<] CULTURE4 

,HUNT+ & FOOD-GA!R+ W]E 5GAG$ 9 BY ! :OLE TRIBE 9 COMMON1 & ONCE !IR HUNG] WAS SATISFI$1 !Y GAVE !MSELVES UP ) PASSION TO !IR DRAMATIZ$ DANCES4 ,TO ?IS DAY WE /ILL F9D TRIBES :O >E V]Y CLOSE TO ?IS PRIMITIVE PHASE LIV+ ON ! P]IPH]Y ( ! L>GE CONT95TS1 OR 9 ! VIC9ITY ( M\NTA9\S REGIONS1 9 ! LEA/ ACCESSIBLE P>TS ( ! WORLD4 

,! ACCUMULATION ( PRIVATE PROP]TY C\LD NOT !N TAKE PLACE !RE1 S9CE ANY?+ ?AT HAD BE5 ! P]SONAL POSSESSION ( A MEMB] ( ! TRIBE WAS DE/ROY$ OR BURN$ :]E HIS BODY WAS BURI$4 ,?IS IS /ILL DONE1 9 ,5GL& TOO1 BY ! ,GYPSIES1 & FUN]AL RITES ( 'CIVILIZ$' PEOPLE /ILL BE> ! IMPR9T ( ?IS CU/OM3 ?US ! ,*9ESE BURN PAP] MODELS ( ! DEAD P]SON'S POSSESSIONS1 & AT ! MILIT>Y LEAD]'S FUN]AL HIS HORSE1 HIS SWORD & DECORATIONS ACCOMPANY HIM AS F> AS HIS GRAVE4 ,! MEAN+ ( ! 9/ITUTION HAS BE5 LO/1 BUT ! =M HAS SURVIV$4 

,F> FROM EXPRESS+ CONTEMPT = HUMAN LIFE1 ?OSE PRIMITIVE PEOPLE HAT$ MURD] & BLOOD4 ,TO SPILL BLOOD WAS CONSID]$ SU* A GRAVE MATT]1 ?AT EV]Y DROP SPILL$ - NOT ONLY HUMAN BLOOD BUT ALSO ?AT ( SOME ANIMALS - REQUIR$ ?AT ! AGGRESSOR %\LD LOSE AN EQUAL AM\NT ( HIS [N BLOOD4 

,FUR!RMORE1 MURD] )9 ! TRIBE IS SOME?+ QUITE UNKN[N2 = 9/ANCE AMONG ! ,9UITS OR ,ESKIMOS - ?OSE SURVIVORS ( ! ,/ONE ,AGE :O 9HABIT ! ,>CTIC REGIONS - OR AMONG ! ,ALEUTIANS1 ETC41 ONE DEF9ITELY KN[S ?AT !RE HAS NOT BE5 A S+LE MURD] )9 ! TRIBE = FIFTY1 SIXTY OR MORE YE>S4 

,BUT :5 TRIBES ( DIFF]5T ORIG91 COLOR & LANGUAGE MET 9 ! C\RSE ( !IR MIGRATIONS1 IT (T5 5D$ 9 W>4 ,IT IS TRUE ?AT EV5 !N M5 W]E SEEK+ TO MAKE !SE 5C\NT]S MORE PACIFIC4 ,TRADITION1 AS ,MA9E1 ,PO/ & ,E4 ,NYS HAVE SO WELL DEMON/RAT$1 WAS ALREADY DEVELOP+ ! G]MS ( :AT 9 DUE C\RSE BECAME ,9T]NATIONAL ,LAW4 ,= 9/ANCE1 A VILLAGE C\LD NOT BE ATTACK$ )\T W>N+ ! 9HABITANTS4 ,NEV] W\LD ANYONE D>E TO KILL ON ! PA? US$ BY WOM5 TO REA* ! SPR+4 ,& (T5 TO MAKE PEACE IT WAS NECESS>Y TO BALANCE ! NUMB]S ( M5 KILL$ ON BO? SIDES4 

,H[EV]1 ALL !SE PRECAUTIONS & MANY O!RS BESIDES W]E NOT 5\<3 SOLID>ITY DID NOT EXT5D BEYOND ! CONF9ES ( ! CLAN OR TRIBE2 QU>RELS >OSE BETWE5 PEOPLE ( DIFF]5T CLANS & TRIBES1 :I* C\LD 5D 9 VIOL5CE & EV5 MURD]4 

,FROM ?AT P]IOD A G5]AL LAW BEGAN TO BE DEVELOP$ BETWE5 ! CLANS & TRIBES4 ,Y\R MEMB]S HAVE W\ND$ OR KILL$ ONE ( \RS2 WE HAVE A RI<T !RE=E TO KILL ONE ( Y\ OR TO 9FLICT A SIMIL> W\ND ON ONE ( Y\1 & IT DID NOT MATT] :O1 S9CE ! TRIBE WAS ALWAYS RESPONSIBLE = ! 9DIVIDUAL ACTS ( ITS MEMB]S4 

,! WELL-KN[N BIBLICAL V]SES3 0,BLOOD = BLOOD1 AN EYE = AN EYE1 A TOO? = A TOO?1 A W\ND = A W\ND1 A LIFE = A LIFE0 - BUT NO MORE6 ,AS ,KO5IGSW>T] PUT IT SO WELL - [E !IR ORIG9 TO !M4 ,IT WAS !IR CONCEPT ( JU/ICE444& WE HAVE NO REASON TO FEEL SUP]IOR S9CE ! PR9CIPLE ( 'A LIFE = A LIFE' :I* PREVAILS 9 \R CODES IS ONLY ONE ( ITS MANY SURVIVALS4 

,IT IS CLE> ?AT A :OLE S]IES ( 9/ITUTIONS 7& MANY O!RS ,I %ALL NOT M5TION7 AS WELL AS A COMPLETE CODE ( TRIBAL MORALITY1 W]E ALREADY DEVELOP$ DUR+ ?IS PRIMITIVE PHASE4 ,& ?IS NUCLEUS ( SOCIABLE CU/OMS WAS KEPT ALIVE BY USAGE1 CU/OM & TRADITION ONLY4 ,!RE WAS NO AU?ORITY ) :I* TO IMPOSE IT4 

,!RE CAN BE NO D\BT ?AT PRIMITIVE SOCIETY HAD TEMPOR>Y LEAD]S4 ,! SORC]]1 ! RA9-MAK] - ! LE>N$ M5 ( ?AT AGE - S\<T TO PR(IT FROM :AT !Y KNEW AB\T NATURE 9 ORD] TO DOM9ATE !IR FELL[ BE+S4 ,SIMIL>LY1 HE :O C\LD MORE EASILY MEMORIZE ! PROV]BS & SONGS 9 :I* ALL TRADITION WAS EMBODI$ BECAME 9FLU5TIAL4 ,AT POPUL> FE/IVALS HE W\LD RECITE !SE PROV]BS & SONGS 9 :I* W]E 9CORPORAT$ ! DECISIONS ?AT HAD BE5 TAK5 ON SU*-&-SU* AN OCCASION BY ! PEOPLE'S ASSEMBLY 9 SU*-&-SU* A CONNECTION4 ,9 MANY A SMALL TRIBE ?IS IS /ILL DONE4 ,& DAT+ FROM ?AT AGE1 !SE '$UCAT$' MEMB]S S\<T TO 5SURE A DOM9ANT ROLE = !MSELVES BY COMMUNICAT+ !IR KN[L$GE ONLY TO ! *OS5 FEW1 TO ! 9ITIATES4 ,ALL RELIGIONS1 & EV5 ! >TS & ALL TRADES HAVE BEGUN ) 'MY/]IES'1 & MOD]N RESE>* DEMON/RATES ! IMPORTANT ROLE ?AT SECRET SOCIETIES ( ! 9ITIATES PLAY TO MA9TA9 SOME TRADITIONAL PRACTICES 9 PRIMITIVE CLANS4 ,ALREADY ! G]MS ( AU?ORITY >E PRES5T !RE4 

,IT GOES )\T SAY+ ?AT ! C\RAGE\S1 ! D>+ &1 ABOVE ALL1 ! PRUD5T1 ALSO BECAME ! TEMPOR>Y LEAD]S 9 ! /RUGGLES ) O!R TRIBES OR DUR+ MIGRATIONS4 ,BUT !RE WAS NO ALLIANCE BETWE5 ! BE>] ( ! 'LAW' 7! ONE :O KNEW BY HE>T ! TRADITION & PA/ DECISIONS71 ! MILIT>Y *IEF & ! SORC]] & ! ,/ATE WAS NO MORE P>T ( !SE TRIBES ?AN IT IS ( ! SOCIETY ( BEES OR ANTS1 OR ( \R CONTEMPOR>IES ! ,PATAGONIANS & ! ,ESKIMOS4 

,NEV]!LESS ?AT PHASE LA/$ = MANY ?\S&S ( YE>S1 & ! B>B>IANS :O OV]RAN ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE HAD ALSO GONE ?R\< ?IS PHASE & W]E ONLY JU/ EM]G+ FROM IT4 

,9 ! E>LY C5TURIES ( \R ]A !RE W]E WIDESPREAD MIGRATIONS ( ! TRIBES & CONF$]ATIONS ( TRIBES ?AT 9HABIT$ ,C5TRAL & ,NOR!RN ,ASIA4 ,WAVES ( SMALL TRIBES DRIV5 BY MORE OR LESS CIVILIZ$ PEOPLES :O HAD COME D[N FROM ! HI< TABLE L&S ( ,ASIA - !Y !MSELVES HAD PROBABLY BE5 DRIV5 AWAY BY ! RAPID DESICCATION ( !SE PLATEAUX .<#a.> - SPREAD ALL OV] ,EUROPE1 EA* DRIV+ ! O!R & BE+ ASSIMILAT$ 9 !IR DRIVE T[>DS ! ,WE/4 

,9 ! C\RSE ( !SE MIGRATIONS1 9 :I* SO MANY TRIBES ( DIFF]5T ORIG9S BECAME ASSIMILAT$1 ! PRIMITIVE TRIBE :I* /ILL EXI/$ AMONG MO/ ( ! SAVAGE 9HABITANTS ( ,EUROPE C\LD NOT AVOID DIS9TEGRATION4 ,! TRIBE WAS BAS$ ON A COMMON ORIG9 & ! CULT ( COMMON ANCE/ORS2 BUT TO :I* COMMON ORIG9 C\LD !SE AGGLOM]ATIONS ( PEOPLE APPEAL :5 !Y EM]G$ FROM ! CONFUSION ( MIGRATIONS1 DRIVES1 9T]-TRIBAL W>S1 DUR+ :I* H]E & !RE ONE C\LD ALREADY OBS]VE ! EM]G5CE ( ! PAT]NAL FAMILY - ! NUCLEUS =M$ BY ! EXCLUSIVE POSSESSION BY SOME ( WOM5 WON OR C>RI$ (F FROM NEI<BOR+ TRIBES8 

,! OLD TIES W]E BROK51 & TO AVOID DISRUPTION 7:I*1 9 FACT1 DID OCCUR = MANY TRIBES1 :I* DISAPPE>$ = EV]7 NEW L9KS HAD TO BE =G$4 ,& !Y W]E E/ABLI%$ ?R\< ! COMMUNAL POSSESSION ( ! L& - ( ! T]RITORY ON :I* EA* AGGLOM]ATION HAD F9ALLY SETTL$4 .<#b.> 

,! POSSESSION 9 COMMON ( A P>TICUL> >EA - ( ?IS SMALL VALLEY OR ?OSE HILLS - BECAME ! BASIS = A NEW UND]/&+4 ,! ANCE/RAL GODS LO/ ALL MEAN+2 SO !N LOCAL GODS1 ( ?AT SMALL VALLEY OR ?IS RIV] OR ?AT =E/1 GAVE !IR RELIGI\S SANCTION TO ! NEW AGGLOM]ATIONS BY REPLAC+ ! GODS ( ! ORIG9AL TRIBE4 ,LAT] ,*RI/IANITY1 ALWAYS WILL+ TO ADJU/ TO PAGAN SURVIVALS1 MADE !M 9TO LOCAL SA9TS4 

,H5CE=?1 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY CONSI/+ 5TIRELY OR P>TLY ( 9DIVIDUAL FAMILIES - ALL UNIT$1 H[EV]1 BY ! POSSESSION 9 COMMON ( ! L& - BECAME ! ESS5TIAL L9K = C5TURIES TO COME4 

,OV] VA/ >EAS ( EA/]N ,EUROPE1 ,ASIA & ,AFRICA IT /ILL SURVIVES4 ,! B>B>IANS - ,SC&9AVIANS1 ,G]MANS1 ,SLAVS1 ETC4 - :O DE/ROY$ ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE LIV$ UND] SU* AN ORGANIZATION4 ,& BY /UDY+ ! CODES ( ! B>B>IANS ( ?AT P]IOD1 AS WELL AS ! CONF$]ATIONS ( VILLAGE COMMUNITIES ?AT EXI/ TODAY AMONG ! ,KABYLES1 ! ,MONGOLS1 ! ,H9DUS1 ! ,AFRICANS1 ETC41 IT HAS BE5 POSSIBLE TO RECON/RUCT 9 ITS 5TIRETY ?AT =M ( SOCIETY :I* WAS ! />T+ PO9T ( \R PRES5T CIVILIZATION AS IT IS TODAY4 

,LET US !RE=E HAVE A LOOK AT ?IS 9/ITUTION4 

.<#a.> ,! REASONS :I* LEAD ME TO ?IS HYPO!SIS >E PUT =W>D 9 A PAP]1 ,DESICCATION ( ,EUR-,ASIA1 COMPIL$ = ! ,RESE>* ,DEP>TM5T ( ! ,GEOGRAPHICAL ,SOCIETY ( ,LONDON1 & PUBLI%$ 9 ITS ,GEOGRAPHICAL ,J\RNAL = ,JUNE #a#i#d4 

.<#b.> ,READ]S 9T]E/$ 9 ?IS SUBJECT AS WELL AS 9 ?AT ( ! COMMUNAL PHASES & ( ! FREE CITIES1 WILL F9D MORE DETAIL$ 9=MATION & S\RCE REF]5CES 9 MY BOOK ,MUTUAL ,AID4 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

O ,SECTION #c 

,PHOTO BY ,METRO ,C5TRIC1,C,C ,B,Y ,LIC5SE ,! VILLAGE COMMUNITY CONSI/$ !N1 AS IT /ILL DOES1 ( 9DIVIDUAL FAMILIES4 ,BUT ALL ! FAMILIES ( ! SAME VILLAGE [N$ ! L& 9 COMMON4 ,!Y CONSID]$ IT AS !IR COMMON H]ITAGE & %>$ IT \T AMONG !MSELVES ON ! BASIS ( ! SIZE ( EA* FAMILY - !IR NE$S & !IR POT5TIAL4 ,HUNDR$S ( MILLIONS ( HUMAN BE+S /ILL LIVE 9 ?IS WAY 9 ,EA/]N ,EUROPE1 ,9DIA1 ,JAVA1 ETC4 ,IT IS ! SAME K9D ( SY/EM ?AT HAS BE5 E/ABLI%$ 9 \R TIME BY ,RUSSIAN PEASANTS1 FREELY 9 ,SIB]IA1 AS SOON AS ! ,/ATE GAVE !M A *ANCE TO OCCUPY ! VA/ ,SIB]IAN T]RITORY 9 !IR [N WAY4 

,TODAY ! CULTIVATION ( ! L& 9 A VILLAGE COMMUNITY IS C>RI$ \T BY EA* 9DIVIDUAL H\SEHOLD 9DEP5D5TLY4 ,S9CE ALL ! >ABLE L& IS %>$ \T BETWE5 ! FAMILIES 7& FUR!R %>$ \T :5 NECESS>Y7 EA* CULTIVATES ITS FIELD AS BE/ IT CAN4 ,BUT ORIG9ALLY1 ! L& WAS ALSO WORK$ 9 COMMON1 & ?IS CU/OM IS /ILL C>RI$ ON 9 MANY PLACES - AT LEA/ ON A P>T ( ! L&4 ,AS TO ! CLE>+ ( WOODL& & ! ?9N+ ( =E/S1 ! CON/RUCTION ( BRIDGES1 ! BUILD+ ( SMALL =TS & TURRETS1 = USE AS PLACES ( SAFETY 9 ! EV5T ( 9VASION - ALL !SE ACTIVITIES W]E C>RI$ \T ON A COMMUNAL BASIS1 JU/ AS HUNDR$S ( MILLIONS ( PEASANTS /ILL DO :]E ! VILLAGE COMMUNE HAS HELD \T AGA9/ ! 5CROA*M5TS ( ! ,/ATE4 ,BUT 'CONSUMPTION' - TO USE A MOD]N T]M - WAS ALREADY OP]AT+ ON A FAMILY BASIS1 EA* FAMILY HAV+ ITS CATTLE1 ITS KIT*5 G>D5 & /ORES4 ,! MEANS BO? = HO>D+ & = H&+ D[N GOODS & *ATTELS ACCUMULAT$ ?R\< 9H]ITANCE HAD ALREADY BE5 9TRODUC$4 

,9 ALL ITS AFFAIRS ! VILLAGE COMMUNE WAS SOV]EIGN4 ,LOCAL CU/OM WAS LAW & ! PL5>Y ASSEMBLY ( ALL ! HEADS ( FAMILY1 M5 & WOM51 WAS ! JUDGE1 ! ONLY JUDGE1 9 CIVIL & CRIM9AL MATT]S4 ,:5 AN 9HABITANT HAD LODG$ A COMPLA9T AGA9/ ANO!R & /UCK HIS KNIFE 9 ! GR\ND AT ! PLACE :]E ! COMMUNE NORMALLY ASSEMBL$1 ! COMMUNE HAD TO 'F9D ! S5T5CE' ACCORD+ TO LOCAL CU/OM ONCE ! FACT ( AN (F5SE HAD BE5 E/ABLI%$ BY ! JURIES ( ! TWO P>TIES 9 LITIGATION4 

,W]E ,I TO REC\NT ALL ! 9T]E/+ ASPECTS ( ?IS PHASE1 ,I W\LD NOT HAVE ! SPACE 9 :I* TO DO SO4 ,I MU/ !RE=E REF] ! READ] TO ,MUTUAL ,AID4 ,SUFFICE IT TO M5TION H]E ?AT ALL ! 9/ITUTIONS :I* ,/ATES W]E TO SEIZE LAT] = ! B5EFIT ( M9ORITIES1 ?AT ALL NOTIONS ( LAW ?AT EXI/ 9 \R CODES 7:I* HAVE BE5 MUTILAT$ 9 FAVOR ( M9ORITIES7 & ALL =MS ( JUDICIAL PROC$URE1 9 SO F> AS !Y (F] GU>ANTEES TO ! 9DIVIDUAL1 HAD !IR BEG9N+S 9 ! VILLAGE COMMUNE4 ,SO :5 WE IMAG9E ?AT WE HAVE MADE GREAT ADVANCES 9 9TRODUC+ = 9/ANCE1 ! JURY1 ALL WE HAVE DONE IS TO RETURN TO ! 9/ITUTION ( ! SO-CALL$ 'B>B>IANS' AFT] HAV+ *ANG$ IT TO ! ADVANTAGE ( ! RUL+ CLASSES4 ,ROMAN LAW WAS SIMPLY GRAFT$ TO CU/OM>Y LAW4 

,! S5SE ( NATIONAL UNITY WAS DEVELOP+ AT ! SAME TIME ?R\< L>GE FREE F$]ATIONS ( VILLAGE COMMUNES4 

,! VILLAGE COMMUNE1 BE+ BAS$ ON ! POSSESSION 9 COMMON & V]Y (T5 9 ! CULTIVATION 9 COMMON ( ! L&2 & BE+ SOV]EIGN BO? AS JUDGE & LEGISLATOR ( CU/OM>Y LAW1 SATISFI$ MO/ ( ! NE$S ( ! SOCIAL BE+4 

,BUT NOT ALL ITS NE$S3 !RE W]E /ILL O!RS ?AT HAD TO BE SATISFI$4 ,N[1 ! SPIRIT ( ! TIMES WAS NOT TO APPEAL TO A GOV]NM5T AS SOON AS A NEW NE$ WAS MAK+ ITSELF FELT4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y ! 9DIVIDUALS !MSELVES W\LD TAKE ! 9ITIATIVE TO COME TOGE!R1 TO JO9 =CES1 & TO F$]ATE2 TO CREATE AN 5T5TE1 L>GE OR SMALL1 NUM]\S OR RE/RICT$1 :I* WAS 9 KEEP+ ) ! NEW NE$4 ,& SOCIETY !N WAS LIT]ALLY COV]$1 AS IF BY A NETWORK1 ( SWORN BRO!RHOODS2 ( GUILDS = MUTUAL AID1 ( 'CONJURATIONS'1 9 ! VILLAGE AS WELL AS \TSIDE IT1 9 ! F$]ATION4 

,WE MAY OBS]VE ?IS PHASE & SPIRIT AT WORK EV5 TODAY1 AMONG MANY B>B>IAN F$]ATIONS1 :I* HAVE REMA9$ \TSIDE ! MOD]N ,/ATES COPI$ ON ! ,ROMAN OR RA!R ,BYZANT9E MODEL4 

,?US1 TO TAKE ONE EXAMPLE AMONG MANY1 ! ,KABYLES HAVE MA9TA9$ !IR VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 ) ! *>ACT]I/ICS ,I HAVE JU/ M5TION$3 L& 9 COMMON1 COMMUNAL TRIBUNALS1 ETC4 ,BUT MAN FEELS ! NE$ = ACTION BEYOND ! N>R[ CONF9ES ( HIS HAMLET4 ,SOME ROVE ! WORLD SEEK+ ADV5TURE AS P$DL]S4 ,O!RS TAKE UP SOME K9D ( TRADE - OR '>T'4 ,& ?OSE P$DL]S & ?OSE >TISANS JO9 TOGE!R 9 'FRAT]NITIES'1 EV5 :5 !Y BELONG TO DIFF]5T VILLAGES1 TRIBES OR CONF$]ATIONS4 ,UNION IS NE$$ = MUTUAL SUCCOR ON VOYAGES TO DI/ANT L&S1 = ! MUTUAL EX*ANGE ( ! MY/]IES ( ONE'S TRADE1 & SO !Y JO9 =CES4 ,!Y SWE> BRO!RHOOD & PRACTICE IT 9 A WAY ?AT MAKES A DEEP IMPRESSION ON ,EUROPEANS2 IT IS A REAL BRO!RHOOD & NOT JU/ EMPTY WORDS4 

,FUR!RMORE1 MIS=TUNE CAN OV]TAKE ANYONE4 ,:O KN[S BUT ?AT TOMORR[ 9 A BRAWL A NORMALLY G5TLE & QUIET MAN MAY EXCE$ ! E/ABLI%$ LIMITS ( DECORUM & SOCIABILITY8 ,:O KN[S :E!R HE MI<T RESORT TO BL[S & 9FLICT W\NDS8 ,IT WILL BE NECESS>Y TO PAY HEAVY COMP5SATION TO ! (F5D$ OR W\ND$ P>TY2 IT WILL BE NECESS>Y TO PLEAD ONE'S CAUSE BE=E ! VILLAGE ASSEMBLY1 & TO RECON/RUCT ! FACTS1 ON ! TE/IMONY ( SIX1 T5 OR TWELVE 'SWORN BRO!RS'4 ,ALL ! MORE REASON TO 5T] A FRAT]NITY4 

,BESIDES1 MAN FEELS ! NE$ TO M$DLE 9 POLITICS1 TO 5GAGE 9 9TRIGUE P]HAPS1 OR TO PROPAGATE A P>TICUL> MORAL OP9ION OR A P>TICUL> CU/OM4 ,F9ALLY1 EXT]NAL PEACE HAS TO BE SAFEGU>D$2 ALLIANCES ) O!R TRIBES TO BE CONCLUD$1 F$]ATIONS TO BE CON/ITUT$ F> & WIDE2 ELEM5TS ( 9T]TRIBAL LAW TO BE SPREAD ABROAD4 ,WELL !N1 TO GRATIFY ALL !SE NE$S ( AN EMOTIONAL OR 9TELLECTUAL NATURE1 ! ,KABYLES1 ! ,MONGOLS1 ! ,MALAYS1 DO NOT APPEAL TO A GOV]NM5T2 !Y HAV5'T ONE4 ,BE+ M5 ( CU/OM>Y LAW1 & 9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE1 !Y HAVE NOT BE5 P]V]T$ FROM ACT+ = !MSELVES BY ! CORRUPT+ =CE ( GOV]NM5T & ,*UR*4 ,!Y UNITE SPONTANE\SLY4 ,!Y =M SWORN BRO!RHOODS1 POLITICAL & RELIGI\S ASSOCIATIONS1 CRAFT ASSOCIATIONS - GUILDS AS !Y W]E CALL$ 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 & C(S AS !Y >E CALL$ TODAY BY ! ,KABYLES4 ,& !SE C(S EXT5D BEYOND ! B\ND>IES ( ! HAMLET2 !Y EXT5D F> & WIDE 9TO ! DES]T & TO =EIGN CITIES2 & BRO!RHOOD IS PRACTIC$ 9 !SE ASSOCIATIONS4 ,TO REFUSE HELP TO A MEMB] ( ONE'S C( - EV5 AT ! RISK ( LOS+ ALL ONE'S POSSESSIONS & ONE'S LIFE - IS TO COMMIT AN ACT ( TREASON TO ! 'BRO!RHOOD'2 IT IS TO BE TREAT$ AS ONE'S 'BRO!R'S' MURD]]4 

,:AT WE F9D TODAY AMONG ! ,KABYLES1 ,MONGOLS1 ,MALAYS1 ETC41 WAS ! V]Y ESS5CE ( LIFE ( ! B>B>IANS 9 ,EUROPE FROM ! FIF? TO ! TWELF? & EV5 UNTIL ! FIFTE5? C5TURY4 ,UND] ! NAME ( GUILDS1 FRI5D%IPS1 BRO!RHOODS1 ETC41 ASSOCIATIONS AB\ND$ = MUTUAL DEF5SE1 TO AV5GE AFFRONTS SUFF]$ BY SOME MEMB]S ( ! UNION & TO EXPRESS SOLID>ITY1 TO REPLACE ! 'EYE = AN EYE' V5GEANCE BY COMP5SATION1 FOLL[$ BY ! ACCEPTANCE ( ! AGGRESSOR 9 ! BRO!RHOOD2 = ! EX]CISE ( TRADES1 = AID 9 CASE ( ILLNESS1 = DEF5SE ( ! T]RITORY2 TO PREV5T 5CROA*M5TS ( A NASC5T AU?ORITY2 = COMM]CE1 = ! PRACTICE ( 'GOOD NEI<BORL9ESS'2 = PROPAG&A - 9 A WORD = ALL ?AT ,EUROPEANS1 $UCAT$ BY ! ,ROME ( ! ,CAES>S & ! ,POPES1 N[ADAYS EXPECT FROM ! ,/ATE4 ,IT IS EV5 V]Y D\BTFUL :E!R !RE WAS A S+LE MAN 9 ?AT P]IOD1 FREE MAN OR S]F1 AP>T FROM ?OSE :O HAD BE5 BANN$ BY !IR [N BRO!RHOODS1 :O DID NOT BELONG TO A BRO!RHOOD OR SOME GUILD1 AS WELL AS TO HIS COMMUNE4 

,! ,SC&9AVIAN ,SAGAS EXTOLL !IR A*IEVEM5TS2 ! DEVOTION ( SWORN BRO!RS IS ! !ME ( ! MO/ BEAUTIFUL POEMS4 ,( C\RSE1 ! ,*UR* & NASC5T K+S1 REPRES5TATIVES ( ! ,BYZANT9E 7OR ,ROMAN7 LAW :I* REAPPE>$1 HURL !IR EXCOMMUNICATIONS & !IR RULES & REGULATIONS AT ! BRO!RHOOD1 BUT =TUNATELY !Y REMA9$ A DEAD LETT]4 

,! :OLE HI/ORY ( ! EPO* LOSES ITS MEAN+ & IS QUITE 9COMPREH5SIBLE IF ONE DOES NOT TAKE ?OSE BRO!RHOODS 9TO CONSID]ATION1 !SE UNIONS ( BRO!RS & SI/]S1 :I* SPRANG UP EV]Y:]E TO DEAL ) ! MANY NE$S 9 ! ECONOMIC & P]SONAL LIVES ( ! PEOPLE4 

,9 ORD] TO APPRECIATE ! IMM5SE PROGRESS A*IEV$ BY ?IS D\BLE 9/ITUTION ( VILLAGE COMMUNITIES & FREELY SWORN BRO!RHOODS - \TSIDE ANY ,ROMAN ,CA?OLIC OR ,/ATI/ 9FLU5CE - TAKE = 9/ANCE ,EUROPE AS IT WAS AT ! TIME ( ! B>B>IAN 9VASION1 & COMP>E IT ) :AT IT BECAME 9 ! T5? & ELEV5? C5TURIES4 ,! UNTAM$ =E/ IS CONQU]$ & COLONIZ$2 VILLAGES COV] ! C\NTRY & >E SURR\ND$ BY FIELDS & H$GES & PROTECT$ BY SMALL =TS 9T]L9K$ BY PA?S CROSS+ =E/S & ! M>%ES4 

,9 !SE VILLAGES ONE F9DS ! SE$S ( 9DU/RIAL >TS & DISCOV]S A :OLE NETWORK ( 9/ITUTIONS = MA9TA9+ 9T]NAL & EXT]NAL PEACE4 ,9 ! EV5T ( MURD] OR W\ND+S ! VILLAG]S NO LONG] SEEK AS 9 ! TRIBE1 TO ELIM9ATE OR TO 9FLICT AN EQUIVAL5T W\ND ON ! AGGRESSOR1 OR EV5 ONE ( HIS RELATIVES OR SOME ( HIS FELL[ VILLAG]S4 ,RA!R IS IT ! BRIG&-LORDS :O /ILL ADH]E TO ?AT PR9CIPLE 7H5CE !IR W>S )\T 5D71 :]EAS AMONG VILLAG]S COMP5SATION1 FIX$ BY >BIT]S1 BECOMES ! RULE AFT] :I* PEACE IS REE/ABLI%$ & ! AGGRESSOR IS (T51 IF NOT ALWAYS1 ADOPT$ BY ! FAMILY :O HAS BE5 WRONG$ BY HIS AGGRESSION4 

,>BITRATION = ALL DISPUTES BECOMES A DEEPLY ROOT$ 9/ITUTION 9 DAILY USE - 9 SPITE ( & AGA9/ ! BI%OPS & ! NASC5T K+LETS :O W\LD WI% EV]Y DIFF]5CE %\LD BE LAID BE=E !M1 OR !IR AG5TS1 9 ORD] TO B5EFIT FROM ! F]D - ! F9E =M]LY LEVI$ BY ! VILLAGE ON VIOLATORS ( ! PEACE :5 !Y BR\<T !IR DISPUTE BE=E !M1 & :I* ! K+S & BI%OPS N[ APPROPRIATE4 

,& F9ALLY HUNDR$S ( VILLAGES >E ALREADY UNIT$ 9 P[]FUL F$]ATIONS1 SWORN TO 9T]NAL PEACE1 :O LOOK UPON !IR T]RITORY AS A COMMON H]ITAGE & >E UNIT$ = MUTUAL PROTECTION4 ,!SE W]E ! SE$S ( ,EUROPEAN NATIONS4 ,& TO ?IS DAY ONE CAN /ILL /UDY ?OSE F$]ATIONS 9 OP]ATION AMONG ! ,MONGOL1 ! ,TURKO-,F9NI% & ,MALAYAN TRIBES4 

,MEAN:ILE BLACK CL\DS >E GA!R+ ON ! HORIZON4 ,O!R UNIONS - ( DOM9ANT M9ORITIES - >E ALSO E/ABLI%$1 :I* SEEK SL[LY TO MAKE !SE FREE M5 9TO S]FS1 9TO SUBJECTS4 ,ROME IS DEAD1 BUT ITS TRADITION IS REBORN1 & ! ,*RI/IAN *UR*1 HAUNT$ BY ! VISIONS ( ,EA/]N !OCRACIES1 GIVES ITS P[]FUL SUPPORT TO ! NEW P[]S ?AT SEEK TO E/ABLI% !MSELVES4 

,F> FROM BE+ ! BLOOD?IR/Y BEA/ HE WAS MADE \T TO BE 9 ORD] TO JU/IFY ! NE$ TO DOM9ATE HIM1 ,MAN HAS ALWAYS PREF]R$ PEACE & QUIET4 ,QU>RELSOME RA!R ?AN FI]CE1 HE PREF]S HIS CATTLE1 ! L&1 & HIS HUT TO SOLDI]+4 ,= ?IS REASON1 NO SOON] HAD ! GREAT MIGRATIONS ( B>B>IANS SL[$ D[N1 NO SOON] HAD ! HORDES & ! TRIBES =TIFI$ !MSELVES MORE OR LESS 9 !IR RESPECTIVE T]RITORIES1 ?AN WE SEE ?AT DEF5SE ( ! T]RITORY AGA9/ NEW WAVES ( EMIGRANTS IS 5TRU/$ TO SOMEONE :O 5GAGES A SMALL B& ( ADV5TUR]S - H>D5$ W>RIORS OR BRIG&S - TO FOLL[ HIM1 :ILE ! OV]:ELM+ MAJORITY 5GAGES 9 RE>+ CATTLE1 9 WORK+ ! L&4 ,& ?AT DEF5D] SOON BEG9S TO ACCUMULATE RI*ES2 HE GIVES HORSES & IRON 7!N V]Y EXP5SIVE7 TO ! MIS]ABLE CULTIVATOR :O HAS NEI!R HORSE NOR PL[1 & R$UCES HIM TO S]VITUDE4 ,HE ALSO BEG9S TO LAY D[N ! BASES = MILIT>Y P[]4 

,& AT ! SAME TIME1 LITTLE BY LITTLE1 ! TRADITION ?AT MAKES ! LAW IS BE+ =GOTT5 BY ! MAJORITY4 ,9 EA* VILLAGE ONLY A FEW OLD FOLK CAN REMEMB] ! V]SES & SONGS CONTA9+ ! 'PREC$5TS' ON :I* CU/OM>Y LAW IS BAS$1 & ON FE/IVE OCCASIONS ! REPEAT !SE BE=E ! COMMUNITY4 ,& SL[LY1 C]TA9 FAMILIES MAKE IT !IR SPECIALTY1 TRANSMITT$ FROM FA!R TO SON1 ( REMEMB]+ !SE SONGS & V]SES1 ( PRES]V+ ! PURITY ( ! LAW4 ,VILLAG]S W\LD GO TO !M TO ADJUDICATE ON COMPLICAT$ DISPUTES1 ESPECIALLY :5 TWO CONF$]ATIONS C\LD NOT AGREE TO ACCEPT ! DECISIONS ( ! >BIT]S *OS5 FROM AMONG !MSELVES4 

,PR9CELY & ROYAL AU?ORITY IS ALREADY G]M9AT+ 9 !SE FAMILIES1 & ! MORE ,I /UDY ! 9/ITUTIONS ( ?AT P]IOD ! MORE DO ,I SEE ?AT CU/OM>Y LAW DID MU* MORE TO CREATE ?AT AU?ORITY ?AN DID ! P[] ( ! SWORD4 ,MAN ALL[$ HIMSELF TO BE 5SLAV$ MU* MORE BY HIS DESIRE TO 'PUNI%' ! AGGRESSOR ACCORD+ TO ! LAW ?AN BY DIRECT MILIT>Y CONQUE/4 

,& GRADUALLY ! FIR/ 'CONC5TRATION ( P[]S'1 ! FIR/ MUTUAL ASSURANCE = DOM9ATION - BY JUDGE & MILIT>Y LEAD] - IS MADE AGA9/ ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 ,A S+LE MAN ASSUMES !SE TWO FUNCTIONS4 ,HE SURR\NDS HIMSELF ) >M$ M5 TO C>RY \T ! JUDICIAL DECISIONS2 HE =TIFIES HIMSELF 9 HIS TURRET2 HE ACCUMULATES = HIS FAMILY FAMILY ! RI*ES ( ! TIME - BREAD1 CATTLE IRON - & SL[LY IMPOSES HIS DOM9ATION OV] ! PEASANT 9 ! VIC9ITY4 

,! LE>N$ MAN ( ! P]IOD1 ?AT IS ! SORC]] OR ! PRIE/1 SOON GAVE HIM HIS SUPPORT EI!R TO %>E HIS P[] OR1 BY ADD+ =CE TO ! KN[L$GE ( CU/OM>Y LAW TO HIS P[]S AS A FE>$ MAGICIAN1 ! PRIE/ TAKES IT OV] HIMSELF4 ,FROM :I* /EMS ! TEMPORAL AU?ORITY ( ! BI%OPS 9 ! N9?1 T5? & ELEV5? C5TURIES4 

,I W\LD NE$ A S]IES ( LECTURES RA!R ?AN A *APT] TO DEAL ) ?IS SUBJECT :I* IS SO FULL ( NEW LESSONS1 & TO REC\NT H[ FREE M5 GRADUALLY BECAME S]FS1 =C$ TO WORK = ! LORD ( ! MANOR1 TEMPORAL OR CL]ICAL2 ( H[ AU?ORITY WAS BUILT UP OV] ! VILLAGES & BOR\<S 9 A T5TATIVE1 GROP+ MANN]2 ( H[ ! PEASANTS LEAGU$ TOGE!R1REBELL$1/RUGGL$ TO OPPOSE ?IS GR[+ DOM9ATION2 ( H[ !Y P]I%$ 9 ?OSE ATTACKS AGA9/ ! ?ICK WALLS ( ! CA/LE & AGA9/ ! M5 CLAD 9 IRON DEF5D+ IT4 

,IT WILL BE 5\< = ME TO SAY ?AT R\ND AB\T ! T5? & ELEV5? C5TURIES ! :OLE ( ,EUROPE APPE>$ TO BE MOV+ T[>DS ! CON/ITUTION ( ?OSE B>B>IAN K+DOMS1 SIMIL> TO ! ONES F\ND TODAY 9 ! HE>T ( ,AFRICA1 OR ?OSE ( !OCRACIES ONE KN[S AB\T FROM ,ORI5TAL HI/ORY4 ,?IS C\LD NOT HAPP5 9 A DAY2 BUT ! SE$S ( ?OSE PETTY ROYALTIES & = ?OSE PETTY !OCRACIES W]E ALREADY !RE & W]E 9CREAS+LY MANIFE/+ !MSELVES4 

,=TUNATELY ! 'B>B>IAN' SPIRIT - ,SC&9AVIAN1 ,SAXON1 ,CELT1 ,G]MAN ,SLAV - :I* = SEV5 OR EI<T C5TURIES HAD 9CIT$ M5 TO SEEK ! SATISFACTION ( !IR NE$S ?R\< 9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE & ?R\< FREE AGREEM5T BETWE5 ! BRO!RHOODS & GUILDS - =TUNATELY ?AT SPIRIT P]SI/$ 9 ! VILLAGES & BOR\<S4 ,! B>B>IANS ALL[$ !MSELVES TO BE 5SLAV$1 !Y WORK$ = ! MA/]1 BUT !IR FEEL+ = FREE ACTION & FREE AGREEM5T HAD NOT YET BE5 BROK5 D[N4 ,!IR BRO!RHOODS W]E MORE ALIVE ?AN EV]1 & ! CRUSADES HAD ONLY SUCCE$$ 9 >\S+ & DEVELOP+ !M 9 ! ,WE/4 

,& SO ! REVOLUTION ( ! URBAN COMMUNITIES1 RESULT+ FROM ! UNION ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY & ! SWORN BRO!RHOOD ( ! >TISANS & ! M]*ANT - :I* HAD BE5 PREP>$ LONG S9CE BY ! F$]AL MOOD ( ! P]IOD - EXPLOD$ 9 ! ELEV5? & TWELF? C5TURIES ) /RIK+ EFFECT 9 ,EUROPE4 ,IT HAD ALREADY />T$ 9 ! ,ITALIAN COMMUNITIES 9 ! T5? C5TURY4 

,?IS REVOLUTION1 :I* MO/ UNIV]SITY HI/ORIANS PREF] TO IGNORE1 OR TO UND]E/IMATE1 SAV$ ,EUROPE FROM ! DISA/] :I* ?REAT5$ IT4 ,IT >RE/$ ! DEVELOPM5T ( !OCRATIC & DESPOTIC K+DOMS 9 :I* \R CIVILIZATION MI<T WELL HAVE F\ND]$1 AFT] A FEW C5TURIES ( POMP\S SPL5DOR1 JU/ AS DID ! CIVILIZATIONS ( ,MESOPOTAMIA1 ,ASSYRIA & ,BABYLON4 ,IT OP5$ ! WAY = A NEW WAY ( LIFE3 ?AT ( ! FREE COMMUNES4 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

O ,SECTION #d 

,PHOTO BY ,DAVID ,K5T1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,IT IS EASY TO UND]/& :Y MOD]N HI/ORIANS1 TRA9$ 9 ! ,ROMAN WAY ( ?9K+ & SEEK+ TO ASSOCIATE ALL 9/ITUTIONS ) ,ROME1 F9D IT SO DIFFICULT TO APPRECIATE ! COMMUNALI/ MOVEM5T ?AT EXI/$ 9 ! ELEV5? & TWELF? C5TURIES4 ,?IS MOVEM5T ) ITS VIRILE AFFIRMATION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 & :I* SUCCE$$ 9 CREAT+ A SOCIETY ?R\< ! FREE F$]ATION ( M51 ( VILLAGES & ( T[NS1 WAS ! COMPLETE NEGATION ( ! UNIT>IAN1 C5TRALIZ+ ,ROMAN \TLOOK ) :I* HI/ORY IS EXPLA9$ 9 \R UNIV]SITY CURRICULA4 ,NOR IS IT L9K$ TO ANY HI/ORIC P]SONALITY1 OR TO ANY C5TRAL 9/ITUTION4 

,IT IS A NATURAL DEVELOPM5T1 BELONG+1 JU/ AS DID ! TRIBE & ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 TO A C]TA9 PHASE 9 HUMAN EVOLUTION1 & NOT TO ANY P>TICUL> NATION OR REGION4 ,?IS IS ! REASON :Y ACADEMIC SCI5CE CANNOT BE S5SITIVE TO ITS SPIRIT & :Y ! ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RYS & ! ,SISMONDIS1 HI/ORIANS :O REALLY HAD UND]/OOD ! MOOD ( ! P]IOD1 HAVE NOT HAD FOLL[]S 9 ,FRANCE1 :]E ,LU*AIRE IS /ILL ! ONLY ONE TO HAVE TAK5 UP - MORE OR LESS - ! TRADITION ( ! GREAT HI/ORIAN ( ! ,M]OV+IAN & ,COMMUNALI/ P]IODS4 ,IT FUR!R EXPLA9S :Y1 9 ,5GL& & ,G]MANY1 RESE>* 9TO ?IS P]IOD AS WELL AS AN APPRECIATION ( ITS MOTIVAT+ =CES1 >E ( V]Y REC5T ORIG94 

,! COMMUNE ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 ! FREE CITY1 [ES ITS ORIG9 ON ! ONE H& TO ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 & ON ! O!R1 TO ?OSE ?\S&S ( BRO!RHOODS & GUILDS :I* W]E COM+ TO LIFE 9 ?AT P]IOD 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! T]RITORIAL UNION4 ,AS A F$]ATION BETWE5 !SE TWO K9DS ( UNIONS1 IT WAS ABLE TO ASS]T ITSELF UND] ! PROTECTION ( ITS =TIFI$ RAMP>TS & TURRETS4 

,9 MANY REGIONS IT MANY REGIONS IT WAS A PEACEFUL DEVELOPM5T4 ,ELSE:]E - & ?IS APPLI$ 9 G5]AL TO ,WE/]N ,EUROPE - IT WAS ! RESULT ( A REVOLUTION4 ,AS SOON AS ! 9HABITANTS ( A P>TICUL> BOR\< FELT !MSELVES TO BE SUFFICI5TLY PROTECT$ BY !IR WALLS1 !Y MADE A 'CONJURATION'4 ,!Y MUTUALLY SWORE AN OA? TO DROP ALL P5D+ MATT]S CONC]N+ SL&]1 VIOL5CE OR W\ND+1 & UND]TOOK1 SO F> AS DISPUTES ?AT MI<T >ISE 9 ! FUTURE1 NEV] AGA9 TO HAVE REC\RSE TO ANY JUDGE O!R ?AN ! SYNDICS :I* !Y !MSELVES W\LD NOM9ATE4 ,9 EV]Y GOOD-NEI<BORLY OR >T GUILD1 9 EV]Y SWORN BRO!RHOOD1 IT HAD BE5 NORMAL PRACTICE = A LONG TIME4 ,9 EV]Y VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 SU* AS HAD BE5 ! WAY ( LIFE 9 ! PA/1 BE=E ! BI%OP & ! PETTY K+ HAD MANAG$ TO 9TRODUCE1 & LAT] IMPOSE ON IT1 ITS JUDGE4 

,N[1 ! HAMLETS & P>I%ES :I* MADE UP ! BOR\<1 AS WELL AS ! GUILDS & BRO!RHOODS :I* DEVELOP$ )9 IT1 LOOK$ UPON !MSELVES AS A S+LE AMITAS1 NOM9AT$ !IR JUDGES & SWORE P]MAN5T UNION BETWE5 ALL ?OSE GR\PS4 

,A *>T] WAS SOON DRAWN UP & ACCEPT$4 ,IF NE$ BE1 SOMEONE W\LD BE S5T (F TO COPY ! *>T] ( SOME NEI<BOR+ SMALL COMMUNITY 7WE KN[ ( HUNDR$S ( SU* *>T]S7 & ! COMMUNITY WAS SET UP4 ,! BI%OP OR ! PR9CE1 :O HAD BE5 UNTIL !N ! JUDGE 9 ! COMMUNITY1 & (T5 MORE OR LESS ITS MA/]1 C\LD 9 ! CIRCUM/ANCES ONLY RECOGNIZE ! FAIT ACCOMPLI - OR OPPOSE ! NEW CONJURATION BY =CE ( >MS4 ,(T5 ! K+ - ?AT IS ! PR9CE :O S\<T TO BE A CUT ABOVE ! O!R PR9CES & :OSE C(F]S W]E ALWAYS EMPTY - W\LD 'GRANT' ! *>T] = READY CA%4 ,?US HE REFRA9$ FROM IMPOS+ HIS JUDGE ON ! COMMUNITY1 :ILE AT ! SAME TIME GA9+ PRE/IGE 9 ! EYES ( ! O!R FEUDAL LORDS4 ,BUT ?IS WAS BY NO MEANS ! RULE2 HUNDR$S ( COMMUNES REMA9$ ACTIVE ) NO O!R AU?ORITY ?AN !IR GOODWILL1 !IR RAMP>TS & !IR LANCES4 

,9 ! C\RSE ( A HUNDR$ YE>S1 ?IS MOVEM5T SPREAD 9 AN IMPRESSIVELY H>MONI\S WAY ?R\<\T ,EUROPE - BY IMITATION1 TO BE SURE - COV]+ ,SCOTL&1 ,FRANCE1 ! ,L[ ,C\NTRIES1 ,SC&9AVIA1 ,G]MANY1 ,ITALY1 ,POL& & ,RUSSIA4 ,& :5 WE N[ COMP>E ! ,*>T]S & ! 9T]NAL ORGANIZATION ( ALL !SE COMMUNITIES WE >E /RUCK BY ! VIRTUAL UNI=MITY ( !SE ,*>T]S & ! ORGANIZATION ?AT GREW 9 ! %AD[ ( !SE 'SOCIAL CONTRACTS'4 ,:AT A /RIK+ LESSON = ! ,ROMANI/S & ! ,HEGELIANS = :OM S]VITUDE BE=E ! LAW IS ! ONLY MEANS ( A*IEV+ CON=MITY 9 9/ITUTIONS6 

,FROM ! ,ATLANTIC TO ! MIDDLE C\RSE ( ! ,VOLGA1 & FROM ,NORWAY TO ,SICILY1 ,EUROPE WAS BE+ COV]$ ) SU* COMMUNITIES - SOME BECOM+ POPULAT$ CITIES SU* AS ,FLOR5CE1 ,V5ICE1 ,AMI5S1 ,NUREMB]G OR ,NOVGOROD1 O!RS REMA9+ /RUGGL+ VILLAGES ( A HUNDR$ OR AS FEW AS SOME TW5TY FAMILIES1 BUT NEV]!LESS TREAT$ AS EQUALS BY !IR MORE PROSP]\S SI/]S4 

,AS ORGANISMS BUBBL+ ) LIFE1 COMMUNITIES OBVI\SLY DEVELOP$ 9 DIFF]5T WAYS4 ,GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION1 ! NATURE ( EXT]NAL COMM]CE1 & RESI/ANCE FROM \TSIDE TO OV]COME ALL GAVE EA* COMMUNITY ITS [N HI/ORY4 ,BUT = ALL ( !M ! BASIC PR9CIPLE WAS ! SAME4 ,! SAME FRI5D%IP 7AMITAS7 ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES & ! GUILDS ASSOCIAT$ )9 ! PREC9CTS :E!R IT WAS ,PSKOV 9 ,RUSSIA & ,BRUGES 9 ,FL&]S1 A VILLAGE ( ?REE HUNDR$ 9HABITANTS 9 ,SCOTL& OR PROSP]\S ,V5ICE ) ITS ISL&S1 A VILLAGE 9 ! ,NOR? ( ,FRANCE OR ONE 9 ,POL&1 OR EV5 ,FLOR5CE LA ,BELLE4 ,!Y ALL REPRES5T ! SAME AMITAS2 ! SAME FRI5D%IP ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNES & GUILDS1 UNIT$ BEH9D ! WALL$ PREC9CTS4 ,!IR CON/ITUTION1 9 ITS G5]AL *>ACT]I/ICS1 IS ! SAME4 

,G5]ALLY ! WALLS ( ! T[N GREW LONG] & ?ICK] AS ! POPULATION GREW & W]E FLANK$ BY T[]S :I* GREW TALL] & TALL]1 & W]E EA* RAIS$ BY ?IS OR ?AT DI/RICT1 OR GUILD1 & CONSEQU5TLY DISPLAY$ 9DIVIDUAL *>ACT]I/ICS - ! T[N WAS DIVID$ 9TO F\R1 FIVE OR SIX SECTIONS OR SECTORS1 :I* RADIAT$ FROM ! CITADEL OR ! CA!DRAL T[>DS ! CITY RAMP>TS4 ,EA* ( !SE SECTORS WAS 9HABIT$ MA9LY BY AN '>T' OR TRADE :]EAS ! NEW TRADES - ! 'Y\NG >TS' - OCCUPI$ ! SUBURBS :I* 9 DUE C\RSE W]E 5CLOS$ BY A NEW =TIFI$ WALL4 

,! /REET1 OR ! P>I% REPRES5T$ ! T]RITORIAL UNIT1 CORRESPOND+ TO ! E>LI] VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 ,EA* /REET OR P>I% HAD ITS POPUL> ASSEMBLY1 ITS =UM1 ITS POPUL> TRIBUNAL1 ITS PRIE/1 ITS MILITIA1 ITS BANN] & (T5 ITS SEAL1 ! SYMBOL ( ITS SOV]EIGNTY4 ,?\< F$]AT$ ) O!R /REETS IT NEV]!LESS MA9TA9$ ITS 9DEP5D5CE4 

,! PR(ESSIONAL UNIT :I* (T5 WAS MORE OR LESS ID5TIFI$ ) ! DI/RICT OR ) ! SECTOR1 WAS ! GUILD - ! TRADE UNION4 ,! LATT] ALSO HAD ITS SA9TS1 ITS ASSEMBLY1 ITS =UM & ITS JUDGES4 ,IT HAD ITS FUNDS1 ITS L&$ PROP]TY1 ITS MILITIA & ITS BANN]4 ,IT ALSO HAD ITS SEAL1 SYMBOL ( ITS SOV]EIGNTY4 ,9 ! EV5T ( W>1 ITS MILITIA JO9$1 ASSUM+ IT WAS CONSID]$ EXP$I5T1 ) ! O!R GUILDS & PLANT$ ITS [N BANN] ALONGSIDE ! L>GE BANN] 7C>ROSSE7 ( ! CITY4 

,?US ! CITY WAS ! UNION ( ! DI/RICTS1 /REETS1 P>I%ES & GUILDS1 & HAD ITS PL5>Y ASSEMBLY 9 ! GR& =UM1 ITS L>GE BELFRY1 ITS ELECT$ JUDGES & ITS BANN] TO RALLY ! MILITIAS ( ! GUILDS & DI/RICTS4 ,IT DEALT ) O!R CITIES AS SOV]EIGN1 F$]AT$ ) :OMEV] IT WI%$1 CONCLUD$ ALLIANCES NATIONALLY OR EV5 \TSIDE ! NATIONAL T]RITORY4 ,?US ! ,C9QUE PORTS >\ND ,DOV] W]E F$]AT$ ) ,FR5* & ,DUT* PORTS ACROSS ! ,*ANNEL2 ! ,RUSSIAN ,NOVGOROD WAS ! ALLY ( ! ,G]MANO-,SC&9AVIAN ,HANSA1 & SO ON4 ,9 ITS EXT]NAL RELATIONS EA* CITY POSSESS$ ALL ! ATTRIBUTES ( ! MOD]N ,/ATE4 ,FROM ?AT P]IOD ONW>DS :AT CAME TO BE KN[N LAT] AS ,9T]NATIONAL ,LAW WAS =M$ BY FREE CONTRACTS & SUBJECT TO SANCTION BY PUBLIC OP9ION 9 ALL ! CITIES1 JU/ AS LAT] IT WAS TO BE MORE (T5 VIOLAT$ ?AN RESPECT$ BY ! ,/ATES4 

,ON H[ MANY OCCASIONS W\LD A P>TICUL> CITY1 UNABLE 'TO F9D ! S5T5CE' 9 A P>TICUL>LY COMPLICAT$ CASE1 S5D SOMEONE TO 'SEEK ! S5T5CE' 9 A NEI<BOR+ CITY6 ,H[ (T5 WAS ! PREVAIL+ SPIRIT ( ?AT P]IOD - >BITRATION1 RA!R ?AN ! JUDGE'S AU?ORITY - DEMON/RAT$ ) TWO COMMUNES TAK+ A ?IRD ONE AS >BITRATOR6 

,! TRADES ALSO ACT$ 9 ?IS WAY4 ,!IR COMM]CIAL & CRAFT RELATIONS EXT5D$ BEYOND ! CITY1 & !IR AGREEM5TS W]E MADE )\T TAK+ 9TO ACC\NT NATIONALITY4 ,& :5 9 \R IGNORANCE WE BOA/ ( \R 9T]NATIONAL WORK]S' CONGRESSES1 WE =GET ?AT BY ! FIFTE5? C5TURY 9T]NATIONAL CONGRESSES ( TRADES & EV5 APPR5TICES W]E ALREADY BE+ HELD4 

,LA/LY1 ! CITY EI!R DEF5D$ ITSELF AGA9/ AGGRESSORS & ITSELF WAG$ FI]CE W> AGA9/ ! FEUDAL LORDS 9 ! NEI<BORHOOD1 NAM+ EA* YE> ONE OR TWO MILIT>Y COMM&]S = ITS MILITIAS2 OR IT ACCEPT$ A 'MILIT>Y DEF5D]' - A PR9CE OR A DUKE :I* IT SELECT$ = ONE YE> & DISMISS$ AT WILL4 ,= ! MA9T5ANCE ( HIS SOLDI]S1 HE W\LD BE GIV5 ! RECEIPTS FROM JUDICIAL F9ES2 BUT HE WAS =BIDD5 TO 9T]F]E 9 ! AFFAIRS ( ! CITY4 

,OR IF ! CITY W]E TOO WEAK TO FREE ITSELF FROM ITS NEI<BORS ! FEUDAL VULTURES1 IT KEPT AS ITS MORE OR LESS P]MAN5T MILIT>Y DEF5D]1 ! BI%OP1 OR ! PR9CE ( A P>TICUL> FAMILY - ,GUELF OR ,<IBELL9E 9 ,ITALY1 ! ,RURIK FAMILY 9 ,RUSSIA1 OR ! ,OLG]DS 9 ,LI?UANIA - BUT WAS JEAL\SLY VIGILANT 9 PREV5T+ ! AU?ORITY ( ! BI%OP OR ! PR9CE EXT5D+ BEYOND ! M5 5CAMP$ 9 ! CA/LE4 ,!Y W]E EV5 =BIDD5 TO 5T] ! CITY )\T P]MISSION4 ,TO ?IS DAY ! ,K+ ( ,5GL& CANNOT 5T] ! ,CITY ( ,LONDON )\T ! P]MISSION ( ! ,LORD ,MAYOR4 

,! ECONOMIC LIFE ( ! CITIES 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES W\LD DES]VE TO BE REC\NT$ 9 DETAIL4 ,! 9T]E/$ READ] IS REF]R$ TO :AT ,I HAVE WRITT5 ON ! SUBJECT 9 ,MUTUAL ,AID 9 :I* ,I RELY ON A VA/ BODY ( UP-TO-DATE HI/ORIC RESE>* ON ! SUBJECT4 ,H]E IT MU/ SUFFICE SIMPLY TO NOTE ?AT 9T]NAL COMM]CE WAS DEALT ) 5TIRELY BY ! GUILDS - NOT BY 9DIVIDUAL >TISANS - PRICES BE+ E/ABLI%$ BY MUTUAL AGREEM5T4 ,FUR!RMORE1 AT ! BEG9N+ ( ?AT P]IOD EXT]NAL COMM]CE WAS DEALT ) EXCLUSIVELY BY ! CITY4 ,IT WAS ONLY LAT] ?AT IT BECAME ! MONOPOLY ( ! ,M]*ANTS' ,GUILD1 & LAT] /ILL ( 9DIVIDUAL M]*ANTS4 ,FUR!RMORE1 NOBODY WORK$ ON ,SUNDAYS1 NOR ON ,SATURDAY AFT]NOONS 7BA? DAY74 ,! PROVISION+ ( ! PR9CIPAL CONSUM] GOODS WAS ALWAYS H&L$ BY ! CITY1 & ?IS CU/OM WAS PRES]V$ = CORN 9 SOME ,SWISS T[NS UNTIL ! MIDDLE ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,9 %ORT !RE IS A MASSIVE & V>I$ DOCUM5TATION TO %[ ?AT MANK9D HAS NOT KN[N1 EI!R BE=E OR S9CE1 A P]IOD ( RELATIVE WELL-BE+ ASSUR$ TO EV]YBODY AS EXI/$ 9 ! CITIES ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,! PRES5T POV]TY1 9SECURITY1 & PHYSICAL EXPLOITATION ( LABOR W]E !N UNKN[N4 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

O ,SECTION #e 

,PHOTO BY SECORLEW1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,) !SE ELEM5TS - LIB]TY1 ORGANIZATION FROM ! SIMPLE TO ! COMPLEX1 PRODUCTION & EX*ANGE BY ! ,TRADES 7GUILDS71 =EIGN TRADE H&L$ BY ! :OLE CITY & NOT BY 9DIVIDUALS1 & ! PUR*ASE ( PROVISIONS BY ! CITY = RESALE TO ! CITIZ5S AT CO/ PRICE - ) SU* ELEM5TS1 ! T[NS ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES = ! FIR/ TWO C5TURIES ( !IR FREE EXI/5CES BECAME C5T]S ( WELL-BE+ = ALL ! 9HABITANTS1 C5T]S ( WEAL? & CULTURE1 SU* AS WE HAVE NOT SE5 S9CE4 

,ONE HAS BUT TO CONSULT ! DOCUM5TS :I* MADE IT POSSIBLE TO COMP>E ! RATES AT :I* WORK WAS REMUN]AT$ & ! CO/ ( PROVISIONS - ,ROG]S HAS DONE ?IS = ,5GL& & A GREAT NUMB] ( ,G]MAN WRIT]S = ,G]MANY - TO LE>N ?AT ! LABOR ( AN >TISAN & EV5 ( A SIMPLE DAY-LABOR] WAS PAID AT A RATE NOT ATTA9$ 9 \R TIME1 NOT EV5 BY ! ELITE AMONG WORK]S4 ,! ACC\NT BOOKS ( COLLEGES ( ! ,UNIV]SITY ( ,OX=D 7:I* COV] SEV5 C5TURIES BEG9N+ AT ! TWELF?7 & ( SOME ,5GLI% L&$ E/ATES1 AS WELL AS ?OSE ( A L>GE NUMB] ( ,G]MAN & ,SWISS T[NS1 >E !RE TO BE> WITNESS4 

,IF ONE ALSO CONSID]S ! >TI/IC F9I% & AM\NT ( DECORATIVE WORK ! CRAFTSMAN ( ?AT P]IOD PUT 9TO NOT ONLY ! OBJECTS ( >T HE PRODUC$1 BUT ALSO 9TO ! SIMPLE/ ( H\SEHOLD UT5SILS - A RAIL+1 A C&LE/ICK1 A PIECE ( POTT]Y - ONE REALI/S ?AT HE DID NOT KN[ :AT IT MEANT TO BE HURRI$ 9 HIS WORK1 OR OV]WORK$ AS IS ! CASE 9 \R TIME2 ?AT HE C\LD =GE1 SCULPT1 WEAVE1 OR EMBROID] AS ONLY A V]Y SMALL NUMB] ( WORK]->TI/S AMONG US CAN MANAGE N[ADAYS4 

,F9ALLY1 IF ONE RUNS ?R\< ! LI/ ( DONATIONS MADE TO ! *UR*ES & ! COMMUNAL H\SES ( ! P>I%1 ! GUILD OR ! CITY1 BO? 9 WORKS ( >T - DECORATIVE PANELS1 SCULPTURES1 WR\<T-IRON & CA/ METAL - & 9 MONEY1 ONE REALI/S ! DEGREE ( WELL-BE+ ATTA9$ BY ?OSE CITIES2 ONE ALSO HAS AN 9SI<T 9TO ! SPIRIT ( RESE>* & 9V5TION :I* MANIFE/$ ITSELF & ( ! BREA? ( FRE$OM :I* 9SPIR$ !IR WORKS1 ! FEEL+ ( BRO!RLY SOLID>ITY ?AT GREW UP 9 ?OSE GUILDS 9 :I* M5 ( ! SAME TRADE W]E UNIT$1 NOT SIMPLY = COMM]CIAL & TE*NICAL REASONS1 BUT BY BONDS ( SOCIABILITY & BRO!RHOOD4 ,WAS IT NOT 9 FACT ! RULE ( ! GUILD ?AT TWO BRO!RS %\LD SIT AT ! B$SIDE ( EA* SICK BRO!R - A CU/OM :I* C]TA9LY4 REQUIR$ DEVOTION 9 ?OSE TIMES ( CONTAGI\S DISEASES & ! PLAGUE - & TO FOLL[ HIM AS F> AS ! GRAVE1 & !N LOOK AFT] HIS WID[ & *ILDR58 

,ABJECT POV]TY1 MIS]Y1 UNC]TA9TY ( ! MORR[ = ! MAJORITY1 & ! ISOLATION ( POV]TY1 :I* >E ! *>ACT]I/ICS ( \R MOD]N CITIES1 W]E QUITE UNKN[N 9 ?OSE 'FREE OASES1 :I* EM]G$ 9 ! TWELF? C5TURY AMID ! FEUDAL JUNGLE'4 

,9 ?OSE CITIES1 %ELT]$ BY !IR CONQU]$ LIB]TIES1 9SPIR$ BY ! SPIRIT ( FREE AGREEM5T & ( FREE 9ITIATIVE1 A :OLE NEW CIVILIZATION GREW UP & FL\RI%$ 9 A WAY UNP>ALLEL$ TO ?IS DAY4 

,ALL MOD]N 9DU/RY COMES TO US FROM !SE CITIES4 ,9 ?REE C5TURIES1 9DU/RIES & ! >TS ATTA9$ SU* P]FECTION ?AT \R C5TURY HAS ONLY BE5 ABLE TO SURPASS !M 9 SPE$ ( PRODUCTION1 BUT R>ELY 9 QUALITY1 & V]Y R>ELY 9 ! 9TR9SIC BEAUTY ( ! PRODUCT4 ,ALL ! >TS WE SEEK 9 VA9 TO REVIVE N[ - ! BEAUTY ( A ,RAPHAEL1 ! /R5G? & BOLDNESS ( A ,MI*ELANGELO1 ! >T & SCI5CE ( A ,LEON>DO DA ,V9CI1 ! POETRY & LANGUAGE ( A ,DANTE1 & NOT LEA/1 ! >*ITECTURE TO :I* WE [E ! CA!DRALS ( ,LAON1 ,RHEIMS1 ,COLOGNE1 ,PISA1 ,FLOR5CE - AS ,VICTOR ,HUGO SO WELL PUT IT 0LE PEUPLE 5 FUT LE MA@58ON0 7!Y W]E BUILT BY ! PEOPLE7 - ! TREASURES ( %E] BEAUTY ( ,FLOR5CE & ,V5ICE1 ! T[N HALLS ( ,BREM5 & ,PRAGUE1 ! T[]S ( ,NUREMB]G & ,PISA1 & SO ON AD 9F9ITUM1 ALL WAS ! PRODUCT ( ?AT AGE4 

,DO Y\ WI% TO MEASURE ! PROGRESS ( ?AT CIVILIZATION AT A GLANCE8 ,!N COMP>E ! DOME ( ,/ ,M>K 9 ,V5ICE ) ! RU/IC >* ( ! ,NORMANS2 ! PA9T+S ( ,RAPHAEL ) ! EMBROID]Y ( ! ,BAYEUX ,TAPE/RIES2 9/RUM5TS ( MA!MATIC2 & PHYSICS1 & ! CLOCKS ( ,NUREMB]G ) ! H\R-GLASSES ( ! PREC$+ C5TURIES2 ! RI* LANGUAGE ( A ,DANTE ) HIS UNC\? ,LAT9 ( ! T5? C5TURY4 ,A NEW WORLD WAS BORN BETWE5 ! TWO6 

,) ! EXCEPTION ( ?AT O!R GLORI\S P]IOD - ONCE MORE ( FREE CITIES - ( ANCI5T ,GREECE1 NEV] HAD HUMANITY MADE SU*2 GIANT /EP =W>D4 ,NEV]1 9 ! SPACE ( TWO OR ?REE C5TURIES1 HAD ,MAN UND]GONE SU* F>-REA*+ *ANGES1 NOR SO EXT5D$ HIS P[] OV] ! =CES ( ,NATURE4 

,Y\ >E P]HAPS ?9K+ ( ! CIVILIZATION & PROGRESS ( \R C5TURY :I* COMES 9 = SO MU* BOA/+8 ,BUT 9 EA* ( ITS MANIFE/ATIONS IT IS ONLY ! *ILD ( ! CIVILIZATION ?AT GREW UP ) ! FREE COMMUNES4 ,ALL ! GREAT DISCOV]IES MADE BY MOD]N SCI5CE - ! COMPASS1 ! CLOCK1 ! WAT*1 PR9T+1 M>ITIME DISCOV]IES1 GUNP[D]1 ! LAWS ( GRAVITATION1 ATMOSPH]IC PRESSURE ( :I* ! /EAM 5G9E IS A DEVELOPM5T1 ! RUDIM5TS ( *EMI/RY1 ! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD ALREADY \TL9$ BY ,ROG] ,BACON & APPLI$ 9 ,ITALIAN UNIV]SITIES - :]E DO ALL !SE ORIG9ATE IF NOT 9 ! FREE CITIES1 9 ! CIVILIZATION :I* WAS DEVELOP$ UND] ! PROTECTION ( COMMUNAL LIB]TIES8 

,IT WILL P]HAPS BE PO9T$ \T ?AT ,I AM =GETT+ ! 9T]NAL CONFLICTS1 ! DOME/IC /RUGGLES1 ) :I* ! HI/ORY ( !SE COMMUNES IS FILL$1 ! /REET RIOTS1 ! BITT] W>S WAG$ AGA9/ ! LORDS1 ! 9SURRECTION ( ! 'Y\NG >TS' AGA9/ ! 'OLD >TS'1 ! BLOOD SPILL$ 9 ?OSE /RUGGLES & 9 ! REPRISALS ?AT FOLL[$4 

,NO1 9 FACT ,I =GET NO?+4 ,BUT LIKE ,LEO & ,BOTTA - ! TWO HI/ORIANS ( M$IEVAL ,ITALY - & ,SISMONDI1 ,F]R>I1 ,G9O ,CAPPONI & SO MANY O!RS1 ,I SEE ?AT ?OSE /RUGGLES W]E ! V]Y GU>ANTEE ( A FREE LIFE 9 ! FREE CITY4 ,I P]CEIVE A R5EWAL1 A NEW IMPETUS T[>DS PROGRESS AFT] EA* ( ?OSE /RUGGLES4 ,AFT] HAV+ REC\NT$ 9 DETAIL !SE /RUGGLES & CONFLICTS1 & HAV+ MEASUR$ ALSO ! GREATNESS ( ! PROGRESS A*IEV$ :ILE BLOOD WAS BE+ %$ 9 ! /REETS2 WELL-BE+ ASSUR$ = ALL ! 9HABITANTS1 & CIVILIZATION R5EW$ - ,LEO & ,BOTTA CONCLUD$ ) ?IS IDEA :I* IS SO JU/ & ( :I* ,I AM FREQU5TLY REM9D$4 ,I W\LD LIKE TO SEE IT 5GRAV$ 9 ! M9DS ( EV]Y MOD]N REVOLUTION>Y3 0,A COMMUNE - !Y SAID - DOES NOT REPRES5T ! PICTURE ( A MORAL :OLE1 DOES NOT APPE> UNIV]SAL 9 ITS MANN] ( BE+1 AS ! HUMAN M9D ITSELF1 EXCEPT :5 IT HAS ADMITT$ CONFLICT1 OPPOSITION40 

,YES1 CONFLICT1 FREELY DEBAT$1 )\T AN \TSIDE =CE1 ! ,/ATE1 ADD+ ITS IMM5SE WEI<T TO ! BALANCE 9 FAVOR ( ONE ( ! =CES 5GAG$ 9 ! /RUGGLE4 

,I BELIEVE1 ) !SE TWO WRIT]S1 ?AT (T5 0MORE H>M HAS BE5 DONE BY IMPOS+ PEACE1 BECAUSE ONE L9K$ TOGE!R OPPOSITES 9 SEEK+ TO CREATE A G5]AL POLITICAL ORD] & SACRIFIC$ 9DIVIDUALITIES & SMALL ORGANISMS1 9 ORD] TO ABSORB !M 9 A VA/ COLORLESS & LIFELESS :OLE4 

,IT IS = ?IS REASON ?AT ! COMMUNES - SO LONG AS !Y DID NOT !MSELVES SEEK TO BECOME ,/ATES & TO IMPOSE >\ND !M 0SUBMISSION 9 A VA/ COLORLESS & LIFELESS :OLE0 - = ?IS REASON !Y GREW & GA9$ A NEW LEASE ( LIFE FROM EA* /RUGGLE1 & BLOSSOM$ TO ! CLATT] ( SWORDS 9 ! /REETS2 :]EAS TWO C5TURIES LAT] ?AT SAME CIVILIZATION COLLAPS$ 9 ! WAKE ( W>S FA!R$ BY ! ,/ATES4 

,9 ! COMMUNE1 ! /RUGGLE WAS = ! CONQUE/ & DEF5SE ( ! LIB]TY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 = ! F$]ATIVE PR9CIPLE = ! RI<T TO UNITE & TO ACT2 :]EAS ! ,/ATES' W>S HAD AS !IR OBJECTIVE ! DE/RUCTION ( !SE LIB]TIES1 ! SUBMISSION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 ! ANNIHILATION ( ! FREE CONTRACT1 & ! UNIT+ ( M5 9 A UNIV]SAL SLAV]Y TO K+1 JUDGE & PRIE/ - TO ! ,/ATE4 

,!RE9 LIES ALL ! DIFF]5CE4 ,!RE >E /RUGGLES & CONFLICTS :I* >E DE/RUCTIVE4 ,& !RE >E O!RS :I* DRIVE HUMANITY =W>DS4 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

O ,SECTION #f 

,PHOTO BY ,?OMAS ,HAWK1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C ,LIC5SE ,9 ! C\RSE ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 ! MOD]N B>B>IANS W]E TO DE/ROY ALL ?AT CIVILIZATION ( ! CITIES ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,!SE B>B>IANS DID NOT SUCCE$ 9 ANNIHILAT+ IT1 BUT 9 HALT+ ITS PROGRESS AT LEA/ TWO OR ?REE C5TURIES4 ,!Y LAUN*$ IT 9 A DIFF]5T DIRECTION1 9 :I* HUMANITY IS /RUGGL+ AT ?IS MOM5T )\T KN[+ H[ TO ESCAPE4 

,!Y SUBJECT$ ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,!Y DEPRIV$ HIM ( ALL HIS LIB]TIES1 !Y EXPECT$ HIM TO =GET ALL HIS UNIONS BAS$ ON FREE >GUM5T & FREE 9ITIATIVE4 ,!IR AIM WAS TO LEVEL ! :OLE ( SOCIETY TO A COMMON SUBMISSION TO ! MA/]4 ,!Y DE/ROY$ ALL TIES BETWE5 M51 DECL>+ ?AT ! ,/ATE & ! ,*UR* ALONE1 MU/ H5CE=? CREATE UNION BETWE5 !IR SUBJECTS2 ?AT ! ,*UR* & ! ,/ATE ALONE HAVE ! TASK ( WAT*+ OV] ! 9DU/RIAL1 COMM]CIAL1 JUDICIAL1 >TI/IC1 EMOTIONAL 9T]E/S1 = :I* M5 ( ! TWELF? C5TURY W]E ACCU/OM$ TO UNITE DIRECTLY4 

,& :O >E !SE B>B>IANS8 ,IT IS ! ,/ATE3 ! ,TRIPLE ,ALLIANCE1 F9ALLY CON/ITUT$1 ( ! MILIT>Y *IEF1 ! ,ROMAN JUDGE & ! PRIE/ - ! ?REE CON/ITUT+ A MUTUAL ASSURANCE = DOM9ATION - ! ?REE1 UNIT$ 9 ONE P[] :I* WILL COMM& 9 ! NAME ( ! 9T]E/S ( SOCIETY - & WILL CRU% ?AT SAME SOCIETY4 

,ONE NATURALLY ASKS ONESELF1 H[ W]E !SE NEW B>B>IANS ABLE TO OV]COME ! COMMUNES1 HI!RTO SO P[]FUL8 ,:]E DID !Y F9D ! /R5G? = CONQUE/8 

,9 ! FIR/ PLACE !Y F\ND IT 9 ! VILLAGE4 ,JU/ AS ! COMMUNES ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE PROV$ UNABLE TO ABOLI% SLAV]Y1 & = ?AT REASON P]I%$ - SO ! COMMUNES ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES FAIL$ TO FREE ! PEASANT FROM S]FDOM AT ! SAME TIME AS ! T[NSMAN4 

,IT IS TRUE ?AT ALMO/ EV]Y:]E1 AT ! TIME ( HIS EMANCIPATION1 ! T[NSMAN - HIMSELF A F>M+ CRAFTSMAN - HAD S\<T TO C>RY ! C\NTRY FOLK ) HIM TO HELP HIM ?R[ (F ! YOKE4 ,= TWO C5TURIES1 ! T[NSM5 9 ,ITALY1 ,SPA9 & ,G]MANY W]E 5GAG$ 9 A BITT] W> AGA9/ ! FEUDAL LORDS4 ,FEATS ( H]OISM & P]SEV]ANCE W]E DISPLAY$ BY ! BUR<]S 9 ?AT W> ON ! CA/LES4 ,!Y BL$ !MSELVES :ITE TO BECOME MA/]S ( ! CA/LES ( FEUDALISM & TO CUT D[N ! FEUDAL =E/ ?AT SURR\ND$ !M4 

,BUT !Y ONLY P>TIALLY SUCCE$$4 ,W>-WE>Y1 !Y F9ALLY MADE PEACE OV] ! HEADS ( ! PEASANTS4 ,TO BUY PEACE1 !Y H&$ OV] ! PEASANTS TO ! LORD AS LONG AS HE LIV$ \TSIDE ! T]RITORY CONQU]$ BY ! COMMUNE4 ,9 ,ITALY & ,G]MANY !Y 5D$ BY ACCEPT+ ! LORD AS BUR<]1 ON CONDITION ?AT HE CAME TO LIVE 9 ! COMMUNE4 ,ELSE:]E !Y F9I%$ BY %>+ HIS DOM9ION OV] ! PEASANT4 ,& ! LORD TOOK HIS REV5GE ON ?IS 'L[ RABBLE' ( ! T[NS1 :OM HE HAT$ & DESPIS$1 MAK+ BLOOD FL[ ON ! /REETS BY /RUGGLES & ! PRACTICE ( RETALIATION AMONG NOBLE FAMILIES1 :I* DID NOT BR+ !IR DIFF]5CES BE=E ! SYNDICS & ! COMMUNAL JUDGES BUT SETTL$ !M ) ! SWORD1 9 ! /REET1 DRIV+ ONE SECTION ( T[N-DWELL]S AGA9/ ANO!R4 

,! LORD ALSO DEMORALIZ$ ! COMMUNE ) HIS FAVORS1 BY 9TRIGUES1 HIS LORDLY WAY ( LIFE & BY HIS $UCATION RECEIV$ AT ! ,C\RT ( ! BI%OP OR ! K+4 ,HE 9DUC$ IT TO %>E HIS AMBITIONS4 ,& ! BUR<] 5D$ BY IMITAT+ ! LORD4 ,HE BECAME 9 HIS TURN A LORD1 HE TOO GETT+ RI* FROM DI/ANT COMM]CE OR FROM ! LABOR ( ! S]FS P5N$ UP 9 ! VILLAGES4 

,AFT] :I*1 ! PEASANT ?REW 9 HIS LOT ) ! K+S1 ! EMP]ORS1 BUDD+ CZ>S & ! POPES :5 !Y SET AB\T BUILD+ !IR K+DOMS & SUBJECT+ ! T[NS4 ,:]E ! PEASANT DID NOT M>* UND] !IR ORD]S NEI!R DID HE OPPOSE !M4 

,IT IS 9 ! C\NTRY1 9 A =TIFI$ CA/LE1 SITUAT$ 9 ! MIDDLE ( RURAL COMMUNITIES ?AT MON>*Y SL[LY CAME TO BE E/ABLI%$4 ,9 ! TWELF? C5TURY1 IT EXI/$ 9 NAME ONLY1 & WE KN[ TODAY :AT TO ?9K ( ! ROGUES1 LEAD]S ( SMALL B&S ( BRIG&S :O ADORN$ !MSELVES ) ?AT NAME2 A NAME :I* 9 ANY CASE - AS ,AUGU/9 ,?I]RY HAS SO WELL OBS]V$ - DIDN'T MEAN V]Y MU* AT ! TIME1 :5 !RE W]E 0! K+ 7! SUP]IOR1 ! S5IOR7 ( ! LAW C\RTS01 ! 0K+ ( ! NETS0 7AMONG FI%]M571 ! 0K+ ( ! BEGG>S04 

,SL[LY1 GROP+LY1 A B>ON :O WAS FAVORABLY SITUAT$ 9 ONE REGION1 & MORE P[]FUL OR MORE CUNN+ ?AN ! O!RS1 W\LD SUCCE$ 9 RAIS+ HIMSELF ABOVE HIS CONFR]ES4 ,! ,*UR* HA/5$ TO SUPPORT HIM4 ,& BY =CE1 S*EM+14 MONEY1 SWORD & POISON IF NE$ BE1 ONE SU* FEUDAL B>ON W\LD GR[ 9 P[] AT ! EXP5SE ( ! O!RS4 ,BUT ROYAL AU?ORITY NEV] SUCCE$$ 9 CON/ITUT+ ITSELF 9 ANY ( ! FREE CITIES1 :I* HAD !IR NOISY =UM1 !IR ,T>PEIAN ,ROCK1 OR !IR RIV] = ! TYRANTS2 IT SUCCE$$ 9 ! T[NS :I* HAD GR[N 9 ! BOSOM ( ! C\NTRY4 

,AFT] HAV+ S\<T 9 VA9 TO CON/ITUTE ?IS AU?ORITY 9 ,RHEIMS1 OR 9 ,LAON1 IT WAS 9 ,P>IS - AN AGGLOM]ATION ( VILLAGES & BOR\<S SURR\ND$ BY A RI* C\NTRYSIDE1 :I* HAD NOT YET KN[N ! LIFE ( FREE CITIES2 IT WAS 9 ,WE/M9/]1 AT ! GATES ( ! POPUL\S ,CITY ( ,LONDON2 IT WAS 9 ! ,KREML91 BUILT 9 ! C5T] ( RI* VILLAGES ON ! BANKS ( ! ,MOSKVA .<RIV].> AFT] HAV+ FAIL$ 9 ,SUZDAL & 9 ,VLADIMIR - BUT NEV] 9 ,NOVGOROD1 ,PSKOV1 ,NUREMB]G1 ,LAON OR ,FLOR5CE - ?AT ROYAL AU?ORITY WAS CONSOLIDAT$4 

,! PEASANTS FROM ! SURR\ND+S SUPPLI$ ! NASC5T MON>*IES ) FOOD1 HORSES & M52 COMM]CE - ROYAL & NOT COMMUNAL 9 ?IS CASE - ADD$ TO !IR WEAL?4 ,! ,*UR* SURR\ND$ !M ) ITS ATT5TION4 ,IT PROTECT$ !M1 CAME TO !IR AID ) ITS WEAL?1 9VE/$ = !M 9 !IR LOCAL SA9T & HIS MIRACLES4 ,IT SURR\ND$ ) ITS V5]ATION ! ,NOT] ,DAME ( ,P>IS OR ! ,IMAGE ( ! ,VIRG9 ( ,IB]IA 9 ,MOSC[4 ,& :ILE ! CIVILIZATION ( ! FREE CITIES1 FRE$ FROM ! BI%OPS1 GA!R$ ITS Y\?FUL MOM5TUM1 ! ,*UR* WORK$ REL5TLESSLY TO RECON/ITUTE ITS AU?ORITY ?R\< ! 9T]M$I>Y ( ! NASC5T MON>*Y1 SURR\ND+ ) ITS ATT5TION1 9C5SE & MONEY ! ROYAL CRADLE ( ! ONE IT HAD F9ALLY *OS5 TO REE/ABLI% ) HIM & ?R\< HIM1 ITS ECCLESIA/ICAL AU?ORITY4 ,9 ,P>IS1 ,MOSC[1 ,MADRID & ,PRAGUE Y\ SEE ! ,*UR* B5D+ OV] ! CRADLE ( ROYALTY1 A LI<T$ TOR* 9 H] H&1 ! EXECUTION] BY H] SIDE4 

,H>D-WORK+ & T5ACI\S1 /R5G!N$ BY H] /ATI/ $UCATION1 LEAN+ ON ! MAN ( /RONG WILL OR CUNN+ :OM %E W\LD LOOK = 9 NO MATT] :AT CLASS ( SOCIETY1 MADE = 9TRIGUE & V]S$ 9 ,ROMAN & ,BYZANT9E LAW - Y\ CAN SEE H] UNREL5T+LY M>*+ T[>DS H] IDEAL3 ! ABSOLUTE ,JUDAIC K+ :O NEV]!LESS OBEYS ! HI< PRIE/ - ! SECUL> >M AT ! ORD]S ( ! ECCLESIA/ICAL P[]4 

,9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 ?IS SL[ LABOR ( ! TWO CONSPIRATORS IS ALREADY OP]AT+ AT FULL =CE4 ,A K+ ALREADY DOM9ATES HIS RIVAL FELL[ B>ONS1 & ?IS P[] WILL SOON BE DIRECT$ AGA9/ ! FREE CITIES TO CRU% !M 9 !IR TURN4 

,BESIDES1 ! T[NS ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY W]E NO LONG] :AT !Y HAD BE5 9 ! TWELF?1 ?IRTE5? & F\RTE5? C5TURIES4 

,BORN ( ! LIB]T>IAN REVOLUTION1 !Y NEV]!LESS LACK$ ! C\RAGE OR ! /R5G? TO SPREAD !IR IDEAS ( EQUALITY TO ! NEI<BOR+ C\NTRYSIDE1 NOT EV5 TO ?OSE :O HAD COME LAT] TO SETTLE 9 ! CITY PREC9CTS1 ?OSE SANCTU>IES ( FRE$OM1 :]E !Y CREAT$ ! 9DU/RIAL CRAFTS4 

,9 EV]Y T[N ONE F9DS A DI/9CTION BE+ DRAWN BETWE5 ! FAMILIES :O MADE ! REVOLUTION ( ! TWELF? C5TURY 7SIMPLY KN[N AS '! FAMILIES & ?OSE :O CAME LAT] & E/ABLI%$ !MSELVES 9 ! CITY4 ,! OLD 'M]*ANT GUILD' W\LD NOT HE> ( ACCEPT+ NEWCOM]S4 ,IT REFUS$ TO ABSORB ! 'Y\NG >TS' 9TO ! COMM]CIAL FIELD4 ,& FROM ! SIMPLE /EW>D TO ! CITY ?AT IT WAS 9 =M] TIMES1 :5 IT C>RI$ \T ! EXT]NAL TRADE = ! :OLE CITY1 IT BECAME ! MIDDLEMAN :O GOT RI* ON HIS [N ACC\NT ?R\< =EIGN TRADE4 ,IT IMPORT$ ,ORI5TAL O/5TATION1 IT BECAME MONEYL5D] TO ! CITY1 & LAT] JO9$ ! CITY LORD & ! PRIE/ AGA9/ '! L[] ORD]S'2 OR 9/EAD IT LOOK$ TO ! NASC5T K+ = SUPPORT ( ITS RI<T TO 5RI*M5T & ITS COMM]CIAL MONOPOLY4 ,ONCE COMM]CE BECOMES P]SONAL ! FREE CITY IS DE/ROY$4 

,MOREOV]1 ! GUILDS ( ! OLD TRADES1 :I* AT ! BEG9N+ MADE UP ! CITY & ITS GOV]NM5T1 DO NOT WI% TO RECOGNIZE ! SAME RI<TS = ! Y\NG GUILDS1 E/ABLI%$ LAT] BY ! NEW CRAFTS4 ,! LATT] HAVE TO CONQU] !IR RI<TS BY A REVOLUTION4 ,& IT IS :AT !Y DO EV]Y:]E4 ,BUT :]EAS 9 SOME CITIES ?AT REVOLUTION IS ! />T+ PO9T = A R5EWAL ( ALL ASPECTS ( LIFE AS WELL AS ! >TS 7?IS IS SO CLE>LY SE5 9 ,FLOR5CE71 9 O!R CITIES IT 5DS 9 ! VICTORY ( ! POPOLO GRASSO OV] ! POPOLO BASSO - BY A CRU%+ REPRESSION ) MASS DEPORTATIONS & EXECUTIONS1 ESPECIALLY :5 ! SEIGNEURS & PRIE/S 9T]F]E4 

,& NE$ ONE ADD ?AT ! K+ WILL USE AS A PRETEXT ! DEF5SE ( ! L[] CLASSES 9 ORD] TO CRU% ! 'FAT CLASSES' & TO SUBJUGATE BO? ONCE HE HAS BECOME MA/] ( ! CITY6 

,& !N1 ! CITIES HAD TO DIE1 S9CE EV5 M5'S IDEAS HAD *ANG$4 ,! TEA*+ ( CANONIC LAW & ,ROMAN LAW HAD MODIFI$ PEOPLE'S WAY ( ?9K+4 

,! TWELF? C5TURY ,EUROPEAN WAS FUNDAM5TALLY A F$]ALI/4 ,AS A MAN ( FREE 5T]PRISE1 & ( FREE UND]/&+1 ( ASSOCIATIONS :I* W]E FREELY S\<T & AGRE$ TO1 HE SAW 9 HIMSELF ! PO9T ( DEP>TURE = ! :OLE ( SOCIETY4 ,HE DID NOT SEEK SAFETY ?R\< OB$I5CE NOR DID HE ASK = A SAVIOR = SOCIETY4 ,! IDEA ( ,*RI/IAN & ,ROMAN DISCIPL9E WAS UNKN[N TO HIM4 

,BUT UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,*RI/IAN *UR* - ALWAYS 9 LOVE ) AU?ORITY1 ALWAYS ANXI\S TO BE ! ONE TO IMPOSE ITS DOM9ION OV] ! S\LS1 & ABOVE ALL ! WORK ( ! FAI?FUL2 & ON ! O!R H&1 UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ,ROMAN LAW :I* BY ! TWELF? C5TURY HAD ALREADY APPE>$ AT ! C\RTS ( ! P[]FUL LORDS1 ! K+S & ! POPES1 & SOON BECAME ! FAVORITE SUBJECT AT ! UNIV]SITIES - UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( !SE TWO TEA*+S :I* >E SO MU* 9 ACCORD EV5 ?\< ORIG9ALLY !Y W]E BITT] 5EMIES1 M9DS BECAME CORRUPT$ AS ! PRIE/ >ID ! LEGISLATOR TOOK OV]4 

,MAN FELL 9 LOVE ) AU?ORITY4 ,IF A REVOLUTION ( ! L[] TRADES TOOK PLACE 9 A COMMUNE1 ! COMMUNE W\LD CALL = A SAVIOR1 ?US SADDL+ ITSELF ) A DICTATOR1 A MUNICIPAL ,CES>2 IT W\LD GRANT HIM FULL P[]S TO EXT]M9ATE ! OPPOSITION P>TY4 ,& HE TOOK ADVANTAGE ( ! SITUATION1 US+ ALL ! REF9EM5TS 9 CRUELTY SUGGE/$ TO HIM BY ! ,*UR* OR ?OSE BORR[$ FROM ! DESPOTIC K+DOMS ( ! ,ORI5T4 

,HE W\LD NO D\BT HAVE ! SUPPORT ( ! ,*UR*4 ,HAD %E NOT ALWAYS DREAM$ ( ! BIBLICAL K+ :O WILL KNEEL BE=E ! HI< PRIE/ & BE HIS DOCILE 9/RUM5T8 ,HAS %E NOT ALWAYS HAT$ ) ALL H] =CE ?OSE RATIONALI/ IDEAS :I* BREA!D 9 ! FREE T[NS AT ! TIME ( ! FIR/ ,R5AISSANCE1 ?AT ( ! TWELF? C5TURY8 ,DID %E NOT LAY H] CURSE ON ?OSE 'PAGAN' IDEAS :I* BR\<T MAN BACK TO NATURE UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! R$ISCOV]Y ( ,GREEK CIVILIZATION8 ,& LAT] DID %E NOT GET ! PR9CES TO /IFLE !SE IDEAS :I*1 9 ! NAME ( PRIMITIVE ,*RI/IANITY1 RAIS$ UP M5 AGA9/ ! POPE1 ! PRIE/ & RELIGION 9 G5]AL8 ,FIRE1 ! :EEL & ! GIBBET - ?OSE WEAPONS SO DE> AT ALL TIMES TO ! ,*UR* - W]E US$ TO CRU% ! H]ETICS4 ,NO MATT] :AT ! 9/RUM5T MI<T BE3 POPE1 K+ OR DICTATOR1 SO LONG AS FIRE1 ! :EEL & ! GIBBET OP]AT$ AGA9/ H] 5EMIES4 

,& 9 ! %AD[ ( ?IS D\BLE 9DOCTR9ATION1 ( ! ,ROMAN JURI/ & ! PRIE/1 ! F$]ALI/ SPIRIT :I* HAD CREAT$ ! FREE COMMUNE1 ! SPIRIT ( 9ITIATIVE & FREE ASSOCIATION WAS DY+ \T & MAK+ WAY = ! SPIRIT ( DISCIPL9E1 & PYRAMIDAL AU?ORIT>IAN ORGANIZATION4 ,BO? ! RI* & ! POOR W]E ASK+ = A SAVIOR4 

,& :5 ! SAVIOR APPE>$2 :5 ! K+1 5RI*$ F> FROM TURMOIL ( ! =UM 9 SOME T[N ( HIS CREATION1 PROPP$ UP BY ! 9ORD9ATELY WEAL?Y ,*UR* & FOLL[$ BY DEFEAT$ NOBLES & BY !IR PEASANTS1 KNOCK$ AT ! GATES ( ! CITY1 PROMIS+ ! 'L[] CLASSES' ROYAL PROTECTION AGA9/ ! RI* & TO ! SUBMISSIVE RI* HIS PROTECTION AGA9/ ! REBELLI\S POOR - ! T[NS1 ALREADY UND]M9$ BY ! CANC] ( AU?ORITY1 LACK$ ! /R5G? TO RESI/ HIM4 

,! GREAT 9VASIONS ( ,EUROPE BY WAVES ( PEOPLES :O HAD COME ONCE MORE FROM ! ,EA/1 ASSI/$ ! RIS+ ROYALTY 9 ?IS WORK ( CONC5TRATION ( P[]S4 

,! ,MONGOLS HAD CONQU]$ & DEVA/AT$ ,EA/]N ,EUROPE 9 ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY1 & SOON AN EMPIRE WAS F\ND$ !RE 9 ,MOSC[1 UND] ! PROTECTION ( ! KHANS ( ,T>T>Y & ! ,RUSSIAN ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*4 ,! ,TURKS HAD COME TO IMPOSE !MSELVES 9 ,EUROPE & PU%$ =W>D AS F> AS ,VI5NA1 DE/ROY+ EV]Y?+ 9 !IR WAY4 ,AS A RESULT A NUMB] ( P[]FUL ,/ATES W]E CREAT$ 9 ,POL&1 ,BOHEMIA1 HUNG>Y & 9 ,C5TRAL ,EUROPE TO RESI/ !SE TWO 9VASIONS4 ,MEAN:ILE AT ! O!R EXTREMITY1 ! W> ( EXT]M9ATION WAG$ AGA9/ ! ,MOORS 9 ,SPA9 ALL[$ ANO!R P[]FUL EMPIRE TO BE CREAT$ 9 ,CA/ILLE & ,>AGON1 SUPPORT$ BY ! ,ROMAN ,*UR* & ! ,9QUISITION - BY ! SWORD & ! /AKE4 

,!SE 9VASIONS & W>S 9EVITABLY L$ ,EUROPE TO 5T] A NEW PHASE - ?AT ( MILIT>Y /ATES4 

,S9CE ! COMMUNES !MSELVES W]E BECOM+ M9OR ,/ATES1 !SE W]E B\ND 9 DUE C\RSE TO BE SWALL[$ UP BY ! L>G] ONES4 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

O ,SECTION #g 

,PHOTO BY ,IVAN ,B&URA1,C,C ,B,Y ,LIC5SE ,! VICTORY ( ! ,/ATE OV] ! COMMUNES ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES & ! F$]ALI/ 9/ITUTIONS ( ! TIME WAS NEV]!LESS NOT SUDD54 ,!RE WAS A P]IOD :5 IT WAS SUFFICI5TLY ?REAT5$ = ! \TCOME TO BE 9 D\BT4 

,A VA/ POPUL> MOVEM5T - RELIGI\S 9 ITS =M & EXPRESSIONS BUT EM95TLY EQUALIT>IAN & COMMUNI/ 9 ITS ASPIRATIONS - EM]G$ 9 ! T[NS & C\NTRYSIDE ( ,C5TRAL ,EUROPE4 

,ALREADY1 9 ! F\RTE5? C5TURY 79 #aceh 9 ,FRANCE & 9 #a*a 9 ,5GL&7 TWO SIMIL> MOVEM5TS HAD COME 9TO BE+4 ,! TWO P[]FUL UPRIS+S ( ! ,JAQU]IE & ( ,WAT ,TYL] HAD %AK5 SOCIETY TO ITS V]Y F\NDATIONS4 ,BO? H[EV] HAD BE5 PR9CIPALLY DIRECT$ AGA9/ ! NOBILITY1 & ?\< BO? HAD BE5 DEFEAT$1 !Y HAD BROK5 FEUDAL P[]4 ,! UPRIS+ ( PEASANTS 9 ,5GL& HAD PUT AN 5D TO S]FDOM & ! ,JAQU]IE 9 ,FRANCE HAD SO SEV]ELY *ECK$ S]FDOM 9 ITS DEVELOPM5T ?AT FROM !N ON ! 9/ITUTION SIMPLY VEGETAT$1 )\T EV] REA*+ ! P[] ?AT IT WAS TO A*IEVE LAT] 9 ,G]MANY & ?R\<\T ,EA/]N ,EUROPE4 

,N[1 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 A SIMIL> MOVEM5T APPE>$ 9 ,C5TRAL ,EUROPE4 ,UND] ! NAME ( ! ,HUSSITE UPRIS+ 9 ,BOHEMIA1 ,ANABAPTISM 9 ,G]MANY1 ,SWITZ]L& & 9 ! ,L[ ,C\NTRIES1 IT WAS - AP>T FROM ! REVOLT AGA9/ ! ,LORDS - A COMPLETE UPRIS+ AGA9/ ! ,/ATE & ,*UR*1 AGA9/ ,ROMAN & CANON LAW1 9 ! NAME ( PRIMITIVE ,*RI/IANITY4 .<#c.> 

,= A LONG TIME MISREPRES5T$ BY ,/ATI/ & ECCLESIA/ICAL HI/ORIANS1 ?IS MOVEM5T IS ONLY BEG9N+ TO BE UND]/OOD TODAY4 

,! ABSOLUTE FRE$OM ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 :O MU/ ONLY OBEY ! COMM&S ( HIS CONSCI5CE1 & COMMUNISM W]E ! WAT*WORDS ( ?IS UPRIS+4 ,& IT WAS ONLY LAT] ONCE ! ,/ATE & ,*UR* HAD SUCCE$$ 9 EXT]M9AT+ ITS MO/ >D5T DEF5D]S & DIRECT+ IT TO !IR [N 5DS1 ?AT ?IS MOVEM5T R$UC$ 9 IMPORTANCE & DEPRIV$ ( ITS REVOLUTION>Y *>ACT]1 BECAME ! ,LU!RIAN ,RE=MATION4 

,) ,LU!R ! MOVEM5T WAS WELCOM$ BY ! PR9CES2 BUT IT HAD BEGUN AS COMMUNI/ AN>*ISM1 ADVOCAT$ & PUT 9TO PRACTICE 9 SOME PLACES4 ,& IF ONE LOOKS BEYOND ! RELIGI\S PHRASEOLOGY :I* WAS A TRIBUTE TO ! TIMES1 ONE F9DS 9 IT ! V]Y ESS5CE ( ! CURR5T ( IDEAS :I* WE REPRES5T TODAY3 ! NEGATION ( LAWS MADE BY ! ,/ATE OR SAID TO BE DIV9ELY 9SPIR$1 ! 9DIVIDUAL CONSCI5CE BE+ ! ONE & ONLY LAW2 COMMUNE1 ABSOLUTE MA/] ( ITS DE/9Y1 TAK+ BACK FROM ! ,LORDS ! COMMUNAL L&S & REFUS+ TO PAY DUES 9 K9D OR 9 MONEY TO ! ,/ATE2 9 O!R WORDS COMMUNISM & EQUALITY PUT 9TO PRACTICE4 ,?US :5 ,D5CK1 ONE ( ! PHILOSOPH]S ( ! ,ANABAPTI/ MOVEM5T1 WAS ASK$ :E!R NEV]!LESS HE RECOGNIZ$ ! AU?ORITY ( ! ,BIBLE1 HE REPLI$ ?AT ! ONLY RULE ( CONDUCT :I* EA* 9DIVIDUAL F9DS = HIMSELF 9 ! ,BIBLE1 WAS OBLIGATORY = HIM4 ,& MEAN:ILE1 SU* VAGUE =MULAS - D]IV$ FROM ECCLESIA/ICAL J>GON - ?AT AU?ORITY ( '! BOOK' FROM :I* ONE SO EASILY BORR[S >GUM5TS = & AGA9/ COMMUNISM1 = & AGA9/ AU?ORITY1 & SO 9DEF9ITE :5 IT IS A QUE/ION ( CLE>LY AFFIRM+ FRE$OM - DID NOT ?IS RELIGI\S T5D5CY ALONE CONTA9 ! G]M = ! C]TA9 DEFEAT ( ! UPRIS+8 

,BORN 9 ! T[NS1 ! MOVEM5T SOON SPREAD TO ! C\NTRYSIDE4 ,! PEASANTS REFUS$ TO OBEY ANYBODY & FIX+ AN OLD %OE ON A PIKE 9 ! MANN] ( A FLAG !Y W\LD GO AB\T RECOV]+ ! L& FROM ! LORDS1 BREAK+ ! BONDS ( S]FDOM1 DRIV+ AWAY PRIE/ & JUDGE1 & =M+ !MSELVES 9TO FREE COMMUNES4 ,& IT WAS ONLY BY ! /AKE1 ! :EEL & ! GIBBET1 BY ! MASSACRE ( A HUNDR$ ?\S& PEASANTS 9 A FEW YE>S1 ?AT ROYAL OR IMP]IAL P[]1 ALLI$ TO ?AT ( PAPAL OR ,RE=M$ ,*UR* - ,LU!R 5C\RAG+ ! MASSACRE ( ! PEASANTS ) MORE VIRUL5CE ?AN ! POPE - ?AT PUT AN 5D TO ?OSE UPRIS+S :I* HAD = A P]IOD ?REAT5$ ! CONSOLIDATION ( ! NASC5T ,/ATES4 

,LU!RIAN ,RE=M :I* HAD SPRUNG FROM POPUL> ,ANABAPTISM1 WAS SUPPORT$ BY ! ,/ATE1 MASSACR$ ! PEOPLE & CRU%$ ! MOVEM5T FROM :I* IT HAD DRAWN ITS /R5G? 9 ! BE 9N+4 ,!N1 ! REMNANTS ( ! POPUL> WAVE S\<T REFUGE 9 ! COMMUNITIES ( ! ',MORAVIAN ,BRO!RS'1 :O 9 !IR TURN W]E DE/ROY$ A C5TURY LAT] BY ! ,*UR* & ! ,/ATE4 ,?OSE AMONG !M :O W]E NOT EXT]M9AT$ W5T TO SEEK SANCTU>Y1 SOME 9 ,S\? ,EA/]N ,RUSSIA 7! ,M5NONITE COMMUNITY S9CE EMIGRAT$ TO ,CANADA71 SOME TO ,GRE5L& :]E !Y HAVE MANAG$ EV] S9CE TO LIVE 9 COMMUNITIES & REFUS+ ALL S]VICE TO ! ,/ATE4 

,H5CE=? ! ,/ATE WAS ASSUR$ ( ITS EXI/5CE4 ,! JURI/1 ! PRIE/ & ! W> LORD1 JO9$ 9 AN ALLIANCE >\ND ! ?RONES1 W]E ABLE TO PURSUE T ABLE TO PURSUE !IR WORK ( ANNIHILATION4 

,H[ MANY LIES HAVE BE5 ACCUMULAT$ BY ,/ATI/ HI/ORIANS1 9 ! PAY ( ! ,/ATE1 ON ?AT P]IOD6 

,9DE$ HAVE WE NOT ALL LE>N$ AT S*OOL = 9/ANCE ?AT ! ,/ATE HAD P]=M$ ! GREAT S]VICE ( CREAT+1 \T ( ! RU9S ( FEUDAL SOCIETY1 NATIONAL UNIONS :I* HAD PREVI\SLY BE5 MADE IMPOSSIBLE BY ! RIVALRIES BETWE5 CITIES8 ,HAV+ LE>N$ ?IS AT S*OOL1 ALMO/ ALL ( US HAVE GONE ON BELIEV+ ?IS TO BE TRUE 9 ADUL?OOD4 

,& YET1 N[ WE LE>N ?AT 9 SPITE ( ALL ! RIVALRIES1 M$IEVAL CITIES HAD ALREADY WORK$ = F\R C5TURIES T[>D BUILD+ ?OSE UNIONS1 ?R\< F$]ATION1 FREELY CONS5T$1 & ?AT !Y HAD SUCCE$$4 

,= 9/ANCE1 ! UNION ( ,LOMB>DY1 COMPRIS$ ! CITIES ( ,NOR!RN ,ITALY ) ITS F$]AL TREASURY 9 ,MILAN4 ,O!R F$]ATIONS SU* AS ! UNION ( ,TUSCANY1 ! UNION ( ,RH9EL& 7:I* COMPRIS$ SIXTY T[NS71 ! F$]ATIONS ( ,WE/PHALIA1 ( ,BOHEMIA1 ( ,S]BIA1 ,POL& & ( ,RUSSIAN T[NS1 COV]$ ,EUROPE4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 ! COMM]CIAL UNION ( ! ,HANSE 9CLUD$ ,SC&9AVIAN1 ,G]MAN1 ,POLI% & ,RUSSIAN T[NS 9 ALL ! ,BALTIC BAS94 ,!RE W]E ALREADY ALL ! ELEM5TS1 AS WELL AS ! FACT ITSELF1 ( L>GE GR\P+S FREELY CON/ITUT$4 

,DO Y\ REQUIRE ! LIV+ PRO( ( !SE GR\P+S8 ,Y\ HAVE IT 9 ,SWITZ]L&6 ,!RE1 ! UNION FIR/ ASS]T$ ITSELF AMONG ! VILLAGE COMMUNES 7! OLD CANTONS71 JU/ AS AT ! SAME TIME 9 ,FRANCE IT WAS CON/ITUT$ 9 ! ,LYONNAIS4 ,& S9CE 9 ,SWITZ]L& ! SEP>ATION BETWE5 T[N & VILLAGE HAD NOT BE5 AS F>-REA*+ AS 9 ! C\NTRIES :]E ! T[NS W]E 5GAG$ 9 L>GE-SCALE COMM]CE ) DI/ANT P>TS1 ! T[NS GAVE ASSI/ANCE TO ! PEASANT 9SURRECTION ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY & ?US ! UNION 9CLUD$ T[NS & VILLAGES TO CON/ITUTE A F$]ATION :I* CONT9UES TO ?IS DAY4 

,BUT ! ,/ATE1 BY ITS V]Y NATURE1 CANNOT TOL]ATE A FREE F$]ATION3 IT REPRES5TS ?AT BOGEY ( ALL JURI/S1 'A ,/ATE )9 ! ,/ATE4 ,! ,/ATE CANNOT RECOGNIZE A FREELY-=M$ UNION OP]AT+ )9 ITSELF2 IT ONLY RECOGNIZES SUBJECTS4 ,! ,/ATE & ITS SI/] ! ,*UR* >ROGATE TO !MSELVES ALONE ! RI<T TO S]VE AS ! L9K BETWE5 M54 

,CONSEQU5TLY1 ! ,/ATE MU/1 P]=CE1 WIPE \T CITIES BAS$ ON ! DIRECT UNION BETWE5 CITIZ5S4 ,IT MU/ ABOLI% ALL UNIONS )9 ! CITY1 AS WELL AS ! CITY ITSELF1 & WIPE \T ALL DIRECT UNION BETWE5 ! CITIES4 ,= ! F$]AL PR9CIPLE IT MU/ SUB/ITUTE ! PR9CIPLE ( SUBMISSION & DISCIPL9E4 ,SU* IS ! /UFF ( ! ,/ATE1 = )\T ?IS PR9CIPLE IT CEASES TO BE ,/ATE4 

,& ! SIXTE5? C5TURY - A C5TURY ( C>NAGE & W>S - CAN BE SUMM$ UP QUITE SIMPLY BY ?IS /RUGGLE ( ! NASC5T ,/ATE AGA9/ ! FREE T[NS & !IR F$]ATIONS4 ,! T[NS W]E BESIEG$1 /ORM$1 & SACK$1 !IR 9HABITANTS DECIMAT$ OR DEPORT$4 

,! ,/ATE 9 ! 5D W9S TOTAL VICTORY4 ,& !SE >E ! CONSEQU5CES3 

,9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY ,EUROPE WAS COV]$ ) RI* CITIES1 :OSE >TISANS1 MASONS1 WEAV]S & 5GRAV]S PRODUC$ M>VEL\S WORKS ( >T2 !IR UNIV]SITIES E/ABLI%$ ! F\NDATIONS ( MOD]N EMPIRICAL SCI5CE1 !IR C>AVANS COV]$ ! CONT95TS1 !IR VESSELS PL[$ ! SEAS & RIV]S4 

,:AT REMA9$ TWO C5TURIES LAT]8 ,T[NS ) ANY?+ FROM #e1 TO #a1 9HABITANTS & :I* 7AS WAS ! CASE ( ,FLOR5CE7 HAD A GREAT] PROPORTION ( S*OOLS &1 9 ! COMMUNAL HOSPITALS1 B$S1 9 RELATION TO ! POPULATION ?AN IS ! CASE ) ! MO/ FAVOR$ T[NS TODAY1 BECAME ROTT5 BOR\<S4 ,!IR POPULATIONS W]E DECIMAT$ OR DEPORT$1 ! ,/ATE & ,*UR* TOOK OV] !IR WEAL?4 ,9DU/RY WAS DY+ \T UND] ! RIGOR\S CONTROL ( ! ,/ATE'S EMPLOYES2 COMM]CE DEAD4 ,EV5 ! ROADS :I* HAD HI!RTO L9K$ !SE CITIES BECAME IMPASSABLE 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY4 

,/ATE IS SYNONYM\S ) W>4 ,W>S DEVA/AT$ ,EUROPE & MANAG$ TO F9I% (F ! T[NS :I* ! ,/ATE HAD NOT YET DIRECTLY DE/ROY$4 

,) ! T[NS CRU%$1 AT LEA/ ! VILLAGES GA9$ SOME?+ FROM ! CONC5TRATION ( ,/ATE P[]8 ,( C\RSE NOT6 ,ONE HAS ONLY TO READ :AT ! HI/ORIANS TELL US ( LIFE 9 ! ,SCOTTI% C\NTRYSIDE1 OR 9 ,TUSCANY & 9 ,G]MANY 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY & COMP>E !SE ACC\NTS ) ?OSE ( EXTREME POV]TY 9 ,5GL& 9 ! YE>S >\ND #a#f#d#h1 9 ,FRANCE UND] ,L\IS ,X,I,V - ! ',ROI ,SOLEIL' - 9 ,G]MANY1 9 ,ITALY1 EV]Y:]E1 AFT] A C5TURY ( ,/ATE DOM9ATION4 

,HI/ORIANS >E UNANIM\S 9 DECL>+ ?AT EXTREME POV]TY EXI/S EV]Y:]E4 ,9 ?OSE PLACES :]E S]FDOM HAD BE5 ABOLI%$1 IT IS RECON/ITUT$ UND] A ?\S& NEW GUISES2 & :]E IT HAD NOT YET BE5 DE/ROY$1 IT EM]GES UND] ! EGIS ( ANCI5T SLAV]Y OR WORSE4 ,9 ,RUSSIA IT WAS ! NASC5T ,/ATE ( ! ,ROMANOVS ?AT 9TRODUC$ S]FDOM & SOON GAVE IT ! *>ACT]I/ICS ( SLAV]Y4 

,BUT C\LD ANY?+ ELSE COME \T ( ,/ATAL WRET*$NESS S9CE ITS FIR/ CONC]N1 ONCE ! T[NS HAD BE5 CRU%$1 WAS TO DE/ROY ! VILLAGE COMMUNE & ALL ! TIES BETWE5 ! PEASANTS1 & !N TO SURR5D] !IR L&S TO SACK+ BY ! RI* & TO BR+ !M ALL 9DIVIDUALLY 9TO SUBJECTION TO ! (FICIAL1 ! PRIE/ OR ! LORD8 

.<#c.> ,! TIME ( TR\BLES 9 ,RUSSIA AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 REPRES5T A SIMIL> MOVEM5T1 DIRECT$ AGA9/ S]FDOM & ! ,/ATE BUT )\T A RELIGI\S BASIS4 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

O ,SECTION #h 

,PHOTO BY 4 4 4 -- -- -- 4 4 41,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C ,LIC5SE ,! ROLE ( ! NASC5T ,/ATE 9 ! SIXTE5? & SEV5TE5? C5TURIES 9 RELATION TO ! URBAN C5T]S WAS TO DE/ROY ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ! CITIES2 TO PILLAGE ! RI* GUILDS ( M]*ANTS & >TISANS2 TO CONC5TRATE 9 ITS H&S ! EXT]NAL COMM]CE ( ! CITIES & RU9 IT2 TO LAY H&S ON ! 9T]NAL ADM9I/RATION ( ! GUILDS & SUBJECT 9T]NAL COMM]CE AS WELL AS ALL MANUFACTURES1 9 EV]Y DETAIL TO ! CONTROL ( A HO/ ( (FICIALS - & 9 ?IS WAY TO KILL 9DU/RY & ! >TS2 BY TAK+ OV] ! LOCAL MILITIAS & ! :OLE MUNICIPAL ADM9I/RATION1 CRU%+ ! WEAK 9 ! 9T]E/ ( ! /RONG BY TAXATION1 & RU9+ ! C\NTRIES BY W>S4 

,OBVI\SLY ! SAME TACTIC WAS APPLI$ TO ! VILLAGES & ! PEASANTS4 ,ONCE ! ,/ATE FELT /RONG 5\< IT EAG]LY SET AB\T DE/ROY+ ! VILLAGE COMMUNE1 RU9+ ! PEASANTS 9 ITS CLUT*ES & PLUND]+ ! COMMON L&S4 

,HI/ORIANS & ECONOMI/S 9 ! PAY ( ! ,/ATE TEA* US1 ( C\RSE1 ?AT ! VILLAGE COMMUNE HAV+ BECOME AN \TDAT$ =M ( L& POSSESSION - :I* HAMP]$ PROGRESS 9 AGRICULTURE - HAD TO DISAPPE> UND] '! ACTION ( NATURAL ECONOMIC =CES'4 ,! POLITICIANS & ! B\RGEOIS ECONOMI/S >E /ILL SAY+ ! SAME ?+ N[2 & !RE >E EV5 SOME REVOLUTION>IES & SOCIALI/S :O CLAIM TO BE SCI5TIFIC SOCIALI/S :O REPEAT ?IS /OCK FABLE LE>N$ AT S*OOL4 

,WELL1 NEV] HAS SU* AN ODI\S LIE BE5 UTT]$ 9 ! NAME ( SCI5CE4 ,A CALCULAT$ LIE S9CE HI/ORY AB\NDS ) DOCUM5TS TO PROVE = ?OSE :O WANT TO KN[ - & = ,FRANCE IT W\LD SIMPLY SUFFICE TO CONSULT ,DALLOZ - ?AT 9 ! FIR/ PLACE ! ,/ATE DEPRIV$ ! VILLAGE COMMUNE ( ALL ITS P[]S3 ITS 9DEP5D5CE1 ITS JURIDICAL & LEGISLATIVE P[]S2 & ?AT AFT]W>DS ITS L&S W]E EI!R SIMPLY /OL5 BY ! RI* ) ! CONNIVANCE ( ! ,/ATE1 OR CONFISCAT$ BY ! ,/ATE DIRECTLY4 

,9 ,FRANCE ! PILLAGE />T$ 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 & FOLL[$ ITS C\RSE AT A GREAT] PACE 9 ! FOLL[+ C5TURY4 ,FROM #afei ! ,/ATE />T$ TAK+ ! COMMUNES UND] ITS W+1 & ONE HAS ONLY TO REF] TO ,L\IS ,X,I,V S $ICT ( #a#f#f#g1 TO APPRECIATE ON :AT A SCALE COMMUNAL GOODS W]E ALREADY BE+ PILLAG$ DUR+ ?AT P]IOD4 0,EA* ONE HAS MADE ! BE/ ( IT = HIS BE/ 9T]E/S444!Y HAVE BE5 %>$444TO FLEECE ! COMMUNES ONE MADE USE ( FICTITI\S DEBTS10 ! ',ROI ,SOLEIL' SAID 9 ?AT $ICT444& TWO YE>S LAT] HE CONFISCAT$ ALL ! COMMUNES' 9COME TO HIS [N ADVANTAGE4 ,SU* IS ! MEAN+ ( 'A NATURAL DEA?' 9 ! LANGUAGE :I* CLAIMS TO BE SCI5TIFIC4 

,9 ! FOLL[+ C5TURY1 AT A L[ E/IMATE1 HALF ! COMMUNALLY-[N$ L&S W]E SIMPLY TAK5 OV] BY ! NOBILITY & ! CL]GY UND] ! EGIS ( ! ,/ATE4 ,& NEV]!LESS ! COMMUNE CONT9U$ 9 EXI/5CE UNTIL #a#g#h#g4 ,! VILLAGE ASSEMBLY MET UND] ! ELM TREE1 APPORTION$ ! L&S1 DI/RIBUT$ ! TAX DEM&S - DOCUM5T>Y EVID5CE CAN BE F\ND 9 ,BABEAU 7,LE VILLAGE S\S L'ANCI5 REGIME74 ,TURGOT1 9 ! PROV9CE 9 :I* HE WAS ! ADM9I/RATOR1 HAD ALREADY F\ND ! VILLAGE ASSEMBLIES 'TOO NOISY'1 & UND] HIS ADM9I/RATION !Y W]E ABOLI%$ & REPLAC$ BY ASSEMBLIES ELECT$ FROM AMONG ! VILLAGE BIG-WIGS4 ,& ON ! EVE ( ! ,REVOLUTION ( #a#g#h#g1 ! ,/ATE G5]ALIZ$ ?AT MEASURE4 ,! MIR HAD BE5 ABOLI%$1 & ! AFFAIRS ( ! COMMUNE ?US CAME 9TO ! H&S ( A FEW SYNDICS1 ELECT$ BY ! RI*E/ B\RGEOIS & PEASANTS4 

,! ,CON/ITU5T ,ASSEMBLY LO/ NO TIME 9 CONFIRM+ ?IS LAW 9 ,DECEMB] #a#g#h#i1 & ! B\RGEOIS TOOK ! PLACE ( ! LORDS TO DIVE/ ! COMMUNES ( :AT COMMUNAL L&S REMA9$ TO !M4 ,IT !RE=E NE$$ ONE ,JACQU]IE AFT] ANO!R 9 #agic TO CONFIRM :AT ! PEASANTS 9 REVOLT HAD JU/ A*IEV$ 9 ,EA/]N ,FRANCE4 ,?AT IS TO SAY ! ,CON/ITU5T ,ASSEMBLY GAVE ORD]S = ! RETURN ( ! COMMUNAL L&S TO ! PEASANTS - :I* WAS 9 FACT ONLY DONE :5 ALREADY A*IEV$ BY REVOLUTION>Y ACTION4 ,IT IS ! FATE ( ALL REVOLUTION>Y LAWS1 & IT IS TIME ?AT IT WAS UND]/OOD4 ,!Y >E ONLY 5ACT$ AFT] ! FAIT ACCOMPLI4 

,BUT :IL/ RECOGNIZ+ ! RI<T ( ! COMMUNES TO ! L&S ?AT HAD BE5 TAK5 AWAY FROM !M S9CE #a#f#f#i1 ! LAW HAD TO ADD SOME ( ITS B\RGEOIS V5OM4 ,ITS 9T5TION WAS ?AT ! COMMUNAL L&S %\LD BE %>$ 9 EQUAL P>TS ONLY AMONG ! 'CITIZ5S' - ?AT IS AMONG ! VILLAGE B\RGEOISIE4 ,BY A /ROKE ( ! P5 IT WANT$ TO DISPOSSESS ! '9HABITANTS' & ! BULK ( ! IMPOV]I%$ PEASANTS1 :O W]E MO/ 9 NE$ ( !SE L&S4 ,:]EUPON1 =TUNATELY1 !RE W]E NEW ,JACQU]IES & 9 ,JULY #agic ! CONV5TION AU?ORIZ$ ! DI/RIBUTION ( ! L& AMONG ALL ! 9HABITANTS 9DIVIDUALLY - AGA9 SOME?+ ?AT WAS C>RI$ \T ONLY H]E & !RE1 & S]V$ AS A PRETEXT = A NEW PILLAGE ( COMMUNAL L&S4 

,W]E !SE MEASURES NOT ALREADY 5\< TO PROVOKE :AT ?OSE G5TLEM5 CALL '! NATURAL DEA?' ( ! COMMUNE8 YET = ALL ?AT ! COMMUNE W5T ON LIV+4 ,SO ON ,AUGU/ #b#d1 #a#g#i#d1 REACTION HAV+ SEIZ$ P[]1 IT /RUCK ! MAJOR BL[4 ,! ,/ATE CONFISCAT$ ALL ! COMMUNAL L&S & US$ !M AS A GU>ANTEE FUND = ! ,NATIONAL ,DEBT1 PUTT+ !M UP = AUCTION & SURR5D]+ !M TO ITS CREATURES1 ! ,!RMIDORIANS4 

,?IS LAW WAS HAPPILY REPEAL$ ON ! #b ,PRAIRIAL1 ,YE> ,V1 AFT] ?REE YE>S ( RU%+ AFT] ! SPOILS4 ,BUT BY ! SAME /ROKE ( ! P5 ! COMMUNES W]E ABOLI%$ & REPLAC$ BY CANTONAL C\NCILS1 9 ORD] ?AT ! ,/ATE C\LD ! MORE EASILY PACK !M ) ITS CREATURES4 ,?IS LA/$ UNTIL #aha :5 ! VILLAGE COMMUNES W]E RE9TRODUC$2 BUT !N ! ,GOV]NM5T ITSELF UND]TOOK TO APPO9T ! MAYORS & SYNDICS 9 EA* ( ! #c#f1 COMMUNES6 ,& ?IS ABSURDITY LA/$ UNTIL ! ,REVOLUTION ( ,JULY #a#h#c1 AFT] :I* ! LAW ( #a<i WAS RE9TRODUC$4 ,& 9 ! MEANTIME1 ! COMMUNAL L&S W]E AGA9 CONFISCAT$ 5TIRELY BY ! ,/ATE 9 #ahac & PILLAG$ = ! NEXT ?REE YE>S4 ,:AT REMA9$ WAS NOT RETURN$ TO ! COMMUNES UNTIL #a#h#a#f4 

,DO Y\ ?9K ?AT WAS ! 5D8 ,NOT AT ALL6 ,EA* NEW REGIME SAW 9 ! COMMUNAL L&S A MEANS ( COMP5SAT+ ITS H5*M54 ,?US FROM #a#h#c1 ON ?REE DIFF]5T OCCASIONS - ! FIR/ 9 #ahcg & ! LA/ UND] ,NAPOLEON ,I,I,I - LAWS W]E PROMULGAT$ TO =CE ! PEASANTS TO %>E :AT REMA9$ TO !M ( ! COMMUNAL =E/S & PA/URES1 & ?REE TIMES WAS ! ,/ATE OBLIG$ TO ABROGATE !SE LAWS BECAUSE ( ! RESI/ANCE ( ! PEASANTS4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ,NAPOLEON ,I,I,I TOOK ADVANTAGE ( ?IS SITUATION TO SEIZE A FEW L>GE E/ATES & TO MAKE PRES5TS ( !M TO HIS CREATURES4 

,SU* >E ! FACTS4 ,& ?IS IS :AT ?OSE G5TLEM5 CALL 9 'SCI5TIFIC' LANGUAGE ! NATURAL DEA? ( COMMUNAL [N]%IP 'UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ECONOMIC LAWS'4 ,ONE MI<T AS WELL CALL ! MASSACRE ( A HUNDR$ ?\S& SOLDI]S ON ! BATTLEFIELD NATURAL DEA?6 

,N[1 :AT WAS DONE 9 ,FRANCE WAS ALSO DONE 9 ,BELGIUM1 9 ,5GL&1 ,G]MANY & 9 ,AU/RIA - EV]Y:]E 9 ,EUROPE EXCEPT 9 ! ,SLAV C\NTRIES4 .<#d.> 

,BUT !N1 ! P]IODS ( \TBREAKS ( PILLAG+ ( ! COMMUNES >E L9K$ ?R\<\T ,EUROPE4 ,ONLY ! ME?ODS V>Y4 ,?US 9 ,5GL&1 !Y D>$ NOT PROCE$ ) G5]AL MEASURES2 BUT PREF]R$ TO PASS ?R\< ,P>LIAM5T SOME ?\S&S ( SEP>ATE ,5CLOSURE ,ACTS BY :I*1 9 EV]Y SPECIAL CASE1 ,P>LIAM5T SANCTION$ CONFISCATION - IT DOES SO TO ?IS DAY - & GAVE ! SQUIRE ! RI<T TO KEEP ! COMMUNAL L&S ?AT HE HAD R+-F5C$4 ,& :]EAS NATURE HAD UNTIL N[ RESPECT$ ! N>R[ FURR[S BY :I* ! COMMUNAL FIELDS W]E DIVID$ TEMPOR>ILY AMONG ! FAMILIES ( A VILLAGE 9 ,5GL&1 & ?\< WE HAVE 9 ! WRIT+S ( SOMEBODY CALL$ ,M>%AL CLE> DESCRIPTIONS ( ?IS =M ( POSSESSION AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 & ?\< COMMUNAL ECONOMY HAS SURVIV$ 9 SOME COMMUNES1 .<#e.> UP TO ! PRES5T TIME1 !RE IS NO LACK ( S*OL>S 7SU* AS ,SEEBOHM1 WOR?Y EMULATOR ( ,FU/EL DE ,C\LANGES7 TO MA9TA9 & TEA* ?AT ! COMMUNE NEV] EXI/$ 9 ,5GL& EXCEPT 9 ! =M ( S]FDOM6 

,9 ,BELGIUM1 9 ,G]MANY1 9 ,ITALY & ,SPA9 WE F9D ! SAME ME?ODS BE+ US$4 ,& 9 ONE WAY OR ANO!R ! 9DIVIDUAL SEIZURE ( ! L&S ?AT W]E ONCE COMMUNAL WAS ALMO/ COMPLET$ 9 ,WE/]N ,EUROPE BY ! #a#h#eS4 ,( !IR COMMUNAL L&S ! PEASANTS ONLY RETA9 A FEW SCRAPS4 

,?IS IS ! WAY ! MUTUAL ALLIANCE BETWE5 ! LORD1 ! PRIE/1 ! SOLDI] & ! JUDGE1 ?AT WE CALL ! ',/ATE'1 ACT$ T[>DS ! PEASANTS1 9 ORD] TO /RIP !M ( !IR LA/ GU>ANTEE AGA9/ EXTREME POV]TY & ECONOMIC BONDAGE4 

,BUT :ILE ! ,/ATE WAS CONDON+ & ORGANIZ+ ?IS PILLAGE1 C\LD IT RESPECT ! 9/ITUTION ( ! COMMUNE AS ! ORGAN ( LOCAL AFFAIRS8 ,OBVI\SLY1 IT C\LD NOT4 ,= TO ADMIT ?AT SOME CITIZ5S %\LD CON/ITUTE A F$]ATION :I* TAKES OV] SOME ( ! FUNCTIONS ( ! ,/ATE W\LD HAVE BE5 A CONTRADICTION ( FIR/ PR9CIPLES4 ,! ,/ATE DEM&S FROM ITS SUBJECTS A DIRECT1 P]SONAL SUBMISSION )\T 9T]M$I>IES2 IT DEM&S EQUALITY 9 SLAV]Y2 IT CANNOT ADMIT ( A ,/ATE )9 A ,/ATE4 

,?US AS SOON AS ! ,/ATE BEGAN TO BE CON/ITUT$ 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 IT S\<T TO DE/ROY ALL ! L9KS :I* EXI/$ AMONG ! CITIZ5S BO? 9 ! T[NS & 9 ! VILLAGES4 ,:]E IT TOL]AT$1 UND] ! NAME ( MUNICIPAL 9/ITUTIONS1 SOME REMNANTS ( AUTONOMY - NEV] ( 9DEP5D5CE - IT WAS ONLY = FISCAL REASONS1 TO R$UCE CORRESPOND+LY ! C5TRAL BUDGET2 OR ALSO TO GIVE ! BIG-WIGS ( ! PROV9CE A *ANCE TO GET RI* AT ! EXP5SE ( ! PEOPLE1 AS WAS ! CASE 9 ,5GL&1 QUITE LEGALLY UNTIL REC5T YE>S1 & TO ?IS DAY 9 ITS 9/ITUTIONS & CU/OMS4 

,?IS IS UND]/&ABLE4 ,LOCAL AFFAIRS >E A MATT] ( CU/OM>Y LAW :]EAS ! C5TRALIZATION ( P[]S IS A MATT] ( ,ROMAN LAW4 ,! TWO CANNOT LIVE SIDE BY SIDE2 ! LATT] HAD TO DE/ROY ! O!R4 

,IT IS = ?IS REASON ?AT UND] ! ,FR5* REGIME 9 ,ALG]IA :5 A KABYLE DJEMMAH - A VILLAGE COMMUNE - WANTS TO PLEAD = ITS L&S1 EA* 9HABITANT ( ! COMMUNE MU/ LODGE A P]SONAL COMPLA9T ) ! TRIBUNALS :O WILL DEAL ) FIFTY OR TWO HUNDR$ ISOLAT$ CASES RA!R ?AN ACCEPT ! COMMUNE'S COLLECTIVE PLEA4 ,! ,JACOB9 CODE DEVELOP$ 9 ! ,CODE ,NAPOLEON H>DLY RECOGNIZES CU/OM>Y LAW1 PREF]R+ ,ROMAN LAW OR RA!R ,BYZANT9E LAW4 

,IT IS = ?IS REASON1 AGA9 9 ,FRANCE1 ?AT :5 ! W9D BL[S D[N A TREE ONTO ! NATIONAL HI<WAY1 OR A PEASANT :OSE TURN IT IS TO REPAIR ! COMMUNAL LANE PREF]S TO PAY TWO OR ?REE FRANCS TO A /ONE BREAK] TO DO IT - FROM TWELVE TO FIFTE5 EMPLOYES ( ! ,M9I/RIES ( ! ,9T]IOR & ( ,F9ANCE HAVE TO BE 9VOLV$ & MORE ?AN FIFTY DOCUM5TS PASS$ BETWE5 !SE AU/]E FUNCTION>IES1 BE=E ! TREE CAN BE SOLD1 OR BE=E ! PEASANT CAN RECEIVE P]MISSION TO H& OV] HIS TWO OR ?REE FRANCS TO ! COMMUNAL TREASURY4 

,?OSE :O MAY HAVE D\BTS AS TO ! V]ACITY ( ?IS /ATEM5T WILL F9D !SE FIFTY DOCUM5TS LI/$ & DULY NUMB]$ BY ,M4 ,TRICO*E 9 ! ,J\RNAL DES ,ECONOMI/ES 7,APRIL #a#h#i#c74 

,?AT WAS ( C\RSE UND] ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC1 = ,I AM NOT TALK+ AB\T ! B>B>IC PROC$URE ( ! 'ANCI5T REGIME' :I* WAS SATISFI$ ) FIVE OR AT ! MO/ SIX DOCUM5TS4 ,BUT ! S*OL>S WILL TELL Y\ ?AT 9 MORE B>B>IC DAYS1 ! CONTROL BY ! ,/ATE WAS A %AM4 

,& W]E IT ONLY PAP] WORK6 ,IT W\LD ONLY MEAN1 AFT] ALL1 #b1 (FICIALS TOO MANY1 & ANO!R BILLION ADD$ TO ! BUDGET4 ,A M]E TRIFLE = ! LOV]S ( 'ORD]' & ALIGNM5T6 

,BUT AT ! BOTTOM ( ALL ?IS IS SOME?+ MU* WORSE4 ,!RE IS ! PR9CIPLE ?AT DE/ROYS EV]Y?+4 

,PEASANTS 9 A VILLAGE HAVE A L>GE NUMB] ( 9T]E/S 9 COMMON3 H\SEHOLD 9T]E/S1 NEI<BORHOOD1 CON/ANT RELATION%IPS4 ,!Y >E 9EVITABLY L$ TO COME TOGE!R = A ?\S& DIFF]5T ?+S4 ,BUT ! ,/ATE DOES NOT WANT ?IS1 NOR CAN IT ALL[ !M TO JO9 TOGE!R6 ,AFT] ALL ! ,/ATE GIVES !M ! S*OOL & ! PRIE/1 ! G5D>ME & ! JUDGE - ?IS %\LD BE SUFFICI5T4 ,& IF O!R 9T]E/S >ISE !Y CAN BE DEALT ) ?R\< ! USUAL *ANNELS ( ,/ATE & ,*UR*6 

,?US UNTIL #ahhc VILLAG]S 9 ,FRANCE W]E /RICTLY PROHIBIT$ FROM COMB9+ BE IT ONLY = ! PURPOSE ( BULK-BUY+ ( *EMICAL F]TILIZ]S OR ! IRRIGATION ( !IR MEAD[S4 ,IT WAS NOT UNTIL #a#h#h#c-#a#h#h#f ?AT ! ,REPUBLIC MADE UP ITS M9D TO GRANT ! PEASANTS ?IS RI<T1 BY VOT+ 9 ! LAW ON TRADES UNIONS :I* H[EV] WAS H$G$ 9 ) PROVISOS & CONDITIONS4 

,& WE :O >E /UPEFI$ BY ,/ATE $UCATION CAN REJOICE 9 ! SUDD5 ADVANCES MADE BY AGRICULTURAL UNIONS1 )\T BLU%+ AT ! ?\<T ?AT ?IS RI<T :I* HAS BE5 D5I$ ! PEASANTS UNTIL N[1 WAS ONE 5JOY$ )\T QUE/ION BY EV]Y MAN - FREE OR S]F - 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,WE HAVE BECOME SU* SLAVES ?AT WE ALREADY LOOK UPON IT AS A 'VICTORY = DEMOCRACY'4 ,?IS IS ! /AGE WE HAVE REA*$ 9 BRA9WA%+ ?ANKS TO A SY/EM ( $UCATION DE=M$ & VITIAT$ BY ! ,/ATE1 & \R ,/ATI/ PREJUDICES6 

.<#d.> ,IT IS ALREADY BE+ DONE 9 ,RUSSIA1 ! GOV]NM5T HAV+ AU?ORIZ$ ! PILLAG+ ( COMMUNAL L&S UND] ! LAW ( #aif & FAVOR$ ?IS PILLAGE BY ITS [N FUNCTION>IES4 

.<#e.> ,SEE ,DR4 ,GILB]T ,SLAT] ',! ,5CLOSURE ( ,COMMON ,FIELDS' 9 ! ,GEOGRAPHICAL ,J\RNAL ( ! ,GEOGRAPHICAL ,SOCIETY ( ,LONDON1 ) PLANS & MAPS1 ,JANU>Y #a#i#g4 ,LAT] PUBLI%$ 9 VOLUME =M4 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

O ,SECTION #i 

,PHOTO BY ,IVAN ,B&URA1,C,C ,B,Y ,LIC5SE 0,IF 9 ! T[N & ! VILLAGE Y\ HAVE COMMON 9T]E/S141 !N ASK ! ,/ATE OR ! *UR* TO DEAL ) !M4 BUT = Y\ TO GET TOGE!R TO DEAL ) !SE 9T]E/S IS =BIDD540 ,?IS IS ! AA?AT EEHOES ?R\<\T ,EUROPE FROM ! SIXTE5? C5TURY 

,ALREADY AT ! 5D ( ! F\RTE5? C5TURY AN $ICT BY ,$W>D ,I,I,I1 ,K+ ( ,5GL&1 /AT$ ?AT 0EV]Y ALLIANEE1 CONNIVANCE1 GA!R+S1 MEET+S1 5ACTM5TS & SOLEMN OA?S MADE OR TO T MADE BETWE5 C>P5T]S & MASONS1ND MASONS1 >E NULL & VOID04 ,BUT IT WAS ONLY AFT] ! DEFEAT ( ! VILLAGES & ( ! POPTTL> UPRIS+S1 TO :I* WE HAVE ALREADY REF]R$1 ?AT ! ,/ATE D>$ TO 9T]F]E ) ALL ! 9/ITUTIONS - GUILDS1 BRO!RHOODS1 ETC4 - :I* B\ND ! >TISANS TOGE!R1 TO DISB& & DE/ROY !M4 ,?IS IS :AT ONE SEES SO CLE>LY 9 ,5GL& S9CE ! VA/ D ,L TATIOBY VLIILABLE ALL[S ONE TO FOLL[ ?IS MOVEM5T /E B T ITTLE TTLE ! ,/ATE TAKES OV] ALL ! GUILDS & BRO!RHOODS4 ,IT BESETS !M1 ABOLI%ES !IR CONJURATIONS1 !IR SYNCS1 :I* !Y REPLACE BY !IR (FIC]S1 !IR TRIBUNA,IS & !IR BANQUETS2 & AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY UND] ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I1 ! ,/ATE SIMPLY CONFISCATES ALL ?AT ! GUILDS POSSESS )\T BO!R+ ) =RNALITIES OR PROC$URE4 ,! HEIR ( ! PROTE/ANT K+ COMPLETES HIS TASK4 

,IT IS DAYLI<T ROBB]Y1 )\T APOLOGIES AS ,?O,FOLD ,ROG]S SO WELL PUT IT4 ,& AGA91 IT IS ?IS !FT ?AT ! SO-CALL$ SEI5TIFIC ECONOMI/S DES]IBE AS ! 'NATURAL' DEA?RAL' DEA? ( ! GUILDS UND] ! 9FLU5EE ( 'ECONOMIC LAWS'6 

,9DE$1 C\LD ! ,/ATE TOL]ATE ! GUI,ID1 ! TRADE CORPORATIAN 1 )' ITS TRIBUNAL1 ITS MILITIA14 ITS TREASURY1 ITS SWORN ORGANIZATION8 ,IT WAS ! ,/ATE )9 ! ,/ATE'6 ,! REAL ,/ATE HAD TO DE/ROY IT & ?IS IT DID EV]Y:]E3 9 ,5GL&1 9 ,FRANCE1 9 ,G]MANY1 ,BOHEMIA & ,RUSSIA1 MA9TA9+ ONLY ! PRET5SE = ! SAKE ( ! TAX EOLLECTOR & AS P>T ( ITS HUGE ADM9I/RATIVE MA*9E4 ,& SURELY !RE IS NO REASON TO BE SURPRIS$ ?AT ONCE ! GUILDS1 & GUILD MA/]%IPS W]E DEPRIV$ ( ALL ?AT HI!RTO HAD BE5 !IR ,IIVES1 W]E PUF UND] ! ORD]S ( ! ROYAL (FICIALS & HAD SIMPLY BECOME EOGS 9 ! MA*9]Y ( ADM9I/RATION1 ?AT HY ! EI<TE5? C5TURY !Y W]E A H9DRANCE1 AN OB/ACLE TO 9DU/RIAL CTEVELAPM5T1 9 SPITE ( ! FACT ?AT = F\R E5TURIES BE=E ?AT !Y REPRES5T$ LIFE ITSELF4 ,! ,/ATE HAD DE/ROY$ !M4 

,BUT ! ,/ATE WAS NOT SATISF$ ) PUTT+ A SPOKE 9 ! :EELS ( LIFE ( ELS ( LIFE ( ! SWORN BRO!RHOODS ( TADES :I* EMB>RASS$ IT BY PLAC+ !MSELVES BETWE5 IT & ITS SUBJECTS4 ,IT WAS NOT SATISFI$ ) CONFISCAT+ !IR FUNDS & !IR PROP5IES4 ,! ,/ATE HAD TA TAKE OV] !IR FUNCTIONS AS WEL,I AS !IR ASSETS4 

,9 A CITY ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 :5 !RE WAS A CANILICT ( 9T]E/S )9 A TRADE OR :]E TWO DIFF]5T GUILDS W]E 9 DISAGREEM5T1 ! ONLY REC\RSE WAS TO ! CITY4 ,!Y W]E OBLIG$ TO EOME TO AN AGREEM5T1 TO ANY K9D ( COMPRAMISE >RANGEM5T1 S9CE !Y W]E ALL MUTUALLY TI$ UP ) ! CITY4 ,& ! LATT] NEV] FAIL$ TA ASS5 ITSELF1 EI!R BY >BITRATION OR AT A P9* BY REF]R+ ! DISPUTE TO ANO!R EITY4 ,FROM !N ON1 ! ,/ATE WAS ! ONLY JUDGE4 ,A#a#a ,I@58AL CONFLIETS 9CLUD+ 9SIGNIFICANT DISPUTES 9 SMALL T[NS ) ONLY A FEW HUNDR$ 9HABITANTS1 ACEUMULAT$ 9 ! =M AF DOCUM5TS 9 ! (FICES ( ! K+ OR ( P>LIAM5T4 ,! ,5GLI% P>LIAM5T WAS LIT]ALLY 9UNDAT$ BY ?\S&S ( M9OR LOCAL SQUABBLES4 ,AS A RESULT ?\SAA RESULT ?\SA&S ( (FICIALS W]E REQUIR$ 9 ! CAPITAL - MO/ AF !M CORRUPTIBLE - TO READ1 CLASSIFY1 & =M AN AP9ION ON ALL ?IS LITIGATION & ADJUDICATE ON ! SMALLE/ DETAILS3 = EXAMPLE H[ TO %OE A HORSE1 TO BLEA* L951 TO SALT H]R+S1 TO MAKE A B>REL & SO ON AD 9F9ITUM1 & ! WAVE ( QUE/IONS W5T \ 9CREAS+ 9 VOLUME6 

,BUT ?IS WAS NOT ALL4 ,9 DUE E\RSE ! ,/ATE TOOK OV] EXPAN TRADE1 SEE+ IT AS A S\RCE ( PR(IT4 ,=M]LY1 :5 A DIFF]5EE >OSE BETWE5 TWO T[NS ON ! VALUE ( ELO? ?AT HAD BE5 EXPONAD1 > ( ! QUALITY ( WOOL OR OV] ! CAPACITY ( H]R+ B>RELS1 ! T[NS !MSELVES W\LD REMON/RATE ) EA* O!R4 ,IF ! DISAGREEM5T DRAGG$ ON1 MORE (T5 ?AN NOT !Y W\LD 9VITE ANO!R T[N TO >BITRATE4 ,ALT]NATIVELY A CANGRESS AF ! WEAV]S OR COOP]S GUILDS W\LD BE SUMMON$ TO DECIDE ON AN 9T]NATIONAL LEVEL ! QUALITY & VALUE ( ELO? & ! EAPACITY ( B>RELS4 

,BUT H5CE=? IT WAS ! ,/ATE 9 ,LONDON OR 9 ,P>IS :I* UND]TOOK TOI* UND]TOOK TOO DEAL ) !SE DISPUTES4 ,?R\< ITS (FCIALS IT CONTROLG D ! CAPACITY ( B>RELS1 DEF9$ ! QUALITY ( CLO? 1 ALL[9 = V>IATIONS AS WELL AS E/ABLI%+ ! NUMB] ( ?READS & !IR ?ICKNESS 9 ! W>P & ! WO(1 & BY ITS ORD9ANCES M$DL+ ) ! SMALLE/ DETAILS 9 EV]Y 9DU/RY4 

,Y\ CAN GUESS ) :AT RESULTS4 ,UND] SU* CONTROL 9DU/ 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY WAS DY+4 

,:AT HAD 9 FACT COME ( ,B5V5UTO ,CELL9I'S >T UND] ,/ATE TUTELAGE8 IT HAD DISAPPE>$6 ,& ! >*ITECTURE ( ?OSE GUILDS ( MASONS & C>P5T]S :OSE WORKS ( >T WE /ILL ADMIRE8 ,J U/ OBS]VE ! HIDE\S MONUM5TS ( ! /ATI/ P]IOD & AT ONE GLANCE Y\ WILL COME TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT >*ITECTURE WAS DEAD 1 TO SU* AN EXT5T ?AT IT HAS NOT YET RECOV]$ FROM ! BL[S IT RECEIV$ AT ! H&S ( ! ,/ATE4 

,:AT WAS HAPP5+ TO ! TEXTILES ( ,BRUGES & ! CLO? FROM ,HOLL& ,:]E W]E !SE IRON-SMI?S1 SO SKILL$ 9 H&L+ IRON & :O1 9 EV]Y IMPORTANT ,EUROPEAN VILLAGE1 KNEW H[ TO MAKE ?IS UNGRATEFUL METAL L5D ITSELF TO TRANS=MATION 9TO ! MO/ EXQUISITE DECORATIONS8 ,:]E W]E ?OSE TURN]S1 ?OSE WAT*MAK]S1 ?OSE FITT]S :O HAD MADE ,NUREMB]G ONE ( ! GLORIES ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES = PRECISION 9/RUM5TS8 ,TALK AB\T IT TO ,JAMES ,WATT :O TWO C5TURIES LAT] SP5T ?IRTY YE>S 9 VA91 LOOK+ = A WORK] :O C\LD PRODUCE A MORE OR LESS CIRCUL> CYL9D] = HIS /EAM 5G9E4 ,CONSEQU5TLY HIS MA*9E REMA9$ AT ! PROJECT /AGE = ?IRTY YE>S BECAUSE !RE W]E NO CRAFTSM5 ABLE TO CON/RUCT IT4 

,SU* WAS ! ROLE ( ! ,/ATE 9 ! 9DU/RIAL FIELD4 ,ALL IT WAS CAPABLE ( DO+ WAS TO TI<T5 ! SCREW = ! WORK] DEPOPULATE ! C\NTRYSIDE1 SPREAD MIZE 9 ! T[NS1 R$UCE 9DULT NAL ]FDOMN BE+S TO A /ATE ( />VATION & IMPOSE 

,& IT IS !SE PITIFUL REMA9S ( ! OLD GUILDS1 !SE ORGANISMS :I* HAVE BE5 BATT]$ & OV]-TAX$1 !SE USELESS COGS ( ! ADM9I/RATIVE MA*9E1 :I* ! EV] SCI5TIFIC' ECONOMI/S >E@5,M ECONOMI/S A RE@5,M SO IGNORANT AS TO CONFUSE ) ! GUILDS ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,:AT ! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION SWEPT AWAY AS H>MFUL TO 9DU/ WAS NOT ! GUILD1 NOR EV5 ! TRADE UNION1 BUT ! USELESS & H MFUL COG 9 ! MA*9]Y ( ,/ATE4 

,BUT :AT ! ,REVOLUTION WAS AT PA9S NOT TO SWEEP AWAY WAS ! P[] ( ! ,/ATE OV] 9DU/RY1 OV] ! FACTORY S]F4 

,DO Y\ REMEMB] ! DISCUSSION :I* TOOK PLACE AT ! ,CONV5TION - AT ! T]RIBLE ,CONV5TION - APROPOS ( A /RIKE8 ,TO ! COMPLA9TS ( ! /RIK]S ! ,CONV5TION REPLI$3 0,! ,/ATE ALONE HAS ! DUTY TO WAT* OV] ! 9T]E/S ( ALL CITIZ5S4 ,BY /RIK+1 Y\ >E =M+ A COALITION1 Y\ >E CREAT+ A ,/ATE )9 ! ,/ATE4 ,SO - DEA?60 

,9 ?IS REPLY ONLY ! B\RGEOIS NATURE ( ! ,REVOLUTION HAS BE5 DISC]N$4 ,BUT HAS IT NOT1 9 FACT1 A MU* DEEP] SIGNIFICANCE8 ,DOES IT NOT SUM UP ! ATTITUDE ( ! ,/ATE1 :I* F\ND ITS COMPLETE & LOGICAL EXPRESSION 9 REG>D TO SOCIETY AS A :OLE 9 ! ,JACOB9ISM ( #a#g#i#c8 0,HAVE Y\ SOME?+ T Y\ SOME?+ TO COMPLA9 AB\T8 ,!N ADDRESS Y\R COMPLA9T TO ! ,/ATE6 ,IT ALONE HAS ! MISSION TO R$RESS ! GRIEVANCES ( ITS SUBJECTS4 ,AS = A COALITION TO DEF5D Y\RSELVES - ,NEV]60 ,IT WAS 9 ?IS S5SE ?AT ! ,REPUBLIC CALL$ ITSELF ONE & 9DIVISIBLE4 

,DOES NOT ! MOD]N SOCIALI/ ,JACOB9 ?9K 9 ! SAME WAY8 ,DID NOT ! ,CONV5TION EXPRESS ! GI/ ( ,JACOB9 ?\<T ) ! COLD LOGIC ?AT IS TYPICAL ( IT8 

,9 ?IS ANSW] ( ! ,CONV5TION WAS SUMM$ UP ! ATTITUDE ( ALL ,/ATES 9 REG>D TO ALL COALITIONS & ALL PRIVATE SOCIETIES1 :ATEV] !IR AIM4 

,9 ! CASE ( ! /RIKE1 IT IS A FACT ?AT 9 ,RUSSIA IT IS /ILL CONSID]$ A CRIME ( HI< TREASON4 ,9 MO/ ( ,G]MANY TOO :]E ,WILHELM W\LD SAY TO ! M9]S3 0,APPEAL TO ME2 BUT IF EV] Y\ PRESUME TO ACT = Y\RSELVES Y\ WILL TA/E ! SWORDS ( MY SOLDI]S04 

,SU* IS /ILL ALMO/ ALWAYS ! CASE 9 ,FRANCE4 ,& EV5 9 ,5GL&1 ONLY AFT] HAV+ /RUGGL$ = A C5TURY BY MEANS ( SECRET SOCIETIES1 BY ! DAGG] = TRAITORS AG] = TRAITORS & = ! MA/E RS1 BY EXPLOSIVE P[D]S UND] MA*9ES 7AS LATE AS #a#h#f71 BY EM]Y P[D] P\R$ 9TO GREASE-BOXES & SO ON1 DID ,BRITI% WORK]S BEG9 TO W9 ! RI<T TO /RIKE1 & WILL SOON HAVE IT ALTOGE!R - IF !Y DON'T FALL 9TO ! TRAPS ALREADY SET = !M BY ! ,/ATE1 9 SEEK+ TO IMPOSE COMPULSORY >BITRATION 9 RETURN = AN EI<T H\R DAY4 

,MORE ?AN A C5TURY ( BITT] /RUGGLES6 ,& :AT MIS]Y6 H[ MANY WORK]S DI$ 9 PRISON1 W]E TRANSPORT$ TO ,AU/RALIA1 W]E %OT OR HANG$1 9 ORD] TO W9 BACK ! RI<T TO COMB9E :I* - LET IT BE REMEMB]$ ONCE MORE - EV]Y MAN FREE OR S]F PRACTIC$ FREELY SO LONG AS ! ,/ATE DID NOT LAY ITS HEAVY H& ON SOCIETIES4 

,BUT !N1 WAS IT ! WORKMAN ONLY :O WAS TREAT$ 9 ?IS WAY8 

,LET US SIMPLY RECALL ! /RUGGLES ?AT ! B\RGEOISIE HAD TO WAGE AGA9/ ! ,/ATE TO W9 ! RI<T TO CON/ITUTE ITSELF 9TO COMM]CIAL SOCIETIES - A RI<T :I* ! ,/ATE ONLY BEGAN TO CONC$E :5 IT DISCOV]$ A CONV5I5T WAY ( CREAT+ MONOPF CREAT+ MONOPPOLIES = ! B5EFIT ( ITS CREATURES & TO FILL ITS C(F]S4 ,TLI9K ( ! /RUGGLE = ! RI<T TO SPEAK1 ?9K OR WRITE O!R ?AN ! WAY ! ,/ATE DECREES ?R\< ! ,ACADEMY1 ! ,UNIV]SITY & ! ,*UR*6 ,?9K ( ! /RUGGIES ?AT HAVE HAD TO BE WAG$ TO ?IS DAY 9 ORD] TO BE ABLE TO TEA* *ILDR5 TO READ - A RI<T :I* ! ,/ATE POSSESSES BUT DOES NOT USE6 ,EV5 ( ! /RUGGLES TO SECURE ! RI<T TO 5JOY ONESELF 9 PUBIIC6 ,NOT TO ZN5TION ?OSE :I* %\LD BE WAG$ 9 ORD] ZO D>E TO *OOSE ONE S JUDGE & ONE'S LAWS - A ?+ ?AT WAS 9 DAILY USE 9 O!R TI@58NES - NOR ! /RUGGLES ?AT WILL BE NE$$ BE=E ONE IS ABLE TO MAKE A BONFIRE ( ?AT BOOK ( 9FAM\S PUNI%M5TS1 9V5T$ BY ! SPIRIT ( ! 9QUISITION & ( ! DESPOTIC EMPIRES ( ! ,ORI5T KN[N UND] ! NAME ( ! ,P5AL ,CODE6 

,OBS]VE NEXT TAXATION - AN 9/ITUTION ORIG9AT+ PURELY ) ! ,/ATE - ?IS =MIDABLE WEAPON US$ BY ! ,/ATE1 9 ,EUROPE AS 9 ! Y\NG SOCIETIES ( ! TWO ,AM]ICAS1 TO O ,AM]ICAS1 TO KEEP ! MASSES UND] ITS HEEL1 TO FAVOR ITS M9IONS1 TO RU9 ! MAJORITY = ! B5E IT ( ! RUL]S & TO MA9TA9 ! OLD DIVISIONS & CA/ES4 

,!N TAKE ! W>S )\T :I* ,/ATES CAN NEI!R CON/ITUTE !MSELVES NOR MA9TA9 !MSELVES2 W>S :I* BECOME DISA/R\S1 & 9EVITABLE1 ! MOM5T ONE ADMITS ?AT A P>TICUL> REGION - SIMPLY BECAUSE IT IS P>T ( A ,/ATE - HAS 9T]E/S OPPOS$ TO ?OSE ( ITS NEI<BORS :O >E P>T ( ANO!R ,/ATE4 ,?9K ( PA/ W>S & ( ?OSE ?AT SUBJECT$ PEOPLE WIIL HAVE TO WAGE TO CONQU] ! RI<T TO BREA! FREEIY1 ! W>S = M>KETS 1 ! W>S TO CREATE COLONIAL EMPIRES4 ,& 9 ,FRANCE WE UN=TUNATELY KN[ ONLY TOO WELL ?AT EV]Y W>1 VICTORI\S OR NOT1 IS FOLL[$ B SLAV]Y4 

,& F9ALLY :AT IS EV5 WORSE ?AN ALL ?AT HAS JU/ BE5 5UM]AT$1 IS ! FACT ?AT ! $UCATION WE ALL RECEIVE #a'ROM ! ,/ATE1 AT S*OOL & AFT]1 HAS SO W>P$ \R M9DS ?AZ ! V]Y NOTION ( FRE$OM 5DS UP BY BE+ LO/1 & DISGUIS$ 9 S]VITUDE4D 9 S]VITU DE4 

,IT IS A SAD SI<T TO SEE ?OSE :O BELIEVE !MSELVES TO BE REVOLUTION>IES UNLEA%+ !IR HATR$ ON ! AN>*I/ - JUSL BECAUSE HIS VIEWS ON FRE$OM GO BEYOND !IR PETZY & N>RO W CONCEPTS ( FRE$OM LE>N$ 9 ! ,/ATE S*OOL4 ,& MEAN:ILE1 ?IS SPECTACLE IS A REALITY4 ,! FACT IS ?AT ! SPIRIT ( VOIUNT>Y S]VITUDE WAS ALWAYS CLEV]LY CULTIVAT$ 9 ! M9DS ( ! Y\NG1 & /ILL IS1 9 ORD] TO P]PETUATE ! SUBJECTION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL TO ! ,/ATE4 

,LIB]T>IAN PHILOSOPHY IS /IFL$ BY ! ,ROMAN & ,CA?OLIC PSEUDO-PHILOSOPHY ( ! ,/ATE4 ,HI/ORY IS VITIAT$ FROM ! V]Y FIR/ PAGE1 :]E IT LIES :5 SPEAK+ ( ! ,M]OV+IAN & ,C>OL+IAN MON>*IES1 TO ! LA/ PAGE :]E IT GLORIFIES ,JACOB9ISM & REFUSES TO RECOGNIZE ! ROLE ( ! PEOPLE 9 CREAT+ ! 9/ITUTIONS4 ,NATURAL SCI5CES >E P]V]T$ 9 ORD] TO BE PUT AT ! S]VICE ( ! D\BLE IDOL3 ,*UR*-,/ATE4 ,9DIVIDUAL PSY*OLOGY1 & EV5 MORE ?AT ( SOCIETIES1 >E FALSIFI$ 9 EA* ( !IR ASS]TI( !IR ASS]TIIONS 9 JU/IFY+ ! TRIPLE ALLIANCE ( SOLDI]1 PRIE/ & JUDGE4 ,F9ALLY1 MORALITY1 AFT] HAV+ PREA*$ = C5TURIES OB$I5CE TO ! ,*UR*1 OR ! BOOK1 A*IEVES ITS EMANCIPATION TODAY ONLY TO !N PREA* S]VILITY TO ! ,/ATE3 0,NO DIRECT MORAL OBLIGATIONS T[>DS Y\R NEI<BOR1 NOR EV5 ANY FEEL+ ( SOLID>ITY2 ALL Y\R OBLIGATIONS >E TO ! ,/ATE01 WE >E ZOLD1 WE >E TAU<T1 9 ?IS NEW CULT ( ! OLD ,ROMAN & ,CES>EAN DIV9ITY4 0,! NEI<BOR1 ! COMRADE1 ! COMPANION - =GET !M4 ,Y\ WILL H5CE=? ONLY KN[ !M ?R\< ! 9T]M$I>Y ( SOME ORGAN OR O!R ( Y\R ,/ATE4 ,& EV]Y ONE ( Y\ WIIL MAKE A VIRTUE \T ( BE+ EQUALLY SUBJECT$ TO IT40 

,& ! GLORIFICATION ( ! ,/ATE & ( IZS DISCIPI9E1 = :I* ! UNIV]SITY & ! ,*UR*1 ! PRESS & ! POLITICAL P>TIES LABOR1 IS PROPAGAT$ SO SUCCESSFUILY ?AT EV5 REVOLUTION>IES D>E NOT LOOK ?IS FETI% /RAI<T 9 ! EYE4 

,! MOD]N RADICAL IS A C5TRALI/4 ,/ATI/ & RABID ,JACOB94 ,& ! SOB94 ,& ! SOOCIALI/ FALLS 9TO /EP4 ,JU/ AS ! ,FLOR5T9ES AT ! 5D ( ! FIFTE5? C5TURY KNEW NO BETT] ?AN TO CALL ON ! DICTATOR%IP ( ! ,/ATE TO SAVE !MSELVES FROM ! ,PATRICIANS1 SO ! SOCIALI/S CAN ONLY CALL UPON ! SAME ,GODS1 ! DICZATOR%IP ( ! ,/ATE1 TO SAVE !MSELVES FROM ! HORRORS ( ! ECONOMIC REGIME CRCAT$ BY ?AT V]Y SAME ,/ATE6 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

O ,SECTION #a 

,PHOTO BY ,JANE ,HORTON1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C ,LIC5SE ,IF ONE GOES A LITTLE DEEP] 9TO !SE DIFF]5T CATEGORIES ( PH5OM5A :I* ,I HAVE H>DLY T\*$ UPON 9 ?IS %ORT \TL9E ONE WILL UND]/& :Y - SEE+ ! ,/ATE AS IT HAS BE5 9 HI/ORY1 & AS IT IS 9 ESS5CE TODAY - & CONV9C$ ?AT A SOCIAL 9/ITUTION CANNOT L5D ITSELF TO ALL ! DESIR$ GOALS S9CE AS ) EV]Y ORGAN1 IT DEVELOP$ ACCORD+ TO ! FUNCTION IT P]=M$1 9 A DEF9ITE DIRECTION & NOT 9 ALL POSSIBLE DIRECTIONS - ONE WILL UND]/&1 ,I SAY1 :Y ! CONCLUSION WE >RIVE AT IS = ! ABOLITION ( ! ,/ATE4 

,WE SEE IT 9 ! ,9/ITUTION1 DEVELOP$ 9 ! HI/ORY ( HUMAN SOCIETIES TO PREV5T ! DIRECT ASSOCIATION AMONG M5 TO %ACKLE ! DEVELOPM5T ( LOCAL & 9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE1 TO CRU% EXI/+ LIB]TIES1 TO PREV5T !IR NEW BLOSSOM+ - ALL ?IS 9 ORD] TO SUBJECT ! MASSES TO ! WILL ( M9ORITIES4 

,& WE KN[ AN 9/ITUTION :I* HAS A LONG PA/ GO+ BACK SEV]AL ?\S& YE>S CANNOT L5D ITSELF TO A FUNCTION OPPOS$ TO HI/ORY = :I* & BY :I* IT WAS DEVELOP$ 9 ! C\RSE ( HI/ORY4 

,TO ?IS ABSOLUTELY UN%AKABLE >GUM5T = ANYONE :O HAS REFLECT$ ON HI/ORY1 :AT REPLY DO WE GET8 ,ONE IS ANSW]$ ) AN ALMO/ *ILDI% >GUM5T3 

',! ,/ATE EXI/S & REPRES5TS A P[]FUL READY-MADE ORGANIZATION4 ,:Y NOT USE IT 9/EAD ( WANT+ TO DE/ROY IT8 ,IT OP]ATES = EVIL 5DS - AGRE$2 BUT ! REASON IS ?AT IT IS 9 ! H&S ( ! EXPLOIT]S4 ,IF IT W]E TAK5 OV] BY ! PEOPLE1 :Y W\LD IT NOT BE US$ = BETT] 5DS1 = ! GOOD ( ! PEOPLE8' 

,ALWAYS ! SAME DREAM - ?AT ( ! ,M>QUIS DE ,POSA1 9 ,S*ILL]'S DRAMA SEEK+ TO MAKE AN 9/RUM5T ( EMANCIPATION \T ( ABSOLUTISM2 OR AGA9 ! DREAM ( ! G5TLE ,ABBE ,PI]RE 9 ,ZOLA S ,ROME WANT+ TO MAKE ( ! ,*UR* ! LEV] = SOCIALISM4 

,H[ SAD IT IS TO HAVE TO REPLY TO SU* >GUM5TS6 ,= ?OSE :O >GUE 9 ?IS WAY EI!R HAV5'T A CLUE AS TO ! TRUE HI/ORIC ROLE ( ! ,/ATE1 OR !Y VIEW ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION 9 SU* A SUP]FICIAL & PA9LESS =M ?AT IT CEASES TO HAVE ANY?+ 9 COMMON ) !IR SOCIALI/ ASPIRATIONS4 

,TAKE ! CONCRETE EXAMPLE ( ,FRANCE4 

,ALL ?9K+ PEOPLE MU/ HAVE NOTIC$ ! /RIK+ FACT ?AT ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC1 9 SPITE ( ITS REPUBLICAN =M ( GOV]NM5T1 HAS REMA9$ MON>*I/ 9 ESS5CE4 ,WE HAVE ALL REPROA*$ IT = NOT HAV+ REPUBLICANIZ$ ,FRANCE - ,I AM NOT SAY+ ?AT IT HAS DONE NO?+ = ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 BUT ?AT IT HAS NOT EV5 9TRODUC$ A MORALITY - ?AT IS AN \TLOOK :I* IS SIMPLY REPUBLICAN4 ,= ! LITTLE ?AT HAS BE5 DONE 9 ! PA/ #be YE>S TO DEMOCRATIZE SOCIAL ATTITUDES OR TO SPREAD A LITTLE $UCATION HAS BE5 DONE EV]Y:]E1 9 ALL ! ,EUROPEAN MON>*IES1 UND] PRESSURE FROM ! TIMES ?R\< :I* WE >E PASS+4 ,!N :]E DOES ?IS /RANGE ANOMALY ( A REPUBLIC :I* HAS REMA9$ A MON>*Y COME FROM8 

,IT >ISES FROM ! FACT ?AT ,FRANCE HAS REMA9$ A ,/ATE1 & EXACTLY :]E IT WAS ?IRTY YE>S AGO4 ,! HOLD]S ( P[] HAVE *ANG$ ! NAME BUT ALL ?AT HUGE M9I/]IAL SCAFFOLD+1 ALL ?AT C5TRALIZ$ ORGANIZATION ( :ITE-COLL> WORK]S1 ALL ?IS APE+ ( ! ,ROME ( ! ,CAES>S :I* HAS DEVELOP$ 9 ,FRANCE1 ALL ?AT HUGE ORGANIZATION TO ASSURE & EXT5D ! EXPLOITATION ( ! MASSES 9 FAVOR ( A FEW PRIVILEG$ GR\PS1 :I* IS ! ESS5CE ( ! ,/ATE 9/ITUTION - ALL ?AT HAS REMA9$4 ,& ?OSE :EELS ( BUREAUCRACY CONT9UE AS 9 ! PA/ TO EX*ANGE !IR FIFTY DOCUM5TS :5 ! W9D HAS BL[N D[N A TREE ON TO ! HI<WAY & TO TRANSF] ! MILLIONS D$UCT$ FROM ! NATION TO ! C(F]S ( ! PRIVILEG$4 ,! (FICIAL /AMP ON ! DOCUM5TS HAS *ANG$2 BUT ! ,/ATE1 ITS SPIRIT1 ITS ORGANS1 ITS T]RITORIAL C5TRALIZATION1 ITS C5TRALIZATION ( FUNCTIONS1 ITS FAVORITISM1 & ITS ROLE AS CREATOR ( MONOPOLIES HAVE REMA9$4 ,LIKE AN OCTOPUS !Y GO ON SPREAD+ !IR T5TACLES OV] ! C\NTRY4 

,! REPUBLICANS - & ,I AM SPEAK+ ( ! S9C]E ONES - HAD *]I%$ ! ILLUSION ?AT ONE C\LD 'UTILIZE ! ORGANIZATION ( ! ,/ATE' TO EFFECT A *ANGE 9 A ,REPUBLICAN DIRECTION1 & !SE >E ! RESULTS4 ,:]EAS IT WAS NECESS>Y TO BREAK UP ! OLD ORGANIZATION1 %ATT] ! ,/ATE & REBUILD A NEW ORGANIZATION FROM ! V]Y F\NDATIONS ( SOCIETY - ! LIB]AT$ VILLAGE COMMUNE1 F$]ALISM1 GR\P+S FROM SIMPLE TO COMPLEX1 FREE WORK+ ASSOCIATION - !Y ?\<T ( US+ ! 'ORGANIZATION ?AT ALREADY EXI/$'4 ,&1 NOT HAV+ UND]/OOD ?AT1 ONE DOES NOT MAKE AN HI/ORICAL 9/ITUTION FOLL[ 9 ! DIRECTION TO :I* ONE PO9TS - ?AT IS 9 ! OPPOSITE DIRECTION TO ! ONE IT HAS TAK5 OV] ! C5TURIES - !Y W]E SWALL[$ UP BY ! 9/ITUTION4 

,& ?IS HAPP5$ ?\< 9 ?IS CASE IT WAS NOT EV5 A QUE/ION YET ( *ANG+ ! :OLE ECONOMIC RELATIONS 9 SOCIETY6 ,! AIM WAS M]ELY TO RE=M ONLY SOME ASPECTS ( POLITICAL RELATIONS BETWE5 M54 

,BUT AFT] SU* A COMPLEX FAILURE1 & 9 ! LI<T ( SU* A PITIFUL EXP]IM5T1 !RE >E ?OSE :O /ILL 9SI/ 9 TELL+ US ?AT ! CONQUE/ ( P[]S 9 ! ,/ATE1 BY ! PEOPLE1 WILL SUFFICE TO ACCOMPLI% ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION6 - ?AT ! OLD MA*9E1 ! OLD ORGANIZATION1 SL[LY DEVELOP$ 9 ! C\RSE ( HI/ORY TO CRU% FRE$OM1 TO CRU% ! 9DIVIDUAL1 TO E/ABLI% OPPRESSION ON A LEGAL BASIS1 TO CREATE MONOPOLI/S1 TO LEAD M9DS A/RAY BY ACCU/OM+ !M TO S]VITUDE - WILL L5D ITSELF P]FECTLY TO ITS NEW FUNCTIONS3 ?AT IT WILL BECOME ! 9/RUM5T1 ! FRAMEWORK = ! G]M9ATION ( A NEW LIFE1 TO F\ND FRE$OM & EQUALITY ON ECONOMIC BASES1 ! DE/RUCTION ( MONOPOLIES1 ! AWAK5+ ( SOCIETY & T[>DS ! A*IEVEM5T ( A FUTURE ( FRE$OM & EQUALITY6 

,:AT A SAD & TRAGIC MI/AKE6 

,TO GIVE FULL SCOPE TO SOCIALISM 5TAILS REBUILD+ FROM TOP TO BOTTOM A SOCIETY DOM9AT$ BY ! N>R[ 9DIVIDUALISM ( ! %OPKEEP]4 ,IT IS NOT AS HAS SOMETIMES BE5 SAID BY ?OSE 9DULG+ 9 METAPHYSICAL WOOL9ESS JU/ A QUE/ION ( GIV+ ! WORK] '! TOTAL PRODUCT ( HIS LABOR'2 IT IS A QUE/ION ( COMPLETELY RE%AP+ ALL RELATION%IPS1 FROM ?OSE :I* EXI/ TODAY BETWE5 EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL & HIS *UR*W>D5 OR HIS /ATION-MA/] TO ?OSE :I* EXI/ BETWE5 TRADES1 HAMLETS1 CITIES & REGIONS4 ,9 EV] /REET1 9 EV]Y HAMLET1 9 EV]Y GR\P ( M5 GA!R$ >\ND A FACTORY OR ALONG A SECTION ( ! RAILWAY L9E1 ! CREATIVE 1 CON/RUCTIVE & ORGANIZATIONAL SPIRIT MU/ BE AWAK5$ 9 ORD] TO REBUILD LIFE - 9 ! FACTORY1 9 ! VILLAGE1 9 ! /ORE1 9 PRODUCTION & 9 DI/RIBUTION ( SUPPLIES4 ,ALL RELATIONS BETWE5 9DIVIDUALS & GREAT C5T]S ( POPULATION HAVE TO BE MADE ALL OV] AGA91 FROM ! V]Y DAY1 FROM ! V]Y MOM5T ONE ALT]S ! EXI/+ COMM]CIAL OR ADM9I/RATIVE ORGANIZATION4 

,& !Y EXPECT ?IS IMM5SE TASK1 REQUIR+ ! FREE EXPRESSION ( POPUL> G5IUS1 TO BE C>RI$ \T )9 ! FRAMEWORK ( ! ,/ATE & ! PYRAMIDAL ORGANIZATION :I* IS ! ESS5CE ( ! ,/ATE6 ,!Y EXPECT ! ,/ATE :OSE V]Y RAISON D'ETRE IS ! CRU%+ ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 ! HATR$ ( 9ITIATIVE1 ! TRIUMPH ( ONE IDEA :I* MU/ BE 9EVITABLY ?AT ( M$IOCRITY - TO BECOME ! LEV] = ! ACCOMPLI%M5T ( ?IS IMM5SE TRANS=MATION4 ,!Y WANT TO DIRECT ! R5EWAL ( A SOCIETY BY MEANS ( DECREES & ELECTORAL MAJORITIES444,H[ RIDICUL\S6 

,?R\<\T ! HI/ORY ( \R CIVILIZATION1 TWO TRADITIONS1 TWO OPPOS+ T5D5CIES HAVE CONFRONT$ EA* O!R3 ! ,ROMAN & ! ,POPUL>2 ! IMP]IAL & ! F$]ALI/2 ! AU?ORIT>IAN & ! LIB]T>IAN4 ,& ?IS IS SO1 ONCE MORE1 ON ! EVE ( ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 

,BETWE5 !SE TWO CURR5TS1 ALWAYS MANIFE/+ !MSELVES1 ALWAYS AT GRIPS ) EA* O!R - ! POPUL> TR5D & ?AT :I* ?IR/S = POLITICAL & RELIGI\S DOM9ATION - WE HAVE MADE \R *OICE4 

,WE SEEK TO RECAPTURE ! SPIRIT :I* DROVE PEOPLE 9 ! TWELF? C5TURY TO ORGANISM !MSELVES ON ! BASIS ( FREE AGREEM5T & 9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE AS WELL AS ( ! FREE F$]ATION ( ! 9T]E/$ P>TIES4 ,& WE >E QUITE PREP>$ TO LEAVE ! O!RS TO CL+ TO ! IMP]IAL1 ! ,ROMAN & CANONICAL TRADITION4 

,HI/ORY IS NOT AN UN9T]RUPT$ NATURAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,AGA9 & AGA9 DEVELOPM5T HAS /OPP$ 9 ONE P>TICUL> T]RITORY ONLY TO EM]GE SOME:]E ELSE4 ,EGYPT1 ! ,NE> ,EA/1 ! ,M$IT]RANEAN %ORES & ,C5TRAL ,EUROPE HAVE ALL 9 TURN BE5 C5T]S ( HI/ORICAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,BUT EV]Y TIME ! PATT]N HAS BE5 ! SAME3 BEG9N+ ) ! PHASE ( ! PRIMITIVE TRIBE FOLL[$ BY ! VILLAGE COMMUNE2 !N BY ! FREE CITY1 F9ALLY TO DIE ) ! ADV5T ( ! ,/ATE4 

,9 ,EGYPT1 CIVILIZATION BEG9S ) ! PRIMITIVE TRIBE4 ,IT ADVANCES TO ! VILLAGE COMMUNE & LAT] TO ! P]IOD ( ! FREE CITIES2 LAT] /ILL TO ! ,/ATE :I*1 AFT] A P]IOD 9 :I* IT FL\RI%$1 LEADS TO DEA?4 

,DEVELOPM5T />TS AFRE% 9 ,SYRIA1 9 ,P]SIA & 9 ,PALE/9E4 ,IT FOLL[S ! SAME PATT]N3 ! TRIBE1 ! VILLAGE COMMUNE1 ! FREE CITY1 ! ALL-P[]FUL ,/ATE &444DEA?6 

,A NEW CIVILIZATION !N COMES TO LIFE 9 ,GREECE4 ,ALWAYS ?R\< ! TRIBE4 ,SL[LY IT REA*ES ! LEVEL ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNE & !N TO ! REPUBLICAN CITIES4 ,9 !SE CITIES CIVILIZATION REA*ES ITS Z5I?4 ,BUT ! ,EA/ COMMUNICATES ITS POISON\S BREA?1 ITS TRADITIONS ( DESPOTISM4 ,W>S & CONQUE/S CREATE ! ,EMPIRE ( ,ALEX&] ( ,MAC$ONIA4 ,! ,/ATE ASS]TS ITSELF1 GR[S1 DE/ROYS ALL CULTURE &444IT IS DEA?4 

,ROME 9 ITS TURN RE/>TS CIVILIZATION4 ,ONCE MORE ONE F9DS AT ! BEG9N+ ! PRIMITIVE TRIBE1 !N ! VILLAGE COMMUNE FOLL[$ BY ! CITY4 ,AT ?IS PHASE ,ROME WAS AT ! HEI<T ( ITS CIVILIZATION4 ,BUT !N COME ! ,/ATE & ! ,EMPIRE & !N444DEA?6 

,ON ! RU9S ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 ,CELTIC1 ,G]MANIC1 ,SLAVONIC & ,SC&9AVIAN TRIBES ONCE MORE TAKE UP ! ?READS ( CIVILIZATION4 ,SL[LY ! PRIMITIVE TRIBE DEVELOPS ITS 9/ITUTIONS & MANAGES TO BUILD UP ! VILLAGE COMMUNE4 ,IT L+]S 9 ?IS PHASE UNTIL ! TWELF? C5TURY :5 ! REPUBLICAN CITY >ISES1 & ?IS BR+S ) IT ! BLOSSOM+ ( ! HUMAN SPIRIT1 PRO( ( :I* >E ! MA/]PIECES ( >*ITECTURE1 ! GR&IOSE DEVELOPM5T ( ! >TS1 ! DISCOV]IES :I* LAY ! F\NDATIONS ( NATURAL SCI5CES444,BUT !N ! ,/ATE EM]GES444,DEA?8 ,YES3 DEA? - OR R5EWAL6 

,EI!R ! ,/ATE = EV]1 CRU%+ 9DIVIDUAL & LOCAL LIFE1 TAK+ OV] 9 ALL FIELDS ( HUMAN ACTIVITY1 BR++ ) IT ALL ITS W>S & DOME/IC /RUGGLES = P[]1 ITS PALACE REVOLUTIONS :I* ONLY REPLACE ONE TYRANT BY ANO!R1 & 9EVITABLY AT ! 5D ( ?IS DEVELOPM5T !RE IS444DEA?6 

,OR ! DE/RUCTION ( ,/ATES1 & NEW LIFE />T+ AGA9 9 ?\S&S ( C5T]S ON ! PR9CIPLES ( ! LIVELY 9ITIATIVE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL & GR\PS & ?AT ( FREE AGREEM5T4 

,! *OICE LIES ) Y\6 

7,S\RCE3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE1 ,BY KNIAZ ,PETR ,ALEKSEEVI* ,KROPOTK91 #a#h#i#h1 PUBLI%$ BY 0,FRE$OM0 ,(FICE1 ORIG9AL PUBLICATION DATE ( #a#h#h#g47 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #ahhf 3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #b#b1 #bag 3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE -- ,ADD$4 
,APRIL #c1 #bba 3 ,! ,/ATE3 ,ITS ,HI/ORIC ,ROLE -- ,UPDAT$4 

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HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/