ADVERTISEMENT.
The author has not failed to make use of the opportunity afforded him by the Third Edition, to revise the work throughout. The alterations however that he has made, though numerous, are not of a fundamental nature. Their object has been merely to remove a few of the crude and juvenile remarks, which, upon consideration, he thought himself able to detect, in the book as it originally stood.
JULY 1797. (From: Anarchy Archives.)
The text is taken from my copy of the fourth edition, 1842. This version of Political Justice, originally published in 1793, is based on the corrected third edition, published in 1798. Click here to jump to the table of contents for Volume 1. The table of contents for volume 2 can be found here.
INQUIRY
CONCERNING
POLITICAL JUSTICE
AND
ITS INFLUENCE
ON
MORALS AND HAPPINESS.
BY WILLIAM GODWIN.
THE FOURTH EDITION
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL I.
LONDON:
J.WATSON, 5 PAUL'S ALLEY, PATERNOSTER ROW.
1842
Few works of literature are held to be of more general use, than those which treat in a methodical and elementary way of the principles of science. But the human mind in every enlighten... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
PREFACE
To
THE SECOND EDITION.
The reception of the following work has been such as to exceed what the author dared to promise himself. Its principles and reasoning have obtained the attention of the public to a considerable extent. This circumstance he has construed as imposing upon him the duty of a severe and assiduous revisal. Every author figures to himself, while writing, a numerous and liberal attention to his lucubrations: if he did not believe that he had something to offer that was worthy of public notice, it is impossible that he should write with any degree of animation. But the most ardent imagination can scarcely be expected to come in competition with sense. In the present instance, there are many things that now a... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
The text is taken from my copy of the fourth edition, 1842. This version of Political Justice, originally published in 1793, is based on the corrected third edition, published in 1798. I will continue adding material until the entire work is on-line.
INQUIRY
CONCERNING
POLITICAL JUSTICE
BOOK I
OF THE POWERS OF MAN CONSIDERED IN HlS SOCIAL
CAPACITY
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Subject of inquiry--of the first book. --Received ideas of political institution.
--Propriety of these ideas questioned.--Plan of the first book.
THE object proposed in the following work is an investigation concerning that form of public or political society, that system of intercourse and reciprocal action,... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
CHAP. II.
HISTORY OF POLITICAL SOCIETY
War.--Frequency of war--among the ancients--among the moderns--
the French--the English--Causes of war.--Penal laws.--Despotism.
--Deduction from the whole.
THE extent of the influence of political systems will be forcibly illustrated by a concise recollection of the records of political society.
It is an old observation that the history of mankind is little else than a record of crimes. Society comes recommended to us by its tendency to supply our wants and promote our well being. If we consider the human species, as they were found previously to the existence of political society, it is difficult not to be impressed with emotions of melancholy. But, though the chief purpose of soc... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
CHAP. III.
SPIRIT OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS.
Robbery and fraud, two great vises in society-originate, 1, in extreme
poverty-2, in the ostentation of the rich-3, in their tyranny-ern-
dered permanent-1, by legislation-2, by the administration of law
-3, by the manner in which property is distributed.
ADDITIONAL perspicuity will be communicated to our view of the evils of political society if we reflect with further and closer attention upon what may be called its interior and domestic history.
Two of the greatest abuses relative to the interior policy of nations, which at this time prevail in the world, consist in the irregular transfer of property, either first by violence, or secondly by fraud. If among the inhabitan... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
CHAPTER IV1
THE CHARACTERS OF MEN ORIGINATE IN THEIR EXTERNAL
CIRCUMSTANCES.
Theory of the human mind.--Subjects of the present chapter--of the
next.--Erroneous opinions refuted.--I. Innate principles.--This
hypothesis, 1, superflous--2, unsatisfactory--3, absurd.--II. In-
stincts.--Examination of this doctrine--of the arguments by which it
has been enforced: from the early actions of infants--from the desire
of self-preservation--from self-love--from pity.--III. Effects of
antenatal impressions and original structure.--Variableness of the
characters of men.--Ease with which impressions may be counter-
acted.--Form of the infant undetermined.--Habits of men and other
animals compared.--Inference.--Importance ... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
Prevailing ideas on this subject.-Its importance in the science of
politics. - I. Voluntary and involuntary action distinguished. -ln-
ferences. -Opinion of certain religionists on this subject -of certain
philosophers. -Conclusion. -II. Self-deception considered -Custom,
or habit delineated. -Actions proceeding from this source imperfectly
voluntary. -Subtlety of the mind. -Tendency of our progressive im-
provements. -Application. -III. Comparative powers of sense and
reason. -Nature of sensual gratification. -Its evident inferiority. -
Objection from the priority of sensible impressions refuted from
analogy -from the progressive power of other impressions -from ex-
perience. Inference. -IV. Vulgar errors. -Meanin... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
CHAPTER VI
OF THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE
Means by which liberty is to be introduced.-Their efficacy illustrated.-
Facts in confirmation of these reasonings.-Inference.
Two points further are necessary to be illustrated, in order to render our view of man in his social capacity impartial and complete. There are certain physical causes which have commonly been supposed to oppose an immovable barrier to the political improvement of our species: climate, which is imagined to render the introduction of liberal principles upon this subject in some cases impossible: and luxury, which, in addition to this disqualification, precludes their revival even in countries where they had once most eminently flourished.
An answer to both these objec... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
CHAPTER VII
OF THE INFLUENCE OF LUXURY
The objection stated.-Source of this objection.-Refuted from mutability -
from mortality -from sympathy. -The probability of perseverance
considered.
THE second objection to the principles already established, is derived from the influence of luxury, and affirms "that nations, like individuals, are subject to the phenomena of youth and old age, and that, when a people by effeminacy and depravation of manners have sunk into decrepitude, it is not within the compass of human ability to restore them to vigor and innocence."
This idea has been partly founded upon the romantic notions of pastoral life and the golden age. Innocence is not virtue. Virtue demands the active employment of an ardent... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
CHAPTER VIII
HUMAN INVENTIONS SUSCEPTIBLE OF PERPETUAL IMPROVEMENT
Perfectibility of man-instanced, first, in language.-Its beginning.-
Abstraction.-Complexity of Language.-Second instance: aphabetical
writing.-Hieroglyphics at first universal. -Progressive deviations.
-Application.
BEFORE we proceed to the direct subject of the present inquiry, it may not be improper to resume the subject of human improvableness, and consider it in a somewhat greater detail. An opinion has been extensively entertained "that the differences of the human species in different ages and countries, particularly so far as relates to moral principles of conduct, are extremely insignificant and trifling; that we are deceived in this respect by dis... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK II
PRINCIPALS OF SOCIETY
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Nature of the inquiry.-Connection of politics and morals.-
Mistakes to which the inquiry has been exposed.-Distinction between
society and government.
IN the preceding book we have cleared the foundations for the remaining branches of inquiry, and shown what are the prospects it is reasonable to entertain as to future political improvement. The effects which are produced by positive institutions have there been delineated, as well as the extent of the powers of man, considered in his social capacity. It is time that we proceed to those disquisitions which are more immediately the object of the present work.
Political inquiry may be distributed under two heads: first, wha... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
Appendix, No. I. p. 63.
OF SUICIDE
Motives of suicide: 1, Escape from pain.-Benevolence.-
Martyrdom considered.
THIS reasoning will throw some light upon the long disputed case of suicide. "Have I a right to destroy myself in order to escape from pain or distress?" Circumstances that should justify such an action, can rarely occur. There are few situations that can exclude the possibility of future life, vigor, and usefulness. It will frequently happen that the man, who once saw nothing before him but despair, shall afterwards enjoy a long period of happiness and honor. In the meantime the power of terminating our own lives, is one of the faculties with which we are endowed; and therefore, like every other faculty, is a subjec... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
CHAPTER II
OF JUSTICE
Appendix, No. II
OF DUELING
Motives of dueling -1. Revenge. -2. Reputation. -
Objection answered. - Illustration.
IT may be proper in this place to bestow a moment's consideration upon the trite but very important case of dueling. A short reflection will suffice to set it in its true light.
This despicable practice was originally invented by barbarians for the gratification of revenge. It was probably at that time thought a very happy project, for reconciling the odiousness of malignity with the gallantry of courage.
But in this light it is now generally given up. Men of the best understanding who lend it their sanction are unwillingly induced to do so, and engage in single combat merely that their ... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK II
CHAPTER II
OF JUSTICE
Extent and meaning of justice.-Subject of justice: mankind.-
Its distribution by the capacity of its subject.- by his usefulness.-
Self-love considered.-Family affection.-Gratitude.-Objections:
from ignorance-from utility. An exception stated.-Remark.-
Degrees of justice.-Application.-Idea of political justice.
FROM what has been said it appears, that the subject of our present inquiry is strictly speaking a department of the science of morals. Morality is the source from which its fundamental axioms must be drawn, and they will be made somewhat clearer in the present instance, if we assume the term justice as a general appellation for all moral duty.
That this appellation is sufficiently expre... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK II
CHAPTER III
OF THE EQUALITY OF MANKIND
Physical equality.-Objection.-Answers.-Moral equality.-How limited.
-Province of political justice.
THE principles of justice, as explained in the preceding chapter, proceed upon
the assumption of the equality of mankind. This equality is either physical or
moral. Physical equality may be considered either as it relates to the strength
of the body or the faculties of the mind.
This part of the subject has been exposed to cavil and objection. It has been said "that the reverse of this equality is the result of our experience. Among the individuals of our species, we actually find that there are not two alike. One man is strong, and another weak. One man is wise, and another fo... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK II
CHAPTER IV
OF PERSONAL VIRTUE AND DUTY
Of virtuous action.-Of a Virtuous agent.-Capacity-in inanimate
substances -in man.-Inference.-Of benevolent error.-Nature of
vise.-Illustrations.-Mutability of the principle of belief.-
Complexity in the operation of motives -Deduction.-Of duty.-It is
never our duty to do wrong.
THERE are two subjects, of the utmost importance to a just delineation of the principles of society, which are, on that account, entitled to a separate examination: the duties incumbent on men living in society, and the rights accruing to them. These are merely different modes of expressing the principle of justice, as it shall happen to be considered in its relation to the agent or the patient. Duty... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK II
CHAPTER V
0F RIGHTS
Active rights exploded.-Province of morality unlimited.-Objection.-
Consequences of the doctrine of active rights.-Admonition considered.-Rights
of kings-of communities.-Passive rights irrefragable.-Of discretion.
THE rights of man have, like many other political and moral questions, furnished a topic of eager and pertinacious dispute more by a confused and inaccurate statement of the subject of inquiry than by any considerable difficulty attached to the subject itself.
The real or supposed rights of man are of two kinds, active and passive; the right in certain cases to do as we list; and the right we possess to the forbearance or assistance of other men. The first of these a just philosophy w... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK II
CHAPTER VI
Of the Right of Private Judgment
Foundation of virtue. - Human actions regulated: 1, by the
nature of things. - 2, by positive institution. - Tendency of the
latter: 1, to excite virtue. - Its equivocal character in this
respect. - 2, to inform the judgment. - Its inaptitude for that
purpose. - Province of conscience considered. - Tendency of an
interference with that province.- Unsuitableness of punishment -
either to impress new sentiments -- or to strengthen old ones. -
Recapitulation.
IT has appeared, that the most essential of those rights which constitute the peculiar sphere appropriate to each individual, and the right upon which every other depends as its basis, is the right of private... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK III
Principles of Government
CHAPTER I
Systems of Political Writers
The question stated. - First hypothesis: government founded in superior
strength. - Second hypothesis: government jure divino. - Third hy-
pothesis: the social contract. - The first hypothesis examined. - The
second. - Criterion of divine right: 1, patriarchal descent - 2,
justice
HAVING in the preceding book attempted a general delineation of the principles of rational society, it is proper that we, in the next place, proceed to the topic of government.
It has hitherto been the persuasion of communities of men in all ages and countries that there are occasions, in which it becomes necessary, to supersede private judgment for the sake o... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK III
Principles of Government
CHAPTER II
OF THE SOCIAL CONTRACT
Queries proposed.- Who are the contracting parties?- What is the form
of engagement? Over how long a period does the contract extend? -
To how great a variety of propositions?- Can it extend to laws here-
after to be made? - Addresses of adhesion considered. Power of a majority.
UPON the first statement of the system of a social contract various difficulties present themselves. Who are the parties to this contract? For whom did they consent, for themselves only, or for others? For how long a time is this contract to be considered as binding? If the consent of every individual be necessary, in what manner is that consent to be given ? Is it to b... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK III
Principles of Government
CHAPTER III
OF PROMISES
Promises not the foundation of morality - are absolutely considered, an
evil - are of unfrequent necessity. - Imperfect promises unavoidable. -
Perfect promises in some cases necessary.-Obligation of promises - of
the same nature as the obligation not to invade. another man's property
- admits of gradations. - Recapitulation. - Application.
THE whole principle of an original contract rests upon the obligation under which we are conceived to be placed to observe our promises. The reasoning upon which it is founded is "that we have promised obedience to government, and therefore are bound to obey." The doctrine of a social contract would never have bee... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK III
Principles of Government
CHAPTER IV
OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY
Common deliberation the true foundation of
government - proved from the equal claims of
mankind - from the nature of our faculties
from the object of government - from the
effects of common deliberation. - Delegation
vindicatcd. - Difference between the doctrine
here maintained and that of a social contract. -
Remark.
HAVING rejected the hypotheses that have most generally been advanced as to the rational basis of a political authority, let us inquire whether we may not arrive at the same object by a simple investigation of the obvious reason of the case, without refinement of system or fiction of process.
Government then being first supposed ne... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK III
Principles of Government
CHAPTER V
OF LEGISLATION
Society can declare and interpret, but cannot enact. - Its authority only
executive.
HAVING thus far investigated the nature of political functions, it seems necessary that some explanation should be given upon the subject of legislation. "Who is it that has authority to make laws? What are the characteristics of that man or body of men in whom the tremendous faculty is vested of prescribing to the rest of the community what they are to perform, and what to avoid?"
The answer to these questions is exceedingly simple: Legislation, as it has been usually understood, is not an affair of human competence. Immutable reason is the true legislator, and her decrees it ... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK III
Principles of Government
CHAPTER VI
OF OBEDIENCE
Rational obedience not founded in contract. - Kinds of obedience.
- Compulsory obedience often less injurious than confidence. -Kinds of
authority. - Limitations of confidence. - Reverence to superiors considered.
- Government founded in ignorance.
THE two great questions upon which the theory of government depends are: Upon what foundation can political authority with the greatest propriety rest? and, What are the considerations which bind us to political obedience? Having entered at length into the first of these questions, it is time that we should proceed to the examination of the second.
One of the most popular theories, relative to the foundation... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK III
Principles of Government
CHAPTER VI
OF Forms of Government
Uniformity of the nature of man. - Different degrees in which he
possesses information. Imperfect schemes of society estimated. - Mode
in which improvements are to be realized. -Inference.
THERE is one other topic relative to general principles of government, which it seems fitting and useful to examine in this place. "Is there a scheme of political institution which, as coming nearest to perfection, ought to be prescribed to all nations; or, on the other hand, are different forms of government best adapted to the condition of different nations, each worthy to be commended in its peculiar place, but none proper to be transplanted to another soil?"
The... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK IV
OF THE OPERATION OF OPINION IN SOCIETIES AND INDIVIDUALS
CHAPTER I
OF RESISTANCE
Subject of the fourth book. - First branch of the subject. - Question of
resistance stated. - Resistance of a nation. - Ambiguity of the term
nation. - Case of a military subjection considered. - Resistance of a
majority - of a minority. - Further ambiguity of the term nation.
Nature of liberty. - Remark. - Resistance of the individual.
HAVING now made some progress in the inquiry originally instituted, it may be proper to look back, and consider the point at which we are arrived. We have examined, in the first place, the powers of man as they relate to the subject of which we treat; secondly, we have delineated the principles... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK IV
OF THE OPERATION OF OPINION IN SOCIETIES AND INDIVIDUALS
CHAPTER II
OF REVOLUTIONS
Duty of a citizen as to the constitution of his country. - No scheme of
government perfect or final. - Revolutionary measures, during their
operation, inimical to independence - and intellectual inquiry. -
Period of their operation. - Revolutions accompanied with blood -
crude and premature in their effects - uncertain in point of success.
- Conviction of the understanding an adequate means of demolishing
political abuse. - The progress of conviction not tardy and feeble - not
precarious. - Revolutions in some cases to be looked for.
THE question of resistance is closely connected with that of revolutions. It may... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK IV
OF THE OPERATION OF OPINION IN SOCIETIES AND INDIVIDUALS
CHAPTER III
Of Political Associations
Arguments in their favor. - Answer. - Associations put a part for the
whole - are attended with party spirit - declamation - cabal - con-
tentious disputes - restlessness - and tumult. - Utility of social com-
munication. - Exception in favor of associations. - Another excep-
tion. - Conclusion.
A QUESTION suggests itself under this branch of inquiry, respecting the propriety of associations among the people at large for the purpose of operating a change in their political institutions.
Many arguments have been alleged in favor of such associations. It has been said "that they are necessary to give effect to publi... (From: Anarchy Archives.)
BOOK VIII OF PROPERTY
CHAPTER X
REFLECTIONS
I. Supposed danger in disseminating leveling principles. -- Idea of massacre. -- Qualification of this idea. -- Skeptical suggestions -- Means of suppressing inquiry. -- Nature of political science. -- II. Political duties, 1. of those who are qualified for public instructors -- temper -- sincerity. -- Pernicious effects of dissimulation in this case. -- 2. of the rich and great. -- Many of them may be expected to be advocates of equality. -- Conduct which their interest as a body prescribes. -- 3. of the friends of equality in general. -- Importance of a mild and benevolent proceeding. -- III. Connection between liberty and equality. -- Cause of equality will perpetually advance. -- Sy... (From: Anarchy Archives.)