,VALUE 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 

,TEXT 3 

,ECONOMICS MI<T BE SAID TO HAVE BEGUN L>GELY AS A S]IES ( REFLECTIONS ON ! ORIG9 & NATURE ( VALUE 9 HUMAN SOCIETY4 ,BUT ?OSE DAYS >E LONG S9CE PA/4 ,N[ADAYS1 ECONOMI/S T5D TO LIMIT !MSELVES TO PRODUC+ MA!MATICAL MODELS ( H[ ECONOMIC ACTORS ALLOCATE SC>CE RES\RCES 9 PURSUIT ( PR(IT1 OR H[ CONSUM]S RANK !IR PREF]5CES2 !Y DO NOT ASK :AT ?OSE ACTORS >E ULTIMATELY TRY+ TO A*IEVE 9 LIFE OR :Y CONSUM]S WANT TO CONSUME ! ?+S !Y DO4 ,! LATT] SORTS ( QUE/IONS1 QUE/IONS ( VALUE1 HAVE BE5 L>GELY AB&ON$ TO AN?ROPOLOGI/S1 SOCIOLOGI/S OR PHILOSOPH]S4 

,IT IS NOT 5TIRELY CLE>1 H[EV]1 :E!R AN AN?ROPOLOGICAL !ORY ( VALUE ACTUALLY EXI/S4 ,AN?ROPOLOGI/S (T5 TALK AS IF ONE DOES1 EV5 AS IF !RE >E QUITE A FEW ( !M4 ,BUT IT IS DIFFICULT TO F9D ANYONE WILL+ TO DESCRIBE CLE>LY :AT SU* AN AN?ROPOLOGICAL !ORY ( VALUE MI<T LOOK LIKE4 ,9/EAD1 ONE USUALLY F9DS ?REE DIFF]5T USES ( ! T]M1 & A FEEL+ ?AT ON SOME ULTIMATE !ORETICAL LEVEL !Y >E ! SAME4 ,!Y >E3 

'VALUES' 9 ! SOCIOLOGICAL OR PHILOSOPHICAL S5SE4 ,?IS IS ! S5SE 9 :I* AN AN?ROPOLOGI/ MI<T SAY 'SEV5TE5?-C5TURY ,HURONS PLAC$ A HI< VALUE ON 9DIVIDUAL AUTONOMY'1 OR A POLITICIAN MI<T SPEAK ( 'FAMILY VALUES'2 

'VALUE' 9 ! CLASSIC ECONOMIC S5SE1 9 :I* ONE MI<T SPEAK ( ! M>KET VALUE ( A H\SE1 FOOD PROCESSOR OR TON ( PIG-IRON2 

'VALUE' 9 A MORE SPECIFIC L+UI/IC USAGE1 P>TICUL>LY ! /RUCTURAL L+UI/ICS ( ,F]D9& DE ,SAUSSURE4 ,HE >GU$ ?AT ! MEAN+ ( A WORD WAS ESS5TIALLY A 'NEGATIVE VALUE'1 A CONTRA/ ) O!R WORDS 9 ! SAME LEXICON1 AS ! COLOR 'R$' IS DEF9$ 9 CONTRA/ TO 'YELL['1 'BLUE'1 'BR[N'1 'P9K'4 ,ONE MI<T CALL ?IS 'VALUE AS CONTRA/' OR 'VALUE AS MEAN+FUL DIFF]5CE'4 

,:AT W\LD IT MEAN TO SAY !SE >E ALL1 ULTIMATELY1 V]SIONS ( ! SAME ?+8 ,PRESUMABLY1 SEV]AL ?+S4 ,IT W\LD IMPLY ! EXI/5CE ( SOME K9D ( SYMBOLIC SY/EM ?AT DEF9ES ! WORLD 9 T]MS ( :AT IS IMPORTANT1 MEAN+FUL1 DESIRABLE OR WOR?:ILE 9 IT4 ,?IS SY/EM ( VALUE W\LD PRESUMABLY EXT5D TO EV]Y?+ FROM FEEL+S AB\T :AT ONE MI<T LIKE TO EAT = BREAKFA/ TO :AT HUMAN BE+S BASICALLY [E ONE ANO!R OR H[ ONE WI%ES TO BE REMEMB]$ AFT] ONE IS DEAD4 ,& IT W\LD IMPLY ?AT !RE IS A WAY TO UND]/& H[ ?IS SY/EM TRANSLATES 9TO PRACTICE4 

,MO/ AN?ROPOLOGI/S USE 'VALUE' 9 A WAY ?AT SUGGE/S !Y BELIEVE SU* SYMBOLIC SY/EMS DO EXI/4 ,MO/ N[ADAYS >E ALSO PRETTY C]TA9 ?AT OLD-FA%ION$ WAYS ( TALK+ AB\T B\ND$ 'SOCIETIES' OR 'CULTURES' >E NOT ! BE/ WAY TO APPROA* ! PROBLEM1 ?AT 9/EAD PEOPLE NEGOTIATE !IR WAY ?R\< A V>IETY ( DIFF]5T 'DOMA9S' OR 'REGIMES' ( VALUE4 ,BUT BEYOND ?AT1 !RE IS V]Y LITTLE AGREEM5T AS TO H[ !SE >E ACTUALLY ORGANIZ$4 

,?IS IS TOO BAD1 BECAUSE !SE >E IMPORTANT QUE/IONS1 & MANY CRITICAL UNRESOLV$ ISSUES 9 SOCIAL !ORY TURN ON ! ANSW]S4 ,LET ME !N BRIEFLY DESCRIBE ! BACKGR\ND 9 ,WE/]N ECONOMIC !ORY1 \TL9E SOME ( ! *IEF WAYS 9 :I* AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE1 OV] ! LA/ HUNDR$ YE>S OR SO1 US$ 'VALUE' &1 F9ALLY1 EXAM9E SOME REC5T ATTEMPTS TO CREATE A SYN!SIS4 

,VALUE 9 ,WE/]N ECONOMIC !ORY 

,! /&>D HI/ORY ( ,WE/]N ECONOMIC !ORY BEG9S ) ! M]CANTILI/S & PHYSIOCRATS ( ! E>LY EI<TE5? C5TURY1 !N MOVES ON TO ! POLITICAL ECONOMY S*OOL 7,ADAM ,SMI?1 ,DAVID ,RIC>DO1 ,K>L ,M>X71 BUT SEES ALL ( !SE ESS5TIALLY AS PRECURSORS4 ,MOD]N 7NEOCLASSICAL7 ECONOMICS WAS BORN FROM ! M>G9AL REVOLUTION ( ! #a#h#gS4 ,IT IS 9T]E/+ ?AT :AT SET EA* ( !SE S*OOLS AP>T FROM ! O!RS WAS1 ABOVE ALL1 ITS VIEWS ON ! ORIG9 ( VALUE1 :I* OV] TIME BECAME 9CREAS+LY DISEMBODI$ & SUBJECTIVE4 ,M]CANTILI/S LOCAT$ WEAL? 9 PRECI\S METALS2 PHYSIOCRATS >GU$ ?AT S9CE ! ULTIMATE S\RCE ( VALUE WAS NATURE1 ALL SOCIAL WEAL? WAS ULTIMATELY D]IV$ FROM AGRICULTURE2 ! POLITICAL ECONOMI/S CLAIM$ ?AT VALUE WAS A PRODUCT ( HUMAN LABOR 79 O!R WORDS1 ?AT IT EM]G$ ?R\< ! BODY1 AT EXACTLY ! PO9T :]E \R M9DS BECOME A PHYSICAL =CE 9 NATURE74 ,= NEOCLASSICAL ECONOMI/S IT TRANSC5D$ ! PHYSICAL ALTOGE!R1 & BECAME SIMPLY A SUBJECTIVE MEASURE ( DESIRE4 ,FROM !IR TIME ON1 ! VALUE ( AN OBJECT BECAME 9CREAS+LY 9DI/+UI%ABLE FROM ITS PRICE3 H[ MU* POT5TIAL BUY]S W]E WILL+ TO GIVE UP TO ACQUIRE SOME PRODUCT ON ! M>KET4 ,IT EXI/S ONLY 9 ! EYE ( ! BEHOLD]4 

,IT IS IMPORTANT TO BE> 9 M9D ?AT1 = E>LI] ECONOMI/S1 VALUE WAS ASSUM$ TO BE DIFF]5T FROM PRICE4 ,PEOPLE W]E WILL+ TO PAY MONEY = AN ITEM BECAUSE !Y SAW IT AS VALUABLE = SOME O!R REASON4 ,TRUE1 PRICES W\LD ALSO FLUCTUATE [+ TO ! VAG>IES ( SUPPLY & DEM&2 BUT ALL O!R ?+S BE+ EQUAL1 ! M>KET PRICE ( A LOAF ( BREAD1 IT WAS ASSUM$1 W\LD T5D TO GRAVITATE T[>DS :AT WAS (T5 CALL$ ITS 'NATURAL PRICE'1 ITS 9H]5T DESIRABILITY1 MEASUR$ 9 RELATION TO ! DESIRABILITY ( O!R ITEMS4 ,IT WAS 9 ?IS S5SE ?AT VALUE WAS SE5 AS ! REGULATIVE PR9CIPLE ( PRICES4 ,ECONOMICS C\LD ONLY FREE ITSELF FROM SU* A NOTION :5 IT PURG$ ITSELF ( ALL MORAL ELEM5TS2 AS A RESULT1 ! M>G9AL REVOLUTION REALLY 9VOLV$ ELIM9AT+ VALUE FROM ECONOMICS 5TIRELY4 

,TO UND]/& ?IS1 CONSID] ,SMI?'S FAM\S /ATEM5T ( ! SO-CALL$ 'P>ADOX ( VALUE'1 :I* HE POS$ 9 EXPLA9+ ! DI/9CTION1 ORIG9ALLY POS$ BY ,>I/OTLE1 BETWE5 VALUE 9 USE & VALUE 9 EX*ANGE3 

,! WORD VALUE1 IT IS TO BE OBS]V$1 HAS TWO DIFF]5T MEAN+S1 & SOMETIMES EXPRESSES ! UTILITY ( SOME P>TICUL> OBJECT1 & SOMETIMES ! P[] ( PUR*AS+ O!R GOODS :I* ! POSSESSION ( ?AT OBJECT CONVEYS4 ,! ONE MAY BE CALL$ 'VALUE 9 USE'2 ! O!R1 'VALUE 9 EX*ANGE4' ,! ?+S :I* HAVE ! GREATE/ VALUE 9 USE HAVE FREQU5TLY LITTLE OR NO VALUE 9 EX*ANGE2 &1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 ?OSE :I* HAVE ! GREATE/ VALUE 9 EX*ANGE HAVE FREQU5TLY LITTLE OR NO VALUE 9 USE4 ,NO?+ IS MORE USEFUL ?AN WAT]3 BUT IT WILL PUR*ASE SC>CE ANY?+2 SC>CE ANY?+ CAN BE HAD 9 EX*ANGE = IT4 ,A DIAMOND1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 HAS SC>CE ANY VALUE 9 USE2 BUT A V]Y GREAT QUANTITY ( O!R GOODS MAY FREQU5TLY BE HAD 9 EX*ANGE = IT4 7,SMI? #a#g#g#f3 #b#h7 

,N[1 ! /&>D L9E1 REPEAT$ 5DLESSLY 9 ECONOMIC TEXTBOOKS1 IS ?AT ,SMI? WAS UNABLE TO RESOLVE ?IS P>ADOX BECAUSE HE LACK$ AN ADEQUATE !ORY ( SUPPLY & DEM&4 ,HIS MI/AKE WAS TO1 NAIVELY1 CONTRA/ :AT AN ECONOMI/ W\LD N[ CALL ! TOTAL UTILITY1 ! OV]ALL USEFULNESS1 ( WAT]1 ) ! TOTAL UTILITY ( DIAMONDS1 :]E HE %\LD HAVE BE5 LOOK+ AT ! M>G9AL UTILITY ( ANY UNIT ( WAT]3 S9CE ! M>KET PRICE ( ANY ONE UNIT ( A PRODUCT IS ! L[E/ AM\NT A POT5TIAL BUY] IS WILL+ TO PAY = IT1 & S9CE MO/ PEOPLE ALREADY HAVE ACCESS TO WAT]1 ! PRICE !Y W\LD BE WILL+ TO PAY = AN ADDITIONAL UNIT IS LIKELY TO BE V]Y L[4 ,IT WAS BECAUSE ,SMI? WAS UNABLE TO SEE ?IS ?AT HE WAS =C$ TO 9V5T ! FAM\S LABOR !ORY ( VALUE1 CONCLUD+ ?AT ! HI< PRICE ( DIAMONDS MU/ D]IVE FROM ! FACT ?AT IT TAKES ALL SORTS ( TOIL & TR\BLE TO PRODUCE ONE1 :ILE WAT] FALLS FROM ! SKY4 ,ACCORD+ TO ! USUAL ACC\NT1 !N1 ?IS MI/AKE L$ ECONOMICS D[N A S]IES ( HOPELESS DEAD 5DS1 RANG+ FROM ,RIC>DO'S ATTEMPT TO CALCULATE ! NATURAL PRICE ( A COMMODITY ?R\< ! TOTAL NUMB] ( 'MAN H\RS' ?AT W5T 9TO PRODUC+ IT1 TO PRETTY MU* ! 5TIRE CORPUS ( ,M>X4 

,?IS IS ALL A BIT ODD BECAUSE1 AS O!RS PO9T$ \T 7= EXAMPLE1 ,FAYAZMANE% #a#i#i#h71 !RE IS NO REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT ,SMI? EV5 SAW ?IS AS A P>ADOX1 OR FELT ?AT !RE WAS ANY?+ TO BE EXPLA9$ H]E4 ,HE WAS TRY+ TO MAKE A V]Y DIFF]5T SORT ( PO9T4 ,SMI? WAS1 AFT] ALL1 A PR(ESSOR ( MORAL PHILOSOPHY2 ECONOMICS HAD1 UNTIL V]Y REC5TLY1 BE5 CONSID]$ A BRAN* ( E?ICS2 & ! EXAMPLE HE US$1 ( DIAMONDS & WAT]1 HAD A LONG HI/ORY FROM !OLOGICAL >GUM5TS )9 ! M$IEVAL ,CA?OLIC *UR*4 

,! P>ADOX ( VALUE FIR/ APPE>S1 9 FACT1 9 ! WORKS ( ,/ ,AUGU/9E1 :O 9 ,! CITY ( ,GOD 7,I,X3 #a#f7 NOT$ ?AT !RE WAS A GREAT DISP>ITY BETWE5 H[ ONE MI<T EVALUATE ?+S 'ACCORD+ !IR [N M]ITS' 7BY :I* /&>D PLANTS >E CLE>LY SUP]IOR TO /ONES1 ANIMALS TO PLANTS1 HUMANS TO ANIMALS7 & H[ HUMANS VALUE !M3 WE W\LD MU* RA!R HAVE BREAD OR GOLD 9 \R H\SE ?AN MICE OR FLEAS2 PEOPLE WILL (T5 SP5D MORE MONEY = A HORSE OR JEWEL ?AN = A SLAVE4 ,= ,AUGU/9E1 ?IS WAS A RESULT ( \R FALL5 NATURE1 BECAUSE ( :I* WE >E CURS$ ) 5DLESS PHYSICAL NE$S & DESIRES4 ,!SE DI/ORT \R P]CEPTIONS4 ,WE COME TO SEE ?+S ?R\< \R [N NE$S 7USE VALUE7 RA!R ?AN !IR ABSOLUTE WOR?1 !IR POSITION ON ! ,GREAT ,*A9 ( ,BE+ &1 H5CE1 PROXIMITY TO ,GOD4 

,SU* REFLECTIONS W]E ( 9T]E/ TO ,S*OLA/IC ?9K]S ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES SEEK+ A WAY TO CALCULATE ! 'JU/ PRICE' ( A GIV5 COMMODITY4 ,ROMAN LAW HAD DEF9$ A JU/ PRICE AS ANY?+ A BUY] & SELL] W]E WILL+ TO AGREE ON1 BUT ?IS C\LD EASILY LEAD TO RESULTS ?AT FLEW 9 ! FACE ( ANY SORT ( MORALITY4 ,A />V+ PRISON] MI<T BE WILL+ TO TRADE HIS 5TIRE =TUNE = AN EGG1 BUT ?AT DID NOT MAKE IT RI<T TO MAKE HIM DO SO4 ,A FAIR OR JU/ PRICE1 !RE=E1 %\LD HAVE SOME RELATION TO ! '9TR9SIC WOR?' OR 'VALUE' ( :AT Y\ W]E SELL+4 ,BUT H[ %\LD ?AT BE CALCULAT$8 ,AS !OLOGIANS FROM ,/ ,?OMAS ,AQU9AS ON W]E QUICK TO REALIZE1 ,AUGU/9E'S SCALE ( NATURAL P]FECTION WAS NOT MU* HELP H]E1 S9CE WE >E DEAL+ ) ! DOMA9 ( HUMAN NE$S4.<#a.> ,BUT BAS+ 9TR9SIC VALUE ON ! ABILITY ( AN OBJECT TO FULFILL HUMAN NE$S DID NOT REALLY WORK EI!R2 FIR/ ?IS WAS NOT AN 9TR9SIC QUALITY1 IT WAS RELATIONAL2 SECOND1 AS ! EXAMPLE ( WAT] & DIAMONDS REVEAL$1 !RE WAS LITTLE SY/EMATIC RELATION BETWE5 NE$S & PRICES ANYWAY4 ,AQU9AS CONCLUD$ ?AT A JU/ PRICE W\LD SIMPLY BE ONE ! SELL] W\LD HIMSELF HAVE BE5 WILL+ TO PAY = SOME COMMODITY2 O!RS1 NOTABLY MEMB]S ( ! RIVAL ,FRANCISCAN S*OOL ( ,DUNS ,SCOTUS1 :I* WAS F> MORE SUSPICI\S ( WEAL? & PRIVATE PROP]TY1 >GU$ 9/EAD ?AT 9TR9SIC VALUE HAD TO BE BAS$ 9 ITS CO/S ( PRODUCTION1 :I* MADE LABOR ! MA9 S\RCE ( VALUE4 

,9 ,! WEAL? ( NATIONS1 ,SMI? WAS CLE>LY DRAW+ ON ?IS MORAL TRADITION4 ,BUT AS AN ,5LI<T5M5T OPTIMI/1 HE WAS ALSO COMMITT$ TO ! PROPOSITION ?AT ,GOD HAD DESIGN$ ! WORLD SO ?AT IT W\LD ESS5TIALLY RUN ON ITS [N ACCORD = ! B5EFIT ( HUMANS4 ,H5CE HIS FAM\S >GUM5T ?AT ! M>KET W\LD1 IF ALL[$ TO WORK BY ITS [N LOGIC1 PRODUCE AN OPTIMAL RESULT 'AS BY AN 9VISIBLE H&'1 AN EFFECT :I* HE EXPLICITLY SAID WAS A RESULT ( ,DIV9E ,PROVID5CE4 ,H]E1 TOO1 HE WAS NOT AS MU* 9T]E/$ 9 A SCI5TIFIC >GUM5T AB\T ! REASONS = PRICE FLUCTUATIONS AS 9 A MORAL >GUM5T ?AT 9 ! ABS5CE ( 9T]F]5CE1 M>KET PRICES W\LD 9DE$ ALWAYS T5D TO GRAVITATE >\ND ! NATURAL PRICE 7#a#g#g#f3 #e#a72 :I* 9 TURN MEANT ?AT PEOPLE W\LD 9DE$ BE JU/LY REW>D$ = !IR LABORS4 

,! PROBLEM WAS ?AT ! LATT] PROPOSITION SOON BECAME V]Y H>D TO DEF5D4 ,RIC>DO1 :O TRI$ TO DEVELOP ,SMI?'S LABOR !ORY ( VALUE1 WAS SOON TO DISCOV] :AT HE CALL$ AN 'IRON LAW' ?AT HELD WAGES D[N2 ?IS1 ( C\RSE1 SET ! /AGE = ,M>X'S CRITIQUE ( ! 5TIRE WAGE SY/EM AS TURN+ HUMAN CREATIVITY ITSELF 9TO AN AB/RACTION ?AT CAN BE B\<T OR SOLD1 NECESS>ILY 9VOLV+ ALI5ATION1 EXPLOITATION & ! DE/RUCTION ( MO/ ( :AT MAKES LIFE MEAN+FUL OR WOR?:ILE4 ,! M>G9ALI/ REVOLUTION SIMPLY TOSS$ ! PROBLEM ASIDE BY R$EF9+ ECONOMICS AS ! /UDY ( PRICE =MATION4 ,AFT] IT1 ANY TALK ( 9TR9SIC VALUE CAME TO BE SE5 AS MEAN+LESS METAPHYSICS1 A PRIMITIVE IDEA ( SOME K9D ( 9VISIBLE SUB/ANCE ?AT SCI5TIFIC ECONOMICS C\LD ONLY REJECT4 ,VALUE WAS PRICE1 & NO?+ MORE4 ,IT WAS PURELY SUBJECTIVE4 ,BY ! #a#i#cS1 VALUE ITSELF1 ONCE CONSID]$ ! MA9 SUBJECT ( ECONOMICS1 HAD L>GELY FAD$ AWAY AS AN OBJECT ( !ORETICAL REFLECTION4 ,:ATEV] IT WAS ?AT ULTIMATELY MOTIVAT$ PEOPLE TO WANT ! ?+S !Y DID1 EI!R IT LAY \TSIDE ! PURVIEW ( ECONOMICS 7A MATT] = PSY*OLOGI/S1 P]HAPS7 OR1 = MANY1 IT WAS 9H]5TLY UNKN[ABLE2 NO?+ C\LD BE SAID AB\T IT AT ALL4.<#b.> ,9 ?IS WAY ECONOMIC !ORY BECAME ! MODEL = A NEW SORT ( EXTREME MORAL RELATIVISM1 EMBODI$ N[ADAYS 9 RATIONAL-*OICE APPROA*ES TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR ?AT1 RA!R P>ADOXICALLY1 CLAIM A HI<] MORAL AU?ORITY PRECISELY BECAUSE !Y >E 'VALUE-FREE'4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 IT IS NO LONG] NECESS>Y TO TRY TO PROVE 7LIKE ,SMI?7 ?AT ! M>KET REW>DS US JU/LY = \R LABORS1 BECAUSE !RE IS NO /&>D ( JU/ICE \TSIDE ( ! M>KET ITSELF4 

,BACK TO AN?ROPOLOGY 

,! E?ICAL TRICK L>GELY LIES 9 ! WORD 'RATIONAL'4 ,M>KET BEHAVIOR IS BY DEF9ITION RATIONAL4 ,9 ! WORLD AS VIEW$ BY CONTEMPOR>Y1 FREE-M>KET ECONOMI/S 7:I* IS1 9CREAS+LY1 ID5TICAL TO ! WORLD AS VIEW$ BY GOV]NM5TS & O!R RUL+ 9/ITUTIONS71 AN?ROPOLOGI/S & !IR LIKE >E !RE=E RELEGAT$ TO TWO ROLES4 ,ONE IS TO DESCRIBE ! CAUSES ( 'IRRATIONAL' OR '9EFFICI5T' M>KET BEHAVIOR3 :Y PEOPLE1 ESPECIALLY NON-,WE/]N PEOPLE1 SOMETIMES DO NOT ACT 9 ! WAY ECONOMIC !ORY SAYS !Y %\LD4 ,! O!R IS TO DESCRIBE ! LOGIC ( CONSUMPTION1 :I* IS ! ONE >EA 9 :I* PEOPLE >E NOT REALLY SUPPOS$ TO BE ACT+ RATIONALLY1 BUT RA!R1 CON/RUCT+ !IR UNIQUE 9DIVIDUAL OR E?NIC ID5TITIES1 OR P]HAPS =G+ SOCIAL TIES 7= EXAMPLE1 ,D\GLAS & ,I%]WOOD #a#i#g#i2 ,MILL] #a#i#h#g1 #a#i#i#e2 ,SAHL9S #a#i#g#f74 ,EI!R CAN LEAD TO EMPLOYM5T = AN?ROPOLOGI/S WILL+ TO GO ?AT R\TE1 EI!R = DEVELOPM5T AG5CIES OR ADV]TIS+ FIRMS4 ,BUT NEI!R >E EXACTLY AB\T VALUE4 

,! PROMISE ( VALUE !ORY HAS ALWAYS BE5 TO DO MU* MORE4 ,IT HAS BE5 TO UND]/& ! WORK+S ( ANY SY/EM ( EX*ANGE 79CLUD+ FREE-M>KET CAPITALISM7 AS P>T ( L>G] SY/EMS ( MEAN+1 ONE CONTA9+ CONCEPTIONS ( :AT ! COSMOS IS ULTIMATELY AB\T & :AT IS WOR? PURSU+ 9 IT4 ,SU* SY/EMS ( MEAN+ MEANT ?AT ! K9D ( MORAL & E?ICAL QUE/IONS ?AT ,AQU9AS OR ,SMI? FELT W]E AT ! HE>T ( ! MATT] C\LD NOT SIMPLY BE PU%$ ASIDE4 

,I BEGAN BY OBS]V+ ?AT ?OSE :O WI% TO REVIVE A MORE COMPREH5SIVE VALUE !ORY ( ?IS SORT G5]ALLY BEG9 BY SE>*+ = ! COMMON BASIS BETWE5 VALUES 9 ! SOCIOLOGICAL S5SE1 ECONOMIC VALUE1 & ! MEAN+FUL DIFF]5CE ( ! L+UI/IC USE ( ! WORD4 ,!RE >E MANY REASONS TO BELIEVE SU* A COMMON BASIS %\LD EXI/4 ,= 9/ANCE1 AN?ROPOLOGI/S1 MU* LIKE SOCIOLOGI/S OR PHILOSOPH]S1 HAVE LONG BE5 ACCU/OM$ TO SPEAK ( VALUES 9 ! PLURAL S5SE1 AS ONE DOES :51 = 9/ANCE1 ONE SAYS ?AT 9 ,M$IT]RANEAN SOCIETIES 'HONOR' IS A KEY VALUE OR ?AT1 9 ,AM]ICA1 'FRE$OM' IS4 ,)9 CAPITALI/ SOCIETIES1 ! WORD IS NORMALLY 9VOK$ TO REF] TO ALL ?OSE DOMA9S ( HUMAN ACTION ?AT >E NOT GOV]N$ BY ! LAWS ( ! M>KET3 ?US WE HE> AB\T FAMILY VALUES1 SPIRITUAL VALUES1 VALUES 9 ! DOMA9S ( >T & POLITICAL IDEALS4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 'VALUES' BEG9 PRECISELY :]E 7ECONOMIC7 'VALUE' 5DS4 ,?IS W\LD C]TA9LY IMPLY ?AT WE >E DEAL+ ) TWO DIFF]5T REFRACTIONS ( ! SAME ?+ &1 !RE=E1 ?AT WE W\LD BE JU/IFI$ 9 SE>*+ = !IR COMMON BASIS4 

,:5 ECONOMI/S1 OR ?OSE TRY+ TO APPLY ECONOMIC APPROA*ES TO AN?ROPOLOGY1 ACTUALLY COME TO GRIPS ) !IR MAT]IAL1 !Y (T5 COME TO SURPRIS+LY SIMIL> CONCLUSIONS4 ,NEOCLASSICAL !ORY ASSUMES ?AT ALL HUMAN BEHAVIOR 9VOLVES ! ALLOCATION ( RES\RCES 9 PURSUIT ( SOME K9D ( SC>CE GOOD 9 SU* A WAY AS TO A*IEVE ! MO/ PRODUCT FROM ! LEA/ SACRIFICE4 ,H[EV]1 ANYONE :O TRIES TO APPLY ?IS TO AN?ROPOLOGY WILL 5C\NT] CASES :]E PEOPLE SEEM TO BE VY+ TO SACRIFICE AS MU* AS POSSIBLE3 POTLAT*ES1 CONTE/S ( G5]OSITY1 GRATUIT\S DISPLAYS ( WEAL?4 ,! USUAL EXPLANATION IS ?AT !Y >E TRY+ TO 'MAXIMIZE' SOME O!R SORT ( VALUE3 PRE/IGE1 HONOR1 FAME1 RELIGI\S M]IT2 PRECISELY ! SORT ( VALUES FROM :I* MO/ AN?ROPOLOGI/S BEG94 

,:5 AN?ROPOLOGI/S LOOK = !ORIES ( VALUE ,EV]Y FEW DECADES1 AN?ROPOLOGI/S DO SEEM TO />T ?9K+ ALONG !SE L9ES4 

,IT USUALLY SEEMS TO OCCUR DUR+ MOM5TS ( CRISIS4 ,SO F>1 !RE HAVE BE5 ?REE MA9 MOM5TS 9 :I* 'VALUE' WAS WIDELY B&I$ AB\T4 ,! FIR/ WAS ! LATE #a#i#eS1 :5 BO? ,BRITI% SOCIAL AN?ROPOLOGY & ,AM]ICAN CULTURAL AN?ROPOLOGY HAD 5T]$ A K9D ( !ORETICAL DOLDRUMS1 & !RE WAS MU* TALK ( VALUE !ORY AS A WAY TO BREAK \T4 ,! SECOND WAS ! E>LY #a#i#hS1 :5 ! GREAT !ORETICAL PROBLEM WAS H[ TO BREAK ) /RUCTURALISM & DEVELOP SOME SORT ( !ORY ( PRACTICE4 ,>GUABLY1 ! SAME ?+ IS HAPP5+ TODAY4 

,! REASONS = !SE DIFF]5T 9/ANCES >E1 ULTIMATELY1 SIMIL>4 ,AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAD CREAT$ V]Y P[]FUL MODELS = ANALYZ+ TOTAL SOCIAL SY/EMS1 BUT RAN 9TO 9TRACTABLE PROBLEMS TRY+ TO SQU>E !SE MODELS ) ! REASONS :Y REAL PEOPLE DO ! ?+S !Y DO4 ,ONE MI<T SAY ?IS IS REALLY ! REFLECTION ( A MU* BROAD] DILEMMA )9 SOCIAL !ORY 7SEE1 = EXAMPLE1 ,CAILLE #b71 ( H[ TO SQU>E SY/EMIC APPROA*ES ) 9DIVIDUALI/IC ONES4 ,! FIR/ BEG9 BY IMAG9+ SOME TOTAL SY/EM OR /RUCTURE - A SOCIETY1 A CULTURE1 A WORLD-SY/EM - & !N TRY TO UND]/& H[ IT IS MA9TA9$ & REPRODUC$ OV] TIME4 ,! O!R />TS ) 9DIVIDUAL ACTORS PURSU+ SOME?+1 & SEES SOCIETY L>GELY AS ! EFFECT ( !IR ACTIONS 7H]E ECONOMICS & ITS D]IVATIVES1 LIKE RATIONAL-*OICE !ORY1 HAVE BE5 ! P>ADIGM74 ,AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE ALWAYS T5D$ TO PREF] SY/EMIC APPROA*ES1 BUT AT C]TA9 PO9TS ! !ORETICAL CONTRADICTIONS )9 A GIV5 APPROA* BECOME SO OV]:ELM+ ?AT !RE IS A S5SE ( CRISIS4 ,AT SU* PO9TS1 VALUE T5DS TO BECOME IMPORTANT AS A WAY TO BR+ ! ADVANTAGES ( 9DIVIDUALI/IC APPROA*ES BACK 94 ,9 ! #a#i#eS ?IS HAPP5$ TO ,BRITI% /RUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL AN?ROPOLOGY1 :I* = DECADES HAD BE5 DEVELOP+ ,>?UR ,RADCLIFFE-,BR[N'S IDEA ?AT A SOCIETY C\LD BE SE5 AS A K9D ( ORGANISM1 :OSE P>TS 79/ITUTIONS7 ALL PLAY SOME ROLE 9 MA9TA9+ SOCIAL ORD]4 ,BY ! #a#i#eS !Y HAD TAK5 ?IS AB\T AS F> AS IT C\LD GO4 ,! PROBLEM1 !Y DISCOV]$1 WAS TO UND]/& 7#a7 H[ 9DIVIDUAL MEMB]S ( SU* A SOCIETY >E MOTIVAT$ TO MA9TA9 & REPRODUCE IT1 & 7#b7 H[1 IF !Y W]E1 SOCIETIES EV] *ANGE4 ,SOME K9D ( VALUE !ORY SEEM$ JU/ ! ?+ TO PROVIDE ! ANSW]S4 ,SIR ,$W>D ,EVANS-,PRIT*>D WAS ALREADY PLAY+ >\ND ) SU* IDEAS 9 #aid :5 HE DESCRIB$ ! ,NU] CONCEPT ( CI5G 7'HOME'7 AS A VALUE 9 BO? ! L+UI/IC & ! POLITICAL S5SE 7#a#i#d3 #a#c#e-#h71 BUT IT WAS ,RAYMOND ,FIR? 7#a#i#f#d7 :O REALLY 5D$ UP DEVELOP+ ! IDEA1 SUGGE/+ IT MI<T BE POSSIBLE TO CONCEIVE TWO ANALYTICAL LEVELS1 ! ONE ( 'SOCIAL /RUCTURE'1 ! FIX$ WORLD ( CLANS1 L9EAGES1 AGE-SETS1 VILLAGE MOIETIES & ! LIKE ?AT AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAD GOT SO GOOD AT DESCRIB+1 & ANO!R ( 'SOCIAL ORGANIZATION'1 :]E 9DIVIDUALS PURSUE VALUE 9 A MORE LOOSE1 PRAGMATIC FA%ION4 

,9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ! PROBLEM WAS SLI<TLY DIFF]5T4 ,EV] S9CE ,FRANZ ,BOAS1 ,AM]ICAN AN?ROPOLOGY HAD D$ICAT$ ITSELF TO ! /UDY ( SOME?+ IT CALL$ 'CULTURE'1 DEF9+ 'CULTURES' AS SYMBOLIC SY/EMS1 TOTAL SY/EMS = UND]/&+ ! WORLD :I* C\LD NOT BE R$UC$ TO 9DIVIDUAL PSY*OLOGY4 ,:5 PEOPLE FROM DIFF]5T CULTURES LOOK$ AT A =E/ OR AN OCEAN OR ANO!R HUMAN BE+1 !Y LIT]ALLY SAW DIFF]5T ?+S4 ,H]E ! PROBLEM WAS TO ID5TIFY ! ORGANIZ+ PR9CIPLE ( CULTURE4 ,WAS IT LANGUAGE1 OR SOME?+ MORE LIKE >TI/IC /YLE8 ,WAS IT BAS$ 9 5VIRONM5T1 9 C]TA9 KEY SYMBOLS1 OR PSY*OLOGICAL COMPLEXES WRIT L>GE8 ,)\T UND]/&+ ?AT1 IT W\LD BE IMPOSSIBLE TO COMP>E ONE CULTURE ) ANO!R4 ,BY ! #a#i#eS ?IS APPROA* TOO HAD SOME?+ LIKE A CRISIS4 

,9TO ?IS QU&>Y WALK$ ,KLYDE ,KLUCKHOHN1 :O BELIEV$ AN?ROPOLOGY C\LD BE RECONCEIV$ AS A COMP>ATIVE /UDY ( VALUES4 ,HE FIX$ ON ! C\NTY ( ,RIMROCK1 ,NEW ,MEXICO1 7#a#i#e#aB1 #a#i#e#f2 ,VOGT & ,ALB]T #a#i#f#f7 AS ! FIR/ TE/ CASE = HIS 'VALUES PROJECT'4 ,RIMROCK WAS DIVID$ BETWE5 FIVE DIFF]5T COMMUNITIES3 ,NAVAHO1 ,ZUNI1 ,MORMON1 ,TEXAN & ,MEXICAN-,AM]ICAN4 ,ITS EXI/5CE1 ,KLUCKHOHN ?\<T1 PROVID$ AS CLOSE AS ONE C\LD GET 9 AN?ROPOLOGY TO A CONTROLL$ EXP]IM5T1 A *ANCE TO SEE H[ FIVE GR\PS ( PEOPLE ) PR(\NDLY DIFF]5T SY/EMS ( VALUE ADAPT$ TO ! SAME 5VIRONM5T4 ,HE S5T (F /UD5TS TO /UDY EA*1 REMA9+ BEH9D AT ,H>V>D TO LEAD A SEM9> ON VALUES4 ,) HELP FROM ,FLOR5CE ,KLUCKHOHN1 A SOCIOLOGI/1 & ,$I? ,ALB]T1 A PHILOSOPH]1 HE PRODUC$ A SUCCESSION ( WORK+ PAP]S ?AT AIM$ TO HONE HIS !ORETICAL T]MS4 

,KLUCKHOHN DEF9$ 'VALUES' AS 'CONCEPTIONS ( ! DESIRABLE'3 !Y W]E IDEAS ?AT PLAY$ SOME SORT ( ROLE 9 9FLU5C+ ! *OICES PEOPLE MAKE BETWE5 DIFF]5T POSSIBLE C\RSES ( ACTION 7#a#i#e#aA3 #c#i#e74 ,BY 'DESIRABLE' HE MEANT ?AT VALUES >E NOT SIMPLY :AT PEOPLE WANT 7EV5 ?\< DESIRES >E L>GELY SOCIAL1 REAL PEOPLE WANT ALL SORTS ( DIFF]5T ?+S72 !Y >E IDEAS AB\T :AT PEOPLE \<T TO WANT4 ,!Y >E ! CRIT]IA BY :I* PEOPLE DECIDE :E!R SPECIFIC DESIRES >E LEGITIMATE & WOR?:ILE1 OR NOT4 ,SO1 :ILE VALUES >E NOT NECESS>ILY IDEAS AB\T ! MEAN+ ( LIFE1 !Y >E AB\T :AT ONE C\LD JU/IFIABLY WANT FROM IT4 ,! PROBLEM1 ?\<1 COMES ) ! SECOND HALF ( ! DEF9ITION3 ! SPECIFIC WAYS ?AT !SE CONCEPTIONS RELATE TO BEHAVIOR4 

,9 TRADITIONAL VALUE ANALYSIS ?IS IS NOT MU* ( A PROBLEM1 BECAUSE TRADITIONAL VALUE ANALYSIS IS L>GELY 9T]PRETATIVE4 ,ONE BEG9S BY ID5TIFY+ SOME KEY T]M3 ONE OBS]VES ?AT MEMB]S ( ! ,NAVAHO COMMUNITY 9 ,RIMROCK (T5 TALK AB\T ! IMPORTANCE ( SOME?+ !Y CALL 'H>MONY'1 OR ! ,TEXANS TALK AB\T SOME?+ !Y CALL 'SUCCESS'4 ,ONE !N PROCE$S TO 9T]PRET PRECISELY :AT 'H>MONY' OR 'SUCCESS' MEANS TO !M1 & !N PLACES !SE DEF9ITIONS 9 A L>G] CULTURAL CONTEXT4 ,! PROBLEM IS ?AT SU* T]MS T5D TO BE HI<LY IDIOSYNCRATIC3 IT IS DIFFICULT TO MAKE A SY/EMATIC COMP>ISON BETWE51 SAY1 ! ,TEXAN IDEA ( 'SUCCESS' & ! ,H9DU IDEA ( 'PURITY'1 & ?IS WAS PRECISELY :AT ,KLUCKHOHN WANT$ TO DO4 

,TO RESOLVE ! PROBLEM1 ,KLUCKHOHN PROPOS$ A SECOND1 LESS AB/RACT LEVEL1 'VALUE ORI5TATIONS'3 'ASSUMPTIONS AB\T ! 5DS & PURPOSES ( HUMAN EXI/5CE'1 ! NATURE ( KN[L$GE1 ':AT HUMAN BE+S HAVE A RI<T TO EXPECT FROM EA* O!R & ! GODS1 AB\T :AT CON/ITUTES FULFILLM5T & FRU/RATION' 7,KLUCKHOHN #a#i#d#i3 #c#e#h-#i74 ,VALUE ORI5TATIONS ?US MIX$ IDEAS ( ! DESIRABLE ) ASSUMPTIONS AB\T ! NATURE ( ! WORLD 9 :I* ONE ACTS4 ,!Y W]E ALSO F> MORE UNI=M1 & H5CE EASI] TO COMP>E4 ,KLUCKHOHN >GU$ ?AT IT %\LD BE POSSIBLE TO CON/RUCT A BASIC LI/ ( EXI/5TIAL QUE/IONS ?AT EV]Y CULTURE HAD TO ANSW]3 >E HUMAN BE+S GOOD OR EVIL8 ,%\LD !IR RELATIONS ) NATURE BE BAS$ ON H>MONY1 MA/]Y OR SUBJUGATION8 ,%\LD ONE'S ULTIMATE LOYALTIES BE TO ONESELF1 ONE'S GR\P OR TO O!R 9DIVIDUALS8 ,%\LD ONE'S TIME ORI5TATION BE PRIM>ILY TO ! FUTURE1 ! PRES5T OR ! PA/8 ,ALL ?IS WAS QUITE 9NOVATIVE1 & DEP>T$ RADICALLY FROM ! EXTREME RELATIVISM ( ! ,AM]ICAN CULTURAL AN?ROPOLOGY ( ! DAY 7BASICALLY1 ,KLUCKHOHN HAD 9V5T$ :AT WAS LAT] TO BE CALL$ ! 'COSMOLOGICAL APPROA*'71 BUT IT NEV] QUITE WORK$4 ,HE & HIS /UD5TS F\ND IT V]Y DIFFICULT TO MOVE FROM ?IS SUP]-REF9$ LEVEL TO CONCRETE VALUES LIKE H>MONY OR SUCCESS1 LET ALONE TO SU* MUNDANE QUE/IONS AS :AT SORT ( CROPS PEOPLE PREF] TO GR[ OR :AT SORT ( M>RIAGES !Y CONSID]$ TO BE 9CE/U\S4 

,9 ! 5D1 ! VALUES PROJECT CAME AP>T4 ,! ,RIMROCK /UDY WAS PUBLI%$ )\T CONCLUSIONS2 N[ADAYS ! PROJECT IS IGNOR$ OR SE5 AS YET ANO!R DEAD 5D4 ,SOME 7,DUMONT #a#i#h#b2 ,$MONSON #a#i#g#c2 COMP>E ,NUCKOLLS #a#i#i#h7 SUGGE/ ?AT ?+S MI<T HAVE BE5 DIFF]5T IF ,KLUCKHOHN HAD LIV$ TO SEE ! ADV5T ( MODELS FROM /RUCTURAL L+UI/ICS4 ,H[EV]1 :5 ?OSE MODELS EM]G$ 9 ! #a#i#fS !Y MADE ALL PREVI\S DEBATES SEEM IRRELEVANT4 ,9T]E/ 9 VALUE DID NOT SWELL AGA9 UNTIL ! E>LY #a#i#hS1 :5 AN?ROPOLOGY WAS AGA9 TRY+ TO BREAK \T ( TOTALIZ+ SY/EMS1 ?IS TIME ! /RUCTURALI/ MODELS !MSELVES4 ,BUT BY ?AT TIME 'VALUES' WAS NO LONG] CONSID]$ AN 9T]E/+ T]M2 9/EAD1 ! FOCUS WAS ON ,SAUSSUREAN IDEAS ( VALUE4 

,SAUSSUREAN SYN!SES 

,IT MI<T BE SURPRIS+ ?AT /RUCTURALI/1 ,SAUSSUREAN MODELS ( VALUE L>GELY DISPLAC$ 'VALUES' 9 ! OLD ,KLUCKHOHNIAN S5SE1 S9CE /RUCTURALISM HAD LITTLE TO SAY AB\T QUE/IONS ( VALUE4 ,/RUCTURALI/S W]E CONC]N$ ) SY/EMS ( KN[L$GE1 ! 'CODES' BY :I* PEOPLE ORGANIZE EXP]I5CE1 ! MEANS BY :I* !Y 9T]PRET MESSAGES1 RA!R ?AN :AT !Y >E TRY+ TO ACCOMPLI% BY SAY+ !M4 ,! CODE OR SY/EM OR /RUCTURE WAS ASSUM$ TO EXI/ ON SOME AB/RACT PLANE \TSIDE ( TIME & HUMAN ACTION1 9 ! SAME WAY ?AT LANGUAGE AS AN AB/RACT SY/EM ( RULES & MEAN+S EXI/S AP>T FROM ANY P>TICUL> ACT ( SPEE*4 ,FROM ANO!R P]SPECTIVE1 ?\<1 ! ,SAUSSUREAN APPROA* TO VALUE AS MEAN+FUL DIFF]5CE MI<T SEEM ! P]FECT ?+ TO M$IATE BETWE5 SY/EMIC APPROA*ES 7:I* ANALYSIS ( 'VALUES' W\LD SEEM TO CALL =7 & 9DIVIDUALI/IC ONES1 EMPHASIZ+ VALUE 9 ! ECONOMIC S5SE4 ,AFT] ALL1 ,SAUSSUREAN APPROA*ES 9SI/ ?AT ! MEAN+ ( A T]M CAN ONLY BE UND]/OOD 9 ! CONTEXT ( A TOTAL SY/EM3 ! MEAN+ ( 'RIV]'1 = EXAMPLE1 IS DEF9$ 9 RELATION TO ALL ! O!R WORDS 9 ! SAME LEXICON 7'/REAM'1 'BROOK'1 '9LET'1 & SO ON74 ,YET AT ! SAME TIME1 ,SAUSSUREANS T5D TO SEE VALUE AS EXI/+ 9 ! EYE ( ! BEHOLD]1 JU/ LIKE NEOCLASSICAL ECONOMI/S DO4 

,ITS APPROA* TO BO? SY/EM & 9DIVIDUAL LEVELS HAS MADE ?IS APPROA* ATTRACTIVE TO ?OSE /UDY+ CONSUMPTION4 ,! DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 DIFF]5T SORTS ( CONSUM] GOODS PROVIDE A MAP ( DIFF]5T SORTS ( HUMAN ID5TITY1 & :AT SORT ( P]SON ONE IS 9 CONSUM] SOCIETY IS A FUNCTION ( :AT SORT ( GOODS ONE HAS4 ,BUT ONE CAN APPLY ,SAUSSUREAN MODELS TO V]Y DIFF]5T SORTS ( SOCIETY AS WELL4 ,9 H] FAM\S ANALYZES ( ,MELANESIAN 'GIFT ECONOMIES'1 ,M>ILYN ,/RA!RN 7#a#i#h#g1 #a#i#h#h1 #a#i#i#b7 HAS MADE A NUMB] ( BRILLIANT & PROVOCATIVE >GUM5TS AB\T H[ OBJECTS >E VALU$ AS 'WAYS ( MAK+ RELATION%IPS VISIBLE'4 ,SU* ECONOMIES >E PR(\NDLY DIFF]5T FROM COMMODITY ECONOMIES1 BUT !RE TOO1 'VALUE' IS A MATT] ( H[ SOME?+ IS DEF9$ 9 ANO!R P]SON'S EYES1 AS P>T ( SOME L>G] SY/EM ( CATEGORIES 7,GRAEB] #b#a74 

,! E>LY #a#i#hS SAW A S]IES ( ATTEMPTS TO BREAK \T ( CLASSICAL /RUCTURALISM1 USUALLY BY TRY+ TO DEVELOP SOME SORT ( !ORY ( ACTION4 ,?IS EV5TUALLY PAV$ ! WAY = ! V>I\S =MS ( PO/-/RUCTURALISM & PRACTICE !ORY ?AT DOM9ATE ! 9TELLECTUAL FIELD TODAY4 ,= SOME1 ?IS MEANT RETURN+ TO ECONOMIC !ORIES ( VALUE 7= EXAMPLE1 ,APPADURAI #a#i#h#f2 ,?OMAS #a#i#i#a74 ,= O!RS1 IT MEANT EXACTLY ! OPPOSITE1 RETOOL+ /RUCTURALISM SO AS TO CREATE A NEW & V]Y EXPLICIT SY/EMIC =M4 ,! *OICE SEEM$ TO BE L>GELY BETWE5 ! ECONOMI/S & DE ,SAUSSURE4 

,! MO/ PROM95T AMONG ! LATT] WAS ! ,FR5* AN?ROPOLOGI/ ,L\IS ,DUMONT4 ,HE IS BE/ KN[N = HIS ANALYSIS ( ! ,9DIAN CA/E SY/EM 7,DUMONT #aih .<#a#i#f#f.>71 & ESPECIALLY = HAV+ BE5 ALMO/ S+LE-H&$LY RESPONSIBLE = POPUL>IZ+ ! CONCEPT ( 'HI]>*Y' 9 ! SOCIAL SCI5CES4 ,HIS NOTION ( VALUE EM]GES DIRECTLY \T ( HIS CONCEPT ( HI]>*Y4 ,MEAN+1 HE >GUES1 IS FUNDAM5TALLY HI]>*ICAL1 & S9CE ALL SOCIAL SY/EMS >E ESS5TIALLY SY/EMS ( MEAN+1 !Y TOO >E ORGANIZ$ AS TOTAL SY/EMS >\ND KEY VALUES4 ,9 SU* SOCIETIES1 :E!R A ,H9DU K+DOM OR ,MELANESIAN VILLAGE1 :AT WE W\LD CONSID] MAT]IAL SELF-9T]E/ & ! VALUES ATTA*$ TO IT >E SUBORD9AT$ TO L>G]1 COSMOLOGICAL PR9CIPLES2 IT IS ONLY 9 M>KET SOCIETIES ?AT ?IS COMES TO BE REV]S$4 ,LET ME EXPLA9 ! >GUM5T 9 GREAT] DETAIL4 

,CLASSICAL /RUCTURALISM1 ACCORD+ TO ,DUMONT1 WAS DEVELOP$ AS A TE*NIQUE TO ANALYZE ! =MAL ORGANIZATION ( IDEAS4 ,ONE ALWAYS PROCE$S 9 MORE OR LESS ! SAME FA%ION1 DELIMIT+ A FIELD 7:E!R A S]IES ( MY?S OR A SOCIAL SY/EM71 ID5TIFY+ ITS ELEM5TS1 !N MAPP+ \T ! RELATIONS BETWE5 !M 9 T]MS ( C]TA9 KEY CONCEPTUAL OPPOSITIONS 7= EXAMPLE1 RAW VS4 COOK$1 PURE VS4 IMPURE1 MASCUL9E VS4 FEM99E1 CONSANGU9ITY VS4 AFF9ITY74 ,ONE !N MAPS \T ! 'RELATIONS BETWE5 ! RELATIONS'2 H[ !SE RELATE TO ONE ANO!R4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,DUMONT ALL ?IS IS V]Y WELL & GOOD1 BUT :AT MO/ /RUCTURALI/S FAIL TO REALIZE IS ?AT !SE IDEAS >E ALWAYS ALSO 'VALUES'4 ,?IS IS BECAUSE1 9 ANY SU* PAIR ( T]MS1 ONE WILL BE CONSID]$ SUP]IOR & WILL '5COMPASS' ! 9F]IOR ONE4 ,ALL HI]>*ICAL RELATIONS >E BAS$ ON SOME SU* NOTION ( 5COMPASSM5T4 ,ONE ( ,DUMONT'S FAVORITE ILLU/RATIONS IS ! OPPOSITION ( RI<T & LEFT4 ,AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE LONG NOT$ A T5D5CY1 :I* APP>5TLY OCCURS 9 ! VA/ MAJORITY ( ! WORLD'S CULTURES1 = ! RI<T H& TO BE TREAT$ AS SOMEH[ MORALLY SUP]IOR TO ! LEFT4 ,BUT1 ,DUMONT NOTES1 ?IS IS BECAUSE ! RI<T 7SIDE7 ALWAYS REPRES5TS ! RI<T 7MORAL74 ,9 (F]+ A H&%AKE1 ,DUMONT NOTES1 ONE MU/ NORMALLY EXT5D ONE H& OR ! O!R4 ,! RI<T H& PUT =W>D ?US1 9 EFFECT1 REPRES5TS ONE'S P]SON AS A :OLE1 9CLUD+ ! LEFT H& ?AT IS NOT EXT5D$ 7,DUMONT #a#i#h#b2 SEE ,T*]KEZ(F #a#i#h#c74 ,H5CE1 AT LEA/ 9 ?AT CONTEXT1 ! RI<T H& '5COMPASSES' OR '9CLUDES' ! LEFT1 :I* IS ALSO ITS OPPOSITE4 7,?IS IS :AT HE CALLS '5COMPASS+ ! CONTR>Y'47 ,?IS PR9CIPLE ( HI]>*Y1 HE >GUES1 APPLIES TO ALL SIGNIFICANT B9>Y OPPOSITIONS4 

,MEAN+ ?US >ISES FROM MAK+ CONCEPTUAL DI/9CTIONS ?AT1 9 TURN1 >E RANK$ & H5CE ALWAYS CONTA9 AN ELEM5T ( VALUE4 ,EV5 MORE IMPORTANT1 ! SOCIAL CONTEXTS 9 :I* !SE DI/9CTIONS >E PUT 9TO PRACTICE >E ALSO RANK$4 ,SOCIETIES >E DIVID$ 9TO A S]IES ( DOMA9S OR LEVELS1 & HI<] ONES 5COMPASS L[] ONES3 !Y >E MORE UNIV]SAL & ?US HAVE MORE VALUE4 ,9 PRETTY MU* ANY SOCIETY1 = 9/ANCE1 DOME/IC AFFAIRS1 :I* RELATE TO ! 9T]E/S ( A SMALL GR\P ( PEOPLE1 WILL BE CONSID]$ SUBORD9ATE TO POLITICAL AFFAIRS1 :I* REPRES5T ! CONC]NS ( A L>G]1 MORE 9CLUSIVE COMMUNITY2 & LIKELY AS NOT ?AT POLITICAL SPH]E WILL BE CONSID]$ SUBORD9ATE TO ! RELIGI\S OR COSMOLOGICAL ONE1 :I* REPRES5TS ! CONC]NS ( HUMANITY AS A :OLE4 ,P]HAPS ! MO/ 9NOVATIVE ASPECT ( ,DUMONT'S !ORY IS ! WAY ?AT ! RELATIONS BETWE5 DIFF]5T CONCEPTUAL T]MS CAN BE 9V]T$ ON DIFF]5T LEVELS4 ,?IS CAN BE ILLU/RAT$ ) ! ,9DIAN CA/E SY/EM4 ,ON ! RELIGI\S LEVEL1 :]E ,BRAHMANS REPRES5T HUMANITY AS A :OLE BE=E ! GODS1 ! OP]ATIVE PR9CIPLE IS PURITY3 ALL CA/ES >E RANK$ ACCORD+ TO !IR PURITY1 & BY ?IS /&>D ,BRAHMANS \TRANK EV5 K+S4 ,9 ! SUBORD9ATE1 POLITICAL SPH]E1 9 :I* HUMANS RELATE ONLY TO O!R HUMANS1 P[] IS ! DOM9ANT VALUE1 & 9 ?AT SPH]E K+S >E SUP]IOR TO ,BRAHMANS1 :O MU/ DO AS !Y SAY4 ,NONE ! LESS1 ,BRAHMANS >E ULTIMATELY SUP]IOR1 BECAUSE ! SPH]E 9 :I* !Y >E SUP]IOR IS ! MO/ 5COMPASS+4 ,RUNN+ ?R\< ,DUMONT'S APPROA* IS ! ,SAUSSUREAN NOTION ?AT Y\ HAVE TO UND]/& A TOTAL SY/EM ( MEAN+ 9 ORD] = ANY P>TICUL> P>T ( IT TO MAKE S5SE4 ,! FIR/ /EP 9 ANALYSIS IS TO ID5TIFY SOME TOTALITY4 ,! ,DUMONTIANS CALL !IR PROJECT ONE ( 'COMP>+ :OLES'3 BY :I* !Y MEAN NOT SO MU* SYMBOLIC SY/EMS1 AS SOCIETIES TAK5 AS TOTALITIES /RUCTUR$ >\ND C]TA9 KEY 'IDEAS-VALUES'4 

,ACCORD+LY1 ,DUMONT'S /UD5TS HAVE CONTRIBUT$ A S]IES ( CONCRETE ANALYZES ( SOCIETIES 9 ,AFRICA1 ,MELANESIA1 ,NOR? ,AFRICA & ! ,9DONESIAN >*IPELAGO 7,B>RAUD ET AL4 #a#i#i#d74 ,EA* BEG9S BY ID5TIFY+ A S]IES ( RANK$ VALUES1 :I* EV5 AT !IR SIMPLE/ 9VOLVE A DIVISION BETWE5 ! VALUES ?AT REGULATE EX*ANGE BETWE5 HUMAN BE+S1 & ?OSE :I* DEF9E HUMAN RELATIONS ) ! COSMOS AS A :OLE4 ,= ! ,B]B]S ( ! ,MORROCCAN ,RIF1 POLITICAL & ECONOMIC LIFE C5T]S ON EX*ANGES BETWE5 PROM95T M5 LOCK$ 9 5DLESS CONFLICTS OV] HONOR2 BUT ULTIMATELY HONOR IS 5COMPASS$ BY ! IMPORTANCE ( B>AKA1 OR DIV9E GRACE4 ,AS ) ! DIVISION BETWE5 PURITY & P[] 9 ,9DIA1 'VALUES' 9 ,KLUCKHOHN'S S5SE >E SUP]IOR TO ?OSE ?AT ORGANIZE ! COMPETITIVE GAMES ( POLITICAL OR ECONOMIC SELF-9T]E/1 :E!R !SE BE BATTLES OV] PRE/IGE 7AS 9 GIFT ECONOMIES7 OR /RUGGLES TO CONTROL MAT]IAL WEAL?4 ,! DI/9CTION CORRESPONDS ALMO/ EXACTLY TO ,/ ,AUGU/9E'S DI/9CTION BETWE5 'OBJECTIVE' VALUE1 ! 9TR9SIC M]IT ( A ?+1 ITS PLACE 9 ! COSMOS1 & VALUE AS 9T]PRET$ ?R\< ! FAULTY L5S ( HUMAN DESIRE4 

,ACCORD+ TO ,DUMONT 7#a#i#g#a71 :AT MAKES CONTEMPOR>Y ,WE/]N SOCIETY SO UNUSUAL IS ?AT IT 9V]TS ALL ?IS4 ,WE/]N]S NO LONG] LIVE 9 A HI]>*ICAL SOCIETY1 RANK$ 9TO A S]IES ( EV]-MORE 9CLUSIVE DOMA9S4 ,H[EV]1 ?IS IS NOT BECAUSE ,WE/]N]S VALUE EQUALITY 7IT IS AN ITEM ( FAI? = ,DUMONTIANS ?AT EQUALITY CANNOT1 ITSELF1 BE A VALUE7 BUT BECAUSE = !M1 ! SUPREME VALUE HAS BECOME ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,EA* P]SON IS ASSUM$ TO BE UNIQUE & ?US1 BY DEF9ITION1 9COMP>ABLE4 ,IF ALL 9DIVIDUALS >E VALUES UNTO !MSELVES 7AN IDEA :I* HE TRACES BACK TO ,*RI/IAN IDEAS AB\T ! VALUE ( ! IMMORTAL S\L71 NONE CAN BE TREAT$ AS 9TR9SICALLY SUP]IOR TO ANY O!R4 ,IT IS ?IS :I* HAS ALL[$ ! M>KET1 AS ! SPH]E ( 9DIVIDUAL SELF-REALIZATION1 TO BECOME ! HI]>*ICALLY DOM9ANT1 HI<E/ SPH]E1 TO :I* >T1 RELIGION1 SCI5CE & POLITICS >E ALL 9CREAS+LY SUBORD9ATE4 

,VALUE AS ! MEAN+ ( ACTIONS 

,= A LONG TIME1 ,M>XI/ AN?ROPOLOGY DID NOT HAVE MU* TO SAY AB\T VALUE 7= ONE EXCEPTION1 SEE ,TAUSSIG #a#i#h74 ,H[EV]1 ONE ( ! MO/ PROMIS+ ( ! NEW APPROA*ES ?AT BEGAN TO EM]GE 9 ! #a#i#hS GREW PRIM>ILY \T ( ,M>X'S 9SI<T ?AT VALUE ULTIMATELY MEASURES ! IMPORTANCE NOT ( OBJECTS1 BUT ( ACTIONS4 ,! TWO MO/ IMPORTANT ADVOCATES ( ?IS NEW APPROA* W]E ,T]5CE ,TURN] 7#a#i#g#i1 #a#i#h#d1 #a#i#h#g7 & ,NANCY ,MUNN 7#a#i#h#f2 H] PH5OM5OLOGICAL APPROA* DOES NOT D]IVE DIRECTLY FROM ,M>X1 BUT DRAWS ON ! SAME DIALECTICAL TRADITION74 ,I HAVE TRI$ TO DEVELOP !IR IDEAS 9 MY [N WORK 7,GRAEB] #b#a74 ,LET ME 5D1 !N1 ) A BRIEF \TL9E ( H[ AN ACTION-BAS$ VALUE SY/EM MI<T WORK4 

,LIKE ,SMI?1 ,M>X DID NOT PROPOSE A LABOR !ORY ( VALUE MA9LY AS A WAY TO EXPLA9 PRICE FLUCTUATIONS1.<#c.> BUT AS A WAY ( CONNECT+ ECONOMIC !ORY ) BROAD] MORAL & PHILOSOPHICAL CONC]NS4 ,= ,M>X1 'LABOR' WAS MORE OR LESS ID5TICAL ) HUMAN CREATIVITY3 IT IS ! WAY HUMAN BE+S EX]CISE !IR IMAG9ATIVE P[]S TO CREATE !IR WORLDS1 !IR SOCIAL TIES AS WELL AS !IR PHYSICAL 5VIRONM5TS4 ,! UNIQUE ?+ AB\T CAPITALISM1 ,M>X HELD1 WAS ?AT IT ALL[$ LABOR TO BECOME AN AB/RACTION4 ,?IS WAS BECAUSE CAPITALISM ALONE TURNS LABOR 9TO A COMMODITY1 SOME?+ ?AT CAN BE B\<T OR SOLD1 & :AT AN EMPLOY] :O HIRES A LABOR] BUYS IS AN AB/RACTION1 ?AT LABOR]'S CAPACITY TO WORK4 ,:AT MAKES ?IS POSSIBLE IS ! USE ( A SPECIFIC SYMBOLIC M$IUM ( VALUE3 MONEY4 ,= ,M>X1 MONEY IS A SYMBOL4 ,IT REPRES5TS ! 'VALUE' OR IMPORTANCE ( LABOR4 ,IT CAN DO SO BY 9CORPORAT+ IT 9TO A TOTAL M>KET SY/EM1 BECAUSE = ,M>X ! REAL VALUE ( A PRODUCT IS NOT 7AS ,RIC>DO CLAIM$7 H[ MANY H\RS ( WORK W5T 9TO MAK+ IT1 BUT ! PROPORTION ( ! TOTAL AM\NT ( LABOR 9 ! 5TIRE ECONOMY ?AT W5T 9TO MAK+ IT4 ,?IS PROPORTION ONE CAN ONLY DET]M9E ?R\< ! M>KET2 ?AT IS1 ?R\< ! USE ( MONEY4 ,BUT EV5 MORE1 MONEY IS A SYMBOL ?AT BR+S 9TO BE+ ! V]Y ?+ ?AT IT SYMBOLIZES3 AFT] ALL1 WAGE LABOR]S ONLY GO TO WORK 9 ORD] TO GET MONEY4 ,?IS IS :Y1 9 ,M>X'S T]MS1 WE CAN SAY ?AT MONEY IS BE+ 'FETI%IZ$'4 ,VALUE IS ! WAY \R ACTIONS TAKE ON MEAN+ OR IMPORTANCE BY BECOM+ 9CORPORAT$ 9TO SOME?+ L>G] ?AN \RSELVES4 ,BUT ALMO/ ALWAYS1 ?IS CAN ONLY HAPP5 ?R\< SOME K9D ( MAT]IAL M$IUM1 A TOK5 ( VALUE LIKE MONEY4 ,FETI%ISM OCCURS :5 WE ASSUME ?AT ! VALUE COMES FROM ! TOK51 RA!R ?AN \RSELVES4 

,9 MO/ KN[N HUMAN SOCIETIES !RE WAS NO SU* M>KET 9 LABOR2 BUT /ILL1 ONE CAN SAY SOME?+ SIMIL> HAPP5S4 ,DIFF]5T SORTS ( LABOR 7P]HAPS BETT] PUT3 DIFF]5T =MS ( HUMAN CREATIVE ACTIVITY7 CLU/] TOGE!R4 ,!Y T5D TO GET REFLECT$ BACK 9 ! =M ( CONCRETE1 MAT]IAL M$IA ?AT >E SE5 AS VALUABLE 9 !MSELVES1 & ?US 5D UP BECOM+ ! ACTUAL 5DS = :I* ACTION TAKES PLACE4 ,TOK5S ( HONOR 9SPIRE HONORABLE BEHAVIOR1 TOK5S ( PIETY 9SPIRE RELIGI\S DEVOTION1 TOK5S ( WISDOM 9SPIRE LE>N+ & SO ON4 ,!IR VALUE IS JU/ ?AT ( ! ACTIONS !Y REPRES5T1 BUT ! ACTORS SEE !M AS VALUABLE 9 !MSELVES4 ,USUALLY1 !SE TOK5S >E UNLIKE MONEY1 :I* IS AN AB/RACT M$IUM 9 :I* ALL TOK5S >E EFFECTIVELY ! SAME3 ANY DOLL> BILL IS TO ALL PRACTICAL 9T5TS & PURPOSES ID5TICAL TO ANY O!R4 ,9/EAD1 !SE TOK5S >E UNIQUE1 P>TICUL> ?+S3 HEIRLOOMS1 UNIQUE GE/URES1 TITLES & SO ON4 ,BUT ?IS MAKES S5SE1 TOO4 ,AFT] ALL1 ! SAME ?+ HAPP5S1 TO A LESS] DEGREE1 9 \R [N SOCIETY4 ,RECALL MY E>LI] REM>K AB\T ECONOMIC 'VALUE' APPLY+ )9 ! M>KET1 & A MORE P>TICUL> SORT ( 'VALUES' APPLY+ \TSIDE IT4 ,AB/RACT LABOR1 ! SORT Y\ GET 9 ! CAPITALI/ WORKPLACES1 5DS UP BE+ MAT]IALIZ$ 9 AB/RACT SYMBOLS2 MORE CONCRETE =MS ( LABOR 5D UP BE+ MAT]IALIZ$ 9 MORE CONCRETE SYMBOLS4 ,SO H\SEWORK & *ILDC>E1 = :I* ONE IS NOT PAID1 BECOMES A MATT] ( 'FAMILY VALUES' & IS REFLECT$ 9 TOK5S ( LOVE & RESPECT2 WORK = ! *UR* BECOMES A MATT] ( RELIGI\S VALUES1 POLITICAL ACTIVISM IS 9SPIR$ BY SOCIAL VALUES & SO ON4 ,BUT EV5 H]E1 !RE IS USUALLY SOME SORT ( MAT]IAL TOK5 ?R\< :I* IT ALL BECOMES REAL4 

,TO S*EMATIZE MATT]S CONSID]ABLY 7& READ]S 9T]E/$ 9 SEE+ ANY ( ?IS FLE%$ \T >E 5C\RAG$ TO CONSULT ,GRAEB] #b#a71 ALL[ ME TO SUGGE/ ! FOLL[+4 ,FIR/1 VALUE IS ! WAY ACTORS REPRES5T ! IMPORTANCE ( !IR [N ACTIONS TO !MSELVES AS P>T ( SOME L>G] :OLE 7OR 'CONCRETE TOTALITY'1 AS ,M>X LIK$ TO PUT IT74 ,SECOND1 ?IS IMPORTANCE IS ALWAYS SE5 9 COMP>ATIVE T]MS4 ,SOME =MS ( VALUE >E SE5 AS UNIQUE & 9COMM5SURABLE2 O!RS >E RANK$ 7AS 9 CATEGORIES ( KULA VALUABLES OR ! FAM\S ,TIV 'SPH]ES ( EX*ANGE'2 SEE ,/RA!RN & ,/EW>T *AP4 #a#d1 & ,ISAAC *AP4#a SUPRA72 = YET O!RS1 SU* AS MONEY 9 M>KET SY/EMS1 VALUE CAN BE CALCULAT$ PRECISELY1 SO ?AT ONE CAN KN[ PRECISELY H[ MANY ( ITEM ,A >E EQUIVAL5T TO ONE ITEM ,B4 ,?IRD1 IMPORTANCE IS ALWAYS REALIZ$ ?R\< SOME K9D ( MAT]IAL TOK51 & G5]ALLY IS REALIZ$ SOME:]E O!R ?AN ! PLACE IT IS PRIM>ILY PRODUC$4 ,= 9/ANCE1 9 NON-CAPITALI/ SOCIETIES COMMONLY !RE IS A DOME/IC SPH]E 9 :I* MO/ ( ! PRIM>Y WORK ( PEOPLE-CREATION TAKES PLACE1 & ?IS IS DI/+UI%$ FROM A PUBLIC1 POLITICAL SPH]E1 9 :I* ! VALUE G5]AT$ BY ?AT WORK IS REALIZ$1 BUT USUALLY 9 WAYS ?AT EXCLUDE ! WOM5 & Y\NG] PEOPLE :O DO ! BULK ( ! WORK4 

,TURN] HAS TRI$ TO DEVELOP SU* IDEAS 9 A S]IES ( ANALYZES ( ! ,KAYAPO1 ( C5TRAL ,BRAZIL4 ,ONE ( ,TURN]'S KEY PO9TS IS ?AT 9 NON-CAPITALI/ SOCIETIES ! BULK ( SOCIAL LABOR IS NOT SO MU* DIRECT$ AT CREAT+ MAT]IAL OBJECTS AS AT %AP+ & RE%AP+ HUMAN BE+S & ! RELATIONS BETWE5 !M2 ! ,KAYAPO SEE MAT]IAL PRODUCTION AS A SUBORD9ATE ASPECT ( ! REPRODUCTION ( PEOPLE4 ,H5CE ,KAYAPO COMMUNITIES >E ORGANIZ$ AS R+S ( H\SEHOLDS1 SURR\ND+ A C5TRAL1 PUBLIC1 POLITICAL SPACE DOM9AT$ BY A PLAZA & ADOLESC5T M5'S H\SES4 ,! H\SEHOLDS CAN BE SE5 AS ! >EAS :]E ! BULK ( ! CREATIVE WORK 9 RAIS+ & SOCIALIZ+ *ILDR5 7&1 = ?AT MATT]1 ADULTS7 TAKES PLACE1 ?R\< RELATIONS :I* !MSELVES EMBODY ! TWO KEY ,KAYAPO VALUES3 'BEAUTY' 7A K9D ( TOTAL1 9TEGRATIVE H>MONY7 & A LESS >TICULAT$ VALUE ?AT ,TURN] V>I\SLY CALLS 'P[]' OR 'DOM9ANCE'4 ,!SE =MS ( VALUE >E ULTIMATELY PRODUC$ 9 ! DOME/IC SPH]E4 ,H[EV]1 !Y >E REALIZ$ PRIM>ILY 9 ! C5TRAL1 PUBLIC SPACE1 ESPECIALLY ?R\< C]TA9 =MS ( PUBLIC P]=MANCE1 BY ELD]S :O >E !MSELVES 'ELD]S' ONLY BECAUSE !Y >E ! PEAK ( A DOME/IC PROCESS ( CREAT+ & SOCIALIZ+ PEOPLE ?AT TAKES PLACE JU/ (F/AGE1 & :I* IS C>RI$ \T PRIM>ILY BY PEOPLE O!R ?AN !MSELVES4 

,?IS MI<T SEEM TO RESEMBLE ! K9D ( T]MS A ,DUMONTIAN MI<T HAVE DISCOV]$1 BUT FRAM+ IT ?IS WAY EMPHASIZES ?AT ! PROCESS ( REALIZATION ( VALUE 9VOLVES SOME =M ( PUBLIC RECOGNITION4 ,BUT ?IS IS NOT TO SAY ?AT PEOPLE >E SIMPLY BATTL+ OV] PRE/IGE2 9/EAD1 ! RANGE ( PEOPLE :O >E WILL+ TO RECOGNIZE C]TA9 =MS ( VALUE CON/ITUTES ! EXT5T ( :AT AN ACTOR CONSID]S A 'SOCIETY' TO CONSI/ (4 ,!RE >E ANY NUMB] ( DIRECTIONS 9 :I* ?IS K9D ( APPROA* C\LD BE DEVELOP$1 ?\< IT REMA9S TO BE SE5 :E!R IT CAN RESOLVE ! 5DLESS P>ADOXES & MORAL DILEMMAS :I* HAVE DOGG$ ! /UDY ( MAT]IAL EX*ANGE FROM ,>I/OTLE & ,AUGU/9E ONW>DS4 

,CONCLUSION 

,! /UDY ( VALUE1 !N1 9V>IABLY TAKES US BEYOND :AT WE NORMALLY REF] TO AS 'ECONOMICS'1 = IT LEADS US 9TO MORAL1 ES!TIC & SYMBOLIC T]RITORY ?AT IS V]Y H>D TO R$UCE TO RATIONAL CALCULATION & SCI5CE4 ,9 ! ,WE/]N TRADITION1 ECONOMICS BEGAN AS A S]IES ( QUE/IONS AB\T ! MORALITY ( VALUE2 IT C\LD ONLY CLAIM ! /ATUS ( A SCI5CE BY TRY+ TO EXORCIZE VALUE COMPLETELY4 ,AN?ROPOLOGI/S1 ON ! O!R H&1 HAVE T5D$ TO SEE !IR SPECIAL EXP]TIZE AS LY+ 9 PRECISELY ! >EAS ?AT ECONOMICS AB&ON$4 ,H[EV]1 IT APPE>S ?AT AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE ONLY TRI$ TO DEVELOP EXPLICIT !ORIES ( VALUE :5 !Y F9D !MSELVES 9 A CRISIS BR\<T AB\T BY !IR 9ABILITY TO UND]/& H[ FLE%-&-BLOOD 9DIVIDUALS >E MOTIVAT$ TO MA9TA9 & RE-CREATE ! AB/RACT SY/EMS ?AT AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE ALWAYS BE5 SO GOOD AT DISC]N+4 ,S9CE ! FAILURE ( ,KLUCKHOHN'S 'VALUES PROJECT' 9 ! #a#i#eS1 ?IS HAS USUALLY L$ AN?ROPOLOGI/S TO WORK ) SOME V>IATION ( ECONOMIC MODELS1 OR ) L+UI/IC MODELS 9 ! /RUCTURALI/ TRADITION ( DE ,SAUSSURE4 ,I HAVE SUGGE/$ ?AT !RE >E O!R POSSIBILITIES1 ESPECIALLY ONE ?AT TREATS ,M>X'S ANALYSIS ( VALUE AS A SYMBOLIC ANALYSIS & LOOKS AT 'VALUE' AS A WAY PEOPLE'S [N ACTIONS BECOME MEAN+FUL TO !M1 H[ !Y TAKE ON IMPORTANCE BY BECOM+ 9CORPORAT$ 9TO SOME L>G] SY/EM ( MEAN+4 ,WE CAN ONLY WAIT TO SEE :I*1 IF ANY1 ( !SE MANY /R&S ( VALUE !ORY >E MO/ USEFUL 9 ! FUTURE4 

,REF]5CES 

,APPADURAI1 ,A4 #a#i#h#f4 ,9TRODUCTION4 ,9 ,! SOCIAL LIFE ( ?+S 7$47 ,A4 ,APPADURAI4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,B>RAUD1 ,C41 ,D4 DE ,COPPET1 ,A4 ,ITEANU & ,R4 ,JAM\S #a#i#i#d4 ,( RELATIONS & ! DEAD3 F\R SOCIETIES VIEW$ FROM ! ANGLE ( !IR EX*ANGES4 7TRANS4 ,S4,J4 ,SUFF]N74 ,OX=D3 ,B]G4 

,CAILLE1 ,A4 #b4 ,AN?ROPOLOGIE DU DON4 ,P>IS3 ,$ITIONS DE ,DEC\V]TE_/,M,A,U,S,S4 

,D\GLAS1 ,M4 & ,B4 ,I%]WOOD #a#i#g#i4 ,! WORLD ( GOODS4 ,LONDON3 ,R\TL$GE4 

,DUMONT1 ,L4 #a#i#g#a4 ,FROM ,M&EVILLE TO ,M>X4 ,*ICAGO3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS4 

,DUMONT1 ,L4 #aih .<#a#i#f#f.>4 ,HOMO HI]>*I*US4 ,*ICAGO3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS4 

,DUMONT1 ,L4 #a#i#h#b4 ,ON VALUE4 ,PROCE$+S ( ! ,BRITI% ,ACADEMY #f#f3 #b#g-#d#a4 

,$MONSON1 ,M4,S4 #a#i#g#c4 ,! AN?ROPOLOGY ( VALUES4 ,9 ,CULTURE & LIFE3 ESSAYS 9 MEMORY ( ,KLYDE ,KLUCKHOHN 7$S7 ,W4 ,TAYLOR1 ,J4 ,EIS*]1 ,E4 ,VOGT4 ,C>BONDALE3 ,S\!RN ,ILL9OIS ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,EVANS-,PRIT*>D1 ,E4,E4 #a#i#d4 ,! ,NU]4 ,OX=D3 ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,FAYAZMANE%1 ,S4 #a#i#i#h4 ,! MAGICAL1 MY/ICAL 'P>ADOX ( VALUE'4 ,RESE>* 9 ! ,HI/ORY ( ,ECONOMIC ,?\<T & ,ME?ODOLOGY #a#f3 #a#b#c-#e#c4 

,FIR?1 ,R4 #a#i#f#d4 ,! /UDY ( VALUES BY SOCIAL AN?ROPOLOGI/S4 ,9 ,ESSAYS ON SOCIAL ORGANIZATION & VALUES4 ,LONDON3 ,A?LONE4 

,GRAEB]1 ,D4 #b#a4 ,T[>D AN AN?ROPOLOGICAL !ORY ( VALUE4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,PALGRAVE4 

,KLUCKHOHN1 ,K4 #a#i#d#i4 ,! PHILOSOPHY ( ! ,NAVAHO ,9DIAN4 ,9 ,IDEOLOGICAL DIFF]5CES & WORLD ORD] 7$47 ,F4,S4,D4 ,NOR?ROP4 ,NEW ,HAV51 ,CONN43 ,YALE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,KLUCKHOHN1 ,K4 #a#i#e#aA4 ,VALUES & VALUE-ORI5TATIONS 9 ! !ORY ( ACTION3 AN EXPLORATION 9 DEF9ITION & CLASSIFICATION4 ,9 ,T[>DS A G5]AL !ORY ( ACTION 7$S7 ,T4 ,P>SONS & ,E4 ,%ILS4 ,CAMBRIDGE1 ,MASS43 ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,KLUCKHOHN1 ,K4 #a#i#e#aB4 ,A COMP>ATIVE /UDY ( VALUES 9 FIVE CULTURES4 ,9 ,NAVAHO VET]ANS1 A /UDY 9 *ANG+ VALUES1 ,E4,Z4 ,VOGT 7 ,PAP]S ( ! ,PEABODY ,MUSEUM ( ,AM]ICAN ,>*AEOLOGY & ,E?NOLOGY #d#a3 VII-IX47 ,CAMBRIDGE1 ,MASS43 ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY4 

,KLUCKHOHN1 ,K4 #a#i#e#f4 ,T[>DS A COMP>ISON ( VALUE-EMPHASES 9 DIFF]5T CULTURES4 ,9 ,! /ATE ( ! SOCIAL SCI5CES 7$47 ,L4 ,:ITE4 ,*ICAGO3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS4 

,LAN<OLM1 ,O4 #a#i#i#b4 ,ECONOMICS 9 ! M$IEVAL S*OOLS4 ,LEID53 ,E4,J4 ,BRILL4 

,MILL]1 ,D4 #a#i#h#g4 ,MAT]IAL CULTURE & MASS CONSUMPTION4 ,OX=D3 ,BASIL ,BLACKWELL4 

,MILL]1 ,D4 7$47 #a#i#i#e4 ,ACKN[L$G+ CONSUMPTION4 ,LONDON3 ,R\TL$GE4 

,MUNN1 ,N4 #a#i#h#f4 ,! FAME ( ,GAWA4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,NUCKOLLS1 ,C4,W4 #a#i#i#h4 ,CULTURE3 A PROBLEM ?AT CANNOT BE SOLV$4 ,MADISON3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,WISCONS9 ,PRESS4 

,SAHL9S1 ,M4 #a#i#g#f4 ,CULTURE & PRACTICAL REASON4 ,*ICAGO3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS4 

,SMI?1 ,A4 #a#g#g#f4 ,AN 9QUIRY CONC]N+ ! WEAL? ( NATIONS4 WWW4ADAMSMI?4ORG4 

,/RA!RN1 ,M4 #a#i#h#g4 ,CONCLUSION4 ,9 ,DEAL+ ) 9EQUALITY3 ANALYZ+ G5D] RELATIONS 9 ,MELANESIA & BEYOND 7$47 ,M4 ,/RA!RN4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,/RA!RN1 ,M4 #a#i#h#h4 ,! G5D] ( ! GIFT4 ,B]KELEY3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,CALI=NIA ,PRESS4 

,/RA!RN1 ,M4 #a#i#i#b4 ,QUALIFI$ VALUE3 ! P]SPECTIVE ( GIFT EX*ANGE4 ,9 ,B>T]1 EX*ANGE & VALUE 7$S7 ,C4 ,HUMPHREY & ,S4 ,HU<-,JONES4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,TAUSSIG1 ,M4 #a#i#h4 ,! DEVIL & COMMODITY FETI%ISM 9 ,S\? ,AM]ICA4 ,*APEL ,HILL3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,NOR? ,C>OL9A ,PRESS4 

,T*]KEZ(F1 ,S4 #a#i#h#c4 ,LE ,ROI ,NYAMWEZI1 LA DROITE ET LA GAU*E4 ,REVISION COMP>ATIVE DES CLASSIFICATIONS DUALI/ES4 ,P>IS3 ,ATELI] D',AN?ROPOLOGIE ,SOCIALE1 ,MAISON DES ,SCI5CES DE L',HOMME4 7,PUBLI%$ 9 ,5GLI% AS ,DUAL CLASSIFICATION RECONSID]$3 ,NYAMWEZI SACR$ K+%IP & O!R EXAMPLES4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 #a#i#h#g47 ,?OMAS1 ,N4 #a#i#i#a4 ,5TANGL$ OBJECTS4 ,CAMBRIDGE1 ,MASS43 ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,TURN]1 ,T4 #a#i#g#i4 ,AN?ROPOLOGY & ! POLITICS ( 9DIG5\S PEOPLES' /RUGGLES4 ,CAMBRIDGE ,AN?ROPOLOGY #e3 #a-#d#c4 

,TURN]1 ,T4 #a#i#h#d4 ,VALUE1 PRODUCTION & EXPLOITATION 9 NON-CAPITALI/ SOCIETIES4 ,TO APPE> 9 ,CRITIQUE ( PURE CULTURE4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,B]G .<=?COM+.>4 

,TURN]1 ,T4 #a#i#h#g4 ,! ,KAYAPO ( S\!A/]N ,P>A4 ,M,S4 

,VOGT1 ,E4,Z4 & ,E4,M4 ,ALB]T 7$S7 #a#i#f#f4 ,! PEOPLE ( ,RIMROCK3 A /UDY ( VALUES 9 FIVE CULTURES4 ,CAMBRIDGE1 ,MASS43 ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

.<#a.> ',BUT ?IS ONE /&>D :I* TRULY MEASURES ALL ?+S IS DEM& 444 ,>TICLES >E NOT VALU$ ACCORD+ TO ! DIGNITY ( !IR NATURE1 O!RWISE A M\SE1 AN ANIMAL 5D[$ ) S5SE1 %\LD BE ( GREAT] VALUE ?AN A PE>L1 A ?+ )\T LIFE4 ,BUT !Y >E PRIC$ ACCORD+ AS MAN /&S 9 NE$ ( !M = HIS [N USE' 7 ,S5T5TIA LIBRI E?ICORUM ,V1 #i CIT$ 9 ,LAN<OLM #a#i#i#b3 #b#b#i74 

.<#b.> ,?IS IS ALREADY V]Y MU* IMPLI$ BY ! NOTION ?AT VALUE WAS REFLECT$ 9 'UTILITY'1 :I*1 AFT] ALL1 MEANS NOT DESIRABILITY BUT USEFULNESS4 ,?AT IS1 ONE VALUES SOME?+ = ITS ABILITY TO GET ONE SOME?+ ELSE4 ,:AT ?AT SOME?+ ELSE IS HAS ALREADY BE5 PU%$ \T ( CONSID]ATION4 ,BY ! #a#i#cS1 ) ! 'ORD9AL REVOLUTION'1 ECONOMI/S DISCOV]$ !Y C\LD MODEL CONSUM] BEHAVIOR SIMPLY AS A S]IES ( RANK$ PREF]5CES1 :I* ELIM9AT$ ! NE$ = EV5 SOME?+ AS VAGUE AS UTILITY4 

.<#c.> ,9 FACT1 ONE ( ! GREAT PROBLEMS = ,M>XI/ ECONOMI/S HAS ALWAYS BE5 FIGUR+ \T PRECISELY H[ ! CONNECTION BETWE5 VALUES & PRICES IS SUPPOS$ TO WORK1 ! FAM\S 'TRANS=MATION PROBLEM'4 

7,S\RCE3 ,RETRIEV$ ON #b#h? ,NOVEMB] #bba FROM DAVIDGRAEB]4ORG47 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #i1 #bbb 3 ,VALUE -- ,ADD$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/